AAD_SU21_045

GSAPP 2021

ZOOMING

MsAAD ‘21

1. To move rapidly. 2. To increase suddenly and dramatically. 3. (in slang) The euphoric, exhilarating feeling.

Tina Marinaki

ZOOMING 1. To move rapidly.

2. To increase suddenly and dramatically.

3. (in slang) The euphoric, exhilarating feeling.

4. To make a continuous low-pitched buzzing or humming sound.

5. To act or proceed swiftly and energetically.

This is a container of thoughts, design, discussion, arguments and essays around the air, the water and the land, while “zooming” - to Earth.

In an unprecedented year like this, when the lives of millions of people drastically changed, we mourned lives and counted weaknesses, we found ourselves in an architectural discourse taking place almost entirely on zoom.

GSAPP journey began with an investigation on monetized corporate ownerships of air and their architecture, often implemented through transactional practices such as Air Rights purchase and the carbon credit right to pollute permits.

Water purification and a manufactured landscape in Brooklyn explored the ways New York’s biggest export can contribute to the city and return to the community in the form of ethically made and environmentally conscious lab-grown diamonds.

And, finally, the journey finished in Nigeria, exploring the land as a food supply and the way colonialism and philanthropy have and continue to treat it.

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Who Owns the Air Project - Research Advanced Studio IV - Nahyun Hwang Authors: Tina Marinaki, SeokHyun Kim Location: Cancer Alley, Louisiana & Manhattan, NY Year: 2020

EPCOT: A utopian vision for happiness or a secluded society for the elite?

Theory Transscalarities - Andres Jaque, Alireza Karbasioun Author: Tina Marinaki Year: 2020

Manufactured Landscape Project - Research Advanced Studio V - Mimi Hoang Authors: Tina Marinaki, Magdalena Valdevenito Location: Brooklyn, NY Year: 2021

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Manifesto on White & Cleanliness Theory Extreme Design - Mark Wigley Author: Tina Marinaki Year: 2020

Telehealth and Architecture Is the future of Medical Design in Pixels?

Research Sick City - Hilary Sample Author: Tina Marinaki Year: 2021

Female Farmers’ empowerement by infrastructure design?

Project - Research Advanced Studio VI - Gabrielle Printz & Rosana Elkhatib Author: Tina Marinaki Location: Ibadan, Nigeria Year: 2021

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Architectures of Segregation on the Beach Research Kitchenless Stories - Anna Puigjaner Author: Tina Marinaki Year: 2020

Is the future of Miami Climate Gentrification?

Mapping & Journalism Points Unknown - Michael Krisch, Juan Francisco Saldarriaga Author: Tina Marinaki, Yoo Jin Lee, Clelia Simpson Year: 2021

Who Owns the Air Project - Research Advanced Studio IV - Nahyun Hwang Authors: Tina Marinaki, SeokHyun Kim Location: Cancer Alley, Louisiana & Manhattan, NY Year: 2020

EPCOT: A utopian vision for happiness or a secluded society for the elite?

Theory Transscalarities - Andres Jaque Author: Tina Marinaki Year: 2020

Manufactured Landscape Project - Research Advanced Studio V - Mimi Hoang Authors: Tina Marinaki, Magdalena Valdevenito Location: Brooklyn, NY Year: 2021

Manifesto on White & Cleanliness Theory Extreme Design - Mark Wigley Author: Tina Marinaki Year: 2020

Telehealth and Architecture Is the future of Medical Design in Pixels?

Research Sick City - Hilary Sample Author: Tina Marinaki Year: 2021

Female Farmers’ empowerement by infrastructure design?

Project - Research Advanced Studio VI - Gabrielle Printz & Rosana Elkhatib Author: Tina Marinaki Location: Ibadan, Nigeria Year: 2021

Architectures of Segregation on the Beach Research Kitchenless Stories - Anna Puigjaner Author: Tina Marinaki Year: 2020

Is the future of Miami Climate Gentrification?

Mapping & Journalism Points Unknown - Michael Krisch, Juan Francisco Saldarriaga Author: Tina Marinaki, Yoo Jin Lee, Clelia Simpson Year: 2021

ZOOM-ING

| ADV IV

Who Owns The Air Monetized

corporate ownerships of air and their architecture, often implemented through transactional practices such as Air Rights purchase and the carbon credit right to pollute permits, are challenged.

The future JP Morgan Chase building, the former Union Carbide headquarters at 270 Park Avenue, is intervened to explore the possibilities in a new spatial regulation that imposes the cause-and-effect relationship between often obscured air pollution by corporations and their highly visible Manhattan square feet.

Our proposal aims to create an urban legibility by bringing into the same building the two types of parallel sites and create a juxtaposition of the corporate space and the materiality of the polluted areas like Cancer Alley. The new regulation indicates that the more

one pollutes in a parallel site, the more space will lose in its headquarters.

In order to locate them we considered common spaces in a corporation skyscraper such as the lobby, the elevator, the office spaces, the conference space, the enclosed garden and the observatory.

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Union Carbide is linked to many air pollution disasters in Cancer Alley, in Bhopan in India and Asbestos Mines in California.

JP Morgan is the largest investor in fossil fuels and is an investor to many polluters in cancer Alley and other places,

JPMorgan is planning to demolish the current building which had acquired LED certification and to build the 3rd highest building in the world by using new air rights regulation of East Midtown Area.

The new building will be a 70 storey and approximately 2.5 million square feet typical Manhattan tower designed

by Foster + Partners.

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WHO OWNS THE AIR | DUST STRUCTURE

DUST STRUCTURE On the facade of the building we insert an aluminium structure positively charged that creates an electromagnetic system and attracts the negatively charged dust particles of the exterior. This intervention acts as public shaming for JP Morgan to the city of Manhattan and can change the way the public understands air pollution when the dust is visible in the observatory space on the top floor.

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WHO OWNS THE AIR | VERTICAL EARTH SAMPLE

VERTICAL EARTH SAMPLE Earth Samples from contaminated soil from polluted areas are inserted vertically along the movement of the elevator so that the people can look at them.

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WHO OWNS THE AIR | TOXIC ALGAE PIPES

TOXIC ALGAE PIPES In the office spaces, a pipe system of toxic algae will be inserted. The algae can usually contribute to purifying the air. However, when they are toxic such as the algae in cancer alley they consume the oxygen from the space and can be very dangerous.

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WHO OWNS THE AIR | TOXIC ALGAE PIPES

Toxic Algae - Office Space

Area: 174,800 / 2,439,635 sq. feet (total building)

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WHO OWNS THE AIR | AUDITORIUM

AUDITORIUM The amphitheatre is designed from carbon dioxide mixed with sand so that it can be molded into a sphere. In the bottom there will be a showcase for chlorine gas which is heavier than air and stays in the low.

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WHO OWNS THE AIR | ENCLOSED GARDEN

ENCLOSED GARDEN In the third phase, and if the emissions linked to JP Morgan corporation are increasing more space should be lost in its headquarters. In this case, the enclosed garden is transformed into a garden containing materials from polluted areas such as asbestos and sulfur dioxide rocks and an oil fountain.

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WHO OWNS THE AIR | ENCLOSED GARDEN

Enclosed Garden

Area: 7,178 / 2,439,635 sq. feet (total building)

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WHO OWNS THE AIR | NGO AUDITORIUM & LOBBY

NGO AUDITORIUM For the auditorium aerogel panels are used to separate it from the office space. Aerogel panels are porous ultralight materials derived from gels, in which the liquid component for the gel has been replaced with a gas. The panels will be from carbon, sulfur.

And it also has a library behind.

LOBBY The new Lobby exposes the mechanical system of the interior of the building that filters the air with the use of dust collectors above.

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WHO OWNS THE AIR | ARCHIVE & PUBLIC LIBRARY

ARCHIVE & PUBLIC LIBRARY In the first phase of interventions, the existing state of the building in demolition and former Union Carbide Headquarters is transformed into an archive of air pollution and public library. The old materials found will be reused to create storage spaces and the facade of the structure.

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WHO OWNS THE AIR | ARCHIVE & PUBLIC LIBRARY

Archive - Public Library

Area: 450,500 / 2,439,635 sq. feet (total building)

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or a secluded society for the elite?

34 Bibliography Fox, Martin. “The Best of All Possible Worlds.”

Design & Environment 4.1 (1973): 26, 3739.

Fjellman, Stephen M. “Vinyl Leaves: Walt Disney World and America. San Francisco: Westview, 1992.

Foglesong, Richard E. “Married to the Mouse: Walt Disney World and Orlando.” New Haven: Yale UP, 2001.

Marcy, Lisa Blythe. “The Evolution of Walt Disney World.” Urban Land 53.10 (1994): 36-41, 84.

Kallipoliti, Lydia. The Architecture of Closed Worlds: Or, What Is the Power of Shit?. Lars Müller Publishers, 2018.

Sorkin, Michael. “See You in Disneyland.”

Design Quarterly, no. 154 (Winter 1992): 5-13. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4091260.

Vidler, Anthony. “THE THEATRE OF PRODUCTION: CLAUDE-NICOLAS LEDOUX AND THE ARCHITECTURE OF SOCIAL REFORM.” AA Files, no. 1 (WINTER 1981-82): 54-63. https://www.jstor.org/stable/29543302.

owever, Disney’s city was an elitist isolated from the rest of American society with ambivalent regime as Walt Disney corporation would hold the legislative control and would maintain the property ownership of the city.

To describe the result as a “Vatican City of leisure and entertainment” simply raises a number of issues related to Disney’s understanding of what “community” proper entailed for a structure combining residents and visitors2.

EPCOT invokes an urbanism without producing a city. Rather, it constitutes a version of a town based on a virtually self-policing and an authoritarian and centralized sovereignty.

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On the surface, the development of a city seemed far away from the Walt Disney’s interests. But as political and societal turmoil rose in the early 1960s, Walt Disney used – and promoted through his favorite medium, films, - a reverence for the nation’s industry and the Founding Fathers‘ American Experiment vision as a guarantee of Walt Disney’s dominance in the market economy.

Given the fact that EPCOT was revealed only a few months before Disney’s death, the city would become the ultimate legacy and the most prominent project for his company designed to stimulate American corporations to come up with new ideas for urban life.

“Garden Cities for Tomorrow” and “The Ideal City” of Chaux by Claude-Nicolas Ledoux, instead of an “industrial architecture”, it addresses an architecture of leisure with the central component being the cosmopolitan center, followed by high-density housing, a greenbelt park area and finally low-density housing.

1 Lydia Kallipoliti, The Architecture of Closed EPCOT’s investors would also acquire a special place Worlds: Or, What Is the Power of Shit? ( Zurich: in the city as they would be able to showcase their Lars Müller Publishers, 2018), 100 products in an industrial park, while transportation 2 Steve Mannheim, Walt Disney and the Quest would be managed by PeopleMovers company. for Community (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2002): 107 The chosen architectural forms reflect the notions of in Josef Chytry, “Disney’s Design: Imagineering luxury, leisure as well as of an emerging phenomenon Main Street”, University of California Press, of consumerism and desire which is further assisted Boom: A Journal of California , Vol. 2, No. 1 (Spring 2012): 40 with the persistence of Walt Disney on progenitor h t t p s : / / w w w. j s t o r. o r g / s t a b l e / 1 0 . 1 5 2 5 / concept of a smart city.

The ordinary life, all transportation and infrastructure “would be constantly monitored, controlled and regulated by a centralized computer information system of fiber-optic cables and closed-circuit television and telephone networks”.1

he EPCOT Center today is synonym to the popular Disneyworld theme parks around the world that attract over 12 million visitors annually. However, in 1966, long before being transformed into a theme park, Walt Disney tasked his team with producing a 24-minute film in order to present the vision for an American technological utopia, an evolving technologically driven urban city given the acronym EPCOT for the Experimental Prototype Community of Tomorrow.

Disney used animation and concept art produced by Walt Disney Productions under the guidance of Disney Imagineer, Herbert Ryman, to showcase EPCOT. Although EPCOT shared a circular concept, similar to other utopian plans such as Ebenezer Howard’s

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ZOOM-ING | TRANSSCALARITIES EPCOT | THEORY

EPCOT: A utopian vision for happiness

ZOOM-ING

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MANUFACTURED LANDSCAPE | 2021

Manufactured Landscape How can NYC’s biggest export profit return to the community?

1000s of acres of soil moved

Diamonds

are New York’s biggest export by dollar value, valued at more than $13 billion last year. How can this profit contribute to the city and return to the community in the form of ethically made and environmentally conscious lab-grown diamonds?

Manufactured Landscape re thinks the relationship between the factory with the city and questions its typology. It is a factory, but also remediates the water edge and the area.

Architecture imposes itself as the literal and figurative middle ground between production and educational infrastructure and the factory becomes a space for dialogue and transparency.

No soil movement

HPHT Machine

Kimberlite

No injuries 18 gallons of water/carat .001 ounces of CO2/ carat

8 days / 100 employees per year injured 124 gallons of water usage/ carat 2011 ounces of CO2/ carat

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MANUFACTURED LANDSCAPE | 2021

Packing & storage

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Education buildings

Purifier tower

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MANUFACTURED LANDSCAPE | 2021

Manufactured Landscape intends to oppose all the processes related to this industry, inverting the vertical and secretive diamond district into a landscape that instead of eroding the earth, contributes to building its natural habitat and visibilizes the craftsmanship and technology behind its sourcing.

Each part plays a role that dialogues with one another: a Productive space that intermingles with an Educational Space over a resilient water’s edge conformed by tidal pods, and a Tower as a distant marker and air purifier.

Diamonds without a ground

It is a factory that understands the dynamics of sourcing, and strives for the responsible creation of raw materials without the exploitation of natural resources, where the combination of automation and technology plays to collaborate with humans, and where labor is considered the most precious good, a machine that cooperates with the environment and understands its change and growth.

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| EXTREME DESIGN

MANIFESTO ON WHOTE & CLEANLINESS | THEORY

46 cnn.com/

Books Colomina, Beatriz. X-Ray Architecture. Zurich: Lars Müller Publishers, 2019.

Colomina, Beatriz. Architectureproduction.Revisions. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1988.

Elaine, Scarry. The body in pain - The making and unmaking of the world. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985 Jencks, Charles. Can architecture affect your health?. Rotterdam: Sikkens Foundation, 2012.

www.architecturaldigest.com/ Vogels, Emily A. “About one-in-five Americans use a smart watch or fitness tracker.” Pew Research, January 9, 2020. https://www. pewresearch.org/

Since the pandemic began, technological devices have been used to connect families virtually visit their loved ones in the hospital as visitations were not allowed due to high risk of contamination. Thus, the virtual meetings were used as a substitute for family presence and direct physical contact with loved ones wherever possible.

Unequal access to technology though or lack of Bibliography tablets in the hospitals didn’t allow all patients Articles to utilize this feature with their families.

Famakinwa, Joyce. “Amazon Reveals National Expansion Plans for In-Home Care Platform ‘Amazon Care.” Home Healthcare Digital health is becoming more and more News, March 17, 2021. https://homehealthcarenews.com important especially in cases that affect a large Seabrook, John.“The Promise and the Peril of Virtual Health number of the population - like a pandemic, Care. ” The New Yorker, June 29, 2020. https://www.newyorker. a terror attack or a natural disaster - that the com Clair Matthew, Clair Brian W. , and Clair Walter K. “Unless medical staff is not able to support. Additionally, it’s done carefully, the rise of telehealth could widen health technological developments in telemedicine disparities.” StatNews, June 26, 2020. https://www.statnews. products are promoted as agents to make com/ healthcare more accessible and affordable to all.

Gagne, Yasmin. “Forget telehealth. The future of medicine could be drive-through doctors. ” July 2020. https://www.fastcompany.

The relationship between architecture and com digital health can be divided in three different Neiger, Solvei. “How Will Telehealth Impact Outpatient Clinic scales and fields: the wearable health monitoring Design?.” April 2020.https://www.zgf.com/ devices, real estate and the design of the clinic Avery, Dan. “The Doctor Will See You Now—Without Leaving Your Home.” Architectural Digest, August 17, 2020. https:// that will function in a distance of the patient.

A recent McKinsey report estimated that 25% of outpatient services could move to telemedicine.1 NYC Health + Hospitals, America’s largest public-hospital system, today allows emergency medical 1 Oleg Bestsennyy, Greg Gilbert, Alex Harris, and personnel to use telemedicine to treat patients at Jennifer Rost, “Telehealth: A quarter-trillion-dollar post- the scene by diverting 911 calls to video conference COVID-19 reality?,” McKinsey, May 29, 2020, https:// exams if emergency treatment is not required. www.mckinsey.com “The nurse brings in the iPad. With the last air in his 2 Giulia Heyward and Douglas S. Wood, “They couldn’t say goodbye in person, so ICU patients are using shattered lungs, he says goodbye to his family. Over an tablets instead,” CNN, December 6, 2020, https://www. internet connection.”2

or years, virtual care played a minor role in the care industry in the United States. But as the country went to lockdown, healthcare just like our ordinary life switched to virtual.

Since the covid outbreak a lot of experts estimate that telemedicine will be the future of the health clinic. Telehealth, defined as consultations via telecommunications and rare before Covid outbreak, is nowadays rapidly growing as doctors and insurance companies saw the value in keeping patients safe in their homes when possible.

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ZOOM-ING | SICK CITY TELEHEALTH & ARCHITECTURE | THEORY

Telehealth and Architecture Is the future of Medical Design in Pixels?

Intro

Wearable devices

48 7 Joyce Famakinwa, “Amazon Reveals National Expansion Plans for In-Home Care Platform ‘Amazon Care’,” March 17, 2021, https://homehealthcarenews.com/ 8 Dan Avery, “The Doctor Will See You Now— Without Leaving Your Home,” August 17, 2020, https:// www.architecturaldigest.com/s

Conclusion

But if it is no longer necessary for patients to visit the clinical environment for basic diagnosis of simple and even complex conditions, will the need for clinic facilities decline as well? What is the long term future of healthcare design?

For the last few decades patient care has been transitioning from hospital design to clinical care design. Although there willl always be a need for operating rooms and care units, the need for medical design may be less in demand as telehealth replaces the common practices in medicine. Outpatient clinical environments require a simpler design under a low budget and a focus on flexible prototype models.

As the relationship between the patient and the medical environment changes, new designs emerge to address the needs of both patients and practitioners engaging in telemedicine encounters and sharing data. Environments, fixed or mobile, are now designed to enhance the remote encounter experience or the patient beyond what can happen at home. As telehealth and virtual apps replace the common real spaces, previously medical and clinic spaces become obsolete and require new uses. Consequently, architecture needs to treat medical spaces with flexibility and ability to host different programs.

What is the long term future of healthcare design?

focused on wellness and health care—rather than leisure—are on the rise in the COVID-19 era5 To meet the anticipated demand across America, construction companies have begun to offer healthfocused programs as an in-home amenity. The concept of the healthy modernist home reappears, only this time the house not only acts as a machine to cure but can also expand to a non physical aspect of health through the virtual devices.

Real Estate

Telemedicine no longer requires the physical body as technology acts as a mediator. Through a variety of healthcare devices medical personnel can prescribe medicine to patients from a distance, without examining their body in person, and with the help of Augmented Reality, doctors can now participate in real operations streamed online from any place in the world.

Pain, the most common sympton for someone to search for medical care, can only be experienced through our bodies. Pain is not visible and cannot be represented visually, on a screen or a chart. The body in pain gives its place on a body that is constantly monitored and controlled by telemedicine platforms, apps and algorithmic data, provided by software companies in controversial cloud spaces that cannot guarantee medical confidentiality. Telehealth’ s striking lack of the physical body radically changes the previous practices of medicine and repositions the field of healthcare - one of the fields in the closest relationship to the human body - into a new interconnected perception of the human body exceeding its physical boundaries.

Architecture as we knew it- the interior space defined by architecture and surfaces - even through medical spaces during pandemic has been transformed into an enemy to human’s survival. As a consequence, technology and a virtual architecture has taken the lead in the future of human survival. The human-centered healthcare paradigm is now available and accessible everywhere at any time and any place, through high-tech IT. Architecture is no longer a tool for healing; it has to reinvent itself inside a new relationship between the virtual and the physical space and a wearable internet of things, where the new “cyborg man” is controlled by software companies individually and indepedently and generates a continuous data stream 24 hours a day, by only requiring a good internet connection and a screen.

Medicine with a missing body

Additionally, the possibility of racism to be encoded into telehealth algorithm is also worrisome, as patients of specific social groups can be underrepresented in algorithmic data.

Predictive tools are imperfect — although they may be able to predict average patterns across groups, they can neither fully account for the complexity of individuals nor incorporate subtle variables that may assist in the identification and treatment of disease. 8

One of obstacles that telehealth has to surpass is that patients who need care the most -most commonly the old and poor - do not own smart or broadband connectivity, or cannot afford extra minutes on their wireless plans, “placing one of telehealth’s greatest promises, of allowing old people to “age in place,” out of reach”7.

| SICK CITY

In housing developments and apartments across America, gyms, pools, and party rooms are sitting empty. But amenities

Although telemedicine, in the post-pandemic era, could provide greater access and convenience for some patients in rural areas or away from health centres, it can also widen health inequality. A “consumer-centered” approach of telehealth could have a negative impact on marginalized groups. Marginalized racial and ethnic minorities are more likely to report discrimination within health care settings, influencing their willingness to trust providers and seek medical attention early. 6

3 Emily A. Vogels, “About one-in-five Americans use a smart watch or fitness tracker,” January 9, 2020, https:// www.pewresearch.org/f 4 Jeremy Hsu, “The Strava Heat Map and the End of Secrets,” Wired, January 2018, https://www.wired.com/ 5 “Zyter Drives Digital Transformation in Healthcare with Introduction of Smart Hospitals ,” January 11, 2021, https://apnews.com/ 6 Beatriz Colomina, “Architectureproduction,” Revisions, vol 2, Princeton Architectural Press (New York, 1988), 6

Smart telemedicine Hospital & inequality

Recently, digital health solutions provider Zyter unveiled Smart Hospitals, “ an end-to-end intelligent solution that connects a hospital’s disparate data systems, departments, people, and the latest Internet of Things (IoT) technology devices on Zyter’s robust digital communication and collaboration platform.” 3.

Zyter Smart Hospitals offers hospital bed device monitoring, patient tracking as well as remote patient monitoring. The remote patient monitoring (RPM) feature of Zyter Smart Hospitals enables physicians to monitor the condition of post-surgery patients at home, resulting in a reduction of the number of hospital readmissions. Zyter also features real-time monitoring capabilities for hospital building facilities such as HVAC systems, lighting and security systems and a hospital navigation mobile application for patients and visitors. From the time they pull into the parking lot, the Zyter app guides them to the nearest parking lot and space. Once they enter the hospital, the app gives them step-by-step directions directly to the location of their appointment – and even alerts them on how long they will be waiting for the doctor.

In the introduction of Architectureproduction, Beatriz Colomina disagrees with the greek legend insisting that Daedalus was the first architect. As she explains although Daedalus built the Cretan labyrinth (the structure), it was Ariadne who “achieved the first work of architectre, since it was she who gave Theseus the ball of thread by means of which he found his way out of the labyrith after having killed the Minotaur.4 The ball of thread constituted the conceptual device to interprete the space.

The smart and digitally connected hospital through the apps that guide patients in space can act similarly to the ball of thread, reaching the way out of the labyrinth

Healthcare technology such as wearable health monitoring devices and smartclothing have a definitive role in the development and spread of telemedicine.

During Covid it was said that medical devices such as activity trackers and health trackers like Fitbits and smartwatches can help detect the coronavirus before symptoms appear. Similarly, already known therapeutic wearable medical devices including wearable defibrillators, patches, pain management devices or hearing aids have long been an important aid for a large amount of population.

ZOOM-ING TELEHEALTH & ARCHITECTURE | THEORY

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| ADV VI

FEMALE FARMERS’ EMPOWEREMENT BY INFRASTRUCTURE DESIGN? | 2021

Ford Foundation Funded Female Farmers’ empowerement by infrastructure design?

Nigeria

has become and today is one of the leading producers of cassava in the world. However, the cultivation of cassava did not spread naturally.

Cassava’s origins trace back to South America, and the crop made its transatlantic journey close to Portugal’s expansion of its colonial project across West Africa and Brazil and the beginning of the slave trade in the 16th century.

Although cassava came as a hunger buster, it eventually out-fought others. Cassava roots are the main source of calories for millions of people living in the tropics, but they are poor in protein, vitamins and other nutrients.

The research of this project explored the role of Ford Foundation in the so-called “developing world” and, more specifically, in Nigeria after the country’s independence. Ford Foundation’s biggest grants given to Nigeria are addressed to the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture. The cassava transformation and push in 1967 was driven by the IITA’s new high-yielding varieties that boosted cassava yield and the Africa-wide biological control program averted the devastating cassava mealybug epidemic.

IITA expanded the strategic and geographic scope of the Green Revolution and contributed to making Nigeria the largest cassava producer in the world. Its most significant achievement were the improved cassava varieties and the biological control of cassava by importing natural enemies to fight cassava mealybug and green mite which constituted a significant threat to cassava production.

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FEMALE FARMERS’ EMPOWEREMENT BY INFRASTRUCTURE DESIGN? | FF & NIGERIA

The FF board of trustees & Nigeria Green Revolution

The Ford Foundation board of trustees presents connections to Nigeria’s history of oil and agriculture as well as the grants given.

John H. Loudon president of the Royal Dutch Petroleum is a trustee in FF board at the time when oil is discovered in the area by the Royal Dutch Shell company.

Olusegun Obasanjo was member of the FF board of trustees in 1987, political prisoner in in 1995 and new president of Nigeria right after he was freed from the prison and gifted with 150,000 dollars from FF and CNN.

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When in government in 1971 Obasanjo, agrees with the World Bank and the Monetary Fund for a 1 billion loan. Director of the World Bank is Robert McNamara, member as well of the FF board who in 1973, already admits that the miracle of the Green Revolution may have arrived, but, for the most part the poor farmer has not been able to participate in: the farmer cannot afford to pay for the irrigation, the pesticide, the fertilizer or perhaps for the lands itself .

The IITA

In 1963, RF President George Harrar and FF Vice President Forsty Hill surveyed Nigeria as a site for a new tropical agriculture institute, as part of the Green Revolution and the international agriculture program, Toward the Conquest of Hunger, which aimed to increase the developing world’s food supply. The institute opens while the country’s civil war had just started.

The Land Use Act

of 1978 by Obasanjo gave land ownership to state and local governments and acted as an institutional barrier for women to own any land.

Women’s access to land still depends on their marriage status and remains in their husband’s household.

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breeding

As part of a biological control program by IITA mealybug ‘s parasitoid species reared at lITA Biological Control Program BCP and were and still are being bred and shipped to various African countries upon their request. The imported species changed the ecosystem of interspecies of Nigeria and their contribution is still doubtful.

1989

workshop on cyanide Cassava varieties, if not cooked properly, can cause cyanide poisoning, leading to paralysis and death. In 1989 there were media reports relating to instant deaths resulting from cassava. To examine the effects that such reports could have on consumers, cassava industry and the nigerian economy a national workshop was held by the University of Ibadan and the Obafemi Awolowo University in collaboration with the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, granted

by Ford Foundation at the time. The workshop concluded that the current methods of processing cassava in Nigeria are sufficiently good to reduce the cyanide levels of cassava products, there was no evidence relating reported deaths with cyanide.

displacement In 1967, by the promulgation of Public Lands Acquisition Act, the Nigerian Government formally acquired an area of 14.4 sq. km north of Ibadan for the establishment of an International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) jointly sponsored by the Ford and Rockefeller Foundations.

32 villages and 2,900 peasants were affected.

For the people in the acquired villages, the displacement was not the first of its kind. Most of the people living in the villages to the western part of the acquired area had been evicted twice before from the land they occupied.

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private sector

The high market potential of cassava attracted private sector interest which bought the smallholders’ crops.

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| ADV VI

Women contribute the most on cassava production and especially on cassava processing. However, they have no land rights. When women work on growing crops that belong to their husbands they have neither access to nor control over the income from the harvest. Until today men are significantly more likely to own property than women although women comprise most of the agricultural labour.

Additionally, as women are the ones who engage in cassava processing, they are the ones who are most likely to have health issues due to cassava cyanide when they get into contact, while peeling and drying and when breathing the toxic air while frying it to make gari. When the cassava is properly processed, the cyanide is removed. But there are a lot of reasons that this might not be done properly.

For example, if there is a lack of food or water (in a drought), then that might not be an option for the farmers.

The focus of the proposal is given on the Nigerian women farmers in Oyo state, where the IITA still functions and tries to offer potential tools or alternate the existing ones through technology to empower women farmers.

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women farmers

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FEMALE FARMERS’ EMPOWEREMENT BY INFRASTRUCTURE DESIGN? | INFRASTRUCTURE

Digital agriculture is already introduced as the next big thing in agriculture. With the right policies and programs in place, agricultural digitalisation has the potential to facilitate women’s economic empowerment.

However, digitalization can only be helpful and effective for smallholder women farmers if they are involved in all aspects, from the design and the implementation of the support provided and the management of their own data.

The project rejects a solutionist design such as the solutions that have been provided in the past by the western experts and tries to engage the troubled landscape and the consequences of the western philanthropic interventions without presuming to fix them. It provides infrastructure and information through technology to women farmers in order to collect data and information regarding their crops but at the same time it provides them the ability to manage their own data and acquire community control authority over the tools provided.

Open network - info & evidence The farmers can decide to anonymously share through the open sourse network any data that could act as evidence of health impact.

Closed network - union & data A new local internet network is installed that can provide them the needed data encryption so that they can manage and decide for their data.

The local network is also empowered with the introduction of an online application that helps them unite and create a female farmers union.

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FEMALE FARMERS’ EMPOWEREMENT BY INFRASTRUCTURE DESIGN? | 2021

Cyanokit is a tool for cyanide detection. Smartphones can become mobile tools to objectively perform colorimetric readings of chemical and other analytical tests to detect cyanide by themselves without depending on highly trained experts.

The process consists of a smartphone including an app and an imaging attachment that holds a colour chart and the CyanoKit testing cartridge on the back of the phone.

The mobile app includes health services, that can create evidence between health impact, crops and fertilizers provided by the institute and can be reported in public so that the institute cannot deny responsibility.

It will also give open source information regarding the crops to farmers so that they can decide themselves which crop they want to cultivate.

The drone is already introduced by IITA to spray fertilizers. However, they can be a tool of surveillance.

Through the infrastructure installed and their smartphone farmers can decide whether they want to accept fertilizers, protect their data or allow drones flying over their fields.

The truck can offer great help to women farmers by providing gender friendly equipment for peeling, frying and grinding as well as providing them with better internet signal and power generators for charging.

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The main aim of the application is to establish a female farmers union in Oyo State that could further demand rights and support.

When women work on growing crops that belong to their husbands they have neither access to nor control over the income from the harvest. To gain land rights they need first to gain an income from their labor which can only be achieved if the current ownership status that encourages only men to own land changes.

Similarly to pre-colonial Nigeria, a new communal land ownership is proposed to be given to the female farmers’ union by IITA. By co owning a communal land, female farmers can grow their crops and be now able to sell their products. The mobile application will provide them access to market, potentially removing middle-men so that women become financially independent.

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64 Butler, Judith. “Performative Acts and Gender Constitution: An Essay in Phenomenology and Feminist Theory.” Theatre Journal , Dec., 1988, Vol. 40, No. 4 (Dec., 1988), pp. 519-531.

Caldeira, Sofia P., Ridder, Sander De and Van Bauwel, Sofie.

Exploring the Politics of Gender Representation on Instagram: Self-representations of Femininity. DiGeSt. Journal of Diversity and Gender Studies , Leuven University Press Stable 2018, Vol. 5, No. 1 (2018), pp. 23-24.

Clark, Kenneth. The Nude: A Study in Ideal Form. New York: Pantheon, 1956.

Corbin, Alain. The Lure of the Sea: The Discovery of the Seaside in the Western World, 1750–1840, New York: Penguin Books, 1995.

Kent Stanley, Gregory. The Rise and Fall of the Sportswoman: Women’s Health, Fitness, and Athletics, 1860-1940. Peter Lang, 1998 Payne, Christiana. “Seaside Visitors: Idlers, Thinkers and Patriots in Mid-Nineteenth Century Britain.” In Water, Leisure and Culture: European Historical Perspectives, edited by Bruce H. Tabb and Susan,Anderson, 87–104. Oxford: Berg Publishers, 2002.

Pearson, Christie. The Architecture of Bathing Body. MIT, 2020.

Peiss, Kathy. Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the-Century New York. Temple University Press, 1986 Schoemaker Holmes, Jacqueline. “Bare bodies, beaches, and boundaries: Abjected outsiders and rearticulation at the nude beach,” Sexuality & Culture, 2006.

Walton, John K. “The Seaside Resort: A British Cultural Export.”

History in Focus, no. 9 (Autumn 2005).

Wearing, Betsy. Leisure and Feminist Theory. London: Sage Publications, 1998.

Weiss, Shayna. “A beach of their own: The creation of the gendersegregated beach in Tel Aviv, Journal of Israeli History.” (2016): 39-56.

Winner, Langdon. “Do Artifacts Have Politics?.” 109 DAEDALUS 121, 1980, p. 123.

Architecture of racial segregation took a different form in 1933 when Robert Moses designed the “low hanging overpasses” on the Long Island parkways that lead to Jones Beach. 3 This design decision meant that the bridges were intentionally low so that buses could not pass under them and as a result many people of color and poor people, who most often relied on public transportation, were excluded from having access to the beach.

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The various architectures of segregation on the beach have had a significant role in the perception of the human body and equality. The body-space relations on the beach unravel the power structures that tie them and the underlying needs of the patriarchal system.

The female body was constantly under surveillance on the beach and subjected to modesty rules, religion and bathing etiquettes. Female bodies in both the 18th and 19th century were kept undercover.

On the surface the beach reads like a simple heteronormative space that is controlled and dominated by heterosexual men. Men’s swimming was an expression of virility, while women’s bathing was eroticized.4

ender and race become important lenses to use when examining beach leisure. From its inception, the modern beach was wrought with gendered anxieties, particularly for female bodies, as well as concerns of gender, racial and class mingling. The history of the beach has a prominent social aspect and has been long a space of conflict and of social change and debates. Visitors to the beach went to watch others as much as they did to bathe in the sea. 1 Water helps them maintain boundaries around themselves and those with whom they wish to identify. 2 Whites only Beaches” were constantly forcing African 1 Christiana Payne, “Seaside Visitors: Idlers, Thinkers and Americans off the beach. Displacement of seashore Patriots in Mid-Nineteenth Century Britain,” In Water, Leisure and Culture: European Historical Perspectives, communities is a frequent issue due to develepment ed. Bruce H. Tabb and Susan Anderson (Oxford: Berg purposes. Women’s leisure which had tended to be Publishers, 2002), 87–104, https://babel.hathitrust.org/ segregated from the public realm, was found, at the 2 Ibid. turn of 20th century, in new public spaces, 3 Langdon Winner, “Do Artifacts Have Politics?”, Daedalus, Vol. 109, No1, Modern Technology: Problem or such as the beach. The seashore has not always been a Opportunity? (Winter,1980), 121 source of leisure and a territory of pleasure. Historically, 4 Jacqueline Schoemaker Holmes , “Bare bodies, beaches, before the eighteenth century, European society and boundaries: Abjected outsiders and rearticulation at the viewed the ocean as an endless abyss, reminiscent of nude beach,” Sexuality & Culture / Fall 2006, https://www. researchgate.net the Biblical stories of creation and the Great Flood.

The beach has also a long history as a racial battleground. The beach was among the most segregated and fought over public spaces in the continuing struggle for civil rights in North and the South America.

The beaches were denoted as areas for white people only and signs would prevent white people to be present in the same beach with nonwhites, in the fear of racial mixing among men and women.

African American were not welcome at most of the bathing beaches in the city and officials imposed regulations to restrict African Americans’ use of public beaches. For many years blacks’ demand for public beaches of their own were also rejected by the coastal cities.

A “Colored Beach” if existed would be near to the “White Beach,” but separated by a natural or built boundary. As a part of the Civil Right Movements, many groups of African Americans waded into the water to fight against segregation at whites-only beaches in Miami, Florida and St Augustine and other coastal cities.

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 outlawed racial discrimination, but also put an end to beaches as a whites-only destination.

Bibliography

ZOOM-ING ARCHITECTURES OF SEGREGATION ON THE BEACH | THEORY

Architectures of Segregation on the Beach the Beach as a contested territory of social change Intro

66 While the first bikini was denouncing the freedom of female body on the beach, the female swimming suit is still a territory of debate over female emancipation and segregation. In 2016, photos emerged of four armed male French police officers demanding that a woman wearing a headscarf, long sleeves, and pants remove layers of her clothing at a beach in Nice.

The burkini was then banned in 15 French cities after a reportedly linked to ISIS terror attack in Nice as a protection of France’s secularity. But while French officials saw the burkini as an Islam’s inability to assimilate to France’s values, the burkini was actually invented to allow Muslim women to participate more in Western culture.13 The incident in France illustrates the still-existent practice of policing women’s bodies on the beach which has commons with the women in the 1920s and 1920s. The swimming suit and the beachgoing are not limited only to clothing and leisure space but they correspond to a broader discussion over body sovereignty and relations of power.

The female fights were - and still are - not just about

From 1880 to 1940, the beach faced several social changes, slowly allowing women and people of color access and representation that was before controlled or prohibited.

The access to the beach for them also meant an access to leisure in a time when women and black people’s leisure was long segregated from the public realm. The past events have commons with the modern discourse over the beach.

Questions of women’s autonomy, sexism, segregation, racism and media influence are all disputed and debated in this space.

As Betsy Wearing writes in Leisure and Feminist Theory “leisure can be a space for struggle and negotiation for women to move beyond cultural prescriptions of femininity.”16 As they embraced new modes of public leisure, women also contended with increased surveillance and exploitation of their bodies in public realms.17 The story of the beach doesn’t end with the mixed bathing, but encounters further investigation in the changing conceptions of the beach today. The famous slogan and symbol for the May 1968 protest movement in France, “Sous les pavés, la plage!” (“Beneath the pavement, the beach!”), depicts that the beach was always calling to imagine another world with the promise of greatest change, new possibilities and any significant social change.

The beach as an informal social space reflects the socially constructed perceptions but as a space for leisure has also the potential to become a space for struggle and negotiation of the social norms and inequalities.

The beach is transformed into something more than just a leisure space. It is a contested space that imposes values and morals on the body. It becomes a space of conflict, of social debate, where the visitors participate in socially transformative activities that lead to discussions of intimacy, sexuality, vulnerability and equality.

16 Betsy M. Wearing, “Leisure and Feminist Theory,” (London: Sage Publications, 1998), xv.

17 Kathy Peiss, “Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the-Century New York,” ( Temple University Press, 1986), 6

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7 “Benjamin Beale’s Invention for Bathing Machines”. accessed December 17, 2020, https://janeaustensworld.wordpress.com 8 Ibid.

9 Weiss, “A beach of their own: The creation of the gender-segregated beach in Tel Aviv” 10 What is the history of going to the beach?,” accessed December 17, 2020, https:// dailyhistory.org/ 11 Gregory Kent Stanley, “The Rise and Fall of the Sportswoman: Women’s Health, Fitness, and Athletics, 1860-1940,” (Peter Lang, 1998), 44 12 Stanley, “The Rise and Fall of the Sportswoman,” 44 13 Aheda Zanetti, “I created the burkini to give women freedom, not to take it away,” The Guardian, 24 August 2016

Most of Victorian women didn’t know how to swim and in addition to blocking the male gaze, the bathing machines was also meant to “protect women who most likely did not know how to swim”. 9 Nevertheless, in the 1930s, public attitudes regarding females on the beach changed. Swimming was then seen as part of an exercise for a healthy life and both sexes were taught how to swim.10 What probably helped change public attitudes was the fact that people were becoming increasingly health conscious for both sexes and the influence of the Olympics of 1912.

In the Olympic Games, in 1912, it was the first time that women were allowed to compete in a swimming competition and this event highly contributed to making more acceptable the public seeing of women swimming. Female athletes were also the first to begin advocating for a practical suit for swimming that was both comfortable and modest. To do so, female athletes first had to prove that exercise did not diminish or destroy their femininity. 11 Films also contributed to a larger acceptance of women swimming as they began to feature more women and men in beaches together.

While the attitudes towards women swimming were loosening in Europe, church was losing influence and women were allowed having relatively less clothing, the first bikini made its public debut in France, in 1946, when Micheline Bernardini modeled the first bikini. 12 The bikini was widely popularized in Europe and in the United States, in 1953, when Brigitte Bardot was photographed wearing a bikini in the Cannes film festival.

The female fights were - and still are - not just about clothing, but about women’s autonomy over their own bodies and actions, Specific standards and norms still restrict the female body, while questions over “What is a beach body?” and “Who deserves to be seen at the beach?” are still dominant in the modern discourse. The bikini body as well as the representation of the female body on the screen and on social media, especially on Instagram, imposes new body norms underlying gender politics. The construction of gender is made through a series of performances, stylized 14 Judith Butler, “Performative Acts repetitions of act, operating within a and Gender Constitution: An Essay in specific regulatory cultural frame. 14 Phenomenology and Feminist Theory ,” Theatre De Lauretis (1987) understands gender Journal , Dec., 1988, Vol. 40, No. 4 (Dec., as both the product and the process of 1988), pp. 519-531 representation and self-representation. In 15 Sofia P. Caldeira, Sander De Ridder and Sofie Van Bauwel, Exploring the Politics this sense, gender is seen as the outcome of of Gender Representation on Instagram:Self- various social technologies, amongst them representations of Femininity, DiGeSt. Journal cinema and now also social networking of Diversity and Gender Studies , Leuven sites like Instagram, and of the discourses surrounding them. 15 University Press Stable 2018, Vol. 5

From Bathing Machines to the “beach body”

Bathing Machines mostly appeared in the Victorian Era as a procedure to keep a proper atmosphere at the seaside, to block the male gaze and to protect women’s purity. They segregated women and men but also the upper and the middle class, as it was considered inappropriate to swim in the waves together. There was even a difference in terminology for immersion for the sexes. When men immersed into the waters, it was called bathing. When women immersed into the waters, they were dipping. 7 The difference in language also reveals the way swimming was perceived for men and women. While for men, swimming constituted an activity, for women swimming was seen as a rather hasty act. Although the bathing machines were mostly utilized by the women, the machines were typically available for both sexes with the men’s machines situated on the opposite end of the beach from the women’ s. The Bathing Machines were constructed with wooden carts, 6 feet high and 8 feet wide, with a peaked roof that would allow the light into the interior or small windows8 and covers at all sides.

The floor was 4 feet above the ground and a step ladder was typically used on the sand. Once deep in the surf and away from prying eyes on the beach, a trap door opened for immersion.

Furthermore, a professional attendant, called “bather” for men and “dipper” for women was engaged to push the machine in and out of the sea, supervise the swimmers and then pull her or him out when satisfied. Then the bathers would change back to their clothing inside the bathing machine.

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Conclusion ARCHITECTURES OF SEGREGATION ON THE BEACH | THEORY

ZOOM-ING

| POINTS UNKNOWN

IS THE FUTURE OF MIAMI CLIMATE GENTRIFICATION? | MAPPING & JOURNALISM

Is the future of Miami Climate Gentrification?

Climate change is going to be devastating for anyone that doesn’t have a plan.

Little Haiti

sits across Biscayne Bay from the luxury ocean-front properties of Miami Beach. The neighborhood, inland and flanked by railroad tracks, was once considered undesirable to developers. But rising sea levels are changing that.

According to projections by the First Street Flood Foundation, in 2036 about 5,360 properties in Miami Beach will have a fifty percent chance of flooding. The equivalent number for properties in Little Haiti: zero. All of Miami Beach is designated by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) as a high risk flood area. By contrast, Little Haiti sits on higher ground, on a coral ridge of up to fourteen feet above sea-level.

Ti Ayiti—its name in Creole—has long been home to the working-class Haitian community. The median household income is 25,833 US Dollars. In Miami Beach, it’s more than double that, with over 29 percent of household incomes over 100,000 US Dollars. But the question of how Miami’s inland, higher-elevation neighborhoods will shift demographically over the next decades--and where lower-income communities will go-remains an open question.

“What’s going to happen to the next 20 or 30 years, it’s going to be shifting populations onto that coral ridge to try and keep Miami livable for as long as possible,” explained Caroline Lewis, founder of the CLEO institute in Miami, a grassroots organization which aims to educate underserved communities about climate change, and include them in the conversation with officials and developers.

Many of the residents in Little Haiti live paycheck to paycheck, leaving them financially vulnerable in the face of events like COVID-19. When you fall behind, she asked: “do you pay for food and medicine? Or do you pay your taxes?” As a result, some residents have homes in foreclosure, and according to Ms. Lewis, developers take advantage of this.

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Homestead is one area developers have proposed.

Technically within Miami-Dade county, it’s about forty miles south of Little Haiti, on the edge of the Everglades.

It’s elevation is of one to two feet, and offers little public transportation means into Miami.

Today, Little Haiti is slated for a multi-billion dollar, luxury development project, which aims to transform the neighborhood into the—trademarked—Magic City Innovation District® over the next 10 to 15 years.

Another development, East Side Ridge, is in the process of winning approval.

In addition to property owners, renters in the community--84% of the neighborhood’s total population--are also finding it harder to stay put. In the area to the Southeast of Little Haiti where Magic City has already started building, the median income has risen to $55,063, and the rental prices have also soared comparatively to the rest of the neighborhood.

Most grassroots organizations involved in Little Haiti are not opposed to development per se, but are concerned about displacement, and for the fate of the largely working poor population of Miami-Dade County as a whole. They are fighting, for example, for affordable housing for low-income residents in development plans-a deal they have not yet been able to reach.

Pia Palomino of FAMN, one such grassroots organization, explained: “people that are struggling are thinking: how am I going to pay my rent? How am I going to pay for my meal? So for them to think about ten years in the future, it’s not something that they’re planning. And climate change is going to be devastating for anyone that doesn’t have a plan.”

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Tina Marinaki | GSAPP ‘ 21