Georgia Association of Teacher Educators Vol.34

Table of Contents

Letter from the President of GATE

By Natasha Ramsay-Jordan Page iii

Letter from the Editor-in-Chief of GATEways to Teacher Education

By Forrest R. Parker III Page v

“Would Jesus Be Happy with Your Behavior?” Preparing Teacher Candidates to Address Christian Hegemony and to Foster Fully Inclusive Classrooms

By Joseph R. Jones Page 1

Being a College Professor…Is it Still Worth It?: Coping with Burnout and Keeping Our Humanity as University Teachers after the Pandemic

By Erin Klash, Dan Henry, Janá Sparks, and Eric Darch Page 9

Practicing Educators’ Perceptions on Classroom Management: Implications for Change

By Christopher G. Pritchett & Jessica Watson Page 23

Preparation From a Distance Still Requires Being Culturally Responsive: A Call to Education Preparation Programs

By Natasha Ramsay-Jordan & Debbian Campbell James Page 36

Teachers Equipping Teachers: Redesigning Clinical Practice

By Amanda Nelms, Cathy Eschete, and Rachael Flynn Page 44

Evaluating the Effectiveness of a Communication Course in Enhancing Soft Skills Among Pre-Service Teachers

By Forrest R. Parker III & J.T. Cox

What are Mathematics Teacher Educators’ Perceptions of Equity-based Teaching Practices?

By Zareen Gul Aga & Amanda Sawyer

Page 65

Page 79

A Systematic Literature Review of Mixed-Reality Use in Special Education Preparation Programs

By Samantha Mrstik & Maria B. Peterson-Ahmad

A Letter from the President of the Georgia Association of Teacher Educators (GATE)

Serving as an affiliate of the National Association of Teacher Educators (ATE), the Georgia Association of Teacher Educators (GATE) works diligently to improve education in the state of Georgia and remains dedicated to the improvement of teacher education. It is also a central tenet of GATE’s mission and principles to empower Georgia’s teachers.

GATE held its 2025 annual conference in St. Simons Island at the beautiful Sea Palms Resort on February 13 and 14. Conference attendees gathered and sought to embrace, in different ways, this year’s theme of what it meant to Chart New Horizons in the 21st Century’s Learning and Teaching Landscapes. They did so with the challenge and understanding of our responsibilities as change agents.

Like each year past, we have the choice to remain steadfast in the fight for what we know to be right, or we can choose to withdraw and just wait it out. Particularly in this current climate with attacks aiming to devalue and criminalize diversity, equity, and inclusion now is the time for more engagement, connection, and protection.

We must chart new ways to engage with others in courageous conversations that involve truth-telling. We must chart new ways to reject alienation and othering and therefore work to connect with others. We must chart new ways to protect what we know to be true so that in the face of any attempt to delete history, American history, rich history that reminds us of how far we’ve come and how far yet to go, we can

resist. Let us fight to protect progress and work to go even further! We must do these things because we cannot chart new horizons without acknowledging the foreground. These engagements, connections, and protections cannot be just in words and statements but in demand and practice. We know fully that we are better together and therefore we must continue to engage with others, connect to what binds us as humans, and continue to participate in good trouble to protect what we’ve accomplished so that we can Chart New Horizons for a more promising future! Horizon is about seeing beyond the present and pushing the limits of what one wants to do and what can be done. So, if we want to expand and push boundaries we have to refuse to accept ignorance, and in many cases just simple foolishness. We must also encourage others to refuse as well.

This current issue of GATEways seeks to identify how to expand our impact on the research and practice of teachers and teacher educators. I hope the articles encourage collaboration and communication across disciplines to build connections and strengthen the impact of research in teacher education and preparation. Research is central to both understanding problems facing educators and identifying solutions. Education affects all sections of society and will require innovative and creative thinking to challenge the current systems that seek to censor and silence us. In an era of misinformation and hostility toward truth, it is more important than ever to have reliable,

GATEWAYS TO TEACHER EDUCATON

meaningful, and accurate information to inform policy and societal changes.

The research in this journal covers a range of topics and disciplines, highlighting the breadth and scope of critical issues impacting education. Topics explored include preparing teacher candidates to address christian hegemony as a way to foster fully inclusive classrooms and a systematic literature review of mixed-realit y use in special education preparation programs

The research in this publication requires us to challenge our existing systems, reimagine how our world works, and research and develop the paths to get us there. We hope that this journal, and its subsequent editions, can play some role in that journey and that you consider becoming part of GATEways' legacy by submitting your manuscript for publication.

Best, Dr. Natasha Ramsay-Jordan President, Georgia Association of Teacher Educators (GATE)

Message from the Editor-in-Chief of the GATEways to Teacher Education Journal

Dear Readers,

It is my distinct honor to introduce myself as the new Editor-in-Chief of GATEways to Teacher Education, a peerreviewed journal dedicated to highlighting innovative research, practices, and perspectives in the field of teacher education. I stepped into this role in August 2024, and I am excited to share with you the first issue published under my leadership.

As someone deeply committed to advancing high-quality, equity-centered educator preparation, I am both humbled and energized by the opportunity to serve in this capacity. GATEways continues to provide an important platform for teacher educators, researchers, and practitioners to engage in meaningful dialogue about the challenges and possibilities within our profession.

This issue features a range of timely and thoughtful articles that I hope will inspire and inform your own work. I encourage you to read, cite, and share these contributions with your colleagues and professional communities. I also warmly invite you to consider submitting your own scholarship to GATEways. We welcome a variety of article types and are always looking to showcase diverse voices and experiences that contribute to the broader conversation about teacher education.

I would like to extend my sincere thanks to the leadership of the Georgia Association of Teacher Educators (GATE) for their continued support of this

publication. I am also deeply grateful to the authors whose manuscripts appear in this issue—your research, insight, and dedication help to move our field forward.

Thank you for being part of our community. I look forward to the scholarship and dialogue ahead.

Cheers, Forrest R. Parker III, Ph.D. Editor-in-Chief, GATEways to Teacher Education

“Would Jesus Be Happy with Your Behavior?” Preparing Teacher Candidates to Address Christian Hegemony and to Foster Fully Inclusive Classrooms

Joseph R. Jones

Introduction

Recently, I entered a local elementary school to observe one of my elementary teacher candidates. As I walked down the third-grade hallway toward her classroom, a mid-career elementary teacher stood outside of her own classroom chastising a young male student. As I walked by, I heard the teacher questioning the student, “Would Jesus be happy with your behavior?” The teacher did not wait for a response, rather, she continued verbally reprimanding him.

Later during the same week in a different district, I observed one of my secondary English teacher candidates in her classroom. During her lesson, she referred to a student by their desired pronoun. Immediately, the cooperating teacher stood and walked to the front of the room while stating, “We do not do pronouns in this room. God created two genders.” She continued her tirade for a few moments. My student was confused, and her cry for help was obvious as she looked at me in fear.

Discrimination against non-Christian students in America is increasing. Muslim students are one of the most targeted groups of students in American schools (Maarouf & Jones, 2017, CAIR, 2021). In fact, 48% of Muslim families with students reported their children were bullied in their schools

because of religious differences (DeCuir, 2024). Similarly, the Anti-Defamation League (2022) reported a 49% increase in antisemitic incidents, which ranged from slurs and graffiti to physical intimation. Moreover, Jewish students often report feeling excluded or mocked during Christian celebrations. Some recounted stories about being told “they killed Jesus” (ADL, 2022). According to the Southern Poverty Law Center (2019), Hindu students continually report being bullied for their religious beliefs. In Kentucky, a fifth-grade student refused to go to school because he was bullied for not believing in God (Spears, 2017).

From my personal experiences with my teacher candidates and from the national data, it is obvious Christian hegemony is negatively impacting P-12 schools by creating unsafe educational spaces for nonChristian values and identities. As such, I began questioning our teacher candidates’ ability to address Christian hegemony in their future classrooms and schools. As teacher educators, are we preparing our teacher candidates to create fully inclusive environments, especially as they relate to non-Christian belongingness?

In exploring this topic, I believe it is important to first discuss my positionality as

it relates to this discussion. Afterward, I briefly define Christian hegemony and how it functions within society and schools. Further, it is advantageous to discuss Christian nationalism because of its connections to Christian hegemony. Finally, I offer suggestions for teacher preparation programs to consider as they prepare teacher candidates to enter the profession.

My Positionality

To fully conceptualize my postulations, I believe it is beneficial to understand my positionality as it relates to this discussion. I am a liturgical Christian, meaning I attend a church that follows the liturgy and the liturgical calendar (i.e., Advent, Christmas, Lent, etc.). As an adult, I have held several church leadership roles including serving as a youth minister and working with college ministries. I should also note that I maintain a strong understanding of church history and Christian nationalism’s role in American culture. My positionality is important because it frames my understanding of Christian hegemony and its influence in American culture and schools through my own Christian identity and lens, which provides a unique perspective as a Christian academic who prepares future teachers.

What is Christian Hegemony?

In simple terms, Christian hegemony is the perpetuation of “the conscious and unconscious advantages afforded to the Christian faith” (Seifert, 2007, p. 11) within society and by extension the schooling process. It is the social normalization of Christian beliefs and how those beliefs are privileged over all other beliefs. In fact, Christian hegemony posits, “non-Christian faiths are inferior, or dangerous nonbelievers are immoral, sinful, or misguided” (Blumenfeld, 2006, p. 205). Christian hegemony functions by embedding Christian

values and symbols so deeply into the fabric of society that they are often seen as natural or universally applicable, even by people who are not explicitly Christian. It manifests in a wide array of social practices and institutional arrangements that privilege Christianity, often making it the default or “normative” religion.

To truly understand Christian hegemony, it may be necessary to fully conceptualize the level that Christianity has impacted American culture. Christianity has influenced our language, our culture, our symbols, and our value system, among numerous other aspects for centuries. I posit hegemony played a role in how the Puritans treated Native Americans and their classification as savages. To the Puritans, their Christian beliefs were the foundation of their domination of another culture (Brekus, 2003), one that they perceived as antiChristian, creating a binary opposition of good versus evil, which continues to be the defining mechanism in modern day Christian hegemony. In America, some Christian denominations utilized biblical interpretations to justify slavery and segregation, which forced Christian hegemony into systems of racial oppression. Further, throughout American history, many states enacted blue laws, which were laws that restricted activities on Sunday, the Christian Sabbath. Additionally, Pew research studies consistently reveal a widespread distrust of atheists who wish to serve in political positions.

In modern America, Christian hegemony continues to impact American culture. Christian beliefs and values, particularly those associated with evangelical Protestantism, play a significant role in shaping public debates on issues such as abortion, LGBTQ+ rights, and education policies (Seidel, 2020). Christian lobbying

groups, such as the Christian Coalition and Focus on the Family, have exerted considerable influence on American politics, promoting legislation that reflects conservative Christian values.

The continued privilege of Christianity exists in all aspects of society, including the schooling process. For example, when students recite the Pledge of Allegiance in schools, they repeat “one nation under God,” not Allah or another non-Christian deity. Further, a number of schools celebrate Christmas, even though students from the following religions do not celebrate the holiday: Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jehovah Witness, Quakers, and Messianic Believers. In these examples, Christian beliefs are presented as more valuable, more normal, and more important than the beliefs of others who do not believe in Christmas.

To better conceptualize Christian hegemony, it is beneficial to discuss Christian nationalism because Christian hegemony’s power emerges from a perceived national Christian identity.

Christian Hegemony and Christian Nationalism

Christian hegemony continues to exist in America because of its connection to Christian nationalism, which is a political and social framework that merges national identity with religious identity, particularly through the lens of Christianity. As articulated by Whitehead and Perry (2020), Christian nationalism asserts that the United States was established as a Christian nation, with its prosperity contingent upon a return to Christian values. This ideology is grounded in several key assumptions. First, it posits that the nation was founded on Christian principles, which should therefore govern its legal structures, policies, and societal norms. Second, Christian

nationalism frequently implies a divine mandate for the nation, suggesting that the United States holds a unique and ordained role in God's plan. Third, it asserts a moral superiority rooted in Christianity, framing it as the ultimate source of morality, which should influence public life. Consequently, Christian nationalism stands in opposition to secularism and pluralism, regarding these forces as threats to the nation's spiritual and moral integrity (Stewart, 2020).

The origins of Christian nationalism can be traced to early Western civilization, where the fusion of religious and political authority was a common feature. In the context of American Christian nationalism, this idea is closely tied to the nation’s founding and the perceived religious character of the early American colonies who settled in New England and viewed their mission in explicitly religious terms, envisioning the creation of a "city upon a hill" that would serve as a model of Christian virtue. This concept of a divinely ordained national purpose has persisted throughout American history (Noll, 2002).

Throughout the history of the United States, numerous political leaders have invoked religious rhetoric to define the nation’s mission, despite the clear constitutional mandate for the separation of church and state. This blending of religious and national identities has been particularly pronounced during periods of social and political upheaval, such as the Civil War and the Cold War. During these times, American leaders often appealed to Christian values as a unifying force and a source of moral guidance in the face of both external and internal challenges (Dochuk, 2011).

In the 20th century, Christian nationalism became increasingly associated with conservative political movements, particularly during the emergence of the

Religious Right in the 1970s and 1980s. This movement sought to galvanize conservative Christian groups in response to perceived societal shifts and the erosion of traditional values. Prominent religious figures, such as Jerry Falwell and Pat Robertson, championed Christian nationalism as a conduit to restore the nation’s adherence to Christian principles. They argued that America’s moral decline was a result of its departure from its Christian heritage and advocated for a return to Christian values in areas such as education, family structure, and public policy. In particular, the Religious Right strongly opposed abortion, LGBTQ+ rights, and the removal of prayer from public schools.

Indeed, Christian hegemony (through the existence of Christian nationalism) has utilized a national foundation to permeate schools and continues to marginalize antiChristian beliefs and identities. Thus, it is important to begin contemplating Christian hegemony’s role in creating anti-inclusive classrooms, which is important to consider because of recent actions such as the teacher in Kansas who refused to call a student their desired pronouns because the teacher’s Christian beliefs were privileged over inclusivity (Associated Press, 2022).

Christian Hegemony, Inclusivity, and Teacher Preparation Programs

It is important to mention that realizing the impact of Christian hegemony is not an attack on Christians; rather, it is the recognition of the power that individuals have exerted on others to control or to marginalize them based on Christianity and Christian principles. This is important to acknowledge because by preparing our teacher candidates to conceptualize Christian hegemony in their schools and classroom is not a rebuke of Christianity;

rather, it becomes a catalyst to dismantle the binary that Christian hegemony proposes, thereby creating a classroom space without discrimination, marginalization, and religious privileges. No child should feel inferior to another child. As such, I posit it is important for teacher preparation programs to consider the impact of Christian hegemony on schools and teacher preparation programs’ role in preparing teacher candidates to create fully inclusive classrooms. In this manner, I believe it is advantageous to discuss the following: preparing teacher candidates to recognize Christian hegemony in their schools, preparing teacher candidates to dismantle Christian hegemony’s binary oppositions, and preparing teacher candidates to embrace religious pluralism.

Preparing Teacher Candidates to Recognize Christian Hegemony in Their Schools

In my foundations of education courses, specifically Exploring Diversity in Education, I allot a large amount of time to recognize how hegemony functions within their school and classroom. Students are required to conduct a qualitative content analysis of the artifacts in a classroom. In doing so, candidates examine room decorations, books, seating charts, etc. After examining the room, candidates deconstruct the messages the room sends to students. What message does it send when none of the children's books depict non-white families? What message does it send when only white male literary authors are represented on the walls?

In essence, candidates are analyzing the classrooms through lenses of race, class, gender, sexuality, and abilities. After my recent experiences in elementary and high schools, I require students to add a religious

lens to their analysis. Does the room maintain specific Christian symbols, artifacts, books, etc. and not include nonChristian items? In recognizing how Christian hegemony functions and exists within classrooms, future teachers are able to conceptualize methods to positively change the messages that are presented to all students in the room. In doing so, my teacher candidates are able to include nonChristian artifacts or to remove Christian artifacts to improve the level of inclusivity, which prepares students to dismantle the binary structure that Christian hegemony constructs.

Preparing students to recognize Christian hegemony in their schools and classrooms also requires students to examine school schedules and classroom activities. Specifically, our candidates should be taught to recognize how all religious holidays can impact classroom activities and celebrations. For example, teachers should not plan activities solely around Christmas, Easter, and other Christian holidays. Also, if teachers are including Christmas activities/discussions/decorations in their classroom, they should also include other holidays and celebrations during those days and throughout the academic year.

Moreover, I prepare my students to recognize predominantly Christian language and how such language is used with all students regardless of religious or nonreligious identities. When they are visiting schools, are they consistently hearing phrases such as “God bless you,” “you are in my prayers,” and “have a blessed day.” These phrases, although they may contain good intentions, are inundated with Christian principles and theology, which may not be welcomed by non-Christian students who hear these words.

Preparing Teacher Candidates to Dismantle Christian Hegemony’s Binary Oppositions

Christian hegemony exists because it creates a binary opposition that places Christianity on the positive side and anything anti-Christian on the negative side of the binary. Therefore, students learn, perhaps unconsciously, that Christianity is the normal and any non-Christian belief is deviant.

One of the most powerful ways to dismantle any type of hegemonic practice in schools is through curriculum. In this capacity, I prepare my teacher candidates to use curriculum to provide a space where every child in the classroom is able to view a person that represents him/her/them. For example, my elementary teacher candidates are required to construct a children’s literature inventory that lists ten books that positively depict/examine/discuss each of the following categories: race, class, gender, sexuality, abilities, and religion. In doing so, these future teachers will have a catalogue of age-appropriate books to add to their future classroom libraries, ones that value every child in the classroom, not simply the majority of students in the classroom.

In my secondary curriculum courses, I require students to conduct a qualitative content analysis of their subject area’s textbook. For example, a future history teacher will examine all of the topics discussed in his/her/their American history textbook. After completing the analysis, the future teacher will locate supplemental texts to add to the curriculum, which uses curriculum to dismantle the binaries in Americanized history. The same process can be utilized to disrupt the binary that controls students’ beliefs about non-Christian identities.

GATEWAYS TO TEACHER EDUCATON

In my courses, the curriculum becomes a catalyst that invites students to reflect on their personal beliefs about difference and how their beliefs developed. By supplementing indoctrinating Americanized curriculum with other texts, students are able to develop empathy and other characteristics that promote inclusivity in the classroom and in their broader understandings of their communities, which is connected to religious pluralism.

Preparing Teacher Candidates to Embrace Religious Pluralism

Finally, to combat Christian hegemony, I posit teacher candidates must embrace religious pluralism, which involves fostering an understanding of diversity that promotes a respect for different belief systems. Thus, I have implemented instructional strategies to prepare my teacher candidates to conceptualize and embrace religious pluralism, which engenders inclusivity in their future classrooms.

Learning about Religious Diversity

In my foundations of education courses, I begin this process by offering comprehensive foundational knowledge of world religions, including their fundamental beliefs, practices, and cultural contexts. In doing so, the teacher candidates begin to understand the significant role religion plays in shaping individual worldviews and how religious beliefs intersect with culture, identity, and society. These discussions emerge through assigned readings and guest presentations (physical and virtual) from individuals who practice and maintain nonChristian beliefs.

Promoting Reflective Practices

In my diversity course, I require students to reflect on their own beliefs and biases, especially as they relate to religion.

Through self-reflection, candidates can recognize how their personal worldview may influence their pedagogical practices and interactions with students. Specifically, I require my students to complete the “Religion IAT” Harvard Implicit Biases Test (among other implicit biases tests). After receiving their results, students reflect on those results and how those results may influence their future classrooms. This is a powerful process that causes students to grapple with their biases and truly conceptualize how those biases may manifest within their future pedagogical practices.

Cultivating Empathy and Respect

To incorporate empathy and respect, we must include instructional practices that enable our teacher candidates to attain perspective on the experiences of students from different religious backgrounds. To achieve this task, we read personal narratives that describe the discrimination that non-Christian students have endured in schools because of their religious beliefs or lack of religious beliefs. I posit the personal narratives provide candidates with a deeper understanding of the emotional and social implications of religious discrimination or exclusion, thereby fostering empathy, which becomes a conduit for them to create more inclusive classrooms. It is essential to underscore the importance of cultivating an environment of respect for all students, regardless of their religious affiliations, and to encourage candidates to reflect on how such respect can be integrated into their pedagogical practices.

Designing Inclusive Curriculum

I postulate it is important that we teach our teacher candidates to develop lesson plans, instructional activities, and classroom materials that honor and reflect religious

diversity. We must prepare them to integrate a range of perspectives into the curriculum, while remaining cognizant of the demographic composition of their classroom. Moreover, we must provide guidance on how to address religious topics in a manner that is impartial and avoids the promotion of any particular belief system over another belief system, which is a product of the assignments involving curriculum that I discussed.

Discussing Legal and Ethical Implications

Further, we must help our teacher candidates conceptualize the legal principles governing religious pluralism within educational settings, including the constitutional mandate for the separation of church and state. In this manner, we must provide guidance on how they should navigate the delicate balance between respecting religious expression and maintaining a secular educational environment. In these discussions, we should highlight the ethical responsibility educators maintain in upholding the religious freedom of all students and ensuring that all students’ rights are protected within the classroom.

Conclusion

As the research indicates, many nonChristian identities are marginalized and often experience discrimination because of their religious beliefs or non-religious beliefs. With the rise of Christian nationalism, Christian hegemony is becoming more prominent in P-12 classrooms and schools. Therefore, teacher preparation programs must begin contemplating how our teacher candidates are prepared to dismantle Christian hegemony because every child deserves a safe educational space in which to learn and to grow. As such, I have offered my

postulations and my experiences preparing my teacher candidates to create inclusive classrooms regardless of religious affiliation. In doing so, my aim is to engender broader conversations concerning Christian hegemony’s influence in P-12 classrooms and teacher preparation programs’ response to this type of marginalization.

References

Associated Press (2022). Teacher suspended for refusing to use student’s preferred pronoun. Retrieved from: https://www.fox13now.com/news/nationa l-news/teacher-suspended-for-refusingto-use-students-preferred-pronouns Blumenfeld, W. (2006). Christian Privilege and the Promotion of “Secular” and NotSo “Secular” Mainline Christianity in Public Schooling and in the Larger Society. Equity & Excellence in Education, 39(3), 195–210.

Brekus, C. A. (2003). The Religious History of American Women: Reimagining the Past. University of North Carolina Press. CAIR (2021). Islamophobia in the mainstream. Retrieved from: https://www.cair.com/wpcontent/uploads/2022/01/islamophobiaint hemainstream.pdf

DeCuir, D. (2024). Help prevent bullying of Muslim youth. www.stopbullying.gov.

Dochuk, D. (2011). From Bible Belt to Sunbelt: Plain-folk Religion, Grassroots Politics, and the Rise of Evangelical Conservatism. W. W. Norton & Company.

Maarouf, S & Jones, J.R. (2017). Bullying Students Who are Muslim: How Can Teacher Educators intervene? Teachers College Record

Noll, M. (2002). America’s God: From Jonathan Edwards to Abraham Lincoln. Oxford University Press Pew Research Center. (2021). “In U.S., Decline of Christianity Continues at Rapid Pace.”

Seidel, A. (2020). The Founding Myth: Why Christian Nationalism Is Un-American. Sterling.

Seifert, T. (2007). Understanding Christian Privilege: Managing the Tensions of Spiritual Plurality. About Campus, 12(2), 10–17.

Southern Poverty Law Center (2019). Hate and extremism in US schools. www.splcenter.org/

Spears, V. (2017). Ten-year-old atheist bullied because he wont go to school’s religious assembly mom says. Lexington Hearld and Leader, Retrieved from: https://www.kentucky.com/news/local/ed ucation/article187938144.html

Stewart, K. (2020). The Power Worshippers: Inside the dangerous rise of religious nationalism. Bloomsbury.

Whitehead, A. L., & Perry, S. L. (2020). Taking America Back for God: Christian Nationalism in the United States Oxford University Press.

Being a College Professor…Is it Still Worth It?: Coping with Burnout and Keeping Our Humanity as University Teachers after the Pandemic

Erin Klash, Dan Henry, Janá Sparks, and Eric Darch Auburn University at Montgomery

Abstract

Burnout syndrome impacts many faculty members in the higher education setting. This paper provides insight into the stories of four faculty in a teacher preparation program, as well as strategies we use to prevent and/or combat a sense of burnout, to assist others who might have similar concerns. Four themes emerged from our stories and strategies, including deliberate planning, exhibiting compassion, setting firm boundaries, and collaboration with others.

Keywords: strategies, burnout, higher education

Introduction

“Burnout” is a word that is quite familiar to most educators. While there is no consistent definition of the term “burnout,” there is a consensus that it “results from chronic work-related stress characterized by overwhelming feelings of emotional exhaustion, negativity toward work, and lack of personal accomplishment” (Gabriel & Aguinis, 2022, p. 184). Motta (2024) described burnout as “exhaustion that occurs when one becomes depleted by the unrelenting demands that are placed upon them, usually in a work setting” (p. 7).

Kaschka et al. (2011) described burnout experiences of social education workers as, the appearance of a resigned attitude and resentment as a consequence of having more demanded of them than is humanly possible; the formation of an authoritarian character structure and a tendency to repressive behavior as a consequence of professional disappointments; an inner withdrawal from all people and all human problems as a defense mechanism on the part of those who – without receiving any help themselves –spend their professional lives having to find socially acceptable solutions for difficult personalities in hopeless situations (p. 782).

There are several key characteristics of burnout. According to Motta (2024), there are both physical symptoms and behavioral symptoms associated with burnout. They might include exhaustion, increased or prolonged sickness, inability to sleep, depression, increased irritability or frustration, or even inability to be flexible. Jacobs (2024) associated burnout with prolonged stressors and also described both physical and psychological symptoms, including anxiety, depression, insomnia, fatigue, procrastination, elevated heart rate, or high blood pressure. Oh (2024), additionally, included “headache, loss of appetite, difficulty in breathing, stomach

ulcers, anger, lethargy, low self-esteem, and lack of self-control” to the characteristics of burnout, associated with an educational setting (p. 77-78).

While research tends to examine burnout among educators in public PK-12th grade settings, faculty in institutions of higher education are not exempt from experiencing this work-related phenomenon. According to Zholchieva and Eldiiar (2021), burnout is likely to occur among professionals who “are involved in prolonged, close, and emotionally intense contact with other people” (p. 124).

McNaughton-Cassill et al. (2023) asserted that up to 40% of higher education professionals considered leaving the field in the early stages of the coronavirus pandemic and that institutions of higher education rarely provided guidance to faculty on setting and maintaining appropriate worklife boundaries. Zholchieva and Eldiiar (2021) stated that higher education faculty experience a high level of anxiety and stress associated with emotional burnout syndrome. Yildrim and Senel (2023) indicated that “academicians work too much outside of working hours and have to carry their work into their private lives…the ceaseless workload of academics can jeopardize work-life balance” (p. 641). Gallagher (2020) found that faculty in higher education burnout due to the emotional toll of having a distinct persona for the profession versus their authentic self, resulting in faculty being forced to “mask,” as to not display frowned upon negative emotions, like irritation. Higher education faculty have no small number of stressors and burnout can creep in without awareness; therefore, awareness of mental and emotional states within our field is quintessential (Ediger, 2023).

Embracing Our Humanity to Help Others Embrace Their Own Humanity

Demerouti et al. (2021) indicated that one of the central concerns of burnout is the lack of addressing the prevention of and recovery from burnout. Given the impact burnout has on faculty in higher education, we thought it important to share our stories and strategies we each use to combat, or even prevent, burnout in our work. The purpose of this paper is to share the perspectives of four faculty members from diverse backgrounds – educational psychology, instructional leadership, counseling, and elementary education. In considering our own burnout and stressors as faculty in higher education, we realized that we had to be deliberate in how we combat burnout on an individual level. Each of the authors has a story and a purposeful strategy we use to combat our own burnout – oftentimes we use multiple strategies that overlap. Burnout is something that has, at one point or another, impacted all four of us in our work, as it has many faculty members in higher education.

Dan’s Story

Like many people who are teacher educators, the path to where I am postpandemic as an assistant professor at AUM has not been straight, easy, or predictable. After teaching high school English for 11 years and working in higher education for the next 25, I found myself, post-pandemic, without a job (my center on campus at Auburn was closed during the pandemic), and unwilling to retire at 62, despite many people assuming I would. I decided to keep teaching. While managing the Auburn Center for Evaluation I continued to teach and serve on dissertation committees. My students continued to be highly motivated and completed all class requirements.

GATEWAYS TO TEACHER EDUCATON

Having taught highly-motivated seniors at a Research One university, I was not prepared for what came next.

When I first left Auburn, I served as an adjunct professor at a small state university in Georgia. Teaching two classes of freshmen who were in the teacher education program, two surprises awaited me: students being late to or missing class without explanation and students failing to turn in major assignments. I noticed, and so did the students, that I was angry to begin class as students interrupted after we had begun. I drove the two hours home after each class muttering to myself about my inability to inspire students to want to come to class. My next teaching job was as a long-term substitute teacher at one of the best high schools in the state. Even though many of these students expected to go to college and were themselves the children of university employees, I still saw signs that they were copying their assignments from online sources and using (terribly) AI to try to write their papers.

In the fall of 2023, two weeks after an emergency triple bypass, I began teaching high school English after 30 years in higher education at a small, high poverty, underresourced public high school averaging between 60 and 75% teacher turnover. Although my wife and children are K-12 public school teachers, no amount of hearing about their experiences and issues they had with attendance and attention and difficulties with students reading and completing assignments on time prepared me for how difficult it would be to connect with these students, to understand how they viewed learning, and to motivate them to be interested in the power of words. One of the most telling moments came when I had waited almost the whole school year for copies of Agee’s A Death in the Family to

teach to my freshmen. It is my favorite novel, and I have loved teaching it in the past and found it an important gateway to being able to talk about the experience of dealing with death. As I handed the brandnew copies out, a student sitting in the front row announced loudly, “You know, no one’s going to read this anyway.” The other students nodded. I felt defeated before we could even begin. Those 185 days of getting out of bed at 4:15 A.M. and teaching 147 students in three grades over six periods with four preps and no curriculum humbled me and made me want to help others facing similar issues. To my delight, this summer I was offered a job teaching at the university level again.

Recently, I was talking to Erin Klash, one of the co-writers of this article. Erin is not only my colleague, she is my former doctoral student. We were talking about wh y I was so demanding in the classroom and during the dissertation process. After apologizing for causing anxiety, we went on to chat about the “sink or swim” nature of my doctoral training at Indiana University, my mentors and their expectations for my work. I discussed my first proposal defense when for two hours (in my only suit), I was told by the scholars I most admired that I had not met their expectations. A large percentage of my cohort was not able to pass their qualifying exams. We were not only taught educational psychology, we were taught the expectations we should have of our students and ourselves as college professors. We were taught that being a student was a privilege- one that could be revoked if we didn’t meet performance expectations.

Until the pandemic, this is basically what I practiced as a teacher. Following the pandemic and returning to the university classroom full time, I realized that what I

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had come to take for granted was now more difficult. Students were failing to meet due dates and not turning in high quality work. Students, especially online students, were not responding to emails. This, in turn, caused me extreme stress as a teacher- How could I keep high expectations for my students while retaining the humanity that I know is crucial for the student/teacher relationship?

Dan’s Strategies

I am someone who was raised on Nell Nodding’s concept of Caring being a central feature of good teaching. She says teachers must not only model caring in their classrooms, but that the education of the nation was a primary way of teaching children to become caring adults. She defines education as “a constellation of encounters, both planned and unplanned, that promote growth through the acquisition of knowledge, skills, understanding and appreciation” (Noddings, 2002, p. 283). I believe that, as one of my undergraduate professors often said, we should “always err on the side of kindness,”and I believe compassion is a central part of teaching at all levels.

Conversely, the importance of high teacher expectations is also a central tenet of what I believe to be true about teaching. The publication of Rosenthal and Jacobson’s (1968) Pygmalion in the Classroom: Teacher Expectation and Pupils’ Intellectual Development crystallized what good teachers have always known: The teachers who benefitted students the most were those who had the highest expectations. A recent study (2022) by Thomas B. Ford Institute serves to emphasize the continued importance of expectations: Students whose teachers expected them to go to college and achieve academically were more likely to

attend college and produce superior academic work.

So, what does someone with my background do with the above presented information ? How do I practice what I know in my bones to be crucial in getting the best work from students with what they have been, in many cases, taught during the pandemic about flexible due dates, noncollected and effort- rather than contentbased grading of assignments? My high school students reported they could often just “wait out” teachers who often were deeply impacted by the experiences they had during the Pandemic.

Finally, what approaches and strategies do I advocate to balance the demands of university teaching and avoid the stress and burnout that come with ambiguity about classroom expectations and “you said this wasn’t due” that can occur, especially in online teaching?

High Expectations and Communication

Continue to have high expectations and communicate them clearly, in many different ways to my students. Explain why due dates and expected performances levels are necessary, and insist on students meeting them. In addition, it is important to let students know that expectations for them will only increase as they enter the working world, and that students who are going to become teachers in particular will be expected by students, parents, and administrators to meet due dates while they teach.

Consistency

Slavin (2018) illustrates the danger of inconsistency in behavioral terms: The most difficult negative behavior to rid students of is that which is reinforced at random intervals. A professor who says “no you

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cannot turn that in late” 10 times and on the 11th says, “okay” has provided a strong behavioral tie to that student NOT to meet due dates in the future. When I began teaching more than 40 years ago, a principal told me teachers should be “firm, fair, and consistent.” It is among the most important advice I have ever received.

Modeling

Model what you expect of your students: Turn their papers back to them when you say you will, always do what you promise, and demonstrate by your actions that you hold them to the same high standards. Bandura (1977) reminds us that teachers who most closely practice what they want the students to do in their own teaching are likely to be the most effective in the classroom. Students respond much more strongly to what you do rather than what you say. Rubie-Davis et al (2015) found that teachers who modeled high expectations were more successful in communicating ideas and concepts to their students.

Kindness

In the end, err on the side of kindness. Noddings’ life work reminds us again and again that students are more likely to respond to a caring and supportive environment (2002). I had a student whose son was killed by a drunk driver this semester. I, of course, put her needs first, recognized that all but the most crucial due dates would need to be waived (grades are due to provost when they are due) and worked with her individually to make sure that the crucial learning goals for the course were met.

Be Fair and Equitable

Fairness and equity in education require that the needs of each student be considered

but that common expectations and standards must be met for all. I have learned that you can balance kindness, fairness, and high expectations. Finally, it is this balance that will help me address issues that will continue to arise as the conversation about teaching and learning at the university level after an unprecedented world Pandemic continues. After my failed dissertation proposal, Myrtle Scott, my great mentor said, “This might have been good enough for someone else but not you” which is the expectations part. What she said next has served as a model to me and addressed the kindness factor as well, “You come see me tomorrow. You and I will figure this out.” And so we did.

Janá’s Story

From an early age, watching both my parents as educators, I witnessed firsthand the power of how a dedicated educator could shape the lives of children. Their passion for education inspired me to be an educator myself, hoping that I would have that same type of impact on future generations. Little did I know that this path would lead me to multiple roles in education with each role offering growth, opportunities, and new challenges. After five years of teaching, I felt a new calling of leading and influencing an entire school instead of just one classroom. I quickly transitioned to the role of Assistant Principal and then to Principal. After eighteen years of experience in the K12 system, I pursued a new challenge of teaching at the college level.

The transition to higher education allowed me to bring my wealth of experience to a new generation of educators, inspiring them to be leaders of the future. However, no one told me about the other side of being a professor, how to balance teaching, scholarship, and service. During the pandemic, it was cognitively and

emotionally taxing with the overload of teaching remotely. The quick demand to adapt lessons to remote teaching and utilize digital devices was very overwhelming. Learning new technologies and adjusting to a virtual platform without adequate training can be exhausting. The boundaries between work and personal life became very blurred due to the constant need to be available at all hours troubleshooting technology problems and preparing materials to be used virtually. Despite the need to stay dedicated to teaching, I found myself exhausted and overwhelmed with little time for self-care. I struggled to maintain balance in my life as I often sacrificed my own personal time to meet the demands of my job. I realized that the emotional and mental strain made it difficult for me to take care of myself, which would affect me giving my best to my family and my students.

Janá’s Strategy

The need to find a way to cope with and deal with the emotional and mental strain of burnout is a real thing. I realized quickly that I needed to find a way to come up with a strategy that would help me manage the overwhelming feeling of exhaustion and stress. I understood that I needed to come up with a strategy in order for me not to risk my well-being and productivity. Therefore, I made a decision to start setting clear boundaries and prioritize self-care to maintain a healthy work-life balance. This included setting boundaries by setting specific office hours and not checking emails or grading outside my designated work hours. There were so many times that I would make myself accessible, even if it was 10:00 p.m., to address any concerns my students had. However, I recognized that constantly being accessible outside of my work hours began to affect my personal well-being. Setting boundaries is essential,

especially for professors who juggle multiple responsibilities within their college. Defining work hours and personal time by setting specific hours for checking emails and grading can ensure that your professional responsibilities do not spill over into your personal life. This strategy will help to “switch your brain to off” when your workday ends. This will also allow you to carve out personal time to relax, enjoy hobbies, and spend time with loved ones, which will allow you to recharge and prioritize your personal well-being. By defining these boundaries, it will help to reduce stress and enhance overall work productivity.

Eric’s Story

The chaos theory of career development is an appropriate lens to view my ascension into the ranks of higher education (Bright & Prior, 2012). Things did not go as planned, but they went. Upon finishing college, I began my educational career in 1998. I taught high school Spanish for 10 years and during that time I went back to school to earn my master’s degree in school counseling. After completing my degree, I began working as an elementary school counselor. I spent 10 years as an elementary school counselor and during that time I began and completed my doctoral program in counselor education and supervision.

After seven long years of school, I began my journey into higher education. Unfortunately, one and a half years into my new job as an assistant professor in counselor education, the covid pandemic hit and most everyone’s life was thrown into a state of survival and uncertainty, including my own. My third- year review for tenure and promotion was approaching and I was basically in survival mode, trying to keep my head above water and negotiating the

many nuances of my new job in higher education.

I felt the pressure to produce and to produce quickly, as time was moving fast. To make matters worse, the roof collapsed in my office, and I was displaced, moving around offices for the next two years. (I am still in limbo.) The stress I felt was significant and I began to really feel the pressures of a career in higher education.

Fast forward a few years and it was time to submit my tenure and promotion packet. This was an 8-month long process, which involved reviews at the departmental, college, and university levels. With each step, I had to prove to my colleagues that I belonged. The pressure was real. There were many times that I began to question my ability and thought about quitting, but I persisted. At the end, everything worked out in my favor and I was awarded tenure and promotion.

Eric’s Strategies

I have included four recommendations for new faculty in higher education based on my personal experiences and as evidenced by supporting empirical literature of professional best practices.

Engage with Colleagues and Build Professional Relationships

From my professional experience, I have learned the importance of consulting, collaborating, and coordinating with colleagues. In my field of study, the importance of this collegial connection is often emphasized in the literature and is believed to be an integral part of developing professional relationships (Dahir & Stone, 2024). I would also add that this would be particularly important in a collegial setting considering that your colleagues will ultimately decide your fate at the university.

Fostering these relationships creates a warm, professional working environment. This is ultimately beneficial to the students as it models appropriate professional behavior, as well as sets the tone for a peaceful work atmosphere.

Being an academic in higher education can also be very lonely. In a study by Ortega-Jimenez et al. (2021), it was found that university professors experienced loneliness and other negative psychological factors at a higher level than other professions. Additionally, minority faculty at institutions with low racial diversity reported feeling isolation. Differences in gender, politics, and religion can also lead to these feelings of isolation and ostracism.

Understand the Tenure and Promotion Process with Purposeful Intention.

It is no secret that the tenure and promotion process creates significant stress for junior faculty (Hyatt, 2022). Tierney and Bensimon (1996) describe the tenure and promotion process as a rite of passage that concludes with tenure and promotion or termination of employment. We provide first-hand accounts of failure in academia, solidifying even further this very real dichotomy.

Understanding the nuances of this process at the departmental, college, and university level helps to alleviate stress and allows the faculty member to better prepare for his/her upcoming evaluations. Professors at every stage of the process should make every attempt to understand the tenure and evaluation process. Each university’s process may be different, so it is imperative to understand the rules of the game. Some relevant questions to think about are: (a.) What is the order of operations and chain of command? (b.) Who exactly will be evaluating my performance? (c.) How does

the voting process work? These questions are important as proper knowledge of this process allows for the professor to strategize and develop a game plan to approach these reviews.

Many academics believe that higher education is a political arena in which you are expected to conform to the status quo. Political influence is unequal and those persons who are non-tenured have the least influence on political decision making and are at times at the mercy of the senior faculty (Joseph, 2015). Understanding the political landscape is beneficial in simplifying and surviving the tenure and promotion process.

Additionally, there are senior faculty who are not too keen on helping their younger colleagues. Oftentimes, competition and the desire to guard academic property can feel isolating. Some professors may take on the mentality that everyone is on their own. They believe, “I had to do it by myself, so new faculty should follow suit”. This can be disheartening and may lead to isolation in academia.

Further, I would recommend not to serve on any committees in which you might be in the position to engage in power struggles, which in turn may anger or rub your colleagues the wrong way. At the end of the day, this is a human business and as humans, some may make decisions based on feelings rather than remaining objective. Be sure to attend tenure and promotion workshops and related offerings provided by the University. Many universities will provide guidance on the tenure and promotion process, and it is essential that you attend these meetings to gain information and to ask questions about the process along the way.

Join a Writing Group for Publication, Accountability,

and Collaboration

New faculty members are thrown into a system where they must publish or perish. Typically, however, new faculty are not provided much guidance and assistance in the publishing process. Friend and Gonzales (2009) posit that these writing groups provide support and mentorship as well as help to navigate the culture and politics of the university.

As I write this article, I am currently involved with a writing group. This group has helped to keep me on track and to hold me accountable in the scholarship realm. Additionally, it provides community and turns it into a team mentality in which you do not want to let down the team. This has been particularly helpful in my scholarship production, time management, and the continued development of professional relationships.

Keep your Eye on the Prize - Focus on the Students

Over time, as stress accumulates, it can make our job overwhelming. A junior faculty member has papers to grade, articles to write, committees to serve on, and the writing of accreditation reports. This list goes on. It is easy for a professor to lose sight of the overall purpose and mission of the university.

Sometimes we focus so much on survival that we lose sight of the overall purpose of education, which is the students we serve. Sure, there are other facets that drive a university, but I would argue that most professors genuinely care about their students and their academic and future success. In the ethics class that I teach, as a guiding principle, I tell my students to make their ethical decisions based on the best interest of the client that they serve. Using

this principle makes ethical decision-making easier to navigate. This is the same philosophy that I adopt with my student relationships.

Adopting a student-centered approach to teaching and student engagement is likely beneficial to student success. Personcentered education is an educational philosophy model which has its origins in the counseling profession. The idea is that a positive teacher-student relationship benefits the student in that it promotes holistic learning (Cornelius-White, 2007). As the younger generations continue to enter the college realm and as we professors become older, there is a tendency to lose touch with many of our students. It is important to take the time to understand and to learn who your students are beyond the surface level. This can be quite challenging considering the vast differences among people, as well as the multitude of tasks that we professors are expected to perform simultaneously

Erin’s Story

Have you ever thought to yourself, “I just can’t do this anymore. I love what I do, but the personal sacrifice and price I pay is too high; I just can’t do it.”? That is exactly where I was in Fall 2022, the beginning of my 14th year in the field of education. I worked all the time with no end in sight. The workload had been steadily increasing before the Pandemic, but during and after, it skyrocketed. My work ethic would not allow me to give less than 100% to my students and my enormous respect for my colleagues would not allow me to back away from my many responsibilities to the college, but my family was suffering and so was I. If I was not actively engaged in a work-related task, I was thinking (or stressing) about one. Furthermore, with every additional request I received, I could feel my body being squeezed and it physically hurt to think

about my ever-increasing workload; I could not breathe. The “round-the-clock” burden had to end, or I was not going to last much longer in higher education.

Erin’s Strategy

Instead of quitting the profession altogether, I survived Spring 2023, and arranged to take Summer 2023 off. By nature, I am a planner, so I began planning for the lifestyle changes I was going to make and habits I was going to develop before returning for Fall 2023. One of the things I decided to do was to start exercising regularly. de Vries et al. (2017) found that exercise can reduce emotional exhaustion and fatigue resulting from work-related stressors, or burnout, which is precisely what I needed to do. I was in terrible physical shape; it impacted every aspect of my life and my body hurt from my lack of physical activity. In June 2023, I hired a personal trainer to get me started and to provide a sense of accountability, ensuring that I would not find all of the excuses to procrastinate the painful experience of moving from a “body at rest” to a “body in motion.” Over that summer, exercise became an investment. I engaged in activities like stretching, cardio, strength training, conditioning, and coordination exercises. I noticed that I was starting to breathe – literally breathe. Over the summer, I began to not only look forward to the workouts, but noticed my body did not hurt as much as it had previously. I worked out 23 times per week with a trainer and an additional 2-3 times per week by myself at the gym. I knew this was something I had to continue into Fall 2023.

When Fall 2023 began, I realized that I would have to set firm boundaries around my time set aside to exercise, which was incredibly difficult. Purposeful and deliberate habit-forming activities

throughout the summer prepared me to do this. Though I originally hired a trainer just to help me get started, provide me with accountability, and to keep me from hurting myself because I was so out of shape, I kept working with the trainer to keep me going . By this point, my body felt better than it had in years. I had more energy, my sleep was better, my stress levels were reduced, and I started getting stronger!

As I write this in Fall 2024 and though it has been a difficult journey to budget the time to exercise, I have, largely, been able to do so. I still work with a personal trainer, still workout independently at the gym, and have even joined some group fitness classes for fun varieties in workouts. I invest the time to do vigorous exercise 4-6 days per week. Research clearly indicates that the benefits of exercise are great, including reduced stress and anxiety (Tong et al., 2021). I have found this to be true anecdotally, as well. I feel better equipped to deal with the myriads of challenges I encounter daily because my body is healthier. I feel a renewed passion for the field, even though the challenges continue to mount, and I believe I can “keep going,” persevering through the difficult times. Exercising has made a tremendous difference in my physical and mental health, serving to combat burnout in a deliberate and productive way.

How We Structured the Study

This study is an informal, qualitative case study. After compiling and sharing our stories, the data became, essentially, the sum total of our experiences. As we read drafts of each other’s stories and strategies, it became apparent, in an informal application of Grounded Theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) emergent common themes as identified by Erin were tested. In addition, although conducted informally, each of us undertook

literature searches to see what others had to say, what the current research said, and how our practices did or did not reflect current practice.

Though several individual ideas emerged, there were four themes that quickly emerged as part of the shared experience of combating burnout. After sharing the preliminary results of the data analysis with all authors, we reconvened to member-check and discuss the findings. All authors agreed that the analysis wellrepresented our stories and strategies.

What Have We Learned, So Far?

In examining our stories and strategies, we have gained new insights into our shared experiences. First, we each agree that it IS worth it to be a college professor postpandemic. Each of us is committed to our students, our work, and our own growth. However, we have all experienced the physical and psychological characteristics of burnout to some degree (Gabriel & Aguinis, 2022; Jacobs 2024; Motta 2024; Oh, 2024). Four themes emerged from our strategic approach to combating burnout in our roles: deliberately engaging in strategies to avert burnout (purposeful planning), fostering a sense of compassion, implementing firm boundaries to maintain our own physical and mental well-being, and collaborating with others.

Purposeful Planning

All four stories somehow illustrated the use of purposeful planning as a strategy to combat the effets of burnout. Purposeful planning, in our context, is the notion that we do something deliberately, not by accident. We realized that all of us, in some way, were deliberate in taking action to reduce our sense of burnout. Dan used this in deliberately modeling expected behavior,

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especially in consistency, for his students, Janá deliberately planned for boundaries, Eric promoted thinking with the “end” in mind, and Erin used purposeful planning to engage in an activity which enabled her to decompress.

Compassion

Compassion was a prevalent theme throughout all four stories and strategies. Compassion is a way that we extend grace to others and ourselves, but not in a way that promotes and contributes to burnout. All authors addressed compassion in some way for students, indicating a sense of commitment to educating students in the best way possible. Dan addressed learning to become more flexible with students, Janá expressed change from being always available to setting clear boundaries, modeling this for her students, Eric shared how working in students’ best interest can benefit them, and Erin expressed a 100% commitment to her students’ success. However, this over and beyond sense of compassion contributes to burnout (Zholchieva & Eldiiar, 2021). Modeling the various strategies for students enrolled in educator preparation programs teaches them to be self-compassionate, which is a subtheme associated with compassion interwoven through the stories and strategies: all authors are learning to be compassionate toward themselves.

Setting Clear Boundaries

Setting firm boundaries was also a theme interwoven through all stories and strategies. Cloud and Townsend (2017) stated that we need boundaries to “help us keep the good in and the bad out” (p. 33). In this case, the boundaries we define help all of us to mitigate the impact work-related burnout has on our personal and professional lives. Dan expressed his boundaries through

consistent behavior, Janá learned how to set realistic boundaries around her personal time to rejuvenate, Eric shared professional boundaries through determining feasibility in workload, and Erin discovered how to set boundaries around her time to engage in exercise to release stress in a productive manner.

Collaboration

Finally, collaboration was a theme in two of the four stories and strategies. Collaboration, in this study, is the behavior of working with other colleagues in a productive, meaningful way. Eric and Dan both used collaboration – whether collaboration with students or collaboration with colleagues – as a strategy to prevent burnout before it occurs. Taking deliberate steps to collaborate on the “front end” reduces a sense of isolation, which can contribute to burnout among faculty (Kaschka et al., 2011).

Conclusion

It is a truism that students who are not in the classroom cannot be taught. It is doubly true that educators who leave the classroom and the profession are not available to share their knowledge and skills with future generations of students. The pandemic and its aftermath have changed the way we teach, learn, and think about the future of educators in classrooms. We have shared our stories and strategies as educators who have all dedicated a large portion of our adult lives to public education and to training future teachers, and we hope that our experiences provide a place for others to find common ground in the often-difficult terrain we find ourselves navigating postpandemic. Finding ways of keeping ourselves healthy, professionally fulfilled, and happy in our personal lives has been a challenge for all of us. Our movement from

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experiencing the turmoil of the pandemic to deciding on and implementing strategies for continued happiness and success will, we hope, serve as models for other educators.

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Practicing Educators’ Perceptions on Classroom Management: Implications for Change

Christopher G. Pritchett & Jessica Watson Georgia Southwestern State University

Abstract

Classroom management is an important aspect of teacher training, teacher development, and teacher retention. This research study was designed to examine the views of current classroom teachers in the State of Georgia who were enrolled in a graduate education program of study at one university concerning classroom management preparedness and issues. Participants (N = 122) were in-service teachers who participated in the study by completing an anonymous survey constructed to gather their perceptions. The researchers used descriptive statistics to organize, analyze, and summarize the survey responses. Results indicated Education Program Providers should strengthen partnerships with local school districts, evaluate current induction and mentor programs for improvement, and assess the effectiveness of classroom management courses (or the courses which embed classroom management content). Regardless of certification path, traditional or alternative, classroom management was an area of concern for all survey participants.

Keywords: pre-service teachers, classroom management, teacher preparation, challenges

Introduction

Recruiting and retaining teachers is a primary challenge facing school districts. Arthur (2023) reported the teacher retention rate for all new teachers in Georgia was 64%. During the 2023 academic year, eight thousand individuals taught with a waiver or provisional certification in Georgia classrooms (Arthur, 2023). A provisional certificate allows an individual to teach for a period of time while simultaneously completing requirements for their professional teaching certificate including learning how to manage a classroom. “Teacher knowledge of behavior and classroom management practices is essential but not sufficient by itself” (Flower et al., 2017, p. 168). Many novice teachers struggle with classroom management during their early teaching years and would benefit from additional training to develop needed classroom management skills that utilize active learning techniques and provide opportunities for practical applications (Shank & Santiague, 2022). Shewark et al. (2018) described the realities of teaching as highly stressful and emotionally laborious and asserted the field of education must provide sufficient support to prevent burnout and turnover. “Effective classroom management is a key dimension of teacher preparation and practice, and an important factor in early-career teacher retention or attrition” (Buchanan et al., 2013, as cited in Egeberg et al., 2021, p. 121).

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This research study examined the perceptions of graduate education students (N = 122) at one university on classroom management. The purpose of this study was to examine the perceptions of graduate students at one university on classroom management to identify implications for needed change in terms of how teachers are trained to manage their classroom. The research adds to the existing body of literature (Bozkus, 2021; Christofferson & Sullivan, 2015; Egeberg et al., 2020; Flower et al., 2017; Shewark et al. 2018) on the topic of classroom management and may benefit teacher educators and school districts.

The following questions guided the research study:

1. How can graduate students' perceptions of classroom management inform educator preparation programs (EPPs)?

2. How can school districts support the development of classroom management skills for their classroom teachers?

3. To what extent are there differences between the perceptions of certification paths (traditional and alternative) of graduate students regarding classroom management preparedness and issues?

Review of Literature

Christofferson and Sullivan (2015) linked formal classroom training to great confidence and competence in classroom management practices. Bozkus (2021) described classroom management as facilitating a positive learning environment with constant attention to ongoing events including behavioral problems in the classroom. While the importance of

classroom management is clear, it is also an area which has been identified as a significant stressor in a teacher’s career (Schiffler, 2016).

Classroom management issues are prevalent and not limited to pre-service teachers as problems continue for many inservice teachers. Christofferson and Sullivan (2015) reported classroom management training is often overlooked in teacher education despite the importance of effective classroom management. Nevertheless, an emphasis on classroom management training in teacher education does not automatically translate to a real classroom. “When teachers acquire knowledge about classroom management, this does not mean that they can apply this in a technical or mechanical manner” (Postholm, 2013, p. 399). Parsons et al. (2016) conducted a study of 95 certified, highly qualified general educator teachers with at least one autistic student in their classroom. The study yielded data supporting the inadequacy general education teachers feel toward meeting the challenges of inclusion for students with disabilities including students with autism (Parsons et al., 2016). In a study conducted by Santoli and Martin (2012), cooperating teachers identified behavior management (66.7%) and time management within teaching situations (56.3%) as the two most challenging areas for pre-service teachers. The identification of those most challenging areas led to program changes at a public university (Santoli & Martin, 2012).

Flower et al. (2017) recognized teacher certification programs often do not cover concepts, skills, and strategies to help teachers work with students who present more challenging behaviors. Shank and Santiague (2022) identified research supporting the lack of preparation in

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classroom management as a problem for some novice teachers which leaves them feeling unprepared to manage a classroom. In a study conducted by Shewark et al. (2018), the teachers (N = 31) felt underprepared for the strain associated with creating and maintaining a positive, wellmanaged classroom climate and desired further training.

The difficulties and needs associated with the classroom management skills and abilities of teachers have a direct impact on educator preparation programs and P-12 school leaders. Shewark et al. (2018) concluded the elementary education field must better support teachers with clear guidance when it comes to managing classroom climate. Shank and Santiague (2022) recommended that training for teachers should be focused on practical classroom management approaches and teacher educators, leaders, and trainers invest in more experienced instructors and guest speakers to model evidence-based, preventative, and nonverbal classroom management practices for teachers. Furthermore, teacher candidates need more hands-on experience prior to the student teaching placement (Schiffler, 2016). According to Schiffler (2016), school administrators need to provide opportunities for novices to observe veteran, seasoned teachers. Not only was a mentor found to be essential in the initial stages of a teacher’s career, but veteran teachers also indicated a need for support and guidance (Schiffler, 2016). Principals cannot leave new teachers alone hoping they figure things out (Torres, 2023).

According to the literature reviewed, the issue of classroom management was verified, and the research questions of the study were validated. “To recruit and retain high-quality teachers, the field must be

sensitive to the realities of teaching as highly stressful and difficult and provide adequate support to prevent burnout and turnover” (Shewark et al., 2018, p. 799). Teachers need to be prepared to face the behavioral challenges they will encounter (Flower et al., 2017). Strong systems of hiring, induction, and support can lay a foundation for teacher success to meet the challenge of hiring and keeping good teachers (Torres, 2023). Christofferson and Sullivan (2015) concluded teacher educators should take notice of pre-service teachers’ desire for and high approval of hands-on classroom management training opportunities to feel prepared to perform classroom management functions. Effective classroom management enables all students in the classroom to benefit at the highest level from the teaching environment (Bozkus, 2019). In summary, the completed study will add to the existing body of knowledge with results based on the perceptions of practicing teachers and specific steps EPPs can take to address the issues identified in the review of literature.

Methodology

Researchers used Qualtrics to develop a 33-question survey to gather the perceptions of practicing educators concerning classroom management preparedness and issues (see Appendix). Researchers collected demographic data (i.e., gender, highest degree completed, path to teacher certification, years of teaching experience, grade band, school size, school eligibility for Title I funding, locale, and content area) using multiple choice questions. A 4-point Likert scale was used for questions about participants’ perceptions, which allowed each respondent to rate the degree to which they agreed or disagreed with the statement presented in the question. The first author developed the survey tool. Researchers used

GATEWAYS TO TEACHER EDUCATON

the existing literature related to best practices in classroom management (Bozkus, 2021; Christofferson & Sullivan, 2015; Egeberg et al., 2020; Flower et al., 2017) and concerns about the effects of poor classroom management on teacher retention (Arthur, 2023; Shewark et al., 2018) to inform the development of survey questions. A panel of veteran educators was asked to evaluate the usability of the survey instrument by providing written feedback. Feedback and recommendations from the panel were considered and incorporated into the final instrument.

Study participants were recruited from a convenience sample of practicing educators who were enrolled in a graduate program (i.e., Master of Education or Specialist of Education) at one university in the state of Georgia. Researchers followed the Institutional Review Board guidelines and procedures for recruiting and protecting participants. Researchers did not ask for nor collect any personal identifying information. Surveys were emailed to graduate students enrolled in graduate classes during the Summer 2023 semester. The email contained a web link and QR code for the graduate students to take the anonymous Qualtrics survey if they opted to participate in the study. Participants were not forced to answer questions on the survey.

The survey remained open until September 30, 2023. Once the survey was

closed, researchers used descriptive statistics to organize, summarize, and describe collected data. Survey questions utilizing a 4-point Likert scale were assigned numerical values associated with the extent to which a participant agreed or disagreed with a statement presented (i.e., Strongly disagree = 1, Disagree = 2, Agree = 3, and Strongly Agree = 4). Researchers calculated the mean, standard deviation, and the percentage of agreement for Likert-style questions. Researchers compared survey results to the existing body of literature.

Results

Results of the study indicate classroom management is still a prevalent issue and aligns with the need of better classroom management training for classroom teachers as identified in the review of literature. Study participants (N = 122) were certified, practicing educators enrolled in a graduate program related to the field of education. Demographic data revealed that most participants (65%) completed a traditional teacher education program while 35% took an alternative route to certification. Seventynine percent of all participants work at a Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) School, 90% reported working at a Title I school, and 68% identified as working at a rural school. Table 1 presents additional demographic data.

Educational Experiences

Several questions asked participants to indicate their experiences in terms of their preparation by responding yes, no, or maybe. Participant responses provided insight to the degree of training received to manage their classroom. Approximately one half of the participants in the study (52.89%) reported not taking a classroom management course as an undergraduate student. Furthermore, of those who took a classroom management course as an undergraduate student, 44.45% reported the course did not prepare them to effectively manage their classroom. In terms of student teaching, 64.96% percent of the educators reported

their student teaching experience prepared them to manage their own classroom. Eighty percent reported they were assigned a mentor as a new teacher while 43.33% reported participating in an induction program. Of the 80% who were assigned a mentor, 60.56% agreed their mentor teacher was beneficial in supporting the development of their classroom management skills.

Additionally, multiple choice questions were utilized to gain additional information about the educational experiences of the participants. Participant responses included the following: 19% reported never having an opportunity to handle a difficult classroom

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management situation during their student teaching; 41% reported having 1-3 opportunities to handle difficult classroom management situation during their student teaching; 57% answered they did not participate in a district, region, or university level induction program; and 10% of the participants reported having a mentor for three years.

The average years of experience for participants was eleven. Based on the educational experiences of the participants, classroom management is important, and steps can be taken to improve the ability of

Table 2

teachers to manage their classroom. Some steps are at the pre-service level like evaluating classroom management courses and providing student teachers with opportunities to handle difficult situations. Other measures can be taken to assist inservice teachers such as providing them with a mentor for a full three years.

As shown in Table 2, participants were also asked about the importance of classroom management and if the difficulty of managing their classroom has increased over their career.

Likert Scale Percentage of Classroom Management Perceptions

Topic/Question

The information summarized in Table 3 represents the perceptions of participants concerning common issues which may impact their ability to manage their classroom environment

Table 3

Likert Scale Percentage of Issues Impacting Classroom Management

Professional Development

The survey also included questions concerning professional development sessions and future training on classroom management. In terms of professional development sessions attended, 42.63 % reported attending zero, one, or two sessions on classroom management. Participants perceptions about professional development also included the following: 56% of the participants indicated they would personally benefit from future professional development on classroom management; 37% indicated they may personally benefit from future professional development on classroom management; 79% indicated the teachers in their school would benefit from future professional development on classroom management; and 19% indicated the teachers in their school may benefit from future professional development on classroom management. When asked about

the format for professional development on classroom management, a face-to-face format with outside consultants/experts to deliver the professional development was the general preference of survey participants (42.48%).

Certification Path

All perception questions were disaggregated by certification path, traditional or alternative. The data for both groups were then compared to answer the third research question. The analysis of the results indicated nearly identical perceptions for each question. Regardless of certification path, traditional or alternative, classroom management is an area of concern for teachers. It is noted a majority of the graduate students who identified as following an alternative route to certification (N = 41) indicated they did not have a classroom management course as a part of their initial teacher certification (70.73%).

Implications

The survey instrument used to gather the perceptions of participants was a selfreporting survey instrument. Hence, the type of instrument used was a limitation of the study. The survey was completed anonymously, and prospective participants were not required to complete the survey. Prospective participants were provided an overview of the study and knew it was pertaining to classroom management preparedness and issues before electing to participate in the study. The results from the data analyzed have value for all EPPs as the importance of preparing pre-service to manage their classroom cannot be marginalized. In terms of future research, the study could be conducted by different EPPs in Georgia and in other states. The findings of the present study are aligned with previous researcher’s recommendations (Shank & Santiague, 2022) to expand classroom management to include new teachers across various geographic locations. Furthermore, the original institution could benefit from repeating the study in the future.

Conclusion

Results from the study supported several conclusions which in turn can inform EPPs on how to better meet the classroom management needs of pre-service teachers and provide information to help school districts support the development of classroom management skills of their classroom teachers. The conclusions are:

1. The master or cooperating teacher is an essential element to the development of pre-service teachers.

2. Current mentorship for new teachers is not highly effective and/or does not last for three complete years

according to the participants in the study.

3. In-service teachers desire more classroom management professional development.

4. All teachers do not take a dedicated classroom management course prior to certification. Furthermore, those who do take a dedicated course do not automatically exit the course with requisite skills to manage their classroom.

5. Classroom management is an area of concern for all survey participants regardless of certification path, traditional or alternative.

Based on the findings and implications of the study, the following recommendations are suggested for teacher educator programs:

1. Establish and/or strengthen positive partnerships with local school districts to support the development of pre-service teachers and newly hired teachers.

2. Evaluate the effectiveness of current induction and mentor programs for improvement to better support new teachers including ensuring quality mentors are assigned to pre-service teachers for field experiences and student teaching placements.

3. Offer local school districts guidance and support for providing professional development opportunities to enhance the classroom management skills of practicing teachers.

4. Utilize high-impact practices to develop classroom management skills of pre-service teachers in applicable courses.

5. Prepare pre-service teachers for the challenges they will face as a novice teacher.

6. Consider program evaluation to address classroom management and pre-service teachers’ ability to facilitate a positive learning environment acknowledging the difficulty of classroom management is increasing.

7. Prepare general education and special education pre-service teachers to manage and meet the needs of all students.

References

Arthur, M. (2023, November 30 – December 1). Educator pipeline trends [Keynote address]. GaPSC 29th Annual Certification and Program Officials Conference, Atlanta, GA, United States. Bozkus, K. (2021). A systematic review of studies on Classroom Management from 1980 to 2019. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 13(4), 433-441. https://doi.org/10.26822/iejee.2021.202

Christofferson, M., & Sullivan, A.L. (2015). Preservice teachers’ classroom management training: A survey of selfreported training experiences, content coverage, and preparedness. Psychology in the Schools, 52(4), 248-264. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21819

Egeberg, H., McConney, A., & Price, A. (2020). Teachers’ view on effective classroom management: A mixedmethods investigation in western Australian high schools. Educational Research for Policy and Practice, 20, 107-124. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10671020-09270-w

Flower, A., McKenna, J.W., & Haring, C.D. (2017). Behavior and classroom management: Are teacher preparation programs really preparing our teachers? Preventing School Failure, 61(2), 163169.

https://doi.org/10.1080/1045988X.2016.1 231109

Parsons, L.D., Miller, H., & Deris, A.R. (2016). The effects of special education training on educator efficacy in classroom management and inclusive strategy use for students with autism in inclusion classes. Journal of the American Academy of Special Education Professionals, 8(1), 7-16. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ112974 1.pdf

Postholm, M.B. (2013). Classroom management: What does research tell us? European Educational Research Journal, 12(3), 389-402. https://dx.doi.org/10.2304/eerj.2013.12.3. 389

Santoli, S.P., & Martin, S.F. (2012). Learning together: Advancing the training of preservice teachers while training mentors to lead. The New Educator, 8(4), 345-360.

https://doi.org/10.1080/1547688X.2012.7 26590

Schiffler, L. (2016). Teachers’ perceptions of their own classroom management [Doctoral dissertation, University of St. Thomas, Minnesota]. UST Research Online.

https://ir.stthomas.edu/caps_ed_lead_doc diss/72

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Shank, M.K., & Santiague, L. (2022). Classroom management needs of novice teachers. The Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues, and Ideas, 95(1), 26-34.

https://doi.org/10.1080/00098655.2021.2 010636

Shewark, E.A., Zinsser, K.M., & Denham, S.A. (2018). Teachers’ perspectives on the consequences of managing classroom climate. Child and Youth Care Forum, 79(3), 787-802.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-0189461-2

Torres, C. (2023). Repairing the leaky bucket. Educational Leadership, 81(1), 8-13.

Appendix

Survey Questions

1. What is your gender?

2. What is your highest degree completed?

3. Which option best describes your path to initial teacher certification?

4. How many years of PK-12 teaching experience do you have?

5. Which best describes your current K-12 teaching assignment?

6. What is the total enrollment of your current school?

7. Is your current school a Title I school?

8. Which best describes the locale of your school?

9. Is your current school a Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) school?

10. Select all that apply: What subject area do you primarily teach?

11. Since the onset of your teacher career, how many professional development sessions or trainings on classroom management (offered by your school district or a professional organization) have you attended?

12. Select the extent to which you agree or disagree with the following statement: The single most important factor influencing student success is classroom management.

13. Select the extent to which you agree or disagree with the following statement: In your teaching career, if your school was a Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) school, the program reduced disciplinary incidents at your school.

14. Select the extent to which you agree or disagree with the following statement: In your teaching career, if your school was a Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) school, the program made your classroom management easier.

15. During your student teaching experience, how many opportunities were you given to handle difficult classroom management situations?

16. Select the extent to which you agree or disagree with the following statement: During your student teaching experience, your master/cooperating teacher was helpful in planning engaging lesson plans.

17. Select the extent to which you agree or disagree with the following statement: During your student teaching experience, your master/cooperating teacher was an effective classroom manager.

18. Select the extent to which you agree or disagree with the following statement: My student teaching experience prepared me to manage my own classroom.

19. As a new or beginning teacher, were you assigned a mentor?

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20. If you were assigned a mentor, how long was the mentor/mentee relationship maintained?

21. Select the extent to which you agree or disagree with the following statement: My assigned mentor was beneficial in terms of my development as a classroom manager.

22. During your first year of teaching, did you participate in a district, region, or university level induction program?

23. Were you required to take a classroom management course as part of your undergraduate degree program?

24. Select the extent to which you agree or disagree with the following statement: My classroom management course prepared me to effectively manage my classroom.

25. Select the extent to which you agree or disagree with the following statement: Classroom management is easier when the teacher assigns students specific seats.

26. How long should a classroom teacher spend on classroom procedures and rules at the beginning of the school year?

27. Select the extent to which you agree or disagree with the following statement: Students should be tested on classroom procedures and roles at the beginning of the school year.

28. Consider your professional experiences in schools. Identify the level of challenge associated with the topic presented.

Additional Duties

Administrative Support

Lack/Loss of Planning Time

Meeting the Needs of Students with Disabilities

Parental Support

Student Apathy/Motivation

Student Behavior

29. Select the extent to which you agree or disagree with the following statement: Over the course of my teaching career, the difficulty level of managing my classroom has increased.

30. Select the extent to which you agree or disagree with the following statement: I am confident in my ability to manage conflicts and issues in my classroom.

31. Would the teachers in your school benefit from future professional development on classroom management?

32. Would you personally benefit from future professional development on classroom management?

33. What type of professional development would be most beneficial?

Preparation From a Distance Still Requires Being Culturally Responsive: A Call to Education Preparation Programs

Natasha Ramsay-Jordan & Debbian Campbell James University of West Georgia

Abstract

Many institutions, mainly traditional brick-and-mortar institutions, still grapple with deciding between offering online programs or maintaining face-to-face classes. One primary concern is that an increase in online learning would lead to a decline in face-to-face on-campus presence. Through a brief discussion situating the increased demand for distance learning, types of distance learning, and challenges posed, this paper espouses the idea that today’s traditional brick-and-mortar educator preparation programs (EPPs) must do more to accommodate students’ online learning preferences and readiness. It concludes with a call to action for EPPs, specifically focusing on rehumanizing online learning by embedding culturally responsive practices in remote classrooms.

Demand for Distance Learning

Educating students from a distance is a method of teaching where the student and teacher are physically separated, and teaching and learning are conducted using a combination of technology such as audio, video, computer, and the Internet (Roffe, 2004). This method of teaching from a distance was tested in 2020, when the

COVID-19 pandemic forced countries into lockdowns, causing a stoppage of face-toface learning activities in mass efforts to prevent further spreading of the virus. Many institutions and educators were left scrambling for ways to continue with teaching and learning, causing gaps and delays in student learning. Some may recall how, in Spring 2020, when the governor of Massachusetts ordered schools to close on March 15, the Boston, Massachusetts, students’ online learning was delayed until April due to a lack of guidance and student access to technology. Although one of the primary reasons for the delay in learning for those Massachusetts students was recorded as mainly due, in part, to the city of Boston’s technology access gap, where over 8,000 students lacked adequate access to technology (Flores et al., 2020), if we fast forward to today, across the nation, the lack of access is not necessarily in having physical technology but online-ready education faculty and programs.

During the peak period of the pandemic, 2020-2021, several institutions of higher learning within the United States (US) switched to fully online learning and, in turn, substantially discounted students’ tuition fees (NACUB), 2021). Like the US,

other countries and nations adjusted students’ tuition and fees, believing that with the absence of university life the overall quality of an online education was not equal to one received in-person. With the notion that the quality of life was a disadvantaged difference, students received decreased tuition fees for their 2020-2021 academic year. Today, online education is no longer a trend or simply a means of alternative learning for universities but an imperative for higher education. There is an increase in demand for remote learning (Sarma et al., 2024), with over 49% of students completing online learning worldwide and approximately 71% of higher education students enrolled in at least one distance education course (Peck, 2025). This surge in online learning signals an unstoppable expansion of online learning for years, as learning is no longer tied to the four walls of brick-and-mortar classrooms (Jimola & Oluwatumbi, 2024).

According to Wentling et al. (2000), online learning is the acquisition and use of knowledge distributed and facilitated primarily by electronic means. This now dominant way of learning has many educators and policymakers grappling with what the resulting impact could mean for students (Kaden, 2020; Reilly, 2020). For the existing 4.5% of post-secondary education institutions whose primary learning modality is online learning, the expansion of online learning is not new. They remain equipped to serve students nationally and internationally. However, the remaining 95.5% of academic institutions in the United States operate traditionally, meaning they depend on the face-to-face presence of students to fill dorm rooms, purchase meal plans, attend sporting games and activities, and patronize local businesses, will need to do more. With greater opportunities to have a meaningful

online learning experience, more students opt not to attend face-to-face classes. According to Peck (2025), over 70% of students say online learning is better than traditional classroom learning. This high percentage of preference for distance learning will require traditional institutions to find alternative ways to attract, enroll, and retain students.

Also referred to as eLearning, remote learning is done via the Internet. Higher education, K-12, and adult learning facilities all use remote learning to some extent (Peck, 2025). Regarding eLearning, which has become a popular choice for students seeking flexibility and access, Peck (2025) shared the following statistical reports: a) online learning is the fastest growing market in the education industry with a 900% growth since 2000, b) the number of online learning users is expected to increase to 57 million by 2027, c) 63% of students in the US engage in online learning activities daily, and d) online learning can reduce the time needed to learn a subject by 40% to 60% and can increase student retention by 50%. These statistical reports highlight the acceleration of online learning and suggest that education institutions, expecting high demands of distance learning, begin bolstering their online offerings. Of course, the growth in students opting to take up online learning instead of traditional brickand-mortar classrooms has advantages and disadvantages.

Types of Distance Learning

Online teaching has exceeded past limitations, and its 24/7 availability could help promote equitable, high-quality, and cost-efficient learning opportunities for students. The evolution of types of technology available for online settings has led to more student-centered and interactive activities. Even for traditional educators who

grapple with this new normal of educating students, the utility of an online learning modality could assist with readiness for the current demand for future teaching and learning. Evidence supports the notion that online education is necessary for the future viability of even the most successful postsecondary institutions (Ubell, 2020). For many non-traditional students and working adults returning to higher education or attending for the first time, online learning allows them to work and maintain their livelihoods. With little to no time constraints, online learning is flexible and adaptive to students’ learning styles. Current formats of online instruction include synchronous, asynchronous, and bichronous delivery methods.

Synchronous online learning fosters immediate feedback and discussions. These types of sessions, where the teacher and learner are present at the same time during the online class, are proven to be more productive and best suited for planning projects, cooperative learning, and making decisions. Synchronous learning within online environments best facilitates teaching strategies inclusive of interactivity (Yan et al., 2022). Interactivity through digital technologies remains a key solution to engaging students in online learning environments. It influences students’ achievements, satisfaction, motivation, sense of community, and engagement through interaction. Aslan (2021) investigated a collaborative synchronous learning environment in terms of students’ community of inquiry perceptions and interaction levels. Aslan’s quantitative study was conducted with the participation of 59 first-year students. The study lasted nine weeks, including two weeks of data collection and seven weeks of implementation procedure. Results of the study revealed that cooperative synchronous

learning experiences positively influenced students’ community of inquiry perceptions and interaction levels. Notably, the level of interactivity is highly dependent on the initial learning conditions of the classroom environment. Thus, teachers’ knowledge of the online classroom and interactivity remains crucial.

On the other hand, the most common form of online learning is asynchronous, where teachers and students work at different times. During asynchronous learning, the interactions between teachers and students are limited due to differences in work time. In a systematic literature review that provided research and insight into student-focused outcomes related to effective online teaching practices, Robinson et al. (2024) reviewed over 600 articles across multiple disciplines based on research and results using different techniques, pedagogy, and design in the online environment. They found that the primary strategies, methods, or philosophies that most affected student outcomes in the online community were engagement, collaboration, beliefs, knowledge, and enactment of knowledge/practice. The researchers noted that when considering the design and execution of online coursework, collaboration, and team-based learning effectively produced positive student outcomes. Additionally, if classes are asynchronous, attention should be given to submitted work, participation in discussion boards, attended office hours, and contributions to the learning environment.

Recently, a blended form of distance learning, known as bichronous online learning, has emerged to work effectively to support the learning needs of all students. Bichronous online classroom instructional practices are not new concepts. It supports the intentional blending of synchronous and

asynchronous learning experiences. A study by Martin et al. (2024) found that bichronous online learning has much potential to enhance students’ online learning experiences. They examined the best practices used by award-winning online instructors in bichronous online courses and identified benefits and challenges. The study employed a qualitative research methodology by interviewing 12 participants from across the US and Canada. Findings show that bichronous online learning allowed instructors to design and facilitate effective online courses that increased student access to instructors, built rapport with students, increased online presence and student engagement, built community among students, and developed student communication and collaboration. The bichronous sessions provided opportunities for interaction and collaboration amongst peers and instructors while allowing students the flexibility to work at their own pace and schedule.

Challenges of distance learning

While research on online learning is not new, an intuitive challenge remains in course design. Instructors moving from faceto-face teaching to remote formats continue to struggle with determining the percentage of course content to include (Martin et al., 2023; Yamagata-Lynch, 2014). Content design and decision-making, requiring and scheduling synchronous sessions, and the time to design and facilitate the modalities were also reported as challenges (Martin, 2024). Even more, classroom community, student feedback, and informal assessments, all examples of course culture and content, present difficulties for educators to replicate online (Robinson et al., 2024). Additionally, factors such as lack of technological infrastructures, embedding online learning into the delivery of curricula, particularly

with a difference in work time, limitations in course development, instructional design, students’ learning styles, preparation of teachers, guidance from school, community, and government leaders, student access to technology, as well as educators’ reluctance to online learning and in using technology inhibit responsiveness to student’s online learning needs (Kaden, 2020).

Although the challenges of remote learning extend across all domains of education, there are specific obstacles to educator preparation programs (EPPs). These programs rely on practice-based approaches to effectively prepare candidates for future classroom performance (Brownell et al., 2019). Practice-based approaches have traditionally been executed face-to-face to ensure they replicate the classroom environment and provide instantaneous peer and instructor feedback (Robinson et al., 2024). During the rapid change from faceto-face to online instruction, EPP instructors struggled to translate the complexity of practice-based approaches to the online format (Green et al., 2013). Many traditional faculty were resistant to online higher education. They had concerns about the quality of the learning experience and the time required of faculty to convert their traditional face-to-face classes to an online format (Green & Wagner, 2011; Paris, 2011). With the demand of the time, teacher educators utilized quick adaptations of instructional techniques to fit the online environment, which, for many, meant embodying the simplistic view that simply replacing face-to-face content with online content would suffice (Ishmael et al., 2020). Field placements, a critical component for teacher candidates, were also redirected to virtual placements. These adaptations did not always meet the intellectual rigor expected from higher education courses (Robinson et al., 2024), primarily since

virtual placements were still held to the same academic outcomes as previous faceto-face programs.

A Call to Action for EPPs

The struggle for EPPs is understandable. Before the growing popularity of online learning, traditional, oncampus learning was the most common learning format for students. Campus presence brought numerous perks for students, making traditional learning impossible to replace entirely with any other learning format. Undoubtedly, students who attend classes in person greatly benefit from traditional learning, including improving their social skills while interacting with their teachers and classmates (University of the Potomac, 2022). However, with the advent and establishment of digital technology in education and the overall benefits of online learning, we must diversify teacher education programs to offer online teaching activities as part of regular programs. Even with the challenges distance learning poses for EPPs, the indelible mark COVID-19 has left on education means EPPs must continue considering how to offer preparation programs through online learning modalities. It must offer these remote teacher education programs while maintaining the principles and practices that produce high-quality teachers.

Of course, this call for online preparation does not pertain to all EPPs. According to Martin et al. (2024), some teacher preparation programs have begun utilizing bichronous online learning, combining the dual modality approach of synchronous and asynchronous classrooms. However, in taking on the increased demand for remote learning, EPPs must conduct a critical mapping of the complexity of online learning models and balance them with an exchange of educational theory along with

pragmatic decisions such as costs, technical support, accessibility, functionality, and quality assurance standards including cultural responsiveness (Ishmael et al., 2020; Robinson et al., 2024). For EPPs, costs, technical support, accessibility, and functionality can be easily measured. On the other hand, cultural responsiveness in online classrooms could prove challenging and that is where this paper calls EPPs to action.

The need for educators to utilize culturally responsive practices to support the learning of all students is critical. Culturally responsive teaching (CRT) involves using students’ cultural experiences to make learning more meaningful and effective. It requires educators to build meaningful relationships with students. For distance learning, instructors must humanize the classroom and support learners by intentionally engaging in relational ways of being (Cortés et al., 2024). Grounded in the strategic principle that universities should be relevant partners within the immediate and broader communities they serve, instructors of online classrooms must purposefully weave cultural teachings into their lessons and activities. Remote classrooms should have various support and co-curricular activities contributing to students’ holistic learning experiences. For instance, inservice and pre-service teacher interaction is paramount to preparing quality teachers. Therefore, local teachers and other educators could support online students by being available for advice and sharing stories from their lives and classroom experiences. In cases where programs or courses are offered in fully asynchronous methods and cannot require students to attend synchronous sessions, due to university policy, the support from local teachers and other educators could be in forms of readily available pre-recorded videos that allow students with 100% online access. These

educators should reflect on the diverse backgrounds of the pre-service teachers in the online EPP program.

Similarly, starting with meaningful partnerships with school districts and other organizations, EPPs could arrange and coordinate cultural programs that are available to their online students, where experts and veteran teachers were invited as guest speakers from week to week, sharing classroom and school-based scenarios with the distance learning students through traditional storytelling, language, and activities. Additionally, local teachers could facilitate remote sessions to collaborate with students on specific teacher requirements such as lesson planning and classroom management. This collaboration creates online sharing circles where educators share their experiences, challenges, successes, and learnings in a supportive environment. Sharing circles allow space for all to share while promoting collaboration and alignment of learning outcomes and pedagogy. These initiatives align closely with creating a community of practice (Wenger et al., 2022). Community of practices enhances teaching and learning and affords educators opportunities to exchange pedagogical approaches, explore strategies for student engagement, and facilitate a sense of belonging and camaraderie.

There is no doubt that the COVID-19 pandemic has indeed reshaped teaching and learning environments. Online learning is in high demand and, for some institutions, now dominates how teachers and students teach and learn together (Ball et al., 2020). The flexibility of allowing students more freedom in their schedules that the distance

learning environment offers remains a key benefit (Canaran & Mirici, 2020). EPPs, in responding to this increased demand for remote learning, must, however, still meet the needs of all learners. For EPPs, cultural responsiveness in the online classroom will rely heavily on instructors’ intentionality and willingness to engage in professional development, design holistic rubrics to assess student’s work, and partner with school districts and community organizations. According to Robinson et al. (2024), one primary reason for new teachers leaving the field is a lack of preparation and confidence to deliver an appropriate curriculum to a diverse population of students. If culturally responsive experiences are not part of the online learning experience, distance learning could exacerbate this problem even more.

Understanding the challenges in creating culturally responsive online learning environments has not escaped the authors. After all, even face-to-face teacher preparation programs struggle to design culturally responsive programs. Thomas (2024) posits that while the theoretical framework of CRT has been used to inform educational research for decades, educators continue to grapple with how to apply such theory to practice, seeing more responsive and equitable instructional opportunities for learners. However, considering the increasing demand for remote learning and the importance of meaningful interaction within teacher preparation, it is pivotal that EPPs intentionally reimagine and rehumanize what it could mean to prepare prospective educators from a distance.

References

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Yan, H., Zhang, H., & Lam, J. F. I. (2022). A Qualitative Study on the Model of Factors Influencing Online Interactivity and Student Learning Engagement in the Post-Pandemic Era. Journal of Higher Education Theory & Practice, 22(17), 45–62.

https://doi.org/10.33423/jhetp.v22i17.565

7

Teachers Equipping Teachers: Redesigning Clinical Practice

Amanda Nelms, Cathy Eschete, and Rachael Flynn Belmont University

Abstract

This theoretical paper addresses the critical issue in educator preparation programs: the disconnect between theory and practice. Addressing this long-standing issue requires an innovative approach to mentor training to ensure sustainability of both mentors and novice teachers. To address the disconnect, this paper presents Teachers Equipping Teachers, a mentor model grounded in research-based, systematic training to support and retain effective clinical mentors. The model was influenced by a call from the LEA, voices of practicing teachers, and a literature review. The implications of this study have the potential to impact EPPs to improve the clinical experience, strengthen relationships with LEAs, and increase teacher retention.

Keywords: clinical practice; mentor teachers; student teachers; teacher preparation

Introduction

Mentor teachers are essential to teacher preparation and the induction process. Teacher Candidates, TCs, require mentor teachers who support them both pedagogically and emotionally through the complex process of clinical practice. Practicing teachers identified that the influence and relationship with their mentors was a reason they remained in the profession

(Garcia & Badia, 2023). With high quality mentors, TCs were able to develop skills, dispositions, and confidence in their abilities, and effectiveness at a faster pace (Gordon, 2020) which allowed TCs to enter their own classrooms prepared to teach from day one. Intentional, high-quality mentor training that supports both the TC and the mentor teachers are essential to the success and retention of TCs.

The demand for first- year, high-quality teachers has been proliferated throughout the last few years. With the widespread teacher shortage at critical levels (American Association of School Administrators, 2022; U.S. Department of Education, 2022), concerns continued to grow around how to prepare, provide, and support highly qualified teachers who are ready to teach from day one. These high expectations can only be achieved through collaboration among Educator Preparation Programs, EPPs, and Local Education Agencies, LEAs, with a research-based mentor training at the center of the work.

Although research recognized the importance of clinical mentoring (Zeichner, 2021), a gap in research pertaining to effective training programs for mentors during the clinical experience still exists. This level of support requires an intentional focus on the importance and process of mentoring; yet, there is often a disconnect in the process of developing effective mentor teachers or the approach focuses

predominantly on the training of the TC. Depending on the state and university, clinical mentors may have received some training about the mentorship process, but often do not receive training on the skills, dispositions, assessments, or standards that TCs must engage when they are in clinical.

In addition to limited training of mentor teachers, historically, Educator Preparation Programs, EPPs, have been criticized for the disconnect between TC training and implementation of instructional strategies during clinical practice. Mentor training often falls into the trap of the traditional “sit and get” model that involves little interaction, application, follow up, and time for discussion among trainers and mentor teachers.

The purpose of this paper is further the conversation related to the need for highly qualified clinical mentors who have a profound, lasting impact on TCs during the clinical experience who will later become novice teachers. We address this ambitious goal by first addressing the concerns related to selection and training of clinical mentors, and proposing one potential model that can be utilized by various universities

Influences

This study was influenced based on a call to action from a local LEA, where the authors’ EPP resides and works closely. The urban school district surrounding the authors’ university issued a call to action from a consortium of EPPs to create research-based, systematic mentor training. To ensure confidentiality of the LEA and

other members of the consortium, the researchers utilized the lived experiences of one author, or autoethnography, to sift through the consortium meetings that led to the call to action. Poulos (2021) identified autoethnography as a qualitative methodology that required the author to reflect upon self, others, and the role self plays in the community. In this case, the authors defined community as the LEA consortium. To gain a better understanding of the current state of mentor training within the LEA, the university Director of Clinical Practice gathered notes and clarified meaning throughout the consortium meeting to reflect on the EPP’s role in meeting this call to action.

Prioritizing our primary partners, the LEA in our community, the call influenced the authors to explore current mentor models, selection of mentors, and trends across the nation to develop a researchbased, systematic mentor training. The authors engaged in a narrative literature review (Baumeister, 2013). A narrative review was utilized for “combining quite different kinds of evidence to formulate a broad theoretical formulation” (Baumeister, 2013, p. 120). The authors created criteria that were quite different from each other to sift through articles pertaining to the clinical experience. These criteria included: (a) mentor training, including policy; (b) professional development; and (c) training necessary for TCs and mentors. Seventy-five articles met the criteria set by the authors (Table 1) and were reviewed to influence the model presented in this paper.

Articles that fell into multiple categories, such as professional development and co-teaching, were placed into the category that was most aligned to how the article was used in this study. For the purpose of this study, the teacher candidates, TCs are identified as Education majors who are in their final field experience, identified as clinical experience, where they are asked to “observe, co-teach,

and solo instruct in their clinical mentors’ classrooms” (Morris et al., 2020, p. 1). This definition eliminates studies that specifically address Job Embedded or Grow Your Own, GYO, candidates, unless the participants were asked to observe, co-teach, and solo instruct in their clinical mentors’ classroom. Studies were eliminated from the review based on the following criteria: (a) training of licensed teachers, novice or experienced;

(b) mentor training of Job Embedded or GYO students; and/or (c) studies in a language other than English.

As the authors engaged in the review of literature, they realized that additional voices, including voices from practicing teachers, would help to triangulate their methods and reaffirm their conclusions formed by the call to action and literature review. For the second analysis, the authors broaden the definition of community to include teachers within their state where the university resides. This analysis included exploring a Listening Tour (Tennessee Department of Education, 2023) conducted by the State Department of Education where the authors reside. All practicing teachers within the state were asked to identify a comprehensive plan to retain teachers. Over a thousand teachers responded through surveys or interviews. To respect the voices of teachers, and prevent practicing teachers from survey fatigue, this survey was not replicated for this study, but the Listening Tour was utilized as a case study to analyze the report. The findings from this report influenced this study by reaffirming the concepts (Litchman, 2023) that emerged from both the call to action and the literature review.

A narrative review was utilized to review many studies to identify a theory, but the authors recognize their lens for review may impact the review. All authors of this study are Education faculty members at a private university in the United States.

Literature

To gain a better understanding of current concerns related to training mentor teachers that will in turn support TCs, a review of literature within a variety of categories and evidence (Baumeister, 2013)

was necessary to influence the model presented in this paper. This review expands on the categories presented in Table 1.

Teacher Retention & Impact PreK-12 Students

Teacher retention is not a new topic in Education (Gardener, 1983); however, the COVID-19 pandemic drained teaching staff, closed schools, and increased the responsibilities of teachers who remained in the field (Darling-Hammond et al., 2023). Administrators are desperate to fill empty classrooms and teacher applications are declining, especially in schools serving diverse student populations (George et al., 2023). A report from the Learning Policy Institute (2023) indicated that 46.9% of schools in the United States reported teaching vacancies that are unfilled or hard to fill, and 8.6% of teachers indicated they plan to leave the field.

Teacher turnover demands valuable time and has the potential to cause teacher burnout for educators remaining in the profession; however, teacher turnover also causes the LEA a significant amount financially (Learning Policy Institute, 2024). The financial burden is so significant, the Learning Policy Institute (2024) created a calculator to determine the financial cost of teacher turnover, with an estimated cost of nearly $25,000 per teacher in larger school districts. The same report suggests that one way to eliminate this frivolous spending is through quality teacher preparation programs that develop candidates through comprehensive preparation which will cause candidates to remain in the profession longer (Learning Policy Institute, 2024).

In addition to the financial distress of teacher turnover, students’ academic progress suffers from teacher shortages and turnover (Learning Policy Institute, 2024).

The 2020 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) scores indicated that students performed lower in reading and math as compared to 2012 scores (National Center for Education Statistics, 2022). Due to the pandemic, in 2022 the National Center for Education Statistics administered a long-term trend assessment for 9- and 13-year-old students in reading and mathematics. The assessments suggested that average scores for 9- and 13- year-olds declined in both reading and math (NAEP, n.d.). These findings are significant and require experienced, highly qualified teachers in the classroom.

While TCs benefit from highly qualified mentors, LEAs and mentors may be concerned that student achievement will decrease when engaged in the clinical experience. Goldhaber and colleagues (2020) conducted a longitudinal study to examine PreK-12 student test scores in the years after the PreK-12 students were part of the class in a clinical experience. The researchers found that there was not a statistically significant difference in test scores the year of the clinical experience; however, the clinical experience had a positive impact on test scores for the following years. Mentor teachers in Tennessee had an increase of .4 in observation scores the year they hosted a TC (Morris et al., 2020).

In addition to positive observation scores, the Learning Policy Institute (2023) suggested that teachers are more likely to remain in the field if they have access to high-quality teacher preparation programs and quality mentors in their first years of teaching. While it is clear that teachers benefit from high-quality mentor programs within teacher preparation programs,

defining a high-quality mentor program can be ambiguous.

State Policies

Within the United States, individual state policies pertaining to expectations of mentor teachers greatly varies. The Education Commission of the States (2022) identified that 31 out of 50 states require induction and mentoring support, but the expectations of mentors varies between states. Each of these states requires a state approved initial training for mentor teachers that vary in content and modality. For example, North Dakota requires a minimum of two semester hours or three-quarter hours of college coursework in Supervision of a Student Teacher or an in-service requirement that meets the necessary essentials in preparing cooperating teachers to supervise student teachers. Similarly, Connecticut requires selected mentors to complete the TEAM Program Initial Support Teacher Training, but also offers continued learning opportunities through the Mentor Update Professional Learning Series. According to Connecticut’s Department of Education (2022), participants focus on coaching skills to assist beginning teachers to become reflective practitioners and learn how to provide support to new teachers through instructional modules. The training is conducted virtually through synchronous and asynchronous sessions.

EPP and LEA partnerships

Collaboration between EPPs and LEAs is essential to the implementation of any mentor model. Ronfeldt and colleagues’ (2019a) study indicated that when districts provided EPPs with lists of recommended teachers, EPPs were able to recruit more effective and experienced mentors. In addition to mentor teachers with more years experience, TCs who worked alongside

mentors who were recruited by recommendation lists felt more prepared at the end of their clinical experience than those who worked alongside a mentor who was not recommended by the LEA (Ronfeldt et al., 2019b).

Studies suggest that strong partnerships between LEAs and EPPs can also address the concerns related to mentor selection. For example, Biggers and colleagues (2019) examined mentor selection processes across the U.S. to identify common themes among selection of mentors. The researchers found inconsistent standards and recruitment efforts for mentors. In addition to the lack of consistency in selection of mentors, Johnston and team (2016) highlighted that the physical location of schools, especially high-needs schools, can limit the selection of mentors.

Mentor Models

Selecting strong mentors is imperative, but the model in which mentors learn to mentor is also important (Weimer, 2021). The Learning Policy Institute (2023) compared teacher recruitment efforts without strong mentor programs to “pouring water into a leaky bucket” (p. 21). While the report focused on mentor programs for novice teachers, we suggest strong mentorship must begin during the clinical experience. Candidates reported that often their field experience was discouraging, negative, and restricting (Almazroa, 2020). Some would speculate that this idea of “sink or swim” during the first year of teaching has led many novice teachers to leave the field (Noel & Shoffner, 2019).

While COVID presented many challenges, one benefit was the demand for innovative solutions to mentorship during the clinical experience due to everyone learning how to teach during a pandemic.

For example, Ralston and Blakely (2021) interviewed teacher candidates who were engaged in the clinical experience during Emergency Response to Learning. They reported that one benefit was that both the teacher candidate and mentor were learning to teach in uncertain circumstances, which led to opportunities to learn, and sometimes guide, mentors through instructional approaches. This led to brainstorming and moving away from the model that the mentor is the supervisor, or authoritarian, and instead the mentor is a colleague to engage in collaboration.

Part of the mentorship program that requires TCs to act as collaborative colleagues includes mentor conversations. Mentor conversations are an opportunity to highlight the collegial conversations related to brainstorming instructional practices. Teacher candidates identify that mentors are the most influential aspect of their teacher preparation program (Nielsen et al., 2022). Mentor conversations set the stage for teacher candidates to gain a deeper understanding of pedagogy, but also to navigate the social complexities that impact teaching, such as being part of a grade-level team. Mentor conversations are also the moment when the mentor’s pedagogical knowledge is shared, which can promote high-quality or poor teaching practices (Feiman-Nemser et al., 1999). If a mentor teacher struggles with lesson planning, classroom management, or content knowledge, the TC is engaging in mentor conversations that may promote poor teaching practices (Hastings, 2004).

Grounded in Clarke and colleagues (2014) categories of effective mentoring, Modelers of Practice and Feedback are two essential aspects to the mentoring relationship that can impact high-quality or poor teaching practices. Modelers of

Practice require the mentor to not only demonstrate the instructional practices necessary to impact classroom instruction, but also engage in explicit conversations where the mentor teacher is able to discuss instructional practices that will impact classroom instruction. Likewise, Feedback (Grimmett & Ratzlaff, 1986; Moir et al., 2009) is essential to moving misunderstandings to high-quality instructional practices. Mentor teachers who engage in effective feedback provide explicit feedback about the candidate’s lesson while engaging in conversations that are grounded in an understanding of adult learning (Grossman & Davis, 2012; Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction, 2018).

In addition to constructive feedback, a mentor teacher must also coach a TC towards high-quality instructional practices. Aguilar (2020) emphasized that coaching must focus on instruction as well as “attends to the emotional experiences of our work” (Aguilar, 2020, p. 31). Mentor conversations play a vital role in the development of TCs and must address both the pedagogical and emotional needs of the TC.

Considerable research has been conducted around the effectiveness of Face to Face (F2F), mentoring, coaching, and professional development (Pariente & Tubin, 2021). The COVID-19 pandemic exasperated this challenge when all educators were unable to convene for F2F mentoring and coaching (Irby et al., 2022; Wernick et al., 2021). In response to these barriers, virtual coaching was utilized to support novice teachers, yet these approaches have still limited the experience for mentors due to the lack of social interaction and the feeling of isolation during the process. To address barriers such as time and location, mentor models must

consider modality while not jeopardizing quality mentor training programs that include training, such as active learning, coherence, and duration of the activity (Meyer et al., 2023).

Effective Professional Development

Coupled with current mentor programs, sustainable and effective professional development of mentor teachers is essential. Effective professional development has been described as embodying the following characteristics (Darling-Hammond, 2017): (a) is content focused, (b) incorporates active learning utilizing adult learning theory (c) supports collaboration, typically in job-embedded contexts (d) uses models of effective practice (e) provides coaching and expert support, (f) offers opportunities for feedback and reflection, and (g) is of sustained duration (p. 23).

The Learning Policy Institute (2023) explored effective teacher professional development and identified several barriers that cause training to be ineffective. These include (a) lack of resources, such as curriculum, (b) differing vision of highquality instruction, (c) time to implement instructional approaches, (d) misalignment between state and local policies, (e) dysfunctional school cultures, and (f) lack of consistent assessment of professional development (Darling-Hammond, 2017; Tooley & Connally, 2016).

An additional shift in professional development includes a need for sustainable professional development. Brandisauskiene and colleagues (2020) suggested educators observing other educators is perceived as beneficial and sustained professional development.

Professional Learning Communities

Professional Learning Communities, PLCs, have been utilized in PK-12 settings for decades to transition educator professional development from a “sit and get” format into a collaborative conversation that highlights the educator’s expertise and an intentional focus on every child learning. In DuFour’s (2004) foundational work, it was suggested PLCs are successful only when educators “focus on learning rather than teaching, work collaboratively, and hold yourself accountable for results” (p. 6). PLCs are grounded in the idea that every child can learn when educators engage in collaborative, highly intentional conversations to ensure every student is learning. PLCs require teams to meet on a regular basis to engage in collaborative discourse about the following three questions “1. What do we want each student to learn? 2. How will we know when each student has learned it? 3. How will we respond when a student experiences difficulty in learning?” (DuFour, 2004, p. 7).

Question 3 is a key component of a PLC that requires immediate follow up by the classroom teacher to intervene quickly when a student does not learn. The team may identify strategies to address Question 3, but teacher follow through is essential to the success of the classroom.

PLCs have been successfully implemented as school reform to increase teacher collaboration and increase student achievement (Hargreaves & O’Connor, 2017). While PLCs can increase student learning, careful planning to promote a collaborative culture must be cultivated for the community to work. In addition to increasing teacher empowerment and collaboration, PLCs have allowed classroom teachers to engage in conversations to promote a better understanding of diversity and equity (Richmond, 2013).

Conversely, Zheng and team (2021) noted that PLCs may have a positive impact on student learning and teacher reflective dialogue, but the collaborative process of PLCs must be grounded in the culture of the school.

Mentor Teacher Background Knowledge

A consistent finding from the call from the consortium and literature (Rao, et al., 2020) was that TCs benefit when the mentor teacher understands university requirements. Two significant requirements that are not necessarily explicit in the LEA setting are InTASC and edTPA. It is also inconsistent as to the background knowledge of mentor teachers regarding co-teaching and Culturally Responsive Teaching. Mentor Teacher Background Knowledge includes topics to be explicitly explained and concepts to activate prior knowledge.

InTASC

The Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (InTASC) standards, developed by the Council of Chief State School Officers, (CCSSO, 2013) “outline what teachers should know and be able to do to ensure that every PK-12 student reaches the goal of being ready to enter college or the workforce in today’s world” (p. 3). These standards guide the development and assessment of and within EPPs across the U.S. According to InTASC, they depend “upon the support and input from practicing teachers, teacher educators, and other educational professionals…to effectively pursue our mission of providing resources to guide education policy” (p. 2). With this in mind, it is imperative that EPPs and mentor teachers clearly articulate and model the standards and practices outlined for teacher candidates. In doing this, mentor teachers and EPPs demonstrate InTASC Standard 9 Professional Learning and Ethical Practice

and Standard 10 Leadership and Collaboration through conversations, training, analysis of performance and data, and clear communication of expectations with TCs. Each standard’s progressions provide support and clarifications for TCs, mentors, and EPPs as they work toward a common language and goal of positively impacting the learning of PK-12 students as well as all stakeholders connected with the EPP. These progressions include the areas of Performances, Essential Knowledge, and Critical Dispositions which are also addressed within the edTPA assessment.

edTPA

edTPA is a portfolio-based assessment designed to evaluate aspiring teachers. The assessment requires candidates to demonstrate the knowledge and skills necessary for the learning of all students. It was developed by faculty and staff from Stanford University’s Stanford Center for Assessment, Learning, and Equity (SCALE). edTPA became the first nationally available standards-based assessment in the United States in 2013 (Pearson, 2022). Many states, such as Tennessee, have policies in place requiring edTPA as a performance-based assessment to acquire licensure. According to edTPA.org (2017), 18 states have edTPA as either a required test or an optional test for licensure; however, a review of the State edTPA Policy (Pearson, 2022) notes that most states did not begin utilizing edTPA until approximately 2018-2019. Given the more recent adoption date by states, mentor teachers that are supporting pre-services candidates have limited or no experience with edTPA. Given the need for mentor teachers to become familiar with edTPA, SCALE has created minimal resources for teachers who support candidates completing edTPA. The responsibility of edTPA and

InTASC training for mentor teachers largely falls on the EPP.

Co-teaching

Co-teaching has been utilized in classrooms for nearly 30 years and has transformed teacher preparation since the foundational co-teaching model was published (Cook & Friend, 1995). More recently, Friend (2021) defined co-teaching as “two or more professionals delivering substantive instruction to a diverse, or blended, group of students in a single physical space” (p.2). During a co-teaching student teaching experience, a mentor teacher and pre-service teacher teach together, share authority, and collaborate in planning, instruction and assessment, with the end goal of the pre-service teacher increasing responsibility towards independent teaching (Guise et al., 2023). The model of co-teaching is utilized as a collaborative approach to the student teaching experience (Guise et al., 2023). A study conducted by Sebald and colleagues (2022) identified that co-teaching during the clinical experience had a positive impact on both TC and mentors, yet TCs also identified they were concerned about the time of solo teaching during the clinical experience. The researchers also noted that an additional barrier to co-teaching in the clinical experience is the selection of quality mentors and professional development related to co-teaching.

In addition to novice teachers leaving the field there is a need to support experienced teachers. In a study conducted by Sebald and colleagues (2022) suggested mentor teachers who engaged in a coteaching clinical experience reported an unexpected sense of collaboration and rejuvenation in their careers as educators.

GATEWAYS TO TEACHER EDUCATON

Culturally Inclusive Pedagogy

As the PK-12 classroom has become more diverse, the teacher population remains predominantly white and female. For decades, EPPs have encouraged a focus on Culturally Inclusive Practices, CIP, which encourage teacher candidates to eliminate content, practices, policies, and structures that isolate and ignore the culture and identity of students from historically marginalized groups (Ladson-Billings, 2014). While most EPPs discuss CIP, TCs are still lacking the skills and knowledge to implement CIP to remove barriers to learning that racially, ethnically, and linguistically diverse students often encounter. In addition, TCs often report that classroom management is the greatest barrier to first- year teaching (Larmer et al., 2016), yet previous studies suggest that TCs often are not aware of how their actions can isolate specific groups of students (Lindstrom et al., 2021). An intentional focus on a culture outside one’s own culture is essential for TCs as well as mentor teachers.

Previous studies suggest that TCs often enter teacher preparation programs defining attributes of an effective teacher as “caring” and “loves kids” (Breault, 2013). Klassen and Kim’s (2019) study suggested that while teacher attributes of resilience and empathy are essential, they are not enough to transform a classroom, and a single course on CIP is not enough to engage in the difficult work of shifting a mindset about attitudes and beliefs impacting classroom practice.

An understanding of InTASC, edTPA, co-teaching, and CIP can help mentor teachers to understand the scope of the clinical experience for TCs.

Teachers Equipping Teachers Mentor Model

This literature review was conducted in response to a call from the LEA consortium for a critical need for effective mentor programs in EPPs that support TCs, mentor teachers, and impact student achievement. The LEA requested EPPs create researchbased, systematic mentor teacher training with the emphasis to retain high-quality teachers. Specifically, the consortium provided a call for more effective professional development and support for mentor teachers with a focus on delivery of the professional development, an effective process for identifying mentor teachers, and areas of needed support, such as skills, dispositions, and knowledge needed as a mentor. The Listening Tour reinforced that not only are TCs seeking personalized professional development, but also experienced teachers share the same concern. In addition, teachers across the state indicated a need for mentorship and collaboration as well as teacher wellness and appreciation (Tennessee State Board of Education, 2023). Based on the review of literature, call to action from the LEA consortium, and the analysis of the Listening Tour, the author presents Teachers Equipping Teachers as a model for mentor training.

Teachers Equipping Teachers

The Teachers Equipping Teachers (Table 2) mentor model is grounded in interpersonal relationships among mentor teachers, TCs, and the EPP with a central focus of PK-12 students. Four driving factors ground the Teacher Equipping Teacher framework including: 1) PLCs coupled with mentor coaching with the Director of Clinical Practice 2) parallel learning between the TCs and mentor teachers 3) common language regarding

GATEWAYS TO TEACHER EDUCATON

knowledge, skills, and dispositions needed for mentor teachers and TCs 4) ongoing

Table 2

Teachers Equipping Teachers

Delivery Model Content

PLC

In-person/ synchronous

Module 1

Co-teaching

Asynchronous

Module 2

edTPA

Asynchronous

mentor observation of other mentor teachers.

• Responsibilities of mentor teacher

• Introduction to teacher evaluation system, InTASC, and edTPA

• Overview of the model

• Creating a problem of practice

• Adult learning theory: difficult conversations

• Co-teaching

• InTASC

End Goal

• Prepared for day one with TC

• Prepared to create a problem of practice with TC

• edTPA

• InTASC

• Create with TC Co-teaching Plan

• Review artifacts related to problem of practice

• Mentors use resources from module to support TC in preparing for edTPA

• Mentors shadow other mentors

Roles

PLC

In-person/ Synchronous

GATEWAYS TO TEACHER EDUCATON

• Review barriers to mentoring with problem of practice at center of discussion

Module 3

State evaluation system

Asynchronous

• Review state teacher evaluation system

• InTASC

PLC

In-person/ Synchronous

• Review yearly problem of practice

• Transition to Year 2

For this model to be successful, it is essential that resources are allocated to ensure successful implementation. Due to the original call for the consortium coupled with the literature review, the authors suggest that a call for co-collaboration, including allocation of educators’ time, is essential for this model to meet the goals set forth by the LEA. The purpose of this model

• Mentors complete survey for PLC

• Mentors prepared to engage in constructive conversations with TC

• Mentor teacher evaluates TC lesson utilizing the state teacher evaluation system

• Mentor and candidates review scores and give constructive feedback

• Mentors shadow other mentors

• EPP feedback

• Year 2 Plan

is to make classroom teachers feel empowered and appreciated, which was requested from the Listening Tour (SBE, 2023) and not to cause an additional initiative that will overwhelm and burnout teachers (Darling-Hammond et al., 2023). While each state has different expectations pertaining to stipends for mentor teachers (Education Commission of the States, 2022) we suggest the expectations for mentors,

GATEWAYS TO TEACHER EDUCATON

including protecting time to engage in this work, must be established between the LEA and EPP before the mentor model begins, and should be clearly outlined in the Memorandum of Understanding (MOU). The Council for the Accreditation of Educator Preparation, CAEP, (2024) identified the MOU between the LEA and EPP is intended to “clearly define the roles and responsibilities for various stakeholders” (p. 7).

The first role to identify includes the Director of Clinical Practice, DCP, at the EPP who will be responsible for the planning and collaboration with the LEA and building-level principals, including reviewing the MOU with the LEA stakeholders. This work includes the following: (a) collaboration with LEA leaders to identify qualified mentors, (b) working with the LEA leaders to secure time for mentors to engage in the mentor model, (c) organizing PLCs, (d) leading and facilitating PLCs, (e) engaging in coaching cycles with both mentor teachers and teacher candidates, (f) visiting classrooms of mentor teachers, (g) creating modules for mentor training, (h) collecting and analysing data, including mentor satisfaction and longitudinal data regarding teacher retention from the LEA. Another role of the DCP is to determine the modality that works best for PLCs. For example, the goal of the Teachers Equipping Teachers mentor model is built on other mentors’ experiences to make the group stronger. Due to resources such as time and finances, this may occur online synchronously or in-person. This should be determined by the DCP and LEA before the model begins.

LEA leaders are responsible for securing buy-in at the LEA level that the mentor model is appropriate for their district and collaborate with the EPP to co-construct

the MOU. For example, the LEA leaders will provide access to relevant data regarding teacher retention, and work alongside the EPP to share the transformation of the mentor model.

Mentor teachers are responsible for engaging in the mentor model, collecting student data, and mentoring the TC. While each LEA will define through the MOU any additional incentives for participation in the mentor model, the EPP will provide a stipend for the mentor teachers’ time to mentor the TC and engage in the work. Mentors will also receive Professional Development Points that help them advance their teacher licensure. Mentor teachers will also be able to use evidence from this partnership as evidence of professionalism within their teacher evaluation.

Teacher candidates, TCs, are responsible for engaging in coaching and mentorship with the mentor teacher. The TCs will receive a grade on an assignment related to their professionalism and participation in the mentorship.

This model is intended to be different from other mentor training and should be carefully explained to mentor teachers before they begin the first implementation of this work. Biggers and colleagues (2019) identified that mentor training is inconsistent. We address this concern by presenting a model that emphasizes PreK-12 student success, support for mentor teachers, and providing a rigorous clinical experience for TCs. The goal is this model is utilized by many universities so this work is not considered inconsistent; however, mentors should understand the scope of the work before agreeing to participate. This model presents that the role of the LEA leaders is to present this understanding to the mentor, with the DCP reinforcing the role in the first PLC.

PLCs to Problem of Practice & DCP Coaching

The most significant concern presented in the literature review and the call from the consortium included research-based, effective professional learning. Mentor teachers must feel their professional development goals are being met while mentoring and supporting teacher candidates (Parker et al., 2021; National Education Association, 2020). The Teachers Equipping Teachers model addresses this concern by encouraging mentors to engage in PLCs with other mentor teachers and the Director of Clinical Practice (DCP). The PLCs are designed to allow teachers to analyze student work, collaborate with other mentor teachers, and increase instructional practices in the classroom.

The PLCs address the concern that mentor training is often “sit and get” and that teachers are eager for professional development that is meaningful (SBE, 2023). Time to analyze student work is essential. This will allow mentor teachers to address the transformational question grounding PLCs, including steps to be taken when a student does not learn and receive feedback from mentor peers. Once the mentors have had a chance to norm a process for data analysis, and analyze their class data, the mentor teacher will work alongside the TC to co-create a problem of practice, or a central problem which, if solved, improves student learning (Crary & Gilblom, 2022). By co-creating the problem of practice, the mentor and TC have a central problem to focus their student data collection, a third document to collaborate conversations, and an opportunity for the mentor and TC to engage in collaboration that does not keep the mentor as the authoritarian (Ralston & Blakely, 2021). Engaging in a problem of practice during the

clinical experience will provide the TC with realistic expectations about data collection that will eliminate the feeling of “sink or swim” during the first year of teaching (Noel & Shoffner, 2019).

During this process, the DCP will serve as a bridge between the EPP and LEA to ensure candidates have the knowledge needed to engage in collaborating on the problem of practice. For example, TCs will complete assignments aligned to the assessment used by the mentor teacher to create the problem of practice, such as background information on a Universal Reading Screener. This step in the mentor model addresses the TC identified barrier of coursework and field experience being two separate worlds (Smagorinsky et al., 2004). The DCP will work with university faculty to ensure the TCs receive the same instruction about skills, knowledge, and dispositions the mentors are receiving, addressing the concern that mentor teachers must understand the expectations of edTPA (Rao et al., 2020).

Modalities

While analysis of PreK-12 student work is most important to the process, studies suggested that mentors who had a background in EPP requirements were helpful to TCs (Rao et al., 2020). The Teachers Equipping Teachers mentor model will take place in a hybrid modality (Table 2). The hybrid modality follows Bloom’s taxonomy (Bloom et al., 1956) hierarchy of thinking by asking mentors to engage in new learning at the Knowledge level (asynchronous) with the majority of the Create and Evaluate thinking occurring with other mentors in PLCs. The asynchronous modules are also designed to allow the mentor teacher the flexibility to work with the TC based on their schedules, but also have a deadline of the next PLC to complete

the work. While research has been conducted pertaining to the effectiveness of F2F mentoring (Pariente & Tubin, 2021) there are limited resources, including time and finances, to allow mentors to engage in F2F training. This learning modality addresses the resource allocation concerns found in literature, including allowing the mentor teacher to interact with other mentors while providing a more flexible schedule that can be individualized as far as pacing, content, and learning location (Cilliers et. al., 2022; Lytvyn et al., 2021). The PLCs are designed to have the benefits of the F2F training while the modules are an opportunity for the mentors to engage in continued, coherent learning (Meyer et al., 2023) about EPP requirements and Apply (Bloom et al., 1956) concepts learned, such as co-creating a co-teaching plan.

The hybrid modality allows the balance between human interaction (PLCs) and asynchronous learning (Modules), to address the concerns in literature that participants may take a more passive learning stance in an asynchronous modality as compared to entirely online (Irby et al., 2022).

PLC 1: Common language

PLC 1 was designed to create a common language for the clinical experience and includes the common terms used by EPPs, such as InTASC, edTPA, and state teacher evaluation system. The need for common language addresses the call from the consortium and literature that suggested that mentor knowledge about EPP requirements helps TCs during the clinical experience (Rao et al., 2020; Weimer, 2021).

While a necessary step, the literature suggested that mentor training often stops here and mentors are rarely taught how to teach adults. Teachers Equipping Teachers

model proposes that PLC focuses not only on the requirements of the mentor, but also best practices when engaging in instructional coaching (Aguilra, 2020). Part of this work includes calibrating conversations to focus on student learning, how to coach adults instead of teaching children, and how to have difficult conversations. These areas were requested through the call from the consortium but are also found in literature. In order to engage in calibrated conversations, PLC 1 will walk mentors through how to create a problem of practice, suggest data to collect, as well as how to engage in constructive conversations with a TC. Mentors will use this new learning to co-create a problem of practice with the TC. Additional PLCs are built from the initial problems of practice. This work is aligned with the role of the DCP.

Mentor Observation

We suggest including mentor observations of other mentors as a way to build community, retain quality mentors, and add to the mentor teachers’ professional goals. A few suggested observations include observing other mentors in their building or observing difficult conversations with TCs. Mentor teachers will select their observation goal and work with the DCP to receive mentoring related to this goal.

In addition to observation, mentor teachers will meet synchronously in PLCs two additional times. This will be a time for the DCP to offer individualized support based on the requests of the mentor teachers while the group also reviews the problem of practice created at the beginning of the semester.

Conclusions

Over the last few decades, teacher preparation programs have been criticized for lack of connection between theory and

practice. In addition, the teacher shortage is impacting classrooms and principals are desperate to fill vacancies (George et al., 2022). TCs indicate that their mentor teacher has the biggest impact on their training, yet there is limited research related to the support and training of mentor teachers. Many teachers leave the profession within their first five years criticizing the inadequacy of their preparation (Buchanan et al., 2013). TCs identified their mentors as the reason they remained in the profession (Garcia & Badia, 2023). The Teachers Equipping Teachers mentor model was designed with the goal of supporting mentor teachers, who in turn support TCs, which impacts PreK-12 student success and teacher retention. We argue that a common mentor model must be utilized in order to transform the clinical experience, which in turn impacts PK-12 student performance.

Future Research Implications

The Teachers Equipping Teachers model was developed to address the need for a consistent mentor model. Empirical data will strengthen this study by providing additional information related to the preparedness of mentors to engage in the mentor process as well as TCs’ preparedness to enter the field. In addition, longitudinal data related to the retention of both mentors and TCs who engage in this model will strengthen the model.

Adaptation for EPPs

The goal of the Teachers Equipping Teachers model is to provide a consistent mentor model. The foundation of this study rests on the strong partnership between the LEA and EPP and clear identification of roles of each party within the MOU. Without this foundation, this model could become burdensome to mentor teachers and perceived as one more initiative. While this

model can be utilized by any EPP, the first step must be strong collaboration with the LEA.

These strong collaborations coupled with effective mentors and consistent, sustainable mentor training has the potential to transform future classrooms by increasing teacher retention, which in turn will increase student achievement.

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Evaluating the Effectiveness of a Communication Course in Enhancing Soft Skills Among Pre-Service Teachers

Forrest R. Parker III & J.T. Cox Valdosta State University

Abstract

Effective teaching necessitates content knowledge, pedagogical strategies, and essential soft skills such as communication, adaptability, and confidence. This study investigated the impact of a dedicated communication course Communication for Educators on the self-efficacy of preservice teachers at a Southeastern university. Using a quantitative survey design, data were collected from 59 teacher education students representing multiple program levels and concentrations. Participants responded to Likert-scale questions assessing their confidence in public speaking, instructional communication, and classroom engagement. Results indicated that students who completed the course reported significantly higher self-efficacy across all communication domains, with statistical differences evident in both verbal and non-verbal communication skills. ANOVA analyses further revealed that students majoring in elementary education demonstrated greater comfort with public speaking and use of non-verbal techniques compared to their peers in secondary education. The findings suggest that targeted communication training meaningfully enhances the soft skills necessary for effective teaching. Implications for teacher preparation programs include integrating

expressive, reflective, and student-centered communication instruction into the core curriculum to better equip future educators for the demands of contemporary classrooms.

Keywords: teacher preparation, communication skills, soft skills, pre-service teachers, self-efficacy, education coursework

Introduction

Soft skills, such as communication, adaptability, and confidence are crucial abilities for effective classroom teaching. While pedagogical knowledge is essential, the ability to engage students, convey information clearly, and manage a classroom effectively often depends on a teacher’s communication skills. Research has shown that strong verbal and non-verbal communication enhances student understanding and classroom engagement, making these skills a fundamental component of teacher effectiveness (Bach & Hagenauer, 2022; Çelik & Alpan, 2023; Kraft & Dougherty, 2013; Pachauri & Yadav, 2014).

Teacher preparation programs aim to equip future educators with both content knowledge and instructional strategies, yet

soft skills are often developed less explicitly. Many pre-service teachers struggle with public speaking, managing discussions, and adapting their communication habits to meet diverse student needs. These challenges can impact their ability to create dynamic, engaging learning environments. Given these difficulties, it is critical to examine whether targeted training in communication such as courses specifically designed to develop these skills can better prepare pre-service teachers for the demands of the classroom.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which the course, Communication for Educators, at a Southeastern institution enhances the soft skills of teacher education majors. Soft skills, including verbal and non-verbal communication, adaptability, and confidence are essential for effective teaching, yet novice teachers struggle to achieve effective skills in these areas as they prepare for the classroom. This course, Communication for Educators, provides structured training in communication; the aim of this study was to determine if this training in this course contributes to improved self-efficacy in instructional delivery and classroom engagement.

Specifically, this research aimed to assess whether students who have completed the course, Communication for Educators, feel more prepared to communicate effectively in classroom settings compared to those who have not taken the course. By analyzing student perceptions and selfreported confidence levels, this study provided insight into the role of formal communication training in teacher preparation programs. The findings may offer valuable implications for curriculum development, highlighting the potential

benefits of incorporating dedicated communication instruction into teacher education programs.

Research Questions

The following research questions guided this study:

1. Are there statistically significant differences in self-efficacy between students who have completed the Communication for Educators course and those who have not?

2. Do education students from different major concentrations (e.g., elementary, middle grades, secondary) differ in their reported communication confidence and engagement strategies?

Significance of the Study

This study holds significant value for evaluating teacher preparation programs, particularly in assessing the effectiveness of communication training in developing essential soft skills among pre-service teachers. As educational institutions strive to equip future educators with the competencies necessary for effective classroom instruction, it is critical to examine whether courses such as Communication for Educators adequately prepare students to communicate clearly, engage learners, and manage discussions confidently. By investigating the impact of this course, the study provides an opportunity to assess the strengths and potential gaps in teacher preparation programs.

Additionally, the findings of this research offer valuable insights for curriculum development, particularly

regarding the integration of soft skills training in teacher education. While pedagogy and subject knowledge are fundamental components of teacher preparation, communication and classroom presence are equally important in fostering student engagement and learning. Ultimately, this research aims to contribute to the ongoing improvement of teacher education by emphasizing the importance of developing both the technical and interpersonal skills necessary for effective teaching.

Literature Review

Effective teaching requires teaching pedagogy and talents beyond subject matter expertise and instructional strategy; it also demands the development of soft skills such as communication, adaptability, and confidence. These personal competencies enable educators to convey information clearly, manage diverse classroom dynamics, and foster student engagement (Pachauri & Yadav, 2014; Malik & Mohan, 2022). Unfortunately, while pedagogical content is central in most teacher preparation programs, soft skills often receive less explicit emphasis, leaving many pre-service teachers underprepared to navigate realworld classroom demands (Padhi, 2014; Bach & Hagenauer, 2022).

The Impact of Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication Skills in K-12 Classrooms

Effective communication in K-12 classrooms encompasses both verbal and non-verbal elements, which collectively enhance student learning and engagement (Uceda-Pintado et al., 2023). Teachers' nonverbal behaviors such as facial expressions, gestures, and eye contact have a strong influence on students' motivation and overall learning experiences

(Kraft & Dougherty, 2013). Research indicates that students respond more positively to educators who effectively utilize non-verbal communication, perceiving them as more approachable and supportive, thereby fostering a conducive learning environment (Bach & Hagenauer, 2022).

Moreover, non-verbal communication serves to reinforce verbal messages, promoting clarity and aiding in student comprehension (Uceda-Pintado et al., 2023). Teachers who adeptly integrate non-verbal cues into their instruction can significantly enhance classroom engagement and improve students’ ability to retain information. This underscores the necessity for educators to develop proficiency in both verbal and nonverbal communication to create dynamic and responsive learning environments. Furthermore, research shows that effective teacher-family communication, including personalized outreach to families, positively influences student engagement and academic outcomes (Kraft & Dougherty, 2013). This broadens the scope of communication training, highlighting the need for pre-service teachers to develop a range of interpersonal communication skills that extend beyond the classroom.

The Importance of Confidence and Adaptability for Pre-Service Teachers

Confidence and adaptability are essential attributes for pre-service teachers, enabling them to navigate the complexities of diverse classroom settings and instructional challenges. Educators with higher self-efficacy in communication are more effective in engaging students and adapting to their needs (Malik & Mohan, 2022). Developing these skills during teacher preparation is crucial, as they influence a teacher's ability to manage classroom interactions, respond to student

inquiries, and maintain instructional flexibility. Without these competencies, preservice teachers may struggle to establish authority, build rapport with students, and handle unexpected classroom scenarios effectively (University of Northern Iowa, 2022).

Collie and Martin (2016) emphasize adaptability as a “meta-competency” essential to teaching, asserting that it fosters resilience and flexibility. Their findings suggest that teacher candidates who cultivate adaptability through coursework and practical experiences are better equipped to create inclusive and emotionally-safe classrooms. Similarly, Martin et al. (2019) advocate for embedding adaptability development in educational psychology coursework, reinforcing the idea that soft skills are foundational to effective pedagogical decision-making.

Developing Soft Skills in Teacher Preparation Programs

Recognizing the role that soft skills play in teacher effectiveness, many education programs have begun integrating communication, empathy, and adaptability into their curricula. For instance, simulations, case studies, microteaching, and role-play scenarios are used to cultivate communication competence and confidence (Cimatti, 2016). These methods allow teacher candidates to reflect on their delivery and receive formative feedback practices linked to long-term skill retention (Malik & Mohan, 2022).

Padhi (2014) argues that soft skills are not merely supplemental to teacher training; on the contrary, these skills serve to provide “education beyond academics,” which is vital for real-world teaching. Embedding these skills throughout field experiences and coursework rather than confining them to

isolated modules promotes more naturalized and sustained development (Pachauri & Yadav, 2014). Uceda-Pintado et al. (2023) further highlight the importance of emotional and social intelligence in developing classroom presence, noting that such skills are predictive of both teacher well-being and student achievement. Preservice teachers exposed to intentional soft skill development consistently report higher readiness for the classroom and greater confidence in public speaking, conflict resolution, and collaborative teaching (Bach & Hagenauer, 2022; Malik & Mohan, 2022). As a result, education programs must prioritize holistic preparation that integrates both content knowledge and interpersonal growth.

Assessing the Effectiveness of Teacher Preparation Programs

Assessing soft skill development in teacher preparation is an evolving challenge. Traditional metrics like GPA or content exams fail to capture the relational and emotional competencies critical to teaching success (Martin et al., 2019). Consequently, programs must implement alternative forms of assessment, such as self-reflection journals, peer feedback, mentor evaluations, and performance-based rubrics.

Longitudinal tracking of teacher graduates also offers insight into how soft skills cultivated during training translate into real-world practice (Collie & Martin, 2016). Feedback from principals, cooperating teachers, and even students can help gauge a novice teacher’s ability to communicate clearly, manage a class effectively, and create an inclusive learning environment. Ultimately, teacher education programs that embed, nurture, and evaluate soft skills across the curriculum will be better positioned to prepare teachers who are not only knowledgeable, but also confident,

communicative, and adaptive leaders in the classroom.

Description of the Intervention

The intervention in this study is a course, Communication for Educators (EDUC 2000), offered at a Southeastern university. This course serves as a foundational experience for pre-service teachers and related majors (e.g., American Sign Language interpreting and speech communications) to develop essential soft skills in communication, presentation, and self-expression. Unlike other teacher preparation coursework tied directly to licensure and reporting standards, EDUC 2000 is designed as a space for creative exploration and skill development, allowing students to engage in a variety of speaking and writing tasks free from rigid evaluation constraints.

A pedagogical approach drives this course that is best described as "punk rock pedagogy"; this course encompasses a bold, student-centered teaching philosophy that encourages authenticity, creativity, and confidence. Students are frequently reminded of core maxims such as: “Your personality is your weapon: Use it to teach. Use it to manage your classroom,” and “Teachers don’t sit!” These messages emphasize the importance of active, expressive teaching and classroom presence.

EDUC 2000 includes nine core assessments: four major presentations, two related writing assignments, a PowerPoint project based on June Casagrande’s Grammar Snobs are Great Big Meanies (2006), a discussion post on Dave Burgess’ Teach Like a Pirate (2012), and a selfreflective email assignment known as the “Midterm Report.” These assignments are designed to cultivate student confidence and

foster a personal understanding of effective communication strategies for the classroom. The four presentations include:

• Alone in the Spotlight – a performance piece allowing students to showcase talents or interests through creative expression

• Educational Manifesto – a reflective, philosophical exploration of personal values and how they inform future teaching or interpreting

• Research Presentation – a formal, APA-cited presentation on a selfchosen topic

• Case Studies in Hollywood Pedagogy – a media analysis where students assess a "teacher figure" from film or TV and present their pedagogical relevance

In addition to these major assignments, students participate in early-semester speaking warm-ups like “Find the Eyes” (an eye contact and pacing exercise), “Tibetan Monks” (a group articulation and enunciation activity using the mantra “Om”), and various, short speaking tasks to break the ice and reduce public speaking anxiety.

Grading in the course is unique; students receive full credit for completing tasks rather than being assessed against a rigid rubric. This mastery-oriented approach honors individual growth over standardization, acknowledging that each student is developing at their own pace. One particularly important and effective grade is the “Listening Grade,” which encourages respectful audience behavior and active listening during peer presentations a necessary part of building confidence in novice speakers.

GATEWAYS TO TEACHER EDUCATON

Students are encouraged to reflect on their development via the “Midterm (or Final) Report” email, in which they evaluate their own progress and suggest course improvements. This timely feedback loop allows the instructor to adjust instruction based on student experiences before the term ends, rather than relying solely on postsemester evaluations. EDUC 2000 operates as both a personal and professional development course, offering a blend of expressive, academic, and practical communication experiences that empower pre-service educators to step confidently into their future classrooms.

Methodology

This study employed a survey-based quantitative research design to examine the relationship between participation in a communication course, Communication for Educators, and pre-service teachers’ selfefficacy in instructional communication. The primary focus was to assess whether students who completed the course reported significantly different levels of confidence in communication-related teaching tasks compared to students that had not taken the course. The design utilized both descriptive statistics and inferential statistical analyses (independent samples t-tests and one-way ANOVA) to evaluate patterns across subgroups and identify statisticallysignificant differences in self-efficacy.

Participants

Participants included 59 undergraduate students enrolled in a teacher preparation program at a public university in the Southeastern United States. The sample encompassed students across program levels (PS1 through PS4) and represented a variety of certification tracks, including elementary education, middle grades education, and secondary education. Of the total sample, 38

participants reported having completed the Communication for Educators course, while 16 had not completed the course, and four were unsure of their participation. Only students who clearly indicated "Yes" or "No" to having taken the course were included in inferential statistical comparisons.

Survey Instrument

The survey instrument was designed to measure self-efficacy in teaching-related communication, including public speaking, instructional clarity, student engagement, adaptability, and non-verbal communication techniques. The instrument consisted of multiple-choice items and 5-point Likertscale questions. Key items assessed participants’ confidence in explaining content, adapting to diverse learners, maintaining classroom engagement, and using verbal and non-verbal strategies to facilitate instruction.

In addition to self-efficacy ratings, participants were asked to indicate whether they had completed the Communication for Educators course and to identify their current program level and major concentration. These data points were used to perform group comparisons based on course completion and program area.

Data Collection

Data were collected via an electronic survey distributed to students enrolled in the teacher preparation program. The survey was administered through an online platform and remained open for a defined period of time to allow ample opportunity for participation. Participation was voluntary, and all responses were anonymous to protect confidentiality. The data collection procedure yielded sufficient responses to support comparative statistical analysis.

GATEWAYS TO TEACHER EDUCATON

Data Analysis

Survey data were analyzed using SPSS and included both descriptive and inferential statistical procedures. Descriptive statistics (means and standard deviations) were used to summarize self-efficacy levels across all participants. These descriptive results provided an overview of students' perceived confidence in various communication domains.

To test for group differences, independent samples t-tests were conducted to compare self-efficacy scores between students who had taken the Communication for Educators course and those who had not taken the course. In addition, one-way ANOVAs were used to assess differences in communication self-efficacy across major concentrations (elementary, middle grades, and secondary education). Post-hoc analyses (Tukey’s HSD) were applied where

appropriate to examine specific subgroup differences.

This analytical approach allowed for a detailed evaluation of whether participation in a targeted communication course was associated with increased instructional confidence and communication self-efficacy among pre-service teachers.

Results

A total of 59 students participated in the study. Of these, 38 students reported taking the Communication for Educators course, while 16 had not taken the course, and four were unsure of their participation in the course. Participants represented all program levels (PS1–PS4) and a variety of education tracks, with the largest concentration in elementary education. Table 1 presents the distribution of participants by program level, major, and communication course participation.

Table 1

Participant Demographics by Program Level, Major, and Course Participation

Program Level Major Concentration Course Status n

PS1 Elementary Education Did Not Take Course 3

PS1 Elementary Education Took Course 7

PS2 Elementary Education Did Not Take Course 5

PS2 Elementary Education Took Course 13

PS2 Middle Grades Education Took Course 3

PS2 Secondary Education Did Not Take Course 3

PS3

PS3

PS3

PS4

PS4 Secondary Education Did Not Take Course 2

(Note: Only major concentrations and levels with valid responses are shown.)

Self-Efficacy in Teaching and Communication

Descriptive statistics indicate generally high self-efficacy among participants across communication and instructional dimensions. Table 2 summarizes the mean (M) and standard deviation (SD) for each survey item by course participation status.

Table 2

Descriptive Statistics of Communication and Instructional Confidence by Course Status

Impact of Communication for Educators

Independent samples t-tests were used to determine if statistically-significant differences existed between students who took the communication course and those who did not. Results are shown in Table 3.

Table 3

T-Test Comparison of Students Who Took Communication for Educators vs. Students Who Did Not Take Communication for Educators

Variable t p

Explain Concepts 5.023 .000

Comfort Public Speaking 3.522 .002

Engage Students 4.445 .000

Adapt Communication 2.869 .009

Use Nonverbal Techniques 2.794 .011

Handle Questions 3.198 .003 Prepared in Practicum 3.774 .001

.002

Coursework Prepared Me 3.167 .003

All comparisons were statistically significant at the p < .05 level, indicating that students who completed Communication for Educators reported significantly higher self-efficacy in teaching-related communication skills compared to those who had not taken the course.

Differences by Major Concentration

A one-way ANOVA was conducted to compare self-efficacy among elementary,

middle grades, and secondary education majors. Two survey items showed statistically-significant differences. Table 4 provides the F-statistics and p-values.

Table 4

ANOVA Results Comparing Communication Confidence by Major Concentration

Communication

.016*

.228

.120

Nonverbal Techniques 5.037 .010*

Questions 2.378 .103

Prepared in Practicum 2.473 .095

Positive Feedback 2.558 .087

Coursework Prepared Me 2.122 .131

*p < .05

Post-hoc Tukey HSD tests revealed that elementary education majors reported significantly greater comfort with public speaking and more frequent use of nonverbal techniques compared to secondary education majors. No significant differences were observed between elementary and middle grades or between middle grades and secondary majors.

Discussion

The findings of this study provide strong support for the inclusion of explicit communication instruction in teacher preparation programs. Pre-service teachers who completed the Communication for Educators course demonstrated significantly higher self-efficacy across multiple instructional and interpersonal domains, including public speaking, classroom engagement, and the use of non-verbal communication strategies. These statistically-significant differences suggest that structured opportunities to practice communication in supportive, creative contexts can meaningfully enhance preservice teachers' sense of preparedness for real-world teaching demands.

These findings build upon existing research underscoring the importance of soft skills particularly communication, confidence, and adaptability in fostering effective classroom instruction (Bach & Hagenauer, 2022; Malik & Mohan, 2022). The gains in students’ confidence align with prior studies that emphasize the relationship between teacher self-efficacy and instructional effectiveness (Collie & Martin, 2016; Martin et al., 2019). Notably, students who took the course reported heightened preparedness for engaging students and handling instructional communication challenges skills that are frequently cited as areas of concern for early-career teachers (Pachauri & Yadav, 2014).

The course’s emphasis on studentcentered, expressive, and non-evaluative pedagogy may have played a central role in these results. Rather than relying on traditional lecture and grading models, the course design encouraged authentic communication practice, reflection, and peer feedback elements shown to foster longterm skill retention and greater teaching

confidence (Cimatti, 2016). This model stands in contrast to many traditional education courses that prioritize compliance with standards over the cultivation of voice, presence, and adaptability.

In addition, the ANOVA results revealed meaningful differences by major concentration, with elementary education majors reporting significantly higher levels of comfort in public speaking and use of non-verbal techniques than their secondary education peers. These results may reflect the differing nature of coursework and clinical experiences across licensure areas. Elementary programs often place a greater emphasis on developmental interaction and early fieldwork, which may provide more opportunities for students to practice adaptive and expressive communication strategies earlier in their training.

Overall, the findings suggest that dedicated communication coursework plays a vital role in shaping pre-service teachers’ readiness to teach. These results support a growing consensus in the literature that soft skills must be integrated rather than incidental in teacher preparation programs (Padhi, 2014; Uceda-Pintado et al., 2023).

Implications for Teacher Preparation

The findings of this study have significant implications for the design and structure of teacher preparation programs. First and foremost, the data suggest that communication courses should be a required component of all education majors' curricula. The dramatic differences in selfefficacy between those who took Communication for Educators and those who did not underscore the importance of structured communication instruction for developing the interpersonal and instructional presence essential to effective teaching.

Moreover, the data invite teacher education faculty to reconsider how practicum experiences support the development of soft skills. While field experiences are rich in real-world learning, they often lack intentional scaffolding for communication development. Embedding explicit reflection, feedback, and skillbuilding activities into practicum placements could serve to bridge the gap between coursework and practice.

The format and pedagogy of EDUC 2000 also provide a model to illustrate effective soft skill instruction; for example non-evaluative, student-centered, creative, and reflective techniques are paramount to facilitating effective teaching in this manner. This contrasts with the more rigid, rubricdriven nature of many traditional education courses and suggests a need to infuse more expressive and low-stakes performance opportunities throughout the curriculum.

Limitations

While this study offers valuable insights, several limitations must be acknowledged. The primary limitation lies in the self-reported nature of the data. While students' perceptions of their communication efficacy are meaningful, they may not fully reflect actual teaching performance. Additionally, the study is limited to a single institution, which restricts the generalizability of the findings. Differences in faculty, program design, or institutional culture could yield different outcomes in other contexts.

Another limitation is the small sample size within specific subgroups (e.g., secondary education majors), which may have influenced the power of the ANOVA analyses. Furthermore, the “Not Sure” responses from some participants regarding their course participation status introduce

minor ambiguity into group comparisons; however, these responses were excluded from inferential statistics.

Recommendations for Future Research

Future research should extend this work by conducting longitudinal studies that track students from coursework through clinical placements and into their first years of teaching. This would provide a more comprehensive picture of how communication training impacts real-world performance and retention. Including video analysis of student teaching, peer evaluations, and mentor teacher assessments would strengthen the validity of findings by linking perception to practice.

Additional studies might also explore the transferability of the “punk rock pedagogy” model to other teacher education contexts and investigate how course design features such as non-graded assessments, personal expression, and peer support specifically contribute to growth in communication confidence. Finally, largerscale research could examine how communication-focused coursework affects students from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds, adding to the conversation around inclusive and culturally responsive teacher preparation.

Conclusion

This study investigated the impact of a dedicated communication course Communication for Educators on the selfefficacy and instructional confidence of preservice teachers. The results clearly demonstrate that students who completed the course reported significantly higher levels of confidence across multiple domains of teaching communication, including public speaking, engagement strategies, adaptability, and the use of nonverbal techniques. These findings reinforce

the importance of explicitly addressing soft skills within teacher preparation programs.

The evidence suggests that targeted instruction in communication enhances students’ perceived readiness for the classroom and may also address common barriers that impede novice teachers, such as anxiety about public speaking or difficulty engaging students. By incorporating creative, student-centered, and reflective practices, the course offers a replicable model for supporting professional and personal growth in pre-service educators.

While the findings are based on selfreported data from a single institution, the consistency and strength of the reported outcomes suggest that communication coursework should be considered an essential component of teacher education. As institutions seek to equip future educators with the full spectrum of tools needed for success, developing soft skills like communication must move from the periphery to the core of curriculum design.

Future research should continue to examine the long-term effects of such coursework, exploring how enhanced communication skills influence teaching effectiveness during clinical placements and early career experiences. Expanding the scope of research to include observational data and diverse institutional contexts will further clarify the role of communication training in shaping the next generation of effective, confident, and adaptable educators.

References

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Cimatti, B. (2016). Definition, development, assessment of soft skills and their role for the quality of organizations and enterprises. International Journal of Quality Research, 10(1), 97–130.

Collie, R. J., & Martin, A. J. (2016). Adaptability: An important capacity for effective teachers. Educational Practice and Theory, 38(1), 27–39.

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GATEWAYS TO TEACHER EDUCATON

Malik, S., & Mohan, A. (2022). Soft skills for effective teaching–learning: A reviewbased study. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 12(5), 245–252. https://doi.org/10.29322/IJSRP.12.05.202 2.p12528

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Uceda-Pintado, I. L., Riojas-Cisneros, M. A., Cueva-Castro, J. M., & Ramos-Vera, C. A. (2023). Relationship between communication skills and emotional intelligence in university teachers. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1184931. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.11849 31

University of Northern Iowa. (2022). Communication education & training certificate

https://chas.uni.edu/cm/graduateprogram/graduatecertificates/communication-educationtraining-certificate

What are Mathematics Teacher Educators’ Perceptions of Equity-based Teaching Practices?

Zareen Gul Aga & Amanda Sawyer James Madison University

Abstract

We surveyed mathematics teacher educators (MTEs) to understand what equity-based teaching practices (ETP) means to them. In particular, we asked the MTEs about implementing ETP and social justice in mathematics teacher education courses. We sought to learn about MTEs’ perceptions of ETP to support them in their pursuit of social justice and equity focused work in their education courses. In this manuscript, we describe 44 MTEs' perceptions of ETP as they connect to mathematics teacher preparation in the US. We share themes in MTEs’ responses about the meaning of ETP, benefits of ETP and challenges in implementation.

Introduction

Mathematics is a subject that is not without culture. However, it has been taught that way for years because of beliefs and misunderstandings about the history of mathematics and its importance in our society (Gutiérrez, 2017). For example, many students in the United States are taught phrases like “standard algorithms.” This refers to how they solve multiplication or division without realizing that these methods are not standard worldwide. This US-centric view of mathematics is detrimental to students’ understanding of mathematics and to developing a peaceful

society that values the thoughts and views of others (Gutiérrez, 2017).

Research has shown that the ways in which mathematics teacher educators (MTEs) teach their courses influences how preservice teachers (PSTs) view mathematics. MTEs need to instruct our future teachers about mathematics teaching that supports reform. PSTs must see how an understanding of mathematics and mathematical analysis of our world can play a role in building an equitable society (Civil, 2007; Civil, 2002; González et al., 2001; Leonard, 2008). Since mathematics has been traditionally taught without context, many mathematics teacher educators have not been exposed to equitable teaching practices in their mathematics education courses. There is a need to investigate MTEs’ perspectives of equity-based teaching practices to support the fundamental changes needed in our classrooms today.

Purpose

We surveyed MTEs to understand what equity-based teaching practice means to them. Our understanding of the term equitybased teaching practice is guided by literature on culturally responsive pedagogy (Ladson-Billings, 1994, 1995a, 1995b, 1995c), teaching mathematics for social justice (Gutstein, 2003), and culturally responsive mathematics teaching (Aguirre &

Zavalla, 2013). While existing research has focused on mathematics practices that build on students’ funds of knowledge and connect mathematics with social justice, there is a need to learn about the practical application of such practices and how teachers perceive them (Civil, 2007; Civil, 2002; González et al. 2001; Leonard, 2008). To this end, we surveyed MTEs about implementing ETP and social justice in mathematics teacher education courses. We aimed to learn about current practices in the field to support teacher educators in their pursuit of supporting social justice focused and ETP in their education courses. In this manuscript, we describe 44 MTEs' perceptions of ETP as they connect to mathematics teacher preparation in the US. We aim to share themes in MTEs’ responses about the meaning of ETP and challenges in implementation. The research question guiding this study was: What are mathematics teacher educators’ perceptions of ETP?

Literature

Mathematics education needs to focus on equity-based teaching practices (NCTM, 2000) and on guiding our future teachers in meeting the needs of their diverse students (Civil, 2007; Civil, 2002; González et al. 2001; Leonard, 2008). Teachers should incorporate their students’ experiences in their teaching (Moll & Gonzalez, 2004) while aiming to develop their students’ awareness of social issues (Aguirre & Zavala, 2013). What teachers learn and experience in their teacher education programs profoundly influences their ability to interact with a diverse student body, making it essential to examine teacher education programs (Nieto & Bode, 2018). An important component of teacher education programs is the faculty, who

design and implement activities in which future teachers engage.

While there is a dearth of research about MTEs’ perceptions of equity-based teaching practices, this information can be gleaned from the activities designed for PSTs and interventions developed for professional development with inservice teachers. For example, Nolan and Xenofontos (2023) analyzed prospective and inservice teachers’ perspectives on culturally responsive pedagogy (CRP) prior to their participation in a professional development course on culturally responsive pedagogy in the mathematics classroom. They analyzed survey responses from 31 participants to find themes such as participants’ challenges, opportunities, fears, resistance, and insights about CRP. They suggest that understanding teachers’ perceptions about CRP can help guide their development of CRP related practices.

Whitaker and Valtierra (2018) studied the ways in which teacher education programs could motivate PSTs to teach culturally and linguistically diverse learners. They analyzed student survey data to find that PSTs did not feel confident in their ability to teach diverse learners and their knowledge of CRP. They found that an explicit focus on CRP in teacher education coursework and field placement could influence PSTs’ motivation towards teaching diverse students. Wilcoxen and colleagues (2022) also found that developing PSTs’ field experience could help support their learning of CRP.

Abacioglu and colleagues (2020) found culturally responsive teaching (CRT) to influence student engagement and achievement. They aimed to learn about the importance of teachers’ multicultural attitudes, and their ability to be mindful about their students’ perspective, needs and

background. They surveyed 143 inservice teachers and hoped to use the findings to inform teachers’ professional development and interventions. They found that teachers who are able to take into account their students’ perspectives when planning instruction are more likely to engage in socially and culturally sensitive teaching. They stress the need for designing experiences for PSTs and inservice teachers where they learn about experiences of students that may be different from their own.

Nolan and Keazer (2021), two MTEs teaching courses on culturally relevant pedagogy (CRP) in mathematics to preservice and inservice teachers, used course related data to understand their own culturally relevant practices. They found that it is necessary for MTEs to be critical when using CRP, be cognizant of their goals, and be mindful in their implementation of CRP. The researchers stress that it is easy for MTEs to become complacent when seemingly implementing CRP but allowing inequitable and biased practices to persist. In another study, Nolan (2023) engaged in a self-study while teaching a course on CRP in the mathematics classroom and shared the challenges of becoming a culturally responsive MTE. The MTE found it important to be mindful of the social justice and equity goals of CRP because a simplified understanding and application of CRP can propagate the same practices one is aiming to change.

Morrison and team (2022) studied three inservice teachers’ practice after they had completed a graduate course on culturally responsive teaching (CRT). They found that their participants had developed some level of sociopolitical consciousness but overall needed more support in developing proficiency on CRT. They recommend

changes to curriculum and instructional practices such as devoting more time to CRT in courses, and including reflective exercises such as writing autobiographies to help inservice teachers become mindful of their own sociocultural identities. These researchers stressed the need for continued research that investigates and exemplifies best practices in culturally responsive teacher education. Brown and colleagues (2019) also stressed the need for research connecting theory and practice when it comes to culturally relevant pedagogy.

Theoretical Framework

Mathematics pedagogy, such as teaching mathematics for social justice and critical mathematics education, supports using mathematics to analyze and change existing social structures to take action toward change (Aguirre et al., 2019; Frankenstein, 1990; Freire, 1970). In addition, culturally responsive mathematics teaching highlights a focus on mathematics, students’ funds of knowledge, identity, and power (Aguirre & Zavala, 2013; Bartell, 2013). These ideas are connected to critical peace education. In particular, it is essential to engage in change in the process toward sustainable peace (Brantmeier, 2013). Efforts to question existing power structures and develop ways to bring about change are essential in attaining long-term peace (Brantmeier, 2013). Developing a critical lens to view the structures one is embedded in is the first step in the process, and Freire called this idea critical consciousness (1974). Critical peace education is deeply connected to Freire’s framework, especially regarding teacher education (Bajaj & Brantmeier, 2011). According to Brantmeier et al. (2010), employing the critical peace education framework in U.S. teacher education programs can create systemic change. By preparing student teachers who

reconceptualize the role of a teacher, we can work towards building relationships between teachers, students, schools, and communities (Christopher & Taylor, 2011).

Fostering relationships, developing consciousness, and building equitable practices are all critical in teacher education, and effective teacher education can play an essential role in bringing about positive social change (Christopher & Taylor, 2011). Speaking about teacher preparation, Villegas and Lucas (2002) stress:

To successfully move the field of teacher education beyond the fragmented and superficial treatment of diversity that currently prevails, teacher educators must articulate a vision of teaching and learning in a diverse society and use that vision to systematically guide the infusion of multicultural issues throughout the preservice curriculum. A vision is offered of culturally responsive teachers that can serve as the starting point for conversations among teacher educators in this process. In this vision, culturally responsive teachers (a) are socio-culturally conscious, (b) have affirming views of students from diverse backgrounds, (c) see themselves as responsible for and capable of bringing about change to make schools more equitable, (d) understand how learners construct knowledge and are capable of promoting knowledge construction, (e) know about the lives of their students, and (f) design instruction that builds on what their students already know while stretching them beyond the familiar. (2002, p. 20).

This vision of teaching and learning in a diverse society, meeting the needs of a diverse student body, aligns with the praxis of critical peace education, where the goal is to analyze existing power dynamics and work towards changing them for sustainable peace (Brantmeier, 2013).

Methodology

Using survey methodology, we investigated MTEs’ understanding of equitybased teaching practices (Groves et al., 2011). Mathematics teachers were surveyed using Qualtrics, an online surveying platform allowing for anonymous responses from links. The survey questions allowed participants to explain their reasoning through open-ended responses, and multiple-choice response questions were asked for demographic information (See Appendix).

Sampling Method

The study participants were recruited through a convenience sample with a snowball sampling component (Weiss, 1994). The survey was emailed to the chairs and presidents of all 50 National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) stateaffiliate organizations and state-affiliated presidents for the Association of Mathematics Teacher Educators (AMTE) to be disseminated to their members. The link to the survey was also posted on multiple forms of social media, including X, formerly known as Twitter (using hashtags such as #edchat, #mathchat, #mtbos, #iteach, and #iteachmath), Facebook (in pages and private groups geared towards teachers and mathematics teacher educators who could forward on to teachers), and Instagram (using hashtags similar to X).

Participants

Forty-four participants completed the survey and were identified as teaching across 11 states in the United States, ranging from New York, Missouri, Texas, and Virginia, which had the largest frequency of six. Of the 44, only 22 responded to demographic information about their current position. Twenty-one of the 22 participants identified as teaching in a public university,

and one identified as working at a community college. Ten participants identified as Assistant Professors, five identified as Associate Professors, three identified as Full professors, two identified as Instructors; one adjunct and one other also participated. These participants had a wide range of years of experience from 0-2 (1 participant) to 36 plus years (1 participant), with the largest population (7 participants) identified as teaching for 16-20 years.

Data Analysis

The data obtained through the surveys were coded and analyzed for themes using the constant comparative method (Creswell & Creswell, 2017). We organized, analyzed, and found meanings in unstructured data from the descriptive data and open-ended survey questions. The survey data were reviewed and coded for specific major patterns, meanings, and participant discrepancies. Each open-ended response was analyzed to determine if its code fit within an already-created theme. When the data presented new patterns, emerging themes were constructed from the participants’ responses (Creswell & Creswell, 2017). For example, the theme of Differentiating instruction to facilitate all students’ learning of mathematics emerged as a meaning of the term “Equity-based teaching practice.” After identifying the categories for all responses, the researcher developed a detailed codebook using a process described by DeCuir-Gunby, Marshall, and McCulloch (2011), and shared it with the other researcher (see Table 1). For example, when analyzing teachers’ meanings of equity-based teaching practices, participants discussed instructional practices to help meet their students’ needs, which we coded as differentiation. Major themes were constructed for our research question,

encompassing the data set, and no new themes emerged from additional data coded from the survey.

Table 1. Codes for each of the three main themes

Meaning of the term “equity-based teaching practice”

Perceived benefits of “equitybased teaching practice”

Perceived challenges of “equitybased teaching practice”

Differentiation Inclusivity Pushback

Systemic injustice

Cultural awareness

Learning about systemic injustice Beliefs

Long term change Physical constraints

Findings

To answer our research question about MTEs’ perceptions towards ETP, we analyzed MTEs’ responses to look for emergent themes about ETP. The main themes centered on the participants’ understanding of the meaning of “equitybased teaching practice.” We also found that MTEs alluded to different perceived benefits and challenges toward “equitybased teaching practice.” An emergent theme across all the data was that MTEs need to learn more about ETP. These themes are shared below in detail.

Meaning of the term “equity-based teaching practice”

MTEs’ responses about the meaning of the term “equity-based teaching practice”

fell into three main categories: (1) Differentiating instruction to facilitate all students’ learning of mathematics, (2) Instruction to educate the students about systemic injustice, and (3) Developing cultural awareness in students.

(1) Differentiating instruction to facilitate all students’ learning of mathematics. This was the overwhelming response from the MTEs (14 out of 44 respondents). Their responses, such as “Multiple access points for all students”, “The teacher uses practices that allow students to take different journeys to reach the destination” or “Teaching practices that ensure equitable learning opportunities for students,” indicate that MTEs are interested in catering to the needs of a diverse student body.

Some responses provided information about MTEs’ meaning of diversity. For example, “The teacher is sensitive to each learner’s specific situation as practices are planned and developed. The teacher uses these understandings to teach in ways without bias and negative mindset” and “Equity-based teaching practices mean making a conscious effort to incorporate curriculum, instruction, and assessment materials that keep in mind the diversity of the classroom in a way that all individuals feel welcome, accepted, and can participate fully.” We received limited information about the meaning of diversity in the classroom. Even though the term “diverse learners” was frequently employed, our analysis aligned the diversity with differences in learning needs. For example,

“It can be easy to teach math to the students who 'get it,' and too often, that is what teachers do. To be equitable, teachers must teach to all children, not just the 'high kids'. Too often young children sit in the back and don't make a sound. That is who

needs to be reached. The difference between those who 'get it' and those who don't make a sound is vast.”

This comment points towards a narrow view of MTE’s perception of equity in the classroom. While the MTE wants all their students to learn, the distinction being made is between students who understand mathematics versus those who struggle quietly. There were not many comments that went deeper about the several reasons why a student might stay quiet in the classroom. Only one response used the term “underrepresented/marginalized learners” when discussing ETP.

(2) Instruction to educate the students about systemic injustice. The second theme (five out of 44 responses) about equitybased teaching practices was teaching the students about systemic injustice. For example,

“Equity-based teaching practices is about creating practices and class community that acknowledges, addresses, and mitigates the injustices around racism, sexism, homophobia, transphobia. It could involve creating problems to explore those issues, [using] data to critique systems of power, [or] using examples of underrepresented folks in your field as guiding lesson design. The other element in creating a classroom dynamic where the power is shared between student and teacher. Where every student feels represented and heard.”

There were fewer comments in this category, but this understanding of equitybased teaching practices included more than just teaching mathematics to all students; there was a focus on developing an awareness of systems within which students were embedded. Within this group, some MTEs shared that they had used lessons or

tasks highlighting social justice contexts, such as living wages, police bias, gerrymandering, etc. One MTE shared, “With respect to my class, I have engaged in this work in the lessons provided by Berry et al. (2020). I have used a few of these lessons and thus far we have discussed the lack of participation by people of color in gifted or advanced placement courses in mathematics and the border crisis situation of unaccompanied minors.” Another MTE described the activities they had designed and implemented, “We do several activities around issues of current events; we look at participation in and probability of winning the lottery using the work of Rubel; we create simulations that show how inequitable sentencing leads to overrepresentation of brown bodies in prisons; we examine taxes and taxation to consider the fairness of current systems; we examine the cost to clean up oil spills and compose functions to model this cost.” Such efforts point towards MTEs teaching about addressing systemic issues using mathematics.

(3) Developing cultural awareness. Lastly, the third theme, found in 1 out of 44 responses, focused on developing students’ cultural awareness. For example, “Creating new practices that respond to students' cultural capital and grow it, and a continual praxis of reflection and action that interrogates our own beliefs and biases and acts to empower all students and families.” This take on equity-based teaching practices focused on promoting cultural competence as well as attending to “dimensions of identity, achievement, power and access” to connect mathematics to contexts that are relevant to students’ lives. It is evident from the frequency of such comments that developing cultural awareness is not something most of the participants

considered when responding about the meaning of ETP.

Perceived benefits of “equity-based teaching practice”

Regarding the perceived benefits of equity-based teaching practices, inclusivity was the most popular response (6 out of 44). One MTE shared, “The biggest benefit is the inclusiveness and the ability to meet all learners where they are, with whom they are.” Another MTE shared that inclusive meant “Seeing beyond our comfort zones of white students.” When describing the benefits of equity-based teaching practices, the MTEs were descriptive in their responses about what inclusive education is. As explained by one MTE:

The biggest benefit is changing the culture of classrooms, and by proxy the experiences of students of the future teachers. By changing this culture to be more inclusive and equitable you are able to create citizens who won't perpetuate sexism, racism, homophobia, xenophobia and transphobia. It's also creating a clear connection between what the content is in the classroom and how it ties to the lived experiences of students. This makes the content richer.

This MTE shared their vision for what teaching and learning mathematics can look like. Another MTE shared, “Racism is deeply ingrained in our society, and the biggest benefit is to not only help dismantle racism a tiny bit at a time but also for children to develop the love and understanding of mathematics, in particular, BIPOC.” For the MTEs, it was necessary to support a changing definition of teaching and learning mathematics and prepare future teachers ready to teach a diverse group of students. For example, one MTE shared, “As our country becomes more diverse,

teachers are less likely to have homogeneous classrooms. Knowing how to listen and talk through what they are seeing with a CRL will assist in guiding their students.” These comments reflect a wider consensus of the MTEs and demonstrate a need for change in preparing further mathematics teachers.

Perceived challenges of “equity-based teaching practice”

While there was agreement that change was needed, the MTEs also shared the challenges they faced with existing teachers when it came to equity-based teaching practices. Policy, parent-student resistance, and perceptions about mathematics were shared as the biggest challenges (5 out of 44 responses). One MTE explained, “My class is currently called ‘Problem Solving with Diverse Learners,’ and I wanted to have this changed to ‘Mathematics for Social Justice.’ However, I was told that I must keep the original title as the new title was too controversial, and our Provost wants to avoid offering any classes that would cause controversy.” For this MTE, departmental policies limited their actions. Other MTEs pointed towards the challenges faced by inservice K-12 teachers:

Our governmental regulations legislative rules of what can and cannot be talked about and curricular materials time to adequately plan meaningful lessons; restrictions set by PLT/department/county curricula. They are trying to stand up to the entire U.S. political system when they enact these practices. In addition to policies, they shared that strong ideas about what it means to teach and learn mathematics was in itself a challenge. In the words of one MTE:

The biggest hurdle is overcoming the perceived controversy by discussing culture, social justice, or equity in mathematics. Many still have the purview that

mathematics is void of [anything] cultural. Trying to change this perception of those within and outside of the field has been challenging. They shared that this resistance included various stakeholders such as policymakers, parents, students, and community members.

The need to learn about “equity-based teaching practice”

Even while facing challenges, 6 out of 44 MTEs mentioned learning more about equity-based teaching practices. Their comments indicated that they are willing to learn. For example, one MTE said, “I still don't feel like I have a handle on any of this and when I do have these conversations, I do not feel qualified at all to be having them. I need to gain more experience, understanding, and comfort about what I can and should do and how I can and should be doing it. What can we as educators do?” and another MTE shared:

For starters, I am struggling with defining these terms. At times I and others use social justice and equity interchangeably. However, this gives me pause to consider that the two are separate things. While probably too much to discuss in a survey, I do need to separate the two in terms of my own scholarship and practice.

In our next steps, we will interview MTEs to learn about their meaning of the term “diverse student body” and what diversity in the classroom means to them. While only several mentioned the need to learn about ETP, analysis of their survey responses points towards the need to develop greater understanding of ETP for most of the participants.

Discussion

MTEs’ meaning of ETP ranged from differentiating instruction to meeting the

learning needs of a diverse group of students, to supporting the development of cultural competence and discussing social issues in mathematics classrooms. MTEs’ need to develop their own understanding of what ETP means to them. When MTEs use a critical lens to understand their own perceptions about equity-based teaching practices, they might be able to question their existing practices and develop a foundation for new learning (Nolan & Keazer, 2021; Nolan, 2023). It is crucial for MTEs to engage in such reflection because they are responsible for Preservice teachers (PST)s’ development of ETP. With greater understanding of what equity in the mathematics classroom looks like they might be able to model ETP in their own classrooms when preparing PSTs.

Our findings indicate that several MTEs considered differentiating instruction to be sufficient to make their teaching equitable. While differentiation is important to meet the learning needs of students, MTEs need a critical lens when considering ETP. There is a strong social justice component to equityfocused pedagogies that invites teachers to consider mathematics as a tool towards questioning existing structures and towards change (Aguirre et al., 2019; Frankenstein, 1990; Freire, 1970). It is important to build mathematics instruction on students’ funds of knowledge, identity, and power to help them see themselves as having agency (Aguirre & Zavala, 2013; Bartell, 2013). ETP stresses the need for students to develop a critical lens to improve their own lives and communities. MTEs need to support their students in developing a deeper understanding of ETP and what it can look like in their own teaching practice.

Further, it is important to investigate what MTEs perceive as their primary role in changing mathematics teaching and learning

and making it accessible to all. A few MTEs mentioned existing educational policies as a constraint for them implementing ETP in their courses. Policy, parents and administration were mentioned by some MTEs and these stakeholders are a common challenge mentioned by PSTs as well, when discussing ETP (Aga, 2024). Here it is important to consider how MTEs perceive their own role in taking on these perceived challenges. If individuals perceive that their engagement can have a tangible impact, they are incentivized to try and shape policy (Arnold & Holahan, 2014). Their views on who holds authority influence how they act or participate in situations (Cusik, 2013; Puko, 2012). Thus, an MTE’s understanding of their own role and their agency to influence change can affect whether they choose to try to influence change.

These findings are connected to MTEs’ existing understanding of ETP and can guide the development of professional development in this area. MTEs’ meaning of ETP ranged from differentiating instruction for student learning needs to supporting the development of cultural competence and discussing social issues in mathematics classrooms.

Limitations

There were many limitations to this survey. First, this investigation involved a minimal subset of MTEs, with only 11 states represented. We also distributed the survey through social media and e-mails to MTEs associated with national mathematics education organizations such as NCTM and AMTE. NCTM and AMTE provide professional development opportunities to support MTEs in developing Equitable Teaching practices; thus, these individuals who could have received the survey from those emails might have had more information than those not associated with

those professional organizations. Also, all surveys were completed through an online survey tool, Qualtrics; thus, if a person was not active on social media or comfortable using computers, they might have different access to the survey.

Implications

These findings have specific implications for research as well as practice. First, we need to create professional development for practicing MTEs to support their understanding of equity-based teaching practice. Since many did not typically have this kind of instruction in their own educational experience, we know the definitions individuals have created come from various areas that we need to be aware of. Future research is needed to determine how individuals are coming to their understanding to serve this population better. Also, we know that individuals’ definitions and beliefs about these practices influence how they teach and implement these items in their math education classrooms. Therefore, by providing opportunities for math teacher educators to implement these skills in their classes, they can change their teaching practice through their beliefs.

Second, there needs to be acknowledgment of common difficulties around implementing these practices for MTEs, practicing teachers, and PSTs. These perceived hurdles hinder teachers from enacting their beliefs because of who has authority in their classrooms. As evident from our data, MTEs are influenced by their political system and the bureaucracy of their universities. Since we are influenced, so are our students; thus, acknowledging these difficulties and showing that they can be worked with and through is vital to having people implement equity-based teaching practices and their courses. Open

communication could help support reluctant individuals who would like to implement these practices but fear the ramifications of controversy in their classroom.

Finally, since most MTEs perceived ETP as highly beneficial to their classroom, we believe more MTEs would be receptive to this type of experience and learning in manuscripts. More practitioner papers can be written to support implementing these practices in the field. MTEs can benefit from learning about employing ETP especially because they can be complex and problematic for specific populations.

Conclusion

In conclusion more work is needed to understand MTEs’ perceptions regarding ETP. Our findings provided a window into how a small subset of MTEs in the US think about ETP. A lot of these MTEs considered differentiated instruction to be sufficient when thinking about ETP. However, this view of ETP is incomplete and warrants support for the MTEs to develop a greater understanding of what equity means in a mathematics classroom. MTEs need to see mathematics as a tool that can help individuals become aware of and take action against systemic injustice. Such deeper understanding of ETP can lead towards a change in mathematics teacher education to support the development of critical mathematics teachers.

We also learned about MTEs’ perceived benefits and challenges in adopting ETP. While several MTEs shared that ETP can help develop inclusive classrooms, the meaning of inclusivity warrants further investigation. In addition, the perceived challenges mentioned by the MTEs also point towards the need to unpack MTEs’ experiences in their own institutions and how they navigate the requirements and

expectations of their teacher education programs. More information about the ways in which K-12 and higher education faculty

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Survey Questions - Equity-Based Teaching Practices in the Post-Secondary Classroom

Q1. Information about the study.

Q2. Please note that this survey should be completed on a laptop or desktop computer.

o I consent, begin survey.

o I do not consent, I do not wish to participate.

Q3. I verify that I teach post-secondary mathematics pedagogy or content.

o Yes

o No

Q4. Please select the state in which you are currently teaching.

State (1)

▼ Alabama (1) ... US Territories (51)

Q5. Please select the type of institution in which you teach.

▢ Public University

▢ Private University

▢ Community College

▢ Other

Q6. Please select your current title at your Institution.

▢ Adjunct (1)

▢ Instructor (2)

▢ Assistant Professor (3)

▢ Associate Professor (4)

▢ Full Professor (5)

▢ Professor Emeritus (6)

▢ Other (7)

Q7. How many years of teaching experience (K-12 and higher education) do you have?

o 0 - 2 (1)

o 3 - 5 (2)

o 6 - 10 (3)

o 11 - 15 (4)

o 16 - 20 (5)

o 21 - 25 (6)

o 26 - 30 (7)

o 31 - 35 (8)

o 36+ (9)

Q8. What types of courses do you teach at your institution?

▢ Elementary Mathematical Methods (1)

▢ Elementary Mathematics Content (2)

▢ Middle/Secondary Mathematics Methods (3)

▢ Middle/Secondary Mathematic Content (4)

▢

Research Methods Course (5)

▢ Other (6)

Q9. Describe the student population in your course(s):

▢ Undergraduate prospective teachers (1)

▢ Undergraduate non-teachers (2)

▢ Graduate prospective teachers (3)

▢ Graduate non-teachers (4)

▢ Practicing teachers (5)

▢ Other (6)

Q10. Have you heard or read about equitybased teaching practices? If so, where did you hear about equity-based teaching practices?

o Yes

o No

Q11. What does the term equity-based teaching practices mean to you?

Q12. Have you ever employed equity-based teaching practices?

o Yes

o No

Q13. Please select in which course(s) have you employed equity-based teaching practices?

▢ Elementary Mathematical Methods

▢ Elementary Mathematics Content

▢ Middle/Secondary Mathematics Methods

▢ Middle/Secondary Mathematic Content

▢ Research Methods Course

▢ Other

Q14. Now focus on a course where you have employed equity-based teaching practices. Please state the title of the course(s) which you are sharing information about.

Q15. What resources do you use to plan for equity-based teaching practices?

Q16. What materials do you use to implement equity-based teaching practices?

▢ Presentation (i.e. PowerPoint)

▢ Specific reading in class

▢ In class projects or assignments

▢ Lesson plans

▢ Out of class implementation

▢ Other

Q17. What are some challenges you have faced or suspect you may face when engaging in equity-based teaching practices?

▢ MTEs’ departmental challenges

▢ MTEs’ pedagogical challenges

▢ MTEs’ student resistance/challenges

▢ Other challenges (possible challenges)

GATEWAYS TO TEACHER EDUCATON

Q18. What factors influence your understanding of equity-based teaching practices?

▢ Conversations at conferences

▢ Conference presentations

▢ Research papers

▢ Departmental professional development

▢ Departmental informal conversations with colleagues

▢ Department in which they are situated

▢ Content or methods course

▢ Years of teaching at your current position

▢ Years of teaching at the collegiate level

▢ Years of K-12 teaching, if any

▢ Other

Factors

Q19. What factors may influence your implementation of equity-based teaching practices?

▢ Conversations at conferences

▢ Conference presentations

▢ Research papers

▢ Departmental professional development

▢ Departmental informal conversations with colleagues

▢ Department in which they are situated

▢ Content or methods course

▢ Years of teaching at your current position

▢ Years of teaching at the collegiate level

▢ Years of K-12 teaching, if any ▢

Other

Q20. Have you ever engaged in discussion around current events or social justice issues in this course?

o Yes

o No

Q21. Please provide a brief description of your own experience engaging in discussions around current events or social justice issues.

Q22. What do you believe is the biggest benefit of equity-based teaching practices?

Q23. What do you believe is the biggest hurdle math teachers have in using equitybased teaching practices in public schools?

Q24. What else would you like to share about your experience with equity-based teaching practices?

A Systematic Literature Review of MixedReality Use in Special Education Preparation Programs

Samantha Mrstik 1 & Maria B. Peterson-Ahmad 2

1 Georgia Gwinnett College

2 Texas Woman’s University

Abstract

Mixed-reality platforms have been cited in literature as a method aiding in the preparation of teachers through skill development. The extent of its use within special education teacher development specifically was of interest to researchers; therefore, the completion of this systematic literature review explored the extent that mixed-reality has been used with special educator preparation. The researchers conducted a peer-reviewed literature search using online electronic databases using keywords including Special Education; Disabilities; Simulation; Mixed Reality; Teacher Education; Professional Development; Teacher Preparation; Educator Preparation. In total, the researchers reviewed 48 peer-reviewed articles using the above search terms. After reading through and removing articles that did not contain both special education and mixed-reality specific criteria, N=13 articles remained as viable literature to be reviewed.

Keywords: mixed-reality; teacher preparation; special education; simulation; educator education

Introduction

Today’s schools require advanced digital skills that integrate technology into curriculum (Landon-Hays, et al., 2020). Research has supported the use of multimedia in increasing contentknowledge, teaching pedagogy, and problem-solving skills (Rieg & Wilson, 2009). While educator preparation programs incorporate aspects of technology into coursework and assignments that allow preservice teachers to have opportunities to learn about technological formats that can enhance classroom pedagogy (e.g., electronic digital tools/media) and meet the needs of the diverse student needs (e.g., assistive technology), specific research on multimedia platforms using mixed-reality specific to special educator preparation are still sparse.

Special educators are responsible for incorporating differentiated strategies (both academic and behavioral) to support the individualized needs of their students and to provide students with disabilities the maximum opportunity to learn (McLeskey et al, 2017). Therefore, it is vital that special education preparation programs equip future teachers with skills and competencies that allow for the provision of specially designed

instruction (e.g., instruction, assessment, behavior management, collaboration) to best support student needs and work toward the progression of individualized goals (Bruhn et al., 2020; Riccomini et al, 2017; Stecker et al., 2008). Innovative opportunities (e.g., mixed-reality), in addition to traditional preparation methods, can allow for preservice special educators to engage in realistic practice teaching experiences where they can practice newly learned pedagogical strategies in a low-stakes environment with feedback from their course instructors.

Conversely though, special educator preparation programs are often challenged with sufficiently preparing high-quality teachers who can effectively provide such support to students with varying ability levels and who receive services for special education. To date, there has been inadequate emphasis on special education teacher training related to complex pedagogical and classroom management practices beyond traditional coursework and field activities, which results in teacher candidates leaving their educator preparation program without sufficient implementation knowledge of effective instructional practices and with limited classroom-ready skills (McLeskey, 2020).

Pre-service special educators beginning knowledge of concepts from coursework and the short timeframes dedicated to most field experiences may not receive adequate opportunities to practice and refine their teaching skills in a way that builds efficacy prior to school-based field experiences. Often, they will teach a lesson once without the opportunity to revisit, refine, and improve their practice upon reflection and note receiving repeated practice that leads to advanced skills (Landon-Hays, et al., 2020). Research has documented a connection between teachers’ subject matter knowledge

and performance in the classroom and preservice teachers with advanced preparation in teaching methods and strategies (outside of program coursework and field experiences) have a greater chance of staying in the classroom (DarlingHammond, 1999; Ingersoll, et al., 2012). Therefore, it is crucial that special education teacher candidates are provided with early and repeated experiences to practice teaching pedagogy to refine their practice.

Mixed-Reality

Mixed-reality combines features of augmented and virtual reality to create a simulated space highlighted in both physical and virtual formats (Constanza, et al., 2009; Speicher, et al., 2019) and has been used across many fields of study for training purposes (e.g., medical, business, hospitality). However, as efforts to improve teacher preparation programs continue and evidence of the benefits of experiential learning effectiveness through mixed-reality grows, so does the need for innovative ways to continue its incorporation into aspects of educator preparation programs (PetersonAhmad, 2018). Mixed-reality use in special education preparation programs allows preservice teachers to practice skills that can aid in transferring content learned in courses where immediate coaching can be provided from an expert (Dieker, et al., 2014; Dieker, et al., 2017).

Over the last decade, mixed-reality has been used more frequently within teacher education as a whole. Some examples include providing students opportunities to respond (Peterson-Ahmad, 2014), teacher efficacy in the TeachME Lab (Bautista & Boone, 2015), classroom management using TeachLiveE© (TLE) (Pankowski & Walker, 2016), consultation skills using TLE (Krach & Hanline, 2018), improving conversations with parents using TLE (Dalinger et al.,

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2019), teaching English to speakers of other languages using Mursion (Kamhi-Stein et al., 2020), building classroom community using Mursion (Spitzman, et al., 2022), and coping with anxiety using Mursion (Anton et al., 2023). Given the increase in research specific to the use of mixed-reality across teacher education, evidence of its use in special education preparation programs specifically is still limited.

Methodology

The purpose of this systematic literature review was to identify, summarize, and synthesize, peer-reviewed research studies that were specific to special educator teacher preparation and the use of mixed-reality. The guiding research question for this systematic literature review was: How has mixed-reality been used to support special education teacher preparation?

Search Procedure

A literature search was conducted to identify the research studies specific to mixed-reality used as part of special education teacher preparation. First, a search was conducted using international databases (Education Resources Information Center [ERIC] and Academic Search Complete) to locate studies in peer-reviewed journals with a publication year restriction (1999-2023). Next, the first keyword and other commonly used terms (special education OR exceptional education OR special education preparation OR disability OR disabilities OR special educator preparation) were used with second keywords (simulation OR

mixed-reality OR teacher education OR professional development OR teacher preparation OR educator preparation). Third, abstracts of each article were carefully reviewed to identify articles eligible for inclusion. Finally, the authors examined each of the reference lists of the selected articles to identify other potential articles for inclusion (Figure 1).

Search Outcomes

Online databases from the initial search generated N=48 articles; however, the authors found that only n=13 (see Table 1) of those articles were peer-reviewed, were published in 1999 and later, and were inclusive of the specific keywords in the search criteria.

Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

For the articles to be eligible for review, the following criteria was required:

1. Articles needed to include a research study specific to pre-service or graduate level pre-service teachers who were in a special education teacher preparation program.

2. Articles needed to include mixedreality use with special education pre-service teachers.

3. The study was published in English.

From the 48 articles, 35 were excluded for one or more of the above given criteria considerations.

GATEWAYS

1

Search Flow Chart

Figure

GATEWAYS TO TEACHER EDUCATON

Coding Procedure

The researchers, who both have expertise in special education teacher preparation and mixed-reality, coded each article individually. Initially, the authors developed a coding method to extract specific information from each article related to special education teacher preparation and the use of mixed-reality within the preparation program. An Excel spreadsheet was used to categorize the information extracted from each article and was divided into the following categories: author information, participants, setting, methods, results, implications, and mixedreality marker. The authors coded each of the articles independently and reached interrater reliability of 94%.

Results

The focus of this systematic literature review was to identify how mixed-reality has been used to support special education teacher preparation. From the 13 articles identified, two major themed categories became prevalent: behavior/classroom management and instructional practices. Eight articles utilized TLE (Dawson Rees, 2016; Donehower et al., 2023; Enicks, 2012; Fraser et al., 2020; Garland, et al., 2012; Garland, et al., 2016; Peterson-Ahmad, 2014; Peterson-Ahmad, 2018), three used Mursion (Hudson, et al., 2018; Hudson et al., 2019, Landon-Hays, et al., 2020), one used SimSchool (Rayner & Fluck, 2014), and one study did not identify the specific type of mixed reality platform used (McKown et al., 2021).

Behavior/Classroom Management

From the total pool of articles, six were categorized in the mixed-reality behaviorclassroom management category. Behavior based articles included studies that sought to modify a teaching behavior (e.g., classroom

management strategies; Hudson, Voytecki & Zhang, 2018; Hudson et al., 2019). The remaining articles attempted to develop preservice special education teachers’ skills on behavior related classroom strategies (e.g., discrete trial training or functional analysis; Donehower et al., 2023; Fraser et al., 2020; Garland, et al., 2012; Garland, et al., 2016).

The largest and most recent study conducted by Donehower-Paul, et al., (2023) measured n=83 preservice special education teachers’ ability to conduct functional analysis (FA) within the TLE mixed-reality environment. While this study found no statistically significant difference in didactic instruction combined with traditional role play related to fidelity of implementation of functional analysis, the authors stated that results within the mixed-reality platform were as effective as role play.

Garland, et al. (2012) aimed to determine if there was a functional relationship between individualized clinical coaching within TLE and teachers' fidelity of implementation of discrete trial training (DTT) when working with a student with autism spectrum disorder (ASD).

Participants (n=4) experienced benefits from the use of TLE and increased their confidence in using DTT. Similarly, Fraser et al. (2020) used a multiple baseline design with n=5 special education pre-service special education teacher participants to evaluate the effects of didactic coaching with TLE participation. Participants use TLE to microteach DTT. Findings indicated that all participants increased their knowledge of DTT and were able to generalize their learning in a post-TLE session six weeks after the final TLE session. Garland, Holden, & Garland (2016) attempted to identify the impact of TLE on participants’ (n=6) use of the least-to-most prompting strategy. All participants

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increased their use of this strategy after three sessions using the TLE.

Hudson, et al. (2018) explored the effects of mixed-reality (Mursion) specific to participants’ (n=25) ability to manage various classroom behaviors. Participants gained confidence in their perceived abilities to manage a classroom after using Mursion; however, participants still lacked confidence using learned strategies within a real classroom setting. In 2019, Hudson et al. surveyed participants (n= 29) about their perceived change in abilities to manage a classroom post-Mursion sessions. Results indicated that Mursion proved to be a useful tool for pre-service special education teachers to practice classroom management skills prior to working in a classroom with real students.

Instructional Practices

Seven articles were categorized into the instructional practices category. Instructional practice articles included studies that sought to change teaching practices when delivering content to students (e.g., microteaching, feedback/coaching from faculty) (Dawson Rees, 2016; Enicks, 2012; Landon-Hays, et al., 2020; McKown et al., 2021; PetersonAhmad, 2014; Peterson-Ahmad, 2018; Rayner & Fluck, 2014).

Dawson Rees (2016) worked with n=4 participants to teach curriculum used in their field-based placement within the TLE setting. Results showed improvement and generalization of language arts instructional strategies when using such skills in their field-based placement classrooms. Similarly, Enicks (2012) examined the relationship between pre-service special education teachers (n=19) and their ability to demonstrate effective teaching behaviors in a practicum setting following participation

in TLE sessions. Skill improvement was noted from strategies learned and practiced in the mixed-reality setting to the classroom practicum setting.

Landon-Hays, et al. (2020) focused their study on piloting the redesign of a key course in a graduate level special education preparation program to include mixedreality (Mursion) learning experiences as part of the programmatic experience. Mursion was used to practice teaching strategies with n=37 participants to support teaching a mini-lesson specific to middle school language arts, which focused on aspects of high leverage practices (HLPs; e.g., explicit instruction). Combined with coaching, video-analysis, and self-reflection, participants increased their use of HLPs and adjusted their instruction across Mursion sessions to meet the individualized learning needs of the Mursion avatar students. Similarly, n=30 undergraduate students in a special education preparation program used mixed-reality to practice learning the HLP ‘system of least prompts’, in a research study conducted by McKown et al. (2021). Results indicated that participants who used mixed-reality compared to participants who learned via live role play had heightened perceptions on the use of mixed-reality to support their learning as they prepared for the real classroom.

Studies were conducted (PetersonAhmad, 2014; Peterson-Ahmad, 2018) on the effect of repeated exposure in TLE with n=8 undergraduate pre-service special education teachers to improve the provision of opportunities to respond and teaching self-efficacy. Across five TLE sessions, three out of eight participants increased their overall frequency of providing opportunities to respond between first and last TLE sessions. All participants improved in their

self-efficacy between pre-/post-measures indicating increased confidence in teaching.

Rayner & Fluck (2014) embedded the use of the mixed-reality platform simSchool into a course for pre-service special education teachers. During this course, n=15 participants used simSchool to facilitate their understanding of the diverse educational needs of students with mixedability levels. Results indicated that participants expressed moderate support in using simSchool to improve their knowledge of inclusive educational practices, but many participants felt that examples of streamlined strategies to use within this mixed-reality platform would have been more useful for their learning.

Table 1.

Table of included studies

Author(s) Year Sample Technology Used

2016 n= 4 TLE

Purpose

To develop the proficiency of preservice teacher’s error correction and specific praise in TeachLivE

Design Outcome

Dawson Rees, M.

Donehower-Paul, C., Walker, J., Thomas, C., Taylor, M., Best, J., Diaz, M., Rose, C., Vasquez, E.

2023 n=83 TLE

To train pre-service general and special education teachers to conduct Functional Analysis

Multiple baseline across target skills, replicated with participants

Pre-service teachers were able to generalize skills to their field-based placement which acknowledges transfer of skills from intervention received.

Posttest only control design group

Enicks, A.

2012 n=5 TLE

To examine if there was a relationship between PST participation in TLE and their ability to demonstrate effective teaching behaviors in a practicum setting and

Multiple baseline across participants

There was not a statistically significant difference in didactic instruction combined with traditional role play as it relates to fidelity of implementation of FA.

TeachLivE is a statistically significant treatment to increase a subset of teaching behaviors indicated on the ATE observation tool.

Fraser, D. W., Marder, T. J., deBettencourt, L. U., Myers, L. A., Kalymon, K. M., & Harrell, R. M.

2020 n=5 TLE

reflect on those behaviors.

To measure the effects of microteaching

Multiple baseline across participants

Garland, K. V., Holden, K., & Garland, D. P.

2016 n=6 TLE

To measure the fidelity of implementation of least-to-most prompts affected when participants are prepared using Individualized Clinical Coaching

BaselineInterventionMaintenance

Results concur with other studies which state that a one-hour PD will not be effective; participants were able to generalize DTT to their classrooms in only one session.

All six participants increased in fidelity (80% over three sessions).

2012 n=4 TLE

Garland, K. V., Vasquez, E., & Pearl, C.

To measure participants value in their preparation of least-to-most prompts with ICC

To determine if there was a relationship between individualized instructional coaching and TeachLivE

Multiple baseline across participants

Participants increased from 37% to 87%, a 50% increase over a maximum of six, 15-minute sessions.

Hudson, M., Voytecki, K., & Zhang, G.

2018 n=25 Mursion

To measure teachers' fidelity of implementation of discrete trial teaching when working with a student with ASD.

To explore the effects of mixed-reality teaching experiences, specifically on participants’ perceptions about their ability to manage student behaviors in a classroom setting."

Mixed-methods 19 of the 25 participants finished all three Mursion Experiences and completed the perceptions questionnaires. The six students who did not complete the third session did not complete the questionnaire. Qualitative data was also taken through video reflections. Students gained more confidence, felt like a real experience, and understood behavior management more. Students disagreed that they were able to manage their class correctly, that they could effectively manage the classroom, and they felt limited in their

Hudson, M., Voytecki, K., Owens, T.L., & Zhang, G.

2019 n=29 Mursion

To explore survey scores changes across three surveys regarding their perceptions of the Mursion environment, their own teaching, their classroom management ability, and the total experience. To measure survey scores between the adapted and general curriculum participants

Mixed-methods

ability to deliver instruction.

Results indicated that Mursion was a beneficial tool for providing preservice teachers practice in classroom management skills. This can be used as PD in a more remote, rural setting where retaining special education teachers can be challenging.

Landon-Hays, M., PetersonAhmad, M. B., & Frazier, A. D.

2020 n=37 Mursion

To determine if there was an interaction effect between academic program and time

Focused on redesigning key courses in general and special education graduate level EPPs to infuse learning experiences through

Phenomenological

Half of the participants demonstrated improvement in integrating strategies for teaching a concept. 60% became increasingly cognizant of individual

McKown, G., Hirsch, S., Walters, S., Allen, A. A., & Carlson, A

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2021 n=30 This article does not state which technology was used and uses the term “mixed-reality simulator”.

mixed reality so that students could apply learning from coursework in research, theory, and EBPs with immediate application in Mursion.

To investigate how preservice teachers perceive the use of a MRS compared to partner practice, a more traditional classroom activity.

student participation during lessons with greater student check-ins. 100% of participants increased their efficacy in coordinating and adjusting instruction during a lesson. Both groups (general education and special education) indicated growth in perceived self-efficacy. Coaching observation video analysis gleaned that each program didn't know a lot about each other's field experiences, therefore, collaborative preparation experiences are vital in an EPP.

Mixed-methods The quantitative and qualitative results indicated that participants in the MRS group had a more preferred experience than participants in the live practice group, which reflects both previous MRS research and reflects the interest-driven and academically relevant

aspects of connected learning theory.

2014 n=8 TLE

To evaluate the effect that TeachLivE had on improving use of instructional strategies with preservice teachers; particularly in providing opportunities to respond. Also examined PST post-session after action review and its impact across TeachLivE sessions

Exploratory mixed methods, repeated measures design

Findings specified that 3 out of 8 participants increased in overall frequency of providing opportunities to respond, however, all eight participants were observed to have provided the suggested frequency of opportunities to respond within the ranges suggested by the Council for Exceptional Children (1987). This reveals that although three participants showed an overall increase in providing opportunities to respond, all pre-service special education teacher participants (N=8) still provided appropriate frequencies as suggested by CEC. All participants increased in their pre-/postscores from the beginning to the end of the research study.

Peterson-Ahmad

Peterson-Ahmad

2018 n=8 TLE

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To determine the impact of the combined use of TeachLivE and instructional coaching in regard to providing opportunities to respond.

Exploratory case study

Rayner,

C. & Fluck, A.

2014 n=15 simSchool

To determine if preservice teachers perceive the use of simSchool to be an effective way to facilitate their understanding of the diverse educational needs of students.

Mixed methods

Survey research

All 8 participants increased their overall frequency of providing teacher direct OTRs. 75% of all participants decreased in their overall use of scripted OTRs (verbatim from the written lesson plan); 100% of all participants increased their use of original OTRs.

To determine if preservice teachers perceive the use of simSchool to be an effective way to prepare them for classroom practice.

To explore if pre-service teachers perceive the use

Participants expressed moderate support for their understanding of inclusive education. There were four significant relationships: “understand the diversity of students’ educational needs and abilities” correlated with “understand the particular educational needs of individual students” and “understand the particular educational needs of individual students” had a strong correlation with “fruitful discussions about classroom teaching practice”. Qualitative responses were mixed.

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of simSchool compared with observation and teaching experience in real classrooms.

Some did not find it to be useful. Some said it provided good discussion. Many stated the tech. needed to be improved.

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Discussion

The use of mixed reality that uses TLE and Mursion as a tool to support educator preparation is a field of study that is gaining traction; however, there is limited research specific to TLE and Mursion use with special education educator preparation programs. This systematic literature review identified that the mixed-reality platform that is used for research specific to special education teacher preparation includes TLE and Mursion. Of the n=13 peer-reviewed articles included in this literature review, each were categorized into two major categories of practice including instructional practices or behavior/classroom management. While the current mixed reality literature that focused on instruction or behavior/classroom management, using mixed-reality during a special education preparation program can support acquisition of specific instructional and behavioral/classroom management related skills needed to support teacher success in a special education classroom. However, with the multifaceted aspects of becoming a special education teacher additional research could determine the efficacy of using TLE or Mursion mixed-reality use in preparing special educators that could include the following aspects described below.

Collaborative Meetings with Parents/Families

Graduating teacher candidates often lack the skills, attitudes, knowledge, and confidence necessary for building collaborative relationships with parents. While many special educator preparation programs acknowledge the importance of parent involvement, frequently the preparation and training that teacher candidates receive in these programs falls short of explicit learning about collaborative partnerships with parents/families. Family

involvement and collaboration is a critical factor for predicting successful student outcomes. “While it is vital that educators are in communication with parents throughout the entirety of the school year, meetings in which their child’s IEP is designed and/or reviewed, offer parents crucial opportunities to provide direct suggestions and input that could positively impact their child’s education” (Jones & Peterson-Ahmad, 2017, p. 698). Mixed reality, such as TLE or Mursion, has the potential for special education teacher candidates to practice and refine scenariobased conversations with parents/families that increase collaborative conversation skills and strategies that best support the child receiving special education services.

Multidisciplinary Team Process

Effective collaboration between the multidisciplinary team within a school (i.e., general education, special education, administrators, and related support professionals) is critical for the support of student learning and growth. However, students in special education preparation programs rarely get the opportunity to learn about this process or to engage in meaningful interactions with professionals from other disciplines during their preparation programs roles and responsibilities (Mowrey et al., 2022). Multidisciplinary teams require that multiple educators work together on specialized student cases to maximize learning and development and TLE and Mursion can support the acquisition of this process.

Directions for Future Research

The strength of this literature review supports initial research that has begun to investigate how mixed reality can support special educator preparation related to instruction or behavior/classroom

management. However, “...lack of preparation to educate students with disabilities and the overall lack of systemic support for excellence in special education is reflected in the outcomes students with disabilities achieve” (Brownell et al., 2021, p. 19). It is essential that special education preparation programs identify learning pathways that provide opportunities to develop skills and master content so that diverse groups of students, including those with special needs, can be provided with effective instruction (Peterson-Ahmad, 2018). Not only is additional research specific to special education needed (e.g., behavior-classroom management, instructional practices), but research that focuses on other factors that occur within the day-to-day duties of a special education teacher (e.g., collaboration, multidisciplinary team process). Parallel factors can also be researched that could positively impact special education teaching effectiveness in a mixed reality environment such as the use of feedback, coaching, and/or video-analysis to determine the extent that they may support the generalization of skills/strategies, as well as to validate the overall use of mixed-reality in special educator preparation programs.

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Welcome to GATE!

The Georgia Association of Teacher Educators (GATE) is proud to serve as the state affiliate of the national Association of Teacher Educators (ATE) and as a member of the Southeastern Regional Association of Teacher Educators (SRATE). GATE is committed to the advancement and improvement of teacher education across the state of Georgia.

ATE is the only national, individual membership educational association solely dedicated to teacher education. Like ATE, GATE works diligently to support excellence in teacher preparation and professional development, fostering a collaborative community of educators from Georgia’s public and private universities, colleges, and P–12 schools. Our members represent a broad spectrum of backgrounds and share a common commitment to enhancing teacher education through shared expertise and collaborative efforts.

To become a member, visit our website at: https://gaate1.org/

GATE 2026 Conference

February 19–20, 2026 | Sea Palms Resort, St. Simon’s Island

Mark your calendars! Join us for the GATE 2026 Conference a time to connect, collaborate, and grow. Stay tuned on our website and social media for updates, including proposal submission openings and the conference theme.

In Memory

We honor the life and legacy of Dr. Gwendolyn Middlebrooks, who passed away in February 2024. Her dedication and service left a lasting impact on our community.

To learn more about her life a legacy, visit our website at: https://gaate1.org/remembering-drmiddlebrooks/ Distinguished Awards – Call for Nominations

Do you know someone making a difference in teacher education? Submit a nomination for our Annual GATE Awards by June 15.

To submit a nomination, visit our website at: https://gaate1.org/awards/

Call for Manuscripts

Submit to the October 2025 Issue of GATEways to Teacher Education

Are you engaged in meaningful research that advances teacher education? We invite you to share your work in the upcoming October 2025 issue of GATEways to Teacher Education, the peer-reviewed journal of the Georgia Association of Teacher Educators (GATE).

We welcome manuscript submissions from all areas of teacher education, including but not limited to:

• Theoretical frameworks

• Qualitative research

• Quantitative studies

• Mixed methods approaches

• Innovative practices in teaching and teacher preparation

• Perspectives from P–12 and higher education settings

GATEways to Teacher Education provides a platform for educators, researchers, and practitioners to engage in critical dialogue and contribute to the growing body of scholarship that informs and shapes the future of teacher preparation.

Submission Guidelines:

• Manuscripts should be scholarly, clearly written, and relevant to the field of teacher education.

• All submissions undergo a double-blind peer review process.

• Please ensure your manuscript adheres to APA 7th edition formatting.

Submit your manuscript via email to:

Become a Peer Reviewer for GATEways to Teacher Education

Are you passionate about advancing teacher education and supporting scholarly work in our field? We are currently seeking dedicated professionals to join our team of peer reviewers for GATEways to Teacher Education, the peer-reviewed journal of the Georgia Association of Teacher Educators (GATE).

As a reviewer, you will play a vital role in maintaining the academic integrity and quality of our journal by:

• Providing constructive, confidential feedback on manuscript submissions

• Evaluating theoretical, qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-methods research

• Helping shape future issues of GATEways with your expertise and perspective

We welcome volunteers from all areas of teacher education, including P–12 educators, higher education faculty, and doctoral-level graduate students.

If you are interested in serving as a reviewer, please email us at: GATEwaysSubmissions@gmail.com

Please include your name, institutional affiliation, and areas of expertise.

Thank you for considering this important opportunity to contribute to our scholarly community!

GATEWAYS TO TEACHER EDUCATON

Volume 34, Issue 1