retirement
TOWNS Alternative housing solutions for an ageing population
UNIVERSITY OF WESTMINSTER
MA URBAN DESIGN
2015
|
SIMONE GOBBER
W1517722
retirement, n. Etymology: [...] by Italian ritiramento seclusion, retreat from the world, spiritual retreat. 2.d. An activity undertaken in leisure time; a pastime. (Oxford English Dictionary)
The worst possible attitude towards old age is to regard the aged as a segregated group, who are to be removed, at a fixed point in their life course, from the presence of their families, their neighbours, and their friends, from their familiar quarters and their familiar neighbourhoods, from their normal interests and responsibilities, to live in desolate idleness, relieved only by the presence of others in a similar plight. (Mumford, 1956, p.192)
List of contents pg. 7
11
chapter one: Princes Risborough
37
A safe, sleepy country town
38
A frail economy
39
An ageing town
41
Plans and visions
43
chapter two: Ageing
46
A national issue
48
An ageing countryside
50
A housing issue
53
Prejudices and taboos
55
4
Introduction
chapter three: Different Options
58
Different models
60
Ageing in place
63
Specialised housing
65
Senior co-housing
70
Virtual villages
72
Retirement villages
77
Designing for dementia
RETIREMENT TOWNS
81
chapter four: A Framework
84
Research and policies
92
Agencies and organisations
98
Age-friendly environments
100
105
Community programs chapter five: Changing Perspective
108
A life-style product
110
A potential market
112
A development strategy
116
Small actions at a big scale
119
chapter six: Scenarios for the Future
120
Three scenarios
122
First Scenario: Mixed-age cohousing
126
Second Scenario: In-place retirement Village
131
Third Scenario: Active-retirement centre
147 151 152 162
Conclusion Acknowledgements List of references List of Images
LIST OF CONTENTS
5
6/
Introduction The extent to which the world population is ageing, as a combined effect of improved living conditions and reduced mortality, is a phenomenon without precedent in human history. This irreversible demographic transition is projected to have in the next future a strong impact on both the society and the economy, and it is unlikely that the urban environment will not be affected by it. How are cities and towns previous page:
facing with an increasingly older population? Is there
Whiteley Village,
a way that urban design can proactively respond to an
Whalton on Thames
ageing society? As they age, people tend to interact differently with the places where they live. Their activities and their abilities change in time, and so do their expectations and needs. The urban environment can play a strategic role in supporting this transition. Space plays an important role in either enabling or disabling people, and a special attention of design towards the elderly can have a positive effect on the life of the individuals, as well as benefitting the society as a whole. As care costs are projected to rise in the future, an age-friendly environment can enable a longer independent life reducing the need of external support.
/7 INTRODUCTION
7
As it is widely recognized that it is impossible to unify older people in one univocal category, it is now an established fact that there cannot be one single housing solution that can respond to the needs and expectations of the elderly. Therefore, it is important to promote diversity and flexibility, and part of this study will consider what are currently the main housing options. At the same time, research conducted by engaging older people shows how the physical design of space is only one of the components that create a so called age-friendly environment, and this is why all the current policies and programs aimed to enhance the resilience of cities to this social change usually comprehend a wider range of topics. Among the different models targeting the elderly that have been delivered by the housing market, retirement villages represent an interesting case of an age-oriented development combining an attention for care to a commercial opportunity. Relying on the trend of older people to relocate in the countryside as they retire, generating what is defined as naturally occurring retirement communities (NORC), retirement villages are proven to be successful in providing a protective and enabling environment and built-in sense of community. Nevertheless, they raise issues regarding their spatial isolation from the surroundings and their affordability, making them not only segregated in terms of age, but also space and income.
8/ 8
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This study will evaluate the possibility of applying in a different context the model that has been outlined with retirement villages. In particular, it will investigate to what extent this concept could be transferred to an existing community, combining an age-driven urban development to the improvement of the quality of the urban environment for the existing residents. While aiming at defining a conceptual model, the design exploration that completes this research will be set in a specific location, Princes Risborough in Buckinghamshire. A British market town with an increasingly older population, it was chosen specifically for its quality of an “average� place: neither booming nor declining, neither too isolated nor embedded by a bigger city, neither ugly nor particularly attractive. This makes the results of this work more easily transferrable to other contexts, outlining a flexible strategy to turn ageing from being perceived as a symptom of decline, into an opportunity for development.
/9 INTRODUCTION
9
24 % 15 %
over 65
Wycombe
80%
Princes R.**
20 %
17 %
of the accomodations in town are detached or semi-detached houses* under 15
FOR SALE
-45%
investment per capita in business compared to London***
Wycombe
Princes R.**
? 2500
new housing units provided in the new local plan****
* Wycombe, 2013 ** Wycombe, 2011 *** ACRE, 2015 **** Wycombe, 2015
chapter one:
Princes Risborough
M 1
Northampton
Milton Keynes
Luton
40
M
BUCKINGHAMSHIRE
Aylesbury PRINCES RISBOROUGH
M25
Oxford Wycombe District High Wycombe
M1
London Reading
M3 36
0
RETIREMENT TOWNS
10
20
30 km 36 /
A safe, sleepy country town* Princes Risborough is a small market town set at the foot of the Chiltern Hills. Its origin dates back to medieval times, and despite being at less than one hour from London, it managed to maintain a rather distinct local character. The town is set at the edge of an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB) that is overlapping with London’s Green Belt. Its historic town centre, enclosing page 10-33:
more than forty listed buildings, has been designated as a conser-
Princes Risborough,
vation area since 1969. While the town retains its geographic
photo reportage.
and symbolic centre in the Market Square and its iconic Market
previous page:
House, the daily
Princes Risborough,
activities
map of the regional
residents of Princes
context.
of
Risborough
the are
nowadays set on a
Unique in its location, character and history, Princes Risborough is a typical example of a British rural town.
larger metropolitan scale, with a mostly car-based commuting within the district that badly affects the environmental quality of the town (Wycombe, 1998), as the main connection road crosses the town centre. The dependency from car transportation is partly a consequence of the type of urbanization that has been promoted in the past. Detached or semi-detached housing account for three quarter of the total accommodations (Wycombe, 2013), resulting in a fairly suburban environment despite the relative compactness of the town. * Wycombe, 2014
/ 37 PRINCES RISBOROUGH
37
A frail economy Mostly relying on small local businesses, the town provides jobs to nearly one third of its active residents, with the others commuting mainly within the local district and county. The relatively low employment rate is mainly attributable to the high proportion of retired people, resulting in a current local economy that does not appear to be particularly problematic (Buckinghamshire Business First, 2014). Nevertheless, rural economies are structurally weaker when competing with cities, with an investment per capita in business activities which is almost a
A frail local economy is a common issue for rural communities in the UK, when competing with big cities and the global market.
half of the one in London
(ACRE,
2015). A problem affecting not only the UK, frail rural
economies have been addressed by the European Commission (2011) by inviting rural areas to develop strategies to rethink their economic framework, in order to avoid shrinking and its related negative spiral of factors. In particular, the ageing of the population can become a factor for chronic stress, and it is vital for every community to enhance its resilience by creating a more diverse economy, as suggested by Judith Rodin (2014), president of the Rockefeller Foundation who launched the 100 Resilient Cities program. 38 / 38
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An ageing town An “industrious community of suburban achievers” and a “place of ageing urban living”: this is how the Office for National Statistics (2012) describes the population of Princes Risborough. The economically and cultural homogeneous local community is now facing a demographic change, as the local population is ageing. The town struggles to attract new young residents, while the local younger people tend to leave the town attracted by better and more diverse work opportunities elsewhere. Ageing is a common characteristic of rural communities, and this is particularly evident in Princes Risborough. incidence
The of
While working on its local plan for the future, the town is facing a significant demographic change.
retired people is higher here than in the rest of the district (18%, compared to 13%), while the proportion of student population is lower, accounting for 3,7% against a 5.3% rate across the district (Wycombe, 2013). Even though Princes Risborough is not currently shrinking, as the population in the last ten years increased of about hundred units, it is important to note that this is mainly attributable to an increased longevity of its residents, with the number of people over 80 that has risen of more than 250 units in a decade (Buckinghamshire, 2011).
/ 39 PRINCES RISBOROUGH
39
Aylesbury
Thame PRINCES RISBOROUGH
Green Belt
High Wycombe Beaconsfield
Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty Marlow
ver Ri40
es
m Tha
0
5
10 km 40 /
RETIREMENT TOWNS
Plans and visions Wycombe District Council (2015B) started in 2012 the process of creating an Area Action Plan for the Princes Risborough, evaluating a scenario in which the prospected need for new housing in the whole District for the next 20 years would be all concentrated in an expansion of the town. Most of the District is protected from new development by being within either the Green Belt or the AONB, a limitation that brought the Council to identify as an ideal area for potential new previous page:
development the land in PR standing on the other side of the
Map of Wycombe
railway, appointed
District.
for hosting about 2500 housing units, almost doubling the size of the town. While
The new plan focuses on new housing: this will definitely bring a change, but will it bring development?
answering
to the needs of the entire district, such previsions do not take for now into account what the local naturally occurring development would be, and the impact that this change will have on the town (Wycombe, 2015). The response from the community has been critical, seeing new development as disruptive of the local character (Wycombe, 2014). Furthermore, the number of unoccupied households in the district increased by more than 50% from 2001 to 2011 (Wycombe, 2011), a trend that is contradicting the need for new housing.
/ 41 PRINCES RISBOROUGH
41
ÂŁ26.3bn
45% 35%
the estimated cost of the impact on society of dementia*
people over 50 expected to be living in the countryside and in cities in 2028**
52%
20%
of underoccupied households where householder is over 55***
people over 80 living in specialised housing****
* Alzheimer’s Society, 2014 ** Champion and Shepherd, 2006 *** DCLG, 2015b **** DCLG et al., 2009
chapter two:
Ageing
A national issue All around the world the human society is currently experiencing issues related to the ageing of their population. In some contexts such as China this is due to a specific demographic policy, or to a massive emigration of young people as in many Eastern European countries. More generally, ageing is the positive effect of a higher life expectancy combined to a decreased mortality and a falling birth rate. In the UK, one in five people is over 60, making previous pages:
it one of the ten “oldest” countries in the world, and this
My Parents, David Hockney.
ratio is expected
Following a global trend, the population of the UK is ageing with unprecedented speed, and will keep doing it.
to rise in ten years to about 30% of the population (WHO, 2002). Ageing as a
phenomenon
has a strong impact on the economy, and it is expected to rise. The public expenditure in England on social care services for older people in 2010 was estimated in £12 billion, and it is projected to double by 2030 (Hancock et al 2013). Direct care costs are not the only ones to be taken into account. Considering both direct and indirect costs, the cost of dementia is estimated to be £26.3 billion, considering that 44% of care provided is not actually paid (Alzheimer’s Society 2014). 46 / 46
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Early Life
Adult Life
Maintaining highest Maintaining independence possible level of function and preventing disability
Functional Capacity
Growth and development
Older Age
Rang e in in of functi divid uals on Disability Threshold
Rehabilitation and ensuring the quality of life
Age
Functional Capacity Diagram (WHO 2002).
An important consideration when evaluating the costs related to ageing is that the amount of care that people need is directly related to the quality of their living environment. Adequate design solutions can enable people to live independently for longer time, lowering the disability threshold and containing, if not reducing the cost of care. This fundamental principle constitutes the base of the program on Active Ageing that has been launched since 2002 by the World Health Organization. As shown in the Functional Capacity Diagram, there is not one only relation between ageing and disability, and an enabling environment can play a strategic role in preventing people from crossing the disability threshold that requires constant and costly provision of care.
/ 47 AGEING
47
An ageing countryside The rural population is ageing faster than the urban one, with the 45% of people living in the countryside expected to be over 50 in 2028, as opposed to the 35% in cities (Champion and Shepherd, 2006). In the next twenty year the need of care in rural areas only is expected to grow by 70%, with increasing costs for local authorities, as well as scarcity of care workers specially where house prices are high (Rural Service Network, 2015).This is the combined result of different factors. The ageing of baby-boomers, the largest ever
Not everywhere is the same, and the rural population is ageing faster than cities.
generation in the UK,
combined
to the trend of younger to
move
people into
cities is counterbalanced by retired or soon-to-retire people moving to the countryside. Ageing in the countryside is an attractive choice for retiring city dwellers willing to relocate, but can be particularly challenging due to social isolation and lack of services. AgeUK has partnered with ACRE (Action with Communities in Rural England) in raising awareness about the limits of growing old in the countryside. The result of this effort was the Over the Hill? campaign produced by The Rural Media 48 / 48
RETIREMENT TOWNS
Over The Hill? campaign website.
Company, targeting both people already living in a rural environment, as well as the ones willing to resettle. It features a promotional short video where a well-to-do soon to retire couple looking for a dream house in the countryside decides to reconsider its plans, after realizing the issues that the previous owner had to face. Aim of the campaign is to promote lobbying for the implementation of age-friendly development within rural communities, serving at the same time as a platform for exchanging information about best practices. As a positive side, elderly people living in rural areas are reported to be more active than their urban peers, with 11.4% over 65 living in the countryside that are employed or self-employed, compared to 7.3% in urban areas (Defra, 2012).
/ 49 AGEING
49
A housing issue The vast majority of people keeps living in the same place as they get older, with the consequence that in the UK the number of 65+ households is increasing, accounting now for one third of the total and two thirds of the new ones (DCLG, 2015). In order to support the demand for specialised housing, the Government is now providing extra funds. 101 million were issued in 2013 only, delivering more than 3000 affordable homes (Homes and Community Agency, 2013). With an increasing demand, supporting living
Ageing communities face several issues, one of them being the housing needs of a changing population.
in-place
becomes strategic to
meet
housing Living
the
targets. inde-
pendently can be particularly challenging for older people, facing difficulties in managing houses that are often inadequate to their changing needs and abilities. A disabling living environment is the main reason for relocating to a more protected environment, especially when combined to a rising sense of insecurity and changes within the household (Simpson, 2015). From a financial perspective, there are contradictory facts about ageing and housing. On one side there is a concentration of capital connected to older people, 50 / 50
RETIREMENT TOWNS
/ 51
65+ 1/3 of total households in the UK is over 65
65+
65+
2/3 of new households in the UK is over 65
DCLG, 2015
as they account for 40% of consumer spending, 60% of savings and 80 per cent of UK wealth (DCLG et al, 2009). Older people’s homes might represent their most valuable financial asset, nevertheless they do not guarantee direct availability of cash. Many suffer from low or very low income that compromise their life standards, despite living often in properties with very high value (Knight Frank, 2014). Liquidity might be provided by downsizing, but this option is often complicated by the lack of suitable options and the need to pay for care and support services. This situation is complicated by another implication of the ageing of the society, effecting the relation between different generations.
The twentieth century saw the
disappearing of the multigenerational household in western countries: in the Us, from 70% of total households AGEING
51
The WHO checklist for a successful active ageing: Affordability Design Modifiability Maintenance Proximity to affordable services Information Community integration Diverse housing options Living environment WHO checklist (WHO, 2007)
in 1900, to 20% in 2000, a number that keeps decreasing (Simpson, 2015). Parallel to it, an increased longevity of the population is affecting the traditional intergenerational transfer of wealth in the form of property, exacerbating wealth inequalities among generations (Le Mesurier, 2011), and affecting the availability of housing. It is estimated that the 20% of older owner-occupiers moving to a smaller or shared accommodation would release 840,000 family sized homes to the market (Best and Porteus, 2012). However, this scenario is particularly controversial in the UK, considering the strong cultural bond with the house and its correlated narrative of self-isolation, resulting in the UK population being less likely than other Europeans to consider more collective models of living (Killock, 2014).
52
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52 /
Prejudices and taboos Ageing is often dominated by a heavy-weighted discourse, constantly referring to dependency, decline and need, a negative perception that is reflected by expressions like “ending up” in a care home, as you “end up” in prison or at the hospital. Any attempt to address the impact of ageing on society must therefore address at first instance this negative prejudice. As reminded by Jackie Marshall Ballock from InnovateUK in the Ageing in the City Innovation Workshop that was organized by ARUP in June 2015 and dedicated to foster new ideas for
successful
ageing in place, it is not about a single
category,
but
concerns
it
One of the biggest problems related to ageing is the negative perspective in which people tend to look at it.
everyone. One of the reasons to create dignified and desirable alternatives to mainstream specialised housing is to overcome the tendency of segregating both spatially and conceptually the elderly from the rest of the society. This intergenerational disruption has a negative impact on the overall society, and might result for the elderly in a negative perception of their community, affecting negatively their engagement and deteriorating the condition for a successful ageing (Kochera et al 2005).
/ 53 AGEING
53
chapter three:
Different Options
Different models In their essay Unmaking Old Age, Lassen and Moreira (2014) affirm the necessity to deconstruct the stereotypes related to ageing, and to focus on individual diversities rather than categories. Any intervention directed to old people should Previous pages: “Active retirement is
face the fact that it is difficult, if not impossible, to univocally define the elderly as a category. At the same time, as pointed
a proven success in
out by Walter Menteth in a panel discussion organized by the
Del Webb’s Sun City
Architects’ Journal, the risk is to give a misleading response
Arizona”, advert.
to an increasing complexity of the society, by defining people
Delbert Eugene “Del” Webb. next page: Housing typology diagram (HAPPI 2009).
as a problem to fit
As there is not a standard old person, there can not be a standard housing solution for the needs of ageing people.
into a category and promoting
more
segregated
care
structures instead of more inclusive
ones (Olcayto, 2009). Several are the issues that are common among housing solutions for the elderly, related in particular to funding, engagement of end-users and planning. In this framework design can be particularly problematic, with the opposite risks of either creating anonymous, alienating places, or vice versa places that by being fully kitted-out, impose specific aesthetic or cultural values to their residents. The low density of existing models is also a common issue, making them hard to integrate at the centre of existing communities (Olcayto, 2009). 58 / 58
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/ 59
Mainstream Housing
Specialised Housing
Lifetime Homes
Sheltered/retirement
Housing designed to meet access
Independent living (own front door).
and
May include: 24-hour alarm system,
General needs - Housing with no specialised features.
adaptability
standards
for
Housing specifically for older people with access to support and care.
everyone including older people.
warden, lounge, programme of activities.
Adapted homes
Very sheltered/assisted living
Housing which has been changed to
Independent living with managed care
meet the needs of its residents.
and support services. May also include: meals, domestic help, assisted bathing.
Extra care
Residential Care
Institutional accommodation (suites or bedrooms) with care services and facilities.
Independent living with managed on-site
Residential homes
Close care housing
Accommodation personal
care
with (physical
care and support services. May also include: hairdressing service, 24-hour staff.
meals, and
Independent living with on-site care and support, linked to a care home.
emotional), staff on call.
Nursing homes
Retirement villages
Care homes with 24-hour nursing
Large developments (often 100+) with
care. May also include care for
a range of housing types and levels of
specific needs including dementia.
care and support on one site.
DIFFERENT OPTIONS
59
Ageing in-place The majority of people keep living in their homes as they age. Ageing in place is promoted for its positive effects, both social and financial, by limiting the demand for the construction of new specialised housing. In order to promote and support such a solution, the Government created and founded FirstStop, an agency that provides services to make living at home easier, helping older people with daily tasks such as shopping or mobility, as well as household tasks and gardening. At the same time, it provides consultancy on diverse matters, including health, legal and financial, helping older people to take decisions related to their living arrangements, in particular about relocating, downsizing or moving into a care facility (FirstStop, 2014). It performs as a bridge between residents and Home Improvement Agencies, local organizations that have been set in order to help vulnerable people, such as elderly or disable, to live with dignity and safely in their own homes. HIS ensures that houses are fit for allowing independent living as long as possible. They provide free advice about maintenance and retrofitting, and coordinate the intervention, offering at the same time technical and financial advice. Their local activities are supported by the Department for Communities and Local Government (DCLG) (Fundations, 2012). 60 / 60
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Bimby project, France.
As people age they generally experience radical changes in their household, with the progressive growing up and moving out of children, and eventually the death of a spouse. The result of it is that older people tend to live in places that are bigger than their actual needs. Houses that are under occupied by their residents might represent an issue, both for the people living in it that need to face with higher maintenance duties and costs, as well as for the overall urban environment, with low density rates that compromise the viability of services, as well as preventing younger households from moving into ageing neighbourhoods. A solution to this issue has been suggested in France with the BIMBY - Build In My Backyard project. Promoted by the architect Benoit Le Fol in different local communities, it consists in creating DIFFERENT OPTIONS
61
The Lawns, London.
pavilion-type new housing units in older people’s private gardens, to be rented out to new residents. While providing financial aid or other kind of assistance to the elderly, BIMBY aims to achieve the local targets for new housing by promoting densification rather than urban expansion (Europan 2014). A different approach has been pursued by The Lawns project in London, commissioned by Barking Council to Patel Taylor Architects. A new set of terraced houses, inspired to the traditional almshouse model, has been designed and built with the specific purpose of relocating older tenants in under-occupied council homes. While providing a high quality living environment that has been specifically designed for the needs of the elderly, The Lawns aims to release existing housing stock for younger families.
62
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62 /
Specialised housing Despite being commonly considered as the main housing option for the elderly, sheltered housing accommodates only a small minority of them - about 10% of people in their 70’s, and 20% of over 80 (DCLG et al., 2008). Nevertheless, specialised housing is considered strategic not only for the amount of accommodation provided by the existing stock, but also for the role of of social hub that such facilities play in many communities (DCLG et al., 2008). The demand for such facilities is constantly increasing, despite the remarkable concerns about the state of many of the existing structures, as well as the quality of care provided (Care Quality Commission, 2014). A general issue is the financial pressure that such facilities face in correspondence with shrinking Council-funded services, and even though home-based care keeps evolving and improving, they still cannot replace the essential services provided by sheltered housing. The research seems to prove that there is a relation within quality and size, with smaller institutions generally better than bigger ones. In terms of ownership, while the majority of such facilities is still of a small scale, there is an increasing incidence of corporate ownership, which appeared to be particularly problematic in recent cases of failure (Care Quality Commission, 2014). An issue with specialised housing is the lack of possibility for its residents to take actively part to the organization
/ 63 DIFFERENT OPTIONS
63
Re-imagine Ageing, competition entry.
of the space, and even more the design of it. In assisted living, the complex relationship between space, care and residence privacy results in the use and perception of private and public space that does not always coincide with the official definition of it (Nord, 2011), an ambiguity that can originate conflict especially in places that are marketed as public (Roth and Eckert, 2011). This issue is addressed by the Walter Menteth Architects’ submission to the 2013 RIBA design competition Re-imagine Ageing, exploring a development solution where the developer would act as a facilitator of a self-construction collaborative scheme. The concept has been worked out together with one of the sponsors of the competition, McCarthy & Stone, leader in the UK private specialist retirement sector with a 70% share of the market (Menteth, 2014).
64
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64 /
Senior Cohousing A recent and still marginal reality in the UK is represented by cohousing, self managing communities that combine self contained private homes and communal facilities. While keeping an active control of their lives, cohousing residents benefit from living within a community of like-minded neighbours (Sherwood, 2014). The defining characteristics for a co-housing scheme, as defined by The Cohousing Association of the United States (2014), are: a participatory process, the design of a neighbourhood, some common facilities, the management by the residents, a non-hierarchical structure and no shared-community economy. In the UK cohousing made its appearance in the 1990’s, with Lilac Grove in Leeds being so far one of the most successful examples (Sherwood, 2014). The UK 18 built communities and the further 60 currently developing projects are coordinated and represented nationally by the UK Cohousing Network (UK Cohousing Network, 2013). Cohousing is reported to have remarkable social and civic benefits, with a more conscious and active participation to public life and collective decision making. From the environmental perspective, the larger scale at which co-housing operates, compared to single houses, allow a more feasible inclusion of elements mitigating the impact of the development. With specific reference to the elderly,
/ 65 DIFFERENT OPTIONS
65
Lilac Grove, Leeds.
cohousing can facilitate an active participation of the residents in their community, as well as social interaction and mutual support. It offers an option to downsize to an attractive and age-proofed environment, and it is reported to positively effect the physical and mental health of its residents. By limiting the social isolation that is linked to a higher incidence of dementia, it has an impact in reducing the demand for health and social care (Brenton, 2010). Senior co-housing made its first appearance in Denmark, where the Midgarden complex was created in 1987. The model for the development of such projects was later defined by Henry Nielsen in 1995, based on a combined work of advisory and community study groups focusing on consciousness raising, participatory design and policy (Durrett, 2009). Cohousing has struggled to establish itself
66
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66 /
as an alternative for the elderly in the UK. Interest has been registered, with lobbying group self-established in London and Scotland, but it still suffers from a lack of tradition, as well as a specific planning framework and proper financial tools. At the same time, high land prices and the local development market, while favouring big scale developments, tend to discourage small scale cohousing projects (Brenton, 2013). This is not the case in the Netherlands, where senior cohousing is promoted as a Midgarden, Copen-
cost-effective way to provide a positive living environment
hagen.
/ 67 DIFFERENT OPTIONS
67
reducing at the same time care costs. This is achieved not only in new developments, but also by retrofitting existing units, thus not requiring the relocation of the residents (Brenton, 2013). Older Women’s Co Housing (OWCH) is the first cohousing community of older people in the UK. A woman-only association with age ranging from fifty to over eighty, it has lobbied for years in order to gather the financial and bureaucratic requirements. Together with the Hanover Housing Group, they managed to acquire a site in OWCH, design
High Barnet and in 2013 they gained planning permission
workshop at PTEA.
68 / 68
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OWCH, High Barnet.
for their 25 flats scheme, designed by the Pollard Thomas Edwards Architects, with input from OWCH members. A small housing association, Housing for Women, has been established to manage the rental units (OWCH, 2015). Despite its still limited introduction in the UK, cohousing is now included in the national strategy by the Scottish Government (2011) as an innovative way to deliver affordable housing for the elderly, also thanks to the lobbying activity of Vivarium Trust, that recently managed to secure a site for its pilot project in Fife (Vivarium Trust, 2015). Additional advantages of senior cohousing are a reduced need of paid care by facilitating peer care, and advantages to developers, with its pre-qualified buyers diminishing the risk and seniors being politically powerful allies for gaining planning authorisations (Durrett 2009). DIFFERENT OPTIONS
69
Virtual Villages Rapidly evolving and improving, technology has a prime role in facilitating aging in place. It provides support for compensating cognitive decline and declining physical abilities, as well as acting as a monitoring system for care and health. Technology is becoming more and more an integrated component of living, despite the limitation related to its costs and usability (Satariano et al., 2014). A beacon in using technology for supporting in-place living is the New York based organization Selfhelp. Partnering with companies such as Microsoft, it promotes technological innovation for care (such as telehealth and remote sensors technology), as well as an extensive program of technology education for the elderly. It runs its own retirement facilities, as well as supporting Naturally Occurring Retirement Communities in different housing complexes and neighbourhoods (Selfhelp, 2010). A recent and rapidly expanding application of technology to housing for the elderly is represented by virtual retirement villages. A virtual retirement village is an online platform that facilitates in-place living by promoting social events, online learning, information transfer and community building through the networking of like-minded people, sometimes living far away from each other (Yandrick, 2009). Pioneer was the Beacon Hill Village in Boston, a not-for-profit organization active since 1999. Its more than 400 members all 70 / 70
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Village-to-village Membership Directory.
live within a restricted catchment area, in order to guarantee an active participation to the proposed activities. The village promotes social and cultural programs, as well as mobility, health and house maintenance services. Its members benefit from discount rates for local services, and have access to a database of age-related information (Beacon Hill Village, 2015). A pilot project in the US, Beacon Hill Village initiated the Village-to-Village Network, gathering more than 200 similar projects in the US (Village-to-Village Network, 2015). Virtual Villages have been set in Canada, Australia and the Netherlands, and they have been studied as a way to integrate housing policies by the Northern Ireland Housing Executive, which is the Regional Strategic Housing Authority for Northern Ireland and itself the landlord of around 90,000 homes (Thompson, 2013). DIFFERENT OPTIONS
71
Retirement villages Retirement villages (RV) are self contained residential developments featuring common facilities and social and recreational activities, as well as different levels of care, ranging from health and personal care to eating facilities, transport, home help and maintenance. The housing offer that they provide can be very diverse, from houses and apartments for independent living to extra-care housing, hotel-style suites, nursing care homes and specialist dementia care services, with a range of tenure types including private ownership, shared ownership and rented social housing (Pacione, 2012). RV started as charity led developments at the beginning of the twentieth century, and they further develop in the US after WWII, with the economic boom and the establishing of the concept of leisure. Florida’s mobile homes settlements in the fifties inspired the creation of Youngtown in Arizona, the first age-segregated development (Simpson, 2015). RV are “unique experiments in social engineering� (Triolander, 2011, p.952), and have been influential for promoting planning concepts such as gated communities, residential golf course community, amenity rich development, as well as - in some extent - cooperative residential development and community management. Most significantly, they played a major role to affirm 72 / 72
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/ 73
Sun City, aerial view.
marketing as a tool for urban development, starting with Del Webb’s nationwide campaign to promote not only a place, but a new lifestyle (Triolander, 2011). Del Webb’s creation, Sun City, is “one of our era’s greatest (and most snubbed) social experiments” (D’Eramo, 2007, p. 180). Built on the model of the internment camps for Japanese detainers that Del Webb built in WWII, Sun City was created as a ready-built package, offering to its residents a full range of community activities (Simpson, 2015). RV are now an established reality in the US, where about four million of elderly people are estimated to be living in purpose-built retirement communities. Their marketing strategies are generally based on an image of active retirement in a worry-free environment, with a built-in sense of community. While research findings usually highlight DIFFERENT OPTIONS
73
Developer’s site and location requirements for a new Retirement Village. Site requirements: Minimum of 1.5 acres (developable) Previously developed brownfield sites preferred Freehold/long leasehold Ideally level topography Self-contained sites with no through roads Mixed use sites will be considered
Location requirements: Sites in the south of England or South Midlands Prominent location with road frontage Affluent/well regarded residential locations House prices to exceed the average for England Strong demographic catchment area Close to local shops and other facilities and within easy reach of public transport links (Anchor, 2015)
74 / 74
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/ 75
Cliveden Village, LDA Architects.
high level of satisfaction among residents, there are often concerns about the segregation that they promote, both in terms of age (they usually have strict age limitation for its residents) and social status, due to the average high cost of such solutions that make it affordable only for the better off (Evans, 2009). In the UK, RV have a precedent in Whalton on Thames, a masterpiece of Arts and Craft urbanism built in 1918. However, the sector did not fully develop until 1998, when the Joseph Rowntree Housing Trust opened Hartrigg Oaks in York, and despite being limited by lack of space and more stringent planning regulations, the sector is rapidly expanding. Age-segregation represent a controversial issue, and not always perceived as a plus. Youngtown, the world’s first DIFFERENT OPTIONS
75
retirement development, founded in Arizona in 1954, saw its age restrictions being abolished in 1998, with a radical change in its demographic patterns. While some of its former residents decided to leave, many of the ones that remained reported an improvement in their lives by the new intergenerational environment. Many retirement communities are now lowering the minimum age required for buying a property, in order to enhance their image as a community of “young old� Tetbury Village,
people (McHugh and Fletchall, 2009).
Proctor&Matthews Architects.
76 / 76
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Designing for dementia A 2010 enquiry estimated that 700,000 people in the UK were affected by some form of Dementia, a number that is projected to rise to 1,200,000 in 2040 (Blackman et al 2010). In its different forms, dementia affects in multiple ways the relationship of people with both the indoor and the outdoor environment, making independent living more difficult. With regards to the urban environment, the main effects of deteriorating cognitive faculties are related to navigation, with a reduced ability to plan an itinerary, to consider alternative routes, to remember previous mistakes, and in general to use mental maps and signs. The legibility of the urban environment is therefore a key element in turning the outdoors from frightening to reassuring and up to certain extent therapeutic (Brittain et al, 2010). Historic buildings play an important role by being at the same time a visual and a memory mark, and environmental cues are in general preferable to signs in orientation and way finding (Mitchell et al., 2007). A new approach to the issue of enabling independent life for people affected by dementia has been pioneered by De Hogeweyk, a specialised housing project in the Netherlands (De Hogeweyk, 2009). Its 23 shared living units provide accommodation to a total of 160 residents, distributed along an articulated set of open spaces designed to resemble an urban outdoor. Residents
/ 77 DIFFERENT OPTIONS
77
De Hogeweyk, Weesp.
can make free use of the village facilities - bar, restaurant, theatre and supermarket - interacting with the carers disguised to resemble normal neighbours (Detail, 2012). Another interesting case is represented by the Grove Care Nursing Home in Winterbourne, UK. It features a reconstructed village high street from the fifties, with original memorabilia (objects, signs, advertising), and iconic facilities. Its aim is to improve the psychological well-being of its guests, by providing a recognizable environment, through a space and time transfer (Grove Care, 2012). The real challenge when designing for dementia, as reminded by Maggie Pearson, Dean of the Salford College of Health and Social Care, is promoting social participation rather than “safe� isolation (Salford Institute for Dementia, 2015). This might be achieved with a comprehensive education
78
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78 /
program including the entire community, as it has been experimented in Eindhoven (NL) by the King Arthur Groep (2015). Finally, it is important to note that most of measures are not beneficial only for people affected by dementia, assuming that one in six people is affected by some sort of cognitive impairment (Brittain et al., 2010). A well designed environment influences psychological wellbeing and enjoyment, contributing to establish in the elderly feelings of dignity, sense of worth, freedom and Grove Care Nursing
autonomy (Burton and Mitchell, 2006).
Home , Winterbourne.
/ 79 DIFFERENT OPTIONS
79
+5 years
of life expectancy when living close to a walkable green area*
historic buildings
and a legible environment allow a longer indipendent life for people affected by dementia**
ÂŁ
ÂŁ60,000
average equity released when downsizing of one bedroom***
one in six people
has cognitive impairment and would benefit from living in a dementia-friendly environment****
* Sugiyama and Thompson, 2007 ** Mitchell et al., 2007 *** Knight Frank, 2014 **** Brittain et al., 2010
chapter four:
A Framework
Research and policies Starting from the WHO (2007) campaign to promote Active Ageing, as “the process of optimizing opportunities for health, participation and security in order to enhance quality of life as people age� (WHO, 2007, p5), the UK has broadly addressed the issue, producing a wide range of research, programs and policies whose aim is to rethink the built previous pages:
and urban environment, by taking into account the needs
Towards the All Age
and expectation of an older population. By itself, ageing is
Friendly City.
defined by such very diverse elements only partly related to
next page: Checklist cathegories for an Age Friendly city (Who, 2007).
time, which makes
The UK planning sistem has broadly addressed the impact of ageing on the built environment.
it difficult to come up with specific policy and design responses.
The
way the human population is ageing all around the world is a phenomenon without precedents in human history, both in terms of numbers and in terms of the kind of generation that is coming up, radically different in terms of background, abilities and expectations than any precedent one (Bass, 2008). The biggest challenge is to take into account the interdependence between physical and social aspects, without which any elderly-related practice risk to become a sterile tick-the-box exercise (Hockey et al., 2013). 84 / 84
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on tati
Co andmmun info icatio rma n tion
Agefriendly city
ial Soc pation tici par
Re soc spect ial i ncluand sion
on ipatient rtic c Pa loym Civi d emp an
t por s p u y s ice unit h serv m Comd healt an
Hou
por
sing
s Tran Out d and oor sp buil ace ding s s
/ 85 A FRAMEWORK
85
Global Age-friendly Cities Research protocol implemented by the World Health
Global Age-friendly Cities: A Guide
Organisation through focus groups in 33 cities, including London. It addresses the challenges that cities are facing, as their population is exponentially ageing. It defines eight topic areas for an Age-friendly city, setting a
978 92 4 154730 7
and to chart progress.
Valuing Older People Published in 2006 after public consultation with different Valuing older people The Mayor of London’s Older People Strategy
focus groups, is the Mayor of London’s strategy about older people. Regarding to housing, the proposed actions address the quality of the current stock of sheltered accommodations, as well as tackling homelessness of
September 2006
older people and fostering climate resilience of the existing housing stock.
Age, Home and Community
Age, Home and Community: A Strategy for Housing for Scotland’s Older People: 2012 - 2021
v
checklist of core features, as a tool for self-assessment
The strategy of the Scottish Government published in
Age, Home and Community: A Strategy for Housing for Scotland’s Older People: 2012 - 2021
2011, addressing the ageing of the population and the need for an environment enabling older people to live independently at home. For the first time in the UK, cohousing is included as a strategic component to deliver new housing targets.
.
u
k 12/12/2011 13:50
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Neighbourhoods for Life A list of recommendations published in 2004, for ensuring Neighbourhoods for life
that the outdoor environment is designed to be friendly to people affected by dementia. The outcome of a research carried on by Elizabeth Burton, Lynne Mitchell and Shibu
A checklist of recommendations for designing dementia-friendly outdoor environments
Raman of the Oxford Brookes University, it includes a checklist for assessing the dementia-friendliness of the urban environment.
Lifetime Neighbourhoods A comprehensive report commissioned by the GovernLifetime Neighbourhoods
ment to the University of York, on policies and programs (mostly UK based) promoting the concept of an inclusive urban environment that enables successful ageing. For each chapter - participation, access, services, environ-
www.communities.gov.uk community, opportunity, prosperity
ment, social networks and housing, it provides a list of best practices along with guidance and assessment tools.
Lifetime Homes, Lifetime Neighbourhoods A document outlining the joint strategy of the DepartLIFETIME HOMES, LIFETIME NEIGHBOURHOODS A National Strategy for Housing in an Ageing Society
ment for Communities and Local Government, the Department of Health and the Department for Work and Pensions, for establishing the commitments and the goals for the government in addressing the housing issues for an ageing society.
A FRAMEWORK
87
A Guide to Age Friendly Communities in the North: People and Places 2020 A Guide to Age Friendly Communities in the North: People and Places 2020
The result of a two-year consultation by Northern Housing Consortium involving the public, housing providers and authorities, to assess the concept of Age Friendliness in the context of the North of England. It Sponsored by:
Supported by:
provides guidelines for action, as well as comprehensive checklists to assess their effective delivery.
Silver Linings SILVER LININGS
THE ACTIVE THIRD AGE AND THE CITY
A 2013 report by RIBA Building Futures, exploring the impact of Active Ageing as a generator of new urban models. It illustrates six scenarios for the future: from pop-up universities to reinvented high streets, focusing in particular on the potential of new forms of activities in between work and leisure that will characterize the new generation of older people.
Access for all design guide Access for all design guide
Access for all design guide Access for all design guide
September 2012
Completed by Landscape Consultants on behalf of the Environment Agency (EA), it collects guidelines aimed to guarantee an inclusive access to the outdoor environment for the widest possible range of users. It includes technical guidance, as well as indication about inclusive
September 2012
September 2012
88
programs and management of outdoor areas.
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HAPPI Established in 2009 as a part of the Lifetime Homes and
HAPPI
Housing our Ageing Population: Panel for Innovation
Neighbourhood agenda, the HAPPI panel (Housing our Ageing Population: Panel for Innovation) investigated how to innovate specialised housing, by looking at best examples in the UK and abroad. Its aim is to raise awareness of the importance of the topic, and at the same time to change the perception of specialised housing.
Living Well at Home Inquiry A 2012 inquiry by the All Party Parliamentary Group ALL PARTY PARLIAMENTARY GROUP ON HOUSING AND CARE FOR OLDER PEOPLE
Living Well At Home Inquiry
(APPG) on Housing and Care for Older People to assess the progress in adopting the recommendations and the
Editor: Jeremy Porteus, APPG Inquiry Secretary
design criteria set out in the HAPPI report. Main finding
JULY 2011
of the report is that very little has been achieved in the sector since the 2009 panel work.
HAPPI 2
Housing our Ageing Population: Plan for Implementation Richard Best, APPG Inquiry Chair Jeremy Porteus, APPG Inquiry Secretary NOVEMBER 2012
ALL PARTY PARLIAMENTARY GROUP ON HOUSING AND CARE FOR OLDER PEOPLE
A parliamentary plan for the implementation of the principles and strategies outlined by the HAPPI report. Produced in a different political and economical context, it suggests some variation of the HAPPI guidelines, in particular by reducing the footprint of communal areas and focusing more on technology. At the same time, it advocates for a stronger political involvement and a revised planning framework. A FRAMEWORK
89
Pilgrim Gardens PRP Architects
Ten components for the design of housing for older people:
1
Generous internal space standards, designed to accommodate flexible layouts.
2
Care with the placement, size and detail of windows, to ensure plenty of natural light, also into circulation spaces.
3
Internal corridors and single-aspect flats to be avoided, and apartments to have balconies, patios, or terraces with enough space for tables and chairs as well as plants.
90
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4
Homes designed so that new technologies, such as telecare and community equipment, can be readily installed.
5
Circulation areas as shared spaces that offer connections to the wider context, encouraging interaction, natural surveillance and providing for ‘defensible space’.
6
Multi-purpose space available for residents to meet, perhaps serving the wider neighbourhood as a community ‘hub’, as well as guest rooms for visiting friends and families.
7
Positive engagement with the street and the natural environment, providing wildlife habitats as well as colour, shade and shelter.
8
Homes are energy-efficient and well insulated, but also well ventilated to avoid overheating.
9
Adequate storage available inside and outside the home together with provision for cycles and mobility aids.
10
Shared external surfaces, such as ‘home zones’, that give priority to pedestrians rather than cars. (HAPPI, 2009)
A FRAMEWORK
91
Agencies and organisations Several are the organizations working in the UK on the housing issues of an ageing population. They take care of a sector that has as a target a large and increasing part of the population, and a conspicuous segment of the housing market. Governmental agencies, as well as charities and private institutions and companies are active at different levels with often overlapping responsibilities. Among the next page:
different activities that they engage with, they promote
How to create a Life-
research, producing age-specific guidelines and policies,
time Neighbourhood
and
(Bevan and Croucher, 2011)
training
providing and
expertise. As part of the building industry, an artic-
Several are the institutions contributing at different levels in delivering a better environment for ageing.
ulated interaction of developers, housing corporations, designers and home agencies are active in creating new places, as well as retrofitting existing ones. Finally, different regulatory institutions are monitoring the quality of buildings and services, setting standards and issuing certifications. Finally, despite the active role of the market, a large part of the housing and services for the elderly is delivered independently by not specialised (and often not paid) people. 92 / 92
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Private Sector
Public Sector
Resident empowerment
Access
Services and amenities Built and natural environments
Lifetime neighbourhood
Community groups
Supporting residents to develop a local plan
Individuals
Social networks’ well being Housing
/ 93 A FRAMEWORK
93
Age UK Formed in 2009, AgeUK is the largest charity for older people in the UK. Its main missions are to tackle loneliness, to provide advice and enable independence, by promoting and supporting activities in the whole country, as well as providing insurance services tailored for seniors and tools for enabling ageing in-place. www.ageuk.org.uk
Care Quality Commission The Care Quality Commission monitors quality and standards of hospitals, care homes and other care services in England. It regularly performs inspections of existing institutions and publishes national quality reports, and it is the responsible body for the issuing of new registrations. www.cqc.org.uk
EAC The Elderly Accommodation Counsel (EAC) is a charity founded in 1984 to provide information to people, as well as training to professionals about how to meet housing and care needs. It is funded by the Big Lottery Fund, the Department for Communities and Local Government (DCLG), and Comic Relief. www.eac.org.uk 94
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First Stop FirstStop is a service provider for the elderly supporting them in their living at home. Responsible for it is the charity Elderly Accommodation Counsel, in partnership with local and national organisations. It receives core funding from the Department for Communities and Local Government (DCLG). www.firststopcareadvice.org.uk
Foundations Foundations is an organization gathering over 200 Home Improvement Agencies and Handypersons Services in England. Its mission is to foster the sector, to represent it institutionally and to collect and provide information. It administers the Foundations Independent Living Trust. www.foundations.uk.com
Home Improvement Agencies Home improvement and handyperson service providers are local organisations helping older people, as well as people with disabilities and vulnerable people with house-related issues, allowing independent living. They are operated by housing associations, local authorities, or independent charity organisations. www.foundations.uk.com/about-home-improvement-agencies A FRAMEWORK
95
Age Action Alliance The Age Action Alliance network was launched in 2011, bringing together older people and organizations from the public and private sectors, promoting independent living and age-friendly policies through visibility, information, knowledge transfer and sharing. ageactionalliance.org
Housing LIN Responsible in the past for managing the extra care housing fund of the Department of Health, the Housing Learning and Improvement Network is a network and knowledge hub for professionals involved in planning, commissioning, designing, funding, building and managing housing, care and support services for older and vulnerable people (Housing LIN, 2011). www.housinglin.org.uk
Sitra Sitra is an organisation financed by the DCLG that focuses on the care and support housing sector. Its mission is to investigate ways to improve quality standards in this sector, in particular by integrating care and support strategies with housing solutions, and to provide training to professionals and organizations (Sitra, 2015). www.sitra.org 96
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Dementia Friendly Communities A joint program of Alzheimer’s Society and Dementia Action Alliance, Dementia Friendly Communities is a program for improving inclusion and quality of life for people living with dementia, launched in 2012 with the support of the government and already undertaken by more than 20 communities in the UK. www.alzheimers.org.uk | www.dementiaaction.org.uk
UK Cohousing Network The Cohousing Network was established in 2007 as an umbrella organization gathering different cohousing communities in the UK. It promotes cohousing through awareness raising, knowledge sharing and lobbying. Recently it partnered with OWHC in developing the first scheme of senior cohousing in the UK. www.cohousing.org.uk
ARCO The Associated Retirement Community Operators (ARCO) is the main body that represents retirement community providers in the UK. Founded in 2012, its 26 members represent more than 400 communities, accounting for more than the 50% of housing with care. arcouk.org
A FRAMEWORK
97
Age-friendly environments An inclusive urban environment is the base for enabling independent living (WHO, 2002). As people age, they become more sensitive about micro-environmental features, and even small improvements can have a big effect by reducing the risk of falls and its relative costs (Handler, 2014). The outdoor environment positively affects old people’s life by allowing physical activity, contact with nature and interaction with other people (Sugiyama and Thompson 2005). Green spaces are particularly important for the elderly. Living close to parks and gardens that provide
People are not disable perse, and universally designed environments can help people to live independently for longer.
good
walking
paths
increases
life expectancy of up to five years, and the amount of green in a neigh-
bourhood is inversely proportional to the symptoms of illness reported by its older residents (Sugiyama and Thompson, 2007). Street layout is important too, as walking is the most common mode of transport among the elderly (Risser et al., 2010). It is fundamental to improve mobility related infrastructures such as pedestrian routes and crossings. Being a pedestrian can be problematic for older people, considering that despite being the 16% of UK population, they represent around 43% of fatalities in pedestrian accidents (Musselwhite, 2014). Well designed streets 98 / 98
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/ 99
Senior urban training route
with proper sidewalks, well marked crossings and provision of seating might reduce the number of accidents, increasing walking among the elderly (Wang and Lee, 2010). It is fundamental to remember that people are not disable per-se, but are disabled by the environment they live in. The real challenge tackled by universal design principles is to turn a disabling environment into one that is supportive of an independent life. These interventions might not be fixed and permanent solutions, but rather representing a process through a range of solutions that are continuously proposed, tested and evaluated (Handler, 2014). Finally, well being is also linked to the provision of public toilets and changing places, either purpose built ones or through a so called Community Toilet Scheme where local authorities partner with local businesses in making private toilets available to the public (House of Commons, 2008). A FRAMEWORK
99
Community programs Community engagement is a key component of any age-friendly program. The American Association of Retired People (AARP) refers to it as the first requirement for community programs, alongside encouraging diverse and affordable housing options, safe and inclusive community features and enhanced mobility (AARP, 2005). Community-led age-friendly actions are now widely promoted by European local authorities (AFE, 2014), as well as in the UK, where turning existing communities into lifetime neighbourhoods is part of the
At a local scale, several communities have already undertaken projects to become more age-friendly.
national
strategy
for
housing
(DCLG et al, 2009). Even if it can be difficult, consuming
time and
facing obstructionism to change, engaging the elderly as end users is strategic in the planning and design phase (Howe, 2012). Experts often tend to focus on physical elements, while non-physical interventions such as addressing attitudes, respect and interaction with other people, might be more relevant in creating an age-friendly environment for the users (Risser et al., 2010). The city of Dijon in France has been pioneering in this field, with workshops engaging the elderly in retrofitting the city’s public realm, introducing 100 / 100
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Age Friendly Dijon
new seating and public toilet, removing steps, improving public transport and redesigning the access to public buildings (Dupont, 2014). Small scale urban actions such as community led-auditing, mapping and storytelling can start suggesting counter-narratives (Handler 2014), helping to highlight the different ways in which the built environment can be experienced by the elderly, as well as functioning as a tool for engaging, empowering and lobbying. In the UK, a pilot research was promoted by the Manchester City Council with the Southway Housing Trust, in the WHO Age-friendly framework. Aim of the project was to assess the age-friendliness of the Old Moat neighbourhood, resulting in an Action Plan providing guidelines in how to improve the local urban environment (MSA, 2014). Older people require more and
101
better services, but at the same time they have skills and A FRAMEWORK
101
expertise to share with the community. As stated by the UN’s framework Un-making old age - productive ageing, older people have the responsibility of remaining active in their communities, for their expertise and sense of self purpose (Simpson, 2015). Many retired people are engaged in homebased unconventional work - 8% of active people in Princes Risborough (Wycombe, 2013), a sector that is strategic for rural communities (Francis Hollis, 2014). Most importantly, they undertake about two thirds of volunteering, and provide half of all unpaid care, for an estimated annual economical value Old Moat, Manchester.
102 / 102
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The Mount, Seattle.
of £87 billion (DCLG et al 2009). Finally, they have a strong decisional power, accounting for a big proportion of votes at elections (71% of participation, compared to 24% of under 24) (Sinclair and Watson 2014). In particular, it is important for cities to embrace in their policies projects and strategies to re-establish cohesion among generations, as stated in The New Charter of Athens, adopted by the European Council of Town Planners (ECTP, 2003). Inter-generational interaction has been successfully fostered by combining care-homes to children’s nursery, as at The Mount in Seattle (US). This is in line with what half a century ago Mumford (1956) wrote: “no single institution [...] could provide anything like the range of interests that a mixed neighbourhood community would do, once age ceases to be regarded as a disease” (Mumford,
103
1956, p.194). A FRAMEWORK
103
25%
1in 4
people over 55 likely to move into a retirement community*
people leaving London as they retire**
35,000
14,000
underoccupied accomodations in Wycombe District***
estimated new housing needed in 20 years in the Wycombe District****
* Knight Frank, 2014 ** Atterton et al., 2008 *** ONS, 2011 **** Wycombe, 2015
chapter five:
Changing Perspective
A life-style product The previous chapters analysed what are the needs and expectations of an older population that require a special attention when planning and designing the urban environment, why it is important to address the issue of an ageing population and how this is currently addressed by policies and community programs. A further step is to investigate how older people are not only benefitting from a better environment, but they can drive the change. Considered as a demographic group, the previous page: Charters Village gallery.
elderly are not only the ones requiring more care services, but also the generation
The ageing of the population is a naturally occurring phenomenon. What if, rather than trying to mitigate it, it gets promoted?
that
holds
most
of the country’s wealth (DCLG et al, 2008), as well as plenty of time and
will to engage in new projects. This is particularly relevant when considering the social and cultural shift that brought to the definition of a new socio-demographic category, the thirdage. The so called Young-Old (Simpson, 2015) are a dynamic and transforming generation, requiring radically new models. Considered globally, the so called Silver Economy represents a rapidly expanding sector (FT, 2014), and retirement industry can drive the urban development, a vision that has long ago been embraced by the market. The commercial success of retire108 / 108
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Former Bond-girl Honor Blackman at the opening of Charters Village.
ment villages demonstrates the potential of applying market segmentation principles to demography, delivering what is defined as a life-style product (Simpson, 2015). The concept of Active Ageing, when applied to property development, makes it more desirable and more significantly adds value to it. “Active ageing, when the fear of getting old becomes fun”, as reported in Youngtown’s marketing leaflets, or The Villages in Florida having the same designers of the Universal Studios, are all part of this strategy of building a ready-made life-style as a way to brand a specific urban environment (Simpson, 2015). However, marketing can only shape people’s aspirations up to a certain extent, and it is likely to think that future older people will reject older models labelled as retirement communities, looking for more diversified, age inclusive and work inclusive
109
settings (McHugh and Larson-Keagy, 2004). CHANGING PERSPECTIVE
109
A potential market Post-retirement migration is an established reality in the UK, with one in four people estimated to leave London after retirement (Atterton et al., 2008), raising issues on how preferred locations can capitalize on this trend. Rather than being driven by work or family factors, post-retirement migration is mainly related to seeking a different lifestyle (Simpson, 2015). If post-retirement migration tends to occur naturally where the environment or the climate is particularly attractive, elsewhere it can be artificially induced by proposing a different offer.
An increasing number of people, often still professionally active, are relocating as they reach the third-age.
be
Golf a
can
successful
development strategy:
associ-
ated with prestige, it
manages
to
attract people even to locations away from the sea and good weather (Simpson, 2015). An interesting case is provided by the Hokkaido region in Japan, where special programs were developed to attract new retired residents, seen as potential active consumers (Atterton et al., 2008). Places like Princes Risborough could profit from the market trend of older people refusing a conventional retirement setting but still willing to resettle as they approach retirement. As reported in a marketing research commissioned by the local council, 110 / 110
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/ 111
The Villages, Florida, entrance sign.
the local economy of the town is currently neither attractive nor competitive, and would benefit from focusing on market segmentation, working on a comprehensive and univocal marketing strategy (Williams, 2011). “The community needs to decide which, if any of these statements, adequately sums up the town and packs enough punch to attract people to visit. It then has to be endorsed and applied by all to begin building a brand� (Williams, 2011, p27). Retirement mobility can be a resource for a town not already affirmed in the tourism market (Simpson, 2015). Small towns are reported to provide a more positive living environment for the elderly than cities (Newton et al, 2007), even more desirable now that the relative isolation of the countryside has been changed by internet, breaking the link between entertainment and locations, increasing the recreational possibilities in rural areas (Simpson, 2015). CHANGING PERSPECTIVE
111
A development strategy Retirement is already an important component of the economy of Princes Risborough, with the Ker Maria Nursing Home being currently the fifth largest company in the town by number of employees (Buckinghamshire Business First, 2014). The town would benefit in different ways from reinventing itself as an age-friendly environment. Rethinking the use of existing places and promoting more flexible approaches to living in the town, would benefit both the elderly and the younger generation, and would boost the local economy while providing more diverse and
Rural towns like Princes Risborough could turn retirement into a cohesive strategy for development.
affordable
housing solutions (Farrelly,
2014).
Since a mobilized society connected to
retirement
migration can have an unbalancing effect on the local identity (Atterton et al., 2008), it is important for any change to be towards an integrated and incremental growth (Gross, 2014). An interesting precedent is offered by the Italian Albergo Diffuso (AD) concept (“diffused hotel” or “widespread hotel”). AD has been recently developed in Italy and is now taking place in other countries. From a client perspective, it works as a normal hotel, with its rooms, shared facilities, restaurant and reception. The difference is that rather than being these 112 / 112
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/ 113
Santo Stefano widespread hotel.
components all concentrated in a purpose-built building, they are located in different buildings of an existing - usually very small - inhabited village. The model was created as an alternative way of promoting tourism and creating touristic infrastructure in small peripheral communities, in a cost-effective way that would not compromise the character of the place. Rather than relying on new construction, the new hotel is obtained by the retrofitting with minimal intervention of existing redundant spaces. Another radical difference from a traditional hotel is the ownership model: while the management is carried on by one body (either a private company or a cooperative organization), the profits are shared among the members of the hotel that retain the ownership of the spaces that they made available (Custodes, 2013). The AD principles could be adapted to introduce a new development model for a Retirement Town. CHANGING PERSPECTIVE
113
The Widespread Hotel decalogue: 1
No more than 300 meters from the guest units and the common areas.
2
Guest reception and assistance to be guaranteed for at least 14 hours a day.
3
Comfortable and welcoming rooms, in line with the town context.
4
Informative material on the surroundings and the other ADs available in the rooms.
5
Promotion of recreational, sports and cultural activities for the clients.
6
Breakfast to be guaranteed in the morning, possibly in common areas.
7
Free of charge use of bicycles or other transportation means for the guests.
8
Restaurant service to be guaranteed to the guests inside or outside the main structure.
9
Organisation of entertaining activities.
10
A unique and personalised atmosphere.
(Custodes, 2013)
114
RETIREMENT TOWNS
The Retirement Town decalogue: 1
Short-distance and sheltered connection from the resident’s unit and the common areas.
2
Care to be guaranteed in place according to the resident’s need, and in town 24/7.
3
Attractive and easily accessible units, in line with the lifetime home principles.
4
Web-based information about services and activities, and support for digital access.
5
Promotion of recreational and social activities for the residents, including life-long learning programs.
6
Opportunity for common meals to be held periodically, support for grocery shopping and cooking.
7
Bike and car sharing scheme for the residents, and on demand public transportation.
8
Discounts in local restaurants, pubs or other leisure venues open to the public.
9
Promotion of community engagement.
10
A personalized individual space in an environment integrated to the rest of the town.
CHANGING PERSPECTIVE
115
Small actions at a big scale The scenarios that will be introduced in the following chapter strongly rely on the idea of transforming a part of the existing housing stock, from houses designed for a single household to multifamily ones. Even though ideas like multigenerational home sharing and cohousing might not suit everyone, promoting more flexible approaches to living in the town would benefit not only the elderly but also the younger generation, by boosting the local economy and providing more diverse and affordable housing solutions, in line with what
Home sharing and cohousing contribute to better living, and might help addressing the UK housing shortage.
is
asserted
by
the most recent research (Farrelly, 2014). Among the positive
effects,
such a strategy would reduce maintenance costs and provide a financial aid to the home owners that would accept to either sell or rent part of their property. The provision of care would be positively affected too, since an increased residential density would allow better services, as well as an increased social interaction and peer support. At the same time, affordable housing options for care-givers would be made available in proximity with the care-recipients. Strong are the limits of such a vision, when considering the 116 / 116
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/ 117
Wycombe District 2015-2030
35,000
10,000 to 14,000
Housing data for Wycombe district.
New houses needed
Underoccupied houses
emotional and cultural relationship to one’s house. Nevertheless, they can play a strategic role in a wider perspective. It is estimated that about 35,000 houses are currently under occupied in the Wycombe District, 2,000 of which in Princes Risborough only (ONS, 2011). If redeveloped in as many new units, they would provide more than the forecasted 10,000 to 14,000 new units that the District will need in the next fifteen years (Wycombe, 2015). While house-sharing and co-housing cannot be the only solution, it is worth including them as an option in any future plan. Market towns should diversify their housing offer and rethink their development strategies in order to play a strategic role in addressing the UK housing shortage (Gross, 2014), particularly when considering an increasingly older population in the future. CHANGING PERSPECTIVE
117
chapter six:
Scenarios for the Future
Three scenarios In the following pages three model of intervention will be presented, specifically designed for three different locations in Princes Risborough (Woodfield Road, Mount Way and the intersection of High Street and Bell Street). The three sites have been selected for being representative of the three main urban patterns of the town: the back to back and front to front terraced housing, the detached or semi-detached houses clustered around a cul-de-sac, and the traditional High Street. next page: PR: Retirement Town concept map.
Specific and generic at the same time, the three interven-
Three different visions for Princes Risborough suggest an incremental strategy for the town development.
tions
suggest
model
that
a can
be replicated in different locations, regenerating town
the
through
incremental small interventions. A potentially useful tool to deliver such a change is Community-led housing, introduced in the 2011 Localism Act, in particular via the funding for the Government’s Affordable Housing Programme and the Neighbourhood Planning and Community Right to Build (CRTB). The Act gives to the local community the right to creating housing for older people, when there is not enough availability or variety, without undergoing the normal planning application process (Stevens, 2013). 120
RETIREMENT TOWNS
key: Mixed-age cohousing
20
0m
In-place retirement village
20
0m
20 0m
20
0m
20
0m
Active-retirement centre
0 SCENARIOS FOR THE FUTURE
500
1000 M 121
First Scenario: Mixed-age cohousing One of the most common consequences of getting older is an increasing social isolation, exacerbated by an urban environment with little chance of interaction among neighbours. Shrinking households occupy houses that are often to big to heat and maintain, and people are often challenged by reduced mobility skills. Multigenerational cohousing can offer a successful solution to these issues. previous page: Wodfield Road: street view, plan and aerial view of digital model.
Whilst guaranteeing the provision of private and inde-
next page: Mixed-age cohousing.
interaction,
pendent living space, such schemes introduce communal facilities for social as
well as promoting peer support and sharing of duties
Promoting different living solutions, encouraging interaction and peer support among residents.
and tasks related to the management of the house. Furthermore, the constituted group can share the responsibility of undertaking house renovation works, lobbying for guaranteeing the planning permission for the building intervention necessary to create a more diverse range of living units. Shared gardens can promote social interaction, as well as facilitate urban agriculture interventions that have been identified as a key element for retirement communities (Nefs et al., 2013). 122
RETIREMENT TOWNS
THE
C
N SCE RE
10
20 m
T
Princes Risborough, Woodfield Road
AD
LD
RO
0
IE
W
DF
O
O
scale 1:5000
AD
RO
I
HF
UT
D EL
SO
AD
RO
FI
ST
EA
D EL
SCENARIOS FOR THE FUTURE
123
124
RETIREMENT TOWNS
Individual Units An extension allows the division of the house in two units on different levels, with an improved accessibility to the ground floor one. The smaller private garden offers a threshold space while requiring less maintenance. Common Facilities One of the buildings operates as a central hub for the scheme, hosting a communal kitchen, space for collective meals and other recreational activities, as well as guest rooms for the visitors and other services. Shared Open Space A wide communal open space is created by reducing the size of the individual gardens, allowing a more efficient maintenance (either by residents or external contractors), as well as becoming the place for social interaction. Ancillary Building Ancillary buildings in the garden can be either used as a greenhouse, or provide extra ground floor space for workshops, recreational activities and guest rooms. They can also become a publicly accessible work place for the residents. Car Sharing A car sharing scheme reduces the need of cars and parking space in the neighbourhood, with lower maintenance costs and less responsibilities, as well as providing different vehicle choices for different needs.
SCENARIOS FOR THE FUTURE
125
Second Scenario: In-place Retirement Village Low density suburban settlements can produce social isolation, as well as promoting a lifestyle based on car mobility that affects the ability of older people to live independently, when changes in life reduces or compromise the ability to drive. A solution to the issue is provided by retirement villages, commercial led communities providing lodgements specifically designed for the needs of the elderly, in a relatively denser previous page: Mount Way: street view, plan and aerial view of digital model.
and self contained environment. An alternative solution
next page: In-place Retirement Village.
c o m m u n a l
would endorse all the advantages of these schemes (accessible
housing,
s e r v i c e s , outsourced house and open space
Experimenting with a new housing and development offer, by combining existing models into a new scenario.
management), while allowing the residents to keep living in their own environment. The In-place Retirement Village (IRV) concept relies on the physical, social and operational structures of a commercial retirement village, with the radical difference of being constituted by a network of living units (new or already existing), within an existing neighbourhood. Either run as a commercial or cooperative enterprise, an IRV would provide the comfort of a conventional retirement facility, in a setting integrated to the existing community. 126
RETIREMENT TOWNS
20 m
Princes Risborough, Mount Way CO
UR T
CL
O
W AY
AD RO N RA TT O
AN
O R
PA R
K
AV E
NU
E
ST
S
M
UN
T
LEY
scale 1:5000
SE
O
D OA BR
0
10
M
SCENARIOS FOR THE FUTURE
127
128
RETIREMENT TOWNS
Individual Units The building extension allows the division of the house into a top-floors family maisonette and a fully accessible ground floor unit. Both the new units are provided by independent access and private open space. Common Facilities A centrally located building, publicly accessible or member-only, hosts the communal facilities and recreational areas, as well as providing suite-type units for temporary lodgements or extra care needs. Shared Open Space As part of the shared services included in the village scheme, the creation and maintenance of communal open spaces for leisure and recreational activities, having free or restricted access. Landmark Strategically positioned landmarks improve the legibility of the urban environment, mitigating the negative impact of cognitive impairment in the navigational skills of older residents. On-demand Public Transport A flexible system of transportation combining on-demand public transport to an improved cycling and walking environment reduces the dependency on cars, increasing the autonomy of the residents.
SCENARIOS FOR THE FUTURE
129
Third Scenario: Active-retirement centre Country market towns are struggling all over the UK to keep up with economic, social and demographic changes. Keeping competing with other form of retail, being easily accessible, clean and safe at all the time might not be enough to revitalize rural town centres, as shown in a study commissioned by ATCM (Association of Town Centre Management) to Experian (2012), if these measures previous page: High Street: street view, plan and aerial view of digital model.
are not coordinated by a professional and active manage-
next page: Active-retirement centre.
people can play
ment to build up an unique identity. As a strategic market segment,
older
an important role in reinventing the local town centre as a hub not only
Boosting the local high street by injecting new activities, improving the public realm and creating an unique identity
for shopping, but also for leisure, recreation and new forms of business. This can be achieved by improving the quality of the existing public realm, enhancing public transport, favouring walking and promoting segment-oriented quality services and commercial activities. Better outdoors have a positive effect on interaction, resulting in an increased time spent in the area with an overall positive contribution to the local businesses.
130
RETIREMENT TOWNS
10
20 m
High Street
H
NE
IG
H
W
ST
RO
AD
R
EE
H
O
R
N
S
LA
N
scale 1:5000
E
0
T
L EL
ET
RE
ST
B
SCENARIOS FOR THE FUTURE
131
132
RETIREMENT TOWNS
Improved Street Layout An improved street layout have a positive impact on health, increasing walking and reducing the risk of falls, as well as promoting social and recreational interaction and supporting the commercial activities of the High Street. Specialised Shop Local businesses should cater for an increasingly older population, with specialised shops as well as offering quality services. Special training on how to deal with clients with dementia to be provided to shop keepers. Co-working Business Hub Redundant spaces in proximity to the High Street can be converted into co-working places, hosting flexible working units for an emerging sector of post-retirement business activities. Open restrooms Facilities are to be installed in strategic locations in town, providing not only toilets, but also comfortable resting and changing rooms catering to the elderly, as well as to people with disabilities or parents with young kids. Public Image The “elderly-friendly� approach can become the occasion of transforming the image of the town, attracting new visitors and new residents, and boosting the local economy as well as the local civic participation of older residents.
SCENARIOS FOR THE FUTURE
133
Active-retirement centre A poor legibility of the urban envi-
Lack of variety and poor quality in
ronment can reduce the ability to
the commercial offer make the High
navigate, discouraging people from
Street a less desirable destination
moving around on their own.
for outdoor excursions.
A poorly designed street layout is
Clutter on the pavement such as
dangerous both for drivers, cyclist
bollards and signs can become
and pedestrians, discouraging non
dangerous obstacles for people with
car-based mobility.
limited mobility or sight.
134
RETIREMENT TOWNS
On-demand public transport, sized
Clear signs, better if perpendicular
on a need for small and flexible
to the walls and with contrasting
journeys,
backgrounds, are better legible by
increase
mobility
by
reducing the need for private cars.
people with dementia.
Mobile technologies are increas-
Wider pavements without neither
ingly contributing in creating tools
contrasting nor confusing patterns,
to help the navigation of people
and provision of seats, enhance walk-
with cognitive impairment.
ability and reduce the risk of falls.
SCENARIOS FOR THE FUTURE
135
In-place retirement village Under-used buildings reduce the attractiveness and sense of safety of places, while they could host new activities close to the centre.
Redundant open space (either public
A car-centred street layout discour-
or private) negatively affect the
ages the use of alternative means,
image of the town, while having
with negative effect on people’s
maintenance issues and costs.
health and the environment.
138
RETIREMENT TOWNS
Attractive specialised housing is
Clearly-designed dedicated cycling
designed to look outwards in visual
lanes increase safety for the street
and symbolic connection to the
users, providing a safe track for
whole community.
people with mobility issues.
Minimal interventions such as the introduction of a horse trail can contribute to radically redefine the image of the town.
SCENARIOS FOR THE FUTURE
139
Mixed-age cohousing Inwardly looking spaces limit the possibility of social interaction among neighbours, increasing the social isolation of the elderly.
The maintenance of gardens can become problematic with ageing, and this might become source of anxiety and depression.
142
RETIREMENT TOWNS
Ancillary buildings offer additional
Outwardly looking homes, with the
space for social interaction and
space for day activities open to the
for hosting home-based business
shared space, increase interaction
activities.
and peer support among residents.
Urban farming (on raised beds
Communal
making it more accessible for people
residents’ wellness and sense of
with reduced mobility) promotes
community, allowing at the same
social interaction and healthy living.
time to share the maintenance tasks.
SCENARIOS FOR THE FUTURE
gardens
can
boost
143
When I was young my teachers were the old. I gave up fire for form till I was cold. I suffered like a metal being cast. I went to school to age to learn the past. Now when I am old my teachers are the young. What can’t be molded must be cracked and sprung. I strain at lessons fit to start a suture. I got to school to youth to learn the future. (Robert Frost, What Fifty Said, 1928)
146 / 146
RETIREMENT TOWNS
Conclusion In his study about English houses published at the beginning of the twentieth century, the German architect Muthesius described England as “the only advanced country in which the majority of the population still live in houses, a custom that has survived all the political, social and economic change that Europe has undergone in the past hundred and fifty years� (Muthesius, 1979, p.7). Another century has gone by, and things have not changed that much. Still very strong are the cultural concerns towards a model of development that seems to undermine the sacred sphere of the individual house, in favour of more shared living solutions. Yet, rethinking the way people live, especially in suburban environments, can disclose positive opportunities for the future. The ageing of the population is a global trend, and an increased number of older people will increase the demand for care services, with a projected cost that can be disruptive for the current economic system. As the amount of care that people require is directly related to the quality of their living environment, different living solutions as the ones explored in this study could positively contribute in mitigating this need. By embracing more shared living solutions people would be enabled to live independently for longer, their homes and neighbourhood would be more adapt to their changing needs 147 CONCLUSION
147
and expectations, and they would be living in communities more eager to cope with ageing and to provide peer support. This would not only benefit people’s life at an individual scale, but it would contribute in creating a more sustainable living environment, optimizing the use of the existing resources and reducing the need for new construction and costly care solutions. An age-oriented development model such as the one proposed for Princes Risborough would not only serve the older residents, but it would have a positive impact on the entire population that would benefit from living in a more cohesive community, with an improved public realm and a new impulse to the local economy brought by new residents and a stronger market identity. In particular, reconsidering the use of the existing housing stock would offer an alternative way to meet the housing targets without compromising the nature of the place as a small town surrounded by nature. Although the proposed solutions might not be self-sufficient for guaranteeing an answer to broader needs for new housing, they can nevertheless play a strategic role in resetting the aims of development. Transforming part of the existing housing stock can redefine substantially the amount of new housing required, and most importantly the quality, variety and affordability of the housing offer for an older population. 148 / 148
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Despite ageing being now a global trend, enhancing the resilience of the urban environment to this change must find its unique variation in each specific location. As the issue of housing an older population requires different and flexible models, so any geographic specificity requires an adaptation of universal models. At the same time, it is important to consider that as the current generation of older people is radically different than the precedent one, so will be the one that is coming up in the future. Especially when working on long term plans – as the ones that are currently being outlined for Princes Risborough – it is necessary to take into account that needs and expectations might change, and if radical solutions might not be easily accepted today, they might be a viable option in a long term perspective. It is therefore fundamental to begin immediately to introduce elements of innovation in future visions, since changing cultural settings might take longer than building cities. If the proposed strategy might be beneficial for nowadays elderly, it is for future generations that will be required a radical, bold rethinking of the living environment.
149 CONCLUSION
149
150 /
Acknowledgements
Shula Hawes, Ladder to the Moon, because attitudes and behaviours are more important than design. Agniezska Labus, Silesian University of Technology, for her contribution on Senior Co-housing. previous page: Sun City Poms cheerleading group.
Maggie Pearson, University of Salford, for making me radically rethink what designing for dementia means. Audrey Tan, for sharing her perspective and passion as a Care-Home developer. My fellow students Paul Bourel, Paola Giuseppetti, Katerina Karaga, Zita Nicolau Chen, Faz Yusup, for their contribution and support.
151 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
151
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28 PR: Pedestrian, Berryfield Road. 29 PR: Pedestrian, High Street. 30 PR: Recreational facility, New Road. 31 PR: Recreational facility, Wycombe Road. 32 PR: Outdoor facility, Recreation Ground. 33 PR: Outdoor facility, Whiteleaf Golf Course. 34 PR: Landmark, Pudding Stone. 35 PR: Landmark, Whiteleaf Cross. 36 PR: Map of the Regional context. 40 Map of Wycombe District 44-45 Hockney, D. (1977). My Parents. [online image]. Available from: < http://www. tate.org.uk/art/artworks/hockney-my-parents-t03255> [Accessed 3 August 2015]. 47 WHO (2002). Kalache and Kickbusch, 1997: Functional Capacity Diagram. 49 The Rural Media Company (2014). Over The Hill? [online image]. Available from: <http://www.overthehillcampaign.org.uk/> [Accessed 3 August 2015]. 56 Devco (1961). Active retirement is a proven success in Del Webb’s Sun City Arizona, advert. [online image]. Available from: <http://www.thenostalgiashop.co.uk/Sun-City-Retirement-Original-Advert-1961-%28refAD8277%29/3242.htm#1> [Accessed 3 August 2015]. 57 Sun Cities Today Blog (2010). Delbert Eugene “Del” Webb. [online image]. Available from: <https://suncitiestoday.wordpress.com/2010/11/> [Accessed 3 August 2015]. 61 Le Fol, B. (2015). Bimby project, sketch. [online image]. Available from: <www.bimby.fr> [Accessed 3 August 2015]. 62 Patel Taylor Architects (2015). The Lawns. [online image]. Available from: <http://www.ribaj.com/buildings/barking-courtyard-pensioners-downsize> [Accessed 3 August 2015]. 163 LIST OF IMAGES
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