Extremis - How Materials Stay Alive

How

WHEN MATERIALS COME ALIVE

stay

E - GU IDE # 03 - SEPTEMBER 2025 - BY

A practical guide for outdoor design

No design is possible un which you design are co

Ludwig Mies V

2

until the materials with ompletely understood.1

Van Der Rohe

emi Extr

s agre

es!

_ 3

4

FURNITURE ASSEMBLY / Extremis production facility

Carefully written by the Extremis design & development team for all who are interested in acquiring material knowledge for outdoor design.

_ 5

A guide to E- GUIDE # 03

Outdoor Materials

SEP. 2025 Free publication.

For more information and the latest revelations, please head to our website

www.extremis.com

“When do materials come alive?”

We believe materials come alive when they fulfill a purpose—function, sensorial, and aesthetical—

exceptional functionality that stands the test of time, something to love for a lifetime and pass on to the next generation.

through their integration into thoughtful design. New

Extremis now has over 30 years of experience in outdoor

materials in a product often look, feel, and perform

design, with durable products sold and used worldwide

well. However, over time, materials age and deteriorate,

in the harshest outdoor conditions. By working with

gradually losing their purpose—especially outdoors,

many top-tier suppliers and research centres, we keep

where conditions can be brutal. As pioneers in outdoor

up-to-date with the newest advancements in material

furniture, we at Extremis are committed to sharing

science and technologies.

our expertise, empowering you to make informed, sustainable design decisions and answer the question:

Our expertise has always been in metals and wood, yet

“How do materials stay alive?”

better comfort and shading for our furniture. Although

Extremis is a Belgian-based company founded in 1994

by Dirk Wynants, son of a cabinet maker. With his carpentry roots, design education, and an introduction to the metal business through his family-in-law, Dirk started with his first design idea, the Gargantua table, a combination of metal and wood. This marked the beginning of a collection of innovative design furniture that offered new solutions — outdoor furniture with

6

this quickly expanded to textiles in order to provide we also use other materials like natural stone, concrete, plastics, composite materials, rubber, etc., for this guide, we want to stick to our core expertise.

GARGANTUA/ Design by Dirk Wynants in 1994

_ 7

Index Outdoors vs Indoors

10

It’s brutal outdoors!

12

Embrace the beauty of weathering

16

Design wisely

18

Choose wisely

20

Wood

8

22

Introduction to wood

24

Forest management

26

Durability & hardness

28

Wood is alive!

30

Wood sustainability

36

Wood maintenance

39

Metals

40

Introduction to metallurgy

42

Three must-known metals

44

The war against Corrosion!

52

Metallic coatings

58

Organic coatings

64

Metal recycling

68

Metal maintenance

70

Textiles

72

Introduction to textiles

74

Three must-know fabrics

76

Textile finishes

79

Textile sustainability

82

Textile maintenance

84

Sustainable Design

86

Fast design ≠ sustainable

89

Impact in the long-run

90

A holistic approach

92

Conclusion

94

_ 9

Outdoors vs Indoors Designing a product for outdoor use requires a completely different approach than for indoor use. A designer must carefully consider the materials used and how they react to the environment. Only then can we ensure that the materials truly come to life in the best possible way. Let’s take a closer look at some key factors when designing or selecting a product for outdoor use.

10

Introduction _ 11

It’s brutal outdoors!

No material is entirely resistant to the test of time and

Just as ultraviolet (UV) radiation causes skin cancer in

the forces of mother nature. Eventually, everything

humans, it also degrades the quality of many materials.

will age, fail, or break. Successful design engineering

For example, many plastics will become brittle and crack

focuses on delaying that moment as much as possible

when exposed to high levels of UV radiation. Indoors,

while understanding when and how failure might occur.

this is less of a problem as there is less natural light and

It also involves anticipating potential dangers and

many windows already come with a UV-blocking film.

ensuring the ability to repair or replace damaged parts.

To achieve this, reputable manufacturers subject their products to rigorous simulations and testing, pushing

The obvious complication of wind and storms is seeing things sail away or break. This is often a problem for

them to failure to understand their limits fully.

cheaper, lightweight furniture. However, even heavy

Temperature fluctuations not only have a big impact

hazard. Securing anything that shouldn’t fly is crucial,

on comfort, touching extremely cold surfaces in

especially in rooftop environments or public spaces.

winter or hot surfaces in summer, they also impact the way some material age. Not only do materials heat because of high atmospheric temperatures, but also by exposure to direct sunlight. This phenomenon is especially noticeable in materials that absorb and retain heat well, such as metal, asphalt and certain types of stone and concrete. Color choices will influence this as well, depending on how much they reflect or stimulate absorption.

Humidity levels are not constant. Low humidity values ​​ can reach near zero in very dry areas such as deserts (Atacama Desert, Death Valley) and low-lying arid regions (Dead Sea). High humidity values ​​can reach 100% in tropical rainforests, coastal areas during rain, and swamp areas. Humidity also changes according to climatic conditions. In the UK for example, summer humidity is 15% and winter humidity is 20%. Extreme levels and fluctuations of humidity can have significant consequences for the performance of various materials.

12

tables with strong umbrellas can become a significant

Environmental factors such as industry, salt, fauna & flora, mold, fungi, insects, etc. significantly impact materials used outdoors, affecting their durability, performance, and appearance. The corrosion classes, are used to categorize the degree of exposure of materials to environmental influences. These classes are standardized and help select materials suitable for specific environmental conditions.

INDOORS

≠

OUTDOORS Temperature

Celsius and fahrenheit scales

-50°C

10°C

30°C

70°C

-60°F

50°F

90°F

120°F

Humidity Relative humidity scale

0%

10%

20%

100%

60%

UV Radiation Index Scale

0

2

3

5

6

7

10

11+

Wind & Storm Beaufort scale

0

1

12

Corrosion class ISO & ASTM standard

C1

C2

C3

C4

C5

Mild

Moderate

Severe

Very Severe

Extreme

Introduction _ 13

The value paradox of outdoor design

Quality encompasses factors such as durability, reliability, performance, and craftsmanship. In essence, it’s about delivering excellence in what you

We spend on average ~90% of our time indoors2, therefore, we usually value indoor design higher.

Needless to say this difference is bigger in colder climates and smaller in warmer climates.

Outdoor design, however, faces far greater challenges due to the harsh conditions it must withstand— particularly in extreme climates. This necessitates the use of more expensive materials and innovative solutions to ensure durability. For example, developing a longlasting outdoor sofa is significantly more complex and costly than developing an indoor one. Yet, paradoxically, most people allocate a smaller budget to their outdoor furniture compared to their indoor pieces.

This disconnect between perceived value and actual cost presents a major challenge for outdoor design companies, as they strive to balance durability, aesthetics, and affordability in their products.

A better understanding of perceived versus intrinsic value helps us to understand how to make better decisions. Perceived value refers to the subjective worth or importance that a customer assigns to a product based on their personal beliefs, attitudes, and experiences.

14

offer. Perceived quality is not always aligned with the actual, intrinsic quality of the product but rather how consumers perceive it based on various cues and marketing strategies.

Often, objects attract attention and are picked up impulsively or out of curiosity because of their visual appearance, influenced by Color, Material, and Finish design (CMF)3. This triggers an immediate emotional connection. Materials derived from original precious minerals and metals are perceived as higher-end. Other materials, like plastics, have a lower perceived value due to their disposable nature and recent associations with environmental issues. However, their ease of manufacturing in high volumes at relatively low cost makes them widespread.

$$$

Actual cost The cost of durable materials

Low

Outdoor

High

Indoor

WALRUS SOFA / Endures all seasons without covers

Introduction _ 15

Embrace the beauty of weathering The unavoidable weathering caused by nature’s elements

COPPER

can dramatically transform the look and feel of a product over time. Signs of aging, such as fading, darkening, or other changes, are often referred to as patina. In some cases, a well-developed patina can enhance a product’s aesthetic appeal, much like a fine wine that improves with age.

However, not all materials age gracefully. For instance,

HOT DIP GALVANIZED STEEL

a painted surface marred by scratches or blisters is generally perceived as unattractive. This highlights the importance of understanding and appreciating how different materials age and develop imperfections over time.

Recognizing the beauty in natural aging and the

THERMO TREATED ASH

evolution of patinas is essential when selecting and combining materials. By choosing materials that age well and harmonize aesthetically, designers can create products that retain their appeal even as they weather over time.

DID YOU KNOW? The Statue of Liberty’s copper exterior developed a beautiful green patina over the years, initially causing concern among authorities unaware of its protective properties. They attempted several times to let miss liberty be painted.4

16

COPPER PATINA / Statue of liberty in New York

Introduction _ 17

Design wisely There are pros and cons to every material. Each material

Metals have a high strength-to-weight ratio, making

is precious and should be used mindfully, according

them stable and durable materials ideal for structural

to its best properties and the intended purpose. To

components. However, touching metals is not always

love design unconditionally and cherish it for as long

pleasant. Because they conduct heat very efficiently,

as possible, materials should work together both

metal surfaces can feel extremely cold in winter and

functionally and in terms of color, material, and finish

uncomfortably hot in summer. Generally speaking,

(CMF) to create a harmonious result.

metals are low-maintenance materials. With a wide

Wood is a natural and renewable material. If not processed too heavily, it requires minimal energy

range of coating techniques available, metals can be produced in a variety of finishes and colors.

to produce. Despite the superior quality of premium

Fabrics are typically used to add comfort. Their flexibility

wood species, wood also has several drawbacks: it

and softness are unmatched by any other material.

can be unstable, requires high maintenance, and may

The variety of textures, colors, and finishes they offer

splinter. However, one key reason for using wood is

is virtually endless. However, unless treated with a

that it is among the best materials for direct contact

protective coating, fabrics tend to absorb moisture

with skin. A study done by The Japan Wood Research

and dirt, which can lead to mildew or mold in humid

Society concluded that contact with wood, unlike artificial

environments.

materials such as aluminum or plastic, natural wood causes no physiological state of stress.5

Wood Unique aesthetics, natural touch and fully renewable.

Metal Durability, Strength, stability, accuracy and fully recyclable

18

Fabrics Flexibility, softness, translucency, breathability and lightweight.

Design is a plan for arranging elements in such a way as best to accomplish a particular purpose.6 Charles Eames

PANTAGRUEL TABLE / Extremis

Introduction _ 19

Choose wisely Outdoor companies should strive to create designs that

Choosing colors or finishes can be more than just

are suitable for any environment. However, this is almost

personal taste... You should base your choice of color

a mission impossible, as in many cases, “one size does

on elements such as heat absorption, reflection and

not fit all.” Therefore, offering a wide variety of designs,

maintenance. To pick the right color, consider whether

sometimes even with different finishes and options can

or not it is exposed to direct sunlight. Dark colors absorb

be a good idea.

light and will heat up, while light colors reflect light and stay cooler.

It is then the customer’s responsibility to make the right choice from the assortment. The customer has to select from that collection according to his own needs, while taking into account the specific location where it will be used. What are the local conditions you are faced with—temperature, humidity, coastal environment, etc.?

Consider the orientation of the sun, protection from the wind, who and how the maintenance will be taken care of? All these factors come into play when making the right decisions.

Also UV light from the sun will bleach many colors. Only pick saturated colors if you don’t mind them to change slightly over the years. Otherwise make sure that the materials are highly UV-resistant or pick a more neutral color.

Only choose a pure white product if you are willing to clean the surface regularly. While a white table may look very appealing in a showroom setting, it will get dirty very fast. The same applies for surface finishes, matt surfaces collect dirt and are harder to clean compared to glossy surfaces. In case of direct exposure to sunlight, possibly disturbing reflection should be kept in mind.

IMPORTANCE OF COLOR CHOICE / Extremis color collection Off white Black

Cobalt blue

Earth

Copper brown

Verdigris

Papyrus white

Reed green

Beach beige

Cosmic cream

Pistache

Sun yellow

heat absorption*

White

a lot

maintenance

neutral no / or low

reflection* SAFE ZONE

20

Color infographic

*effect on colored surface when exposed to direct sun light

Introduction _ 21

Wood Can you name another material that grows naturally, is strong enough for construction, stores CO2 , and possesses a unique natural look and feel like no other?

Wood is a porous and fibrous structural tissue found in trees and other woody plants. It is an organic material—a natural composite made up of cellulose fibers embedded in a matrix of lignin.7 In this chapter, you will learn more about different types of wood, their properties and methods to enhance them.

“Partly dead, partly alive, wood combines the material and the immaterial, the past with the present, the tangible with the imagined.”8 Philip Ursprung

22

Solid Woods

Engineered Woods

Engineered wood products are created by binding wood-derived materials, such as (recycled) fibers or veneers, using adhesives to form a composite material. While these materials can closely resemble solid wood in appearance, they may not be as durable for long-term outdoor exposure unless specifically treated for that purpose. Additionally, the manufacturing and disposal of the adhesives used can contribute to a notable carbon footprint and hinder further recycling. For these reasons, we prioritize the use of solid wood, which tends to be more sustainable and environmentally friendly.

Wood _ 23

30 YEAR OLD GARGANTUA TABLE / Treated properly every season

Introduction to wood Cells are created on an annual cycle surrounding a

Woods are classified according to their botanical origin

tree. These active woody cells are called sapwood,

as softwood or hardwood.

because they are still forming their cellulosic walls and conducting sugars, nutrients and water for the whole tree. Sapwood is weak and unstable, with a high moisture content, which causes it to shrink, stain, and

Softwoods, which come from cone-producing trees, have a simpler structure, making them lighter and easier to process. Visually, softwoods are paler than

decay quickly.

hardwoods, but this does not mean that lighter wood

When the resins become crystallized, heartwood is

be used outdoors, but they generally require more care

formed. Heartwood is darker in color, drier, more

and maintenance to ensure their longevity compared to

compressed, stronger, and more durable, serving as

hardwoods.

types are inherently of inferior quality. Softwoods can

a stable core that allows the tree to continue growing.

As a tree ages, the ratio of heartwood increases, thus

Woods from broad-leaved trees, such as fruit trees, are

increasing the quantity of durable wood within the tree.9

known as hardwoods. These trees experience prolonged growth and have a very dense fiber structure. While hardwoods are usually more difficult to process due to their hardness and density, the finished products are far more resistant to outdoor elements. Despite the greater variety of hardwood species, softwoods now dominate

Bark

commercial wood production due to faster drying and easier processing.

Sapwood

Tropical hardwoods are a subset of hardwoods sourced from trees that grow in tropical regions with warm, humid climates. These woods often exhibit superior

Heartwood

strength and natural resistance to decay.

Pith

Hardwoods Softwoods 0

350

700 General wood density (kg/m³)

24

1250

EXAMPLES OF WOOD SPECIES / Classified by their botanical origin

Softwoods

Hardwoods

Tropical hardwoods

Fir

Oak

Teak

Pine

Ash

Mahogany

Larch

Chestnut

Rosewood

Redwood

Beech

Jatoba

Spruce

Walnut

Iroko

Cedar

Maple

Afrormosia

DID YOU KNOW? It is generally believed that all woods float, but some hardwoods (like lignum vitae or ebony) have a density greater than that of water (>1000 kg/m³), causing them to sink.

WOOD WEATHERING TESTS / Extremis

Wood _ 25

Forest management Timber from hardwoods that grow slowly, especially tropical hardwoods, can be unsustainable if they are harvested irresponsibly, leading to deforestation, habitat destruction, and biodiversity loss. Many forests in the Amazon, Southeast Asia, and Africa have been heavily exploited for these woods, often through illegal logging.10 However, if forests are not used for sustainable timber, they lose their economic value and might be cleared for cattle ranching, soy farming, or palm oil plantations, which cause even worse environmental damage. In some areas, abandoned land is taken over by slash-and-burn agriculture, leading to soil degradation and long-term deforestation. Sustainable forestry practices like FSC® & PEFC can ensure the continued availability of wood while protecting forests.11 12

The Forest Stewardship Council (FSC®) is a non-profit

Due to dissatisfaction with the requirements, FSC was

organization. A timber company or any other company

not a perfect match with the smaller private owners of

that wants to become FSC certified, use the FSC label,

European forests because of high certifications costs.

and process and/or trade FSC certified products must

Therefore, Programme for the Endorsement of Forest

cooperate with an audit. A chain of custody system is

Certification (PEFC) organization was established as

used, whereby the wood is tracked from logging to the

a competitor. Since 2004, PEFC is active worldwide,

final product. The FSC label is not a guarantee of quality;

including in tropical forests. The PEFC label is

it merely serves as proof that the wood primarily comes

consistent with the Sustainable Development Goals

from forests managed according to the FSC standard.

(SDG) from the United Nations.

This standard is internationally regarded as a guarantee of responsible forest management.

26

TREE ANALYSIS AND RESEARCH / by forestry worker

Europe

North America

Asia

Africa

Tropical hardwood Temperate hardwood

South America Australia

Softwood Mixed

DISTRIBUTION OF FORESTS / by categories of wood13

Wood _ 27

Durability & hardness You’ll quickly notice that there are many rankings to sort wood types on their quality. Most commonly used are durability classes and hardness ratings. These rankings tell you a great deal about general wood characteristics, but it’s not a hard science. There are also other factors in play, like the origin or climatic conditions. As different soil chemistry will lead to different qualities in the wood. For example, Burmese Teak that is derived from the species’ old-growth forests tends to be of far better quality than Plantation Teak.14

Durability class

Janka hardness

The European standard EN 350.215 is conventionally

The Janka hardness test, specified in ASTM standard

used to classify solid wood types into five durability

D 14316, measures the resistance of a wood sample to

classes. These only express the wood’s natural

denting and wear. It measures the force required to

resistance to wood decay fungi, beetles, termites or

embed a steel ball into a sample of wood. Hardness is an

marine organisms. The layout is based on a simple test:

important factor when it comes to flooring, as a floor is

a sample post is partially inserted into the ground. The

exposed to a lot of wear from contact with shoes, pets,

longer the lifespan of the sample, the more durable the

etc., especially in high-traffic areas such as offices or

wood. The methods can be applied either to individual

retail shops. On the contrary, wooden cladding doesn’t

wood species, batches of wood, processed wood-based

need a lot of hardness, as there is little to no contact.

materials, including heat-treated, preservative-treated

Furniture falls somewhere in between. There is still a lot

wood and modified wood.

of contact, but it’s usually not that hard.

28

Durability Class 5

4

3

2

1

0 - 5 years

5 - 10 years

10 - 15 years

15 - 25 years

25+ years

Natural Teak Thermo Ash

Ash Ayous

Thermo Ayous Iroko Oak Plantation teak

All sapwood is classed as being not durable

Cedar Larch Douglas fir Pine

Janka hardness scale 0

1000

2000

3000

4000

lbf

Poplar Heart Pine Teak North American Walnut Iroko Beech Ash Oak Maple Wenge Merbau Mahogany Rosewood Jatoba Cumaru Brazilian Walnut

Wood _ 29

Wood is alive!

The older we get, the more wrinkles and gray hair we (usually) get. It’s the same for wood. Although tough

Shakes and cracks

in character, wood shows the signs of age like any

Nevertheless, even with premium perfectly dried wood,

other living thing. As a consequence of exposure to the

after a while, small cracks and crevices can still appear,

elements, its patina will change over time.

these are called shakes. Shakes are a defined lengthwise separation of the wood along the grain, usually occurring between or through the rings of annual growth.

In nature, trees are not created equally. The beauty of

Moisture content

wood lies in the different physical characteristics of each

Wood will absorb or release moisture until it reaches

plank.

an Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC) with its surroundings. Fluctuations may be more or less cyclical, such as diurnal changes or annual seasonal changes. To minimize the changes in wood moisture content, wood

Greying

is usually dried to a moisture content that is close to

Fresh cut wood has its color because of tannins. Tannins

the average EMC conditions to which it will be exposed.

are organic compounds that are part of the wood tissue

These conditions vary for interior uses compared with

(yellow, brown, or reddish). These tannins are water-

exterior uses in a given geographic location.

soluble and will disappear from the surface due to both

17

bacteria growth (mold and mildew) and UV light damage to its exposed surface cell structure. On initial contact

Shrinkage and swelling

with rain, these pigments will bleed out of the wood for a period of time.

As the moisture content in wood changes, shrinkage and swelling may occur. The level at which wood shrinks is not the same in all directions (tangential and radial), which generates stresses within timber during drying.

Uniform moisture content

This can lead to warping and cracking, especially with harsh, uneven drying. Wood shrinkage levels play an important role in wood stability, and this varies depending on the species, origin and maturity of the tree.18

30

Uneven moisture content

All wood surfaces will eventually turn gray outdoors. This is perfectly normal and a typical characteristic of wood that doesn’t compromise its structural integrity.

EXTREMIS HOPPER / Ash with ThermoWood® treatment

Wood _ 31

WOOD CLADDING WITH BLACK STAIN AND OIL/ Noa outdoor living

32

Wood treatments Once wood has been harvested, cut and dried, it can be treated in various ways to improve stability and durability.

Especially less durable woods are treated this way to make them usable for outdoors. Some common wood treatments for outdoor are:

Chemical modification

Wood oiling

There are a number of different chemical and pressure

Wood oil is a protective and decorative wood finish that

treatment processes that can extend the life of wood,

can be applied directly to bare wood and timber. Slowing

sometimes.

down rapid changes in moisture content that would

Whereas traditional preservative treatments often relied

otherwise lead to cracks.

on toxic chemicals that raised health and environmental

Wood oils are predominantly natural products which

concerns, modern approaches such as Accoya®

are easy to apply, as opposed to wood varnishes with

(acetylated wood) and Kebony® (furfurylated wood)

high amounts of volatile organic compounds (VOC).

provide high performance with more environmentally

UV-resistant wood oils will also slow down aging and

responsible methods.

greying, and will even revive a wooden surface’s natural color, bringing it ‘back to life’.

Shou Sugi Ban Shou Sugi Ban, also known as Yakisugi, is a traditional Japanese technique of wood preservation that involves charring the surface of wood to make it more resistant to weathering, pests, and improves fire resistance. The term ‘Shou Sugi Ban’ translates to ‘burnt cedar board’, although other types of wood can be used as well.

Shou Sugi Ban has gained popularity beyond Japan in recent years, especially in sustainable and modern architectural design, due to its combination of functionality and aesthetic appeal. Applications are mainly found in cladding & fencing.

WOOD CLADDING WITH BLACK STAIN AND OIL/ Noa outdoor living

Wood _ 33

Thermal treatment Thermal modification permanently alters wood

The figure below shows the 3 phases of a general

properties by heating it to a minimum temperature of

ThermoWood® process.

160°C, much higher than conventional kiln-drying of wood. This process enhances durability, stability, and

1.

In the first step, the wood is placed in a kiln or heattreatment chamber and heated to a temperature of

resistance to rot and pests, without using any chemicals,

100–130°C (212–266°F). During this phase, the goal

making the wood safe to handle and dispose of. Heat

is to reduce the wood’s moisture content to nearly

affects the entire wood cross-section, changing its

zero. Steam is applied throughout the process to

chemical composition and cell structure. Manufacturing

prevent cracking and protect the wood from burning.

process varies depending on the wood species. As the raw materials and manufacturing process of thermally modified wood aren’t overseen by a third party, the

2. Once dried, the temperature is increased to 180–230°C (356–446°F). This high-heat phase

process and product quality may vary significantly

modifies the wood’s structure by breaking down

between manufacturers.

hemicellulose, which reduces its ability to absorb moisture and enhances its resistance to decay.

Conversely, ThermoWood® is a registered trademark owned by the International ThermoWood Association.

This trademark signifies wood products made via a

3. After the heat treatment, the wood is gradually cooled down. Steam or water is reintroduced to

patented process developed in Finland in the 1990s. The

stabilize the material and restore a small amount

quality control of ThermoWood® was developed during

of moisture, typically bringing it to a level of 4–7%.

the 90’s collaboratively with Technical Research Center

This ensures that the wood is no longer brittle and is

of Finland (VTT), member companies, and Finotrol Oy.19

ready for practical use in various applications.

General overview of thermowood process

Kiln temperature (°C)

250

200

150

100

50

0

High-temperature drying

10

Thermal modification Conditioning

20 Treatment time (hours)

34

30

40

THROUGH HELL & BACK

EXTREMIS HELLWOOD / Ash with ThermoWood® treatment

Wood _ 35

Wood sustainability

When harvested responsibly from well-managed forests, wood can be one of the most sustainable building materials. Not only is wood fully renewable, but processing and recycling wooden products can also be done for a fraction of the energy expenditure of other building materials, such as steel, aluminum and concrete.20 Trees absorb carbon dioxide, and wood holds it, leading to a lower lifetime embodied energy.

Byproducts such as bark and shavings can additionally be used as a biofuel, offsetting energy used in the production process.

36

Solid wood is a blessing when it comes to CO₂ storage

Wood _ 37

OILING HOPPER TABLETOP / Recommended twice a year

38

Wood maintenance Outdoor wood is constantly exposed to the elements, including sunlight, rain, humidity, and temperature fluctuations. Proper maintenance helps prevent rot, warping, cracking, and discoloration, ensuring longevity and aesthetic appeal.

Preventing stains

Preventing mold and rotting

Try to keep food and drink from spilling directly onto the

Wood does well in rainy conditions. However, it is also

wood, especially substances that can cause stains like

important to allow it to dry from time to time, to prevent

wine, coffee, or oil. Spills on wood can be cleaned with a

mold (this appears as little black spots) and rotting.

moist cloth. It is however important to do this quickly to

When mold does appear, treat the wood with vinegar

prevent them from soaking into the material. If the stains

first, before trying heavy anti-mold treatments. If wood

are already to deep, light sanding can be a solution.

gets wet a lot, oiling is a must.

Regular cleaning

Oiling

Dampen the surface with water using a garden hose.

It’s recommended to oil outdoor wood products

Scrub with a soft-bristle in the direction of the grain.

twice a year for general outdoor use, especially if the

Use a mild detergent mixed with water. Avoid using a

wood is cleaned often, as detergents can strip it of its

pressure washer, as this can gouge or splinter the wood.

natural oils. Oiling helps replenish these oils, which

Over time, outdoor wood surfaces will become rough or develop splinters. In this case, sanding will make the surface smooth again. First, allow the wood to dry completely. Then, sand in the direction of the wood grain using medium-grit sandpaper (80-120 grit).

are essential for the wood’s durability and moisture resistance, keeping it protected and looking great.

Choose the right oil for your specific wood type and intended use. Always test on a small area first to ensure you like the finish, as wood oil can significantly alter the wood’s appearance. A little oil goes a long way. Use circular motions to ensure the oil penetrates well, and wipe away any excess oil on the surface.

Wood _ 39

Metals The discovery of new metals often changed the course of history so drastically that they are now used to define different time periods in history (Copper age, Bronze age, Iron age). Today, our society is completely reliant on metals, often far removed and much more exotic than the wrought metal ores first discovered thousands of years ago.

The science of metallurgy is now one of the most widely researched materials sciences.21 In chemistry, metals are “elements that lose electrons easily, that are lustrous, malleable, and are good conductors of heat and electricity.” 22

40

If outdoor furniture was made of gold, it wouldn’t rust!

EXTREMIS GOLDEN PICNIC/ Not actual gold, but anodized aluminum

Metals _ 41

Introduction to metallurgy Around 95 of the 118 elements on the periodic table are

So, how are metals formed? In nature, most metals are

metal elements. However, only a smaller subset is widely

found in combination with other chemical elements.

used in industry due to properties like scarcity, cost,

These natural chemical combinations are known as

and lack of desirable properties. Aluminum and iron are

metal ores. In order to extract pure metals from their

the two most abundant metal elements in the Earth’s

ores, significant energy must be expended.

crust by weight. This, combined with their favorable properties such as strength, durability, and ease of

Extraction

processing, makes them the most widely used metals for

2Fe2O3 H2O

industrial applications.

By combining metals with other elements, we create

Metal ore

4Fe + 2H2O + 3O2 Corrosion

Pure iron

what’s called an alloy (e.g. Brass, combining copper and zinc). Alloys have several advantages over pure metals due to their enhanced properties. Alloys that contain iron (e.g. Steel) are also referred to as ferrous metals. Nonferrous metals (like aluminium alloys) are usually more expensive because they are often in higher demand and are generally less abundant than ferrous metals.

In addition to the various metal elements, also the way the metal atoms are structured in the atomic lattice is critically important for its properties. E.g. graphite and diamond, where diamond is the hardest material in the world and graphite is as soft as a pencil tip. While in fact they are both merely structural formations of the same base element, carbon.

Conversely, corrosion is the tendency for metals to revert back to their natural, stable state.

This breakdown of metals only occur when exposed to a ‘corrosive environment’. That’s why corrosion only takes place at the surface of the metal. There are many different types of corrosion mechanisms. The most known example is when steel reacts with oxygen (O2) and water (H2O). The reddish-brown oxide that is created in this reaction is called rust. Rust that forms at the surface gradually flakes off, exposing the new metal underneath.

Metals that are highly resistant to corrosion and oxidation include precious metal like gold, silver, platinum, etc.​​Unfortunately, because of their rarity, these metals are too expensive to be used anywhere other than special applications or jewellery. The same is true for titanium, copper, lead, etc. While they are not technically considered precious metals, their cost often

Carbon atom

Graphite

42

exceeds what’s acceptable for general applications.

Diamond

If precious metals had been abundant, they would not have been precious.23 Henry Hazlitt

Al

Mg Ti

Cr

Fe

Cu Zn Ag Pt Au

Non-metals Precious metals

Fe

Metals used for industrial pruposes SIMPLIFIED PERIODIC TABLE / metals

Metals _ 43

Three must-known metals While there are many types of metals to talk about, in this section, we will dive a little deeper into three (most) common metals used for architecture and furniture:

• • •

Aluminum Carbon Steel Stainless Steel

DID YOU KNOW? The Eiffel Tower, made of wrought iron, was originally meant to be dismantled after 20 years!

Though historically significant, wrought iron has declined, with steel now the preferred alloy of iron.

EIFFEL TOWER PARIS / made from Wrought Iron

44

Metals _ 45

ALUMINIUM EXTRUSION PROFILES/ Custom parts from Extremis

46

Aluminum Aluminum is known for its numerous benefits, most

When aluminum is exposed to a dry atmosphere, it will

importantly, it’s light, strong and easy to machine.

form a natural protective oxide film that chemically

Aluminum is typically 2,5 times lighter than steel.

bonds to the surface of the metal. This film is

Once the lighter weight of aluminum is factored into

characterised by a powdery white or dull grey finish.

the equation, aluminum comes out on top with a

Unlike rust, the oxide layer will not flake off, however,

superior strength-to-weight ratio. It’s also more

this natural film is so thin (± 3nm ) that it will easily wear

malleable than steel, this makes it relatively easy to form

off. Therefore, for an increased corrosion resistance

while either cold or hot and is ideally suited for extrusion

aluminum is often anodised to give an oxide layer of

of complex shapes.

5 to 15µm.

It’s essential to note that aluminum in its pure form, is a highly reactive metal. Technically, pure aluminium dissolves when exposed to water. Often, alloying elements are added to achieve different properties, classified by their grade as listed in the table below.

Grade

Primary Alloying Element

Common uses

1000 Series

99% pure aluminium

Electric conductors

2000 series

Copper

Aircrafts

3000 series

Manganese

Roofing, siding

4000 series

Silicon

Weld fillers, brazing

5000 series

Magnesium

Marine applications

6000 series

Magnesium and silicon

Structural shapes, pipe

7000 series

Zinc

Aircrafts

Metals _ 47

STEEL = IRON + CARBON

WELDED STEEL BENCH FRAMES/ Quality inspection upon galvanizing

48

HOT ROLLED STEEL PROFILES / typical metal stock shelf

Carbon Steel Carbon steel, regular steel, plain steel, or simply just

Carbon steel is often divided into two main categories:

‘steel’ all refer to steel which is not stainless. Steel is

low-carbon steel and high-carbon steel. As the carbon

mostly composed of iron and a small amount of carbon

content percentage rises, steel has the ability to become

(0.05 - 2.1 %), two relatively affordable elements, that

harder and stronger through heat treating.

when combined, create a strong, easy to machine and easy to weld material. Steel is much stronger than iron in the domains of yield and tensile strength, but it’s also significantly tougher. This makes carbon steel the go to material for many industries.

Steel comes in many different shapes and sizes, stretch metal, perforated metal, wire mesh, ... The way steel is shaped, hot rolled or cold rolled, also has an affect on the strength and corrosion resistance. Cold-rolled steel, recognized by its smoother and more polished finish,

Exposed to a corrosive environment, carbon steel will

has a finer grain structure compared to hot-rolled steel.

rust while expanding approximately 2 to 6 times the

As a result, cold-rolled steel can have better corrosion

volume of the original steel and losing all strength in the

resistance, as the finer grain structure reduces the

process. Therefore, carbon steel is only considered a

likelihood of intergranular corrosion, which typically

durable material for outdoors when treated with the right

occurs along the grain boundaries.

protective coating!

A more detailed explanation of corrosion and protective coatings will be provided in the upcoming chapters.

Metals _ 49

Stainless Steel (≠ stainfree steel) Stainless steel is a highly alloyed, low-carbon steel

For outdoor design, the most commonly used type of

with a high chromium content (>11%). Chromium is the

stainless steel is austenitic stainless steel, particularly

key element that makes it rust-resistant. The chromium

grades 304 and 316. These are ideal for outdoor

reacts to form a passive oxide layer on the metal’s

environments due to their excellent corrosion resistance,

surface, slowing further oxidation and providing a self-

high weldability, and durability.

healing quality, which helps resist corrosion.

But as the name implies, stainless steel does not mean stainfree steel. So don’t be fooled, even stainless steel can rust, this is called “tea staining”. Tea staining is most common in areas that are near a marine

Grade 304 is the most common, offering good general corrosion resistance and is used in many outdoor applications like architectural details, railings, and furniture.

environment. Other probable causes of staining are iron

Grade 316 is similar but includes molybdenum, which

contamination, unclean welding or chemicals such as

provides better resistance to pitting and crevice

Chlorine.

corrosion, especially in marine and chemical environments. This makes it an ideal choice for coastal landscapes, outdoor sculptures, or any design elements near saltwater.

Despite its advantages, it’s important to remember that stainless steel, like any material, requires proper care to maintain its appearance and performance. Routine cleaning and protecting it from sources of heavy contamination will help preserve its longevity and keep your outdoor designs looking pristine for years to come.

DID YOU KNOW? Cars are typically made from steel due to its affordability, strength, and ease of forming into complex shapes. The only production cars made from stainless steel are the DeLorean DMC-12 and the Tesla Cybertruck, which feature angular designs made by bending.

50

WALT DISNEY CONCERT HALL WITH STAINLESS STEEL CLADDING/ Los Angeles

Metals _ 51

The war against Corrosion!

Corrosion is the biggest enemy of metal products and

The most obvious way of limiting corrosion is by

structures. The global cost of corrosion is estimated

removing the corrosive environment. Although the

to be US$2.5 trillion, which is equivalent to 3.4% of the

environment is often something we have no control over,

global GDP (2013).24

there are some premeasures we can take to limit the

Corrosion is a serious issue as it disrupts industrial ecosystems worldwide. Corroded products are often discarded, and corrosion by-products, such as rust, can contaminate water bodies.

contact. Minimize contact with water and humidity by proper outdoor design and/or a protective coating. It’s important to note that not all coatings are created equal.

Even though different coatings may appear identical on the surface, what lies beneath can vary drastically in quality. The following is a brief overview of common types of corrosion, pretreatment and coating methods.

Design considerations for preventing corrosion: Material, coating, and pretreatment selection are crucial.

Avoid completely flat surfaces or incorporate drainage holes.

Minimize small crevices and sharp edges, as they can trap water.

Ensure adequate ventilation to reduce humidity in enclosed areas.

52

Drainage holes in tabletop and seat help with good water evacuation

VIRUS PICNIC TABLE / Powdercoated stainless steel

Metals _ 53

Full welds all around prevents crevice corrosion

AMAI TABLE / Powdercoated stainless steel

54

50 Shades of corrosion There are many different forms of corrosion, some of the common ones are explained below. The purity or composition of the metal, crystal defects, grain structure, deformation, etc. all have an impact on the corrosion resistance of a metal. It’s therefore key to choose the right metal, pretreatment and coating required for the application.

Uniform corrosion

Galvanic corrosion

Uniform corrosion is considered an even attack across

Galvanic corrosion is the degradation of one metal

the surface of a material and is the most common type

near a joint or juncture that occurs when two

of corrosion. This type of corrosion typically occurs over

electrochemically dissimilar metals are in electrical

relatively large areas of a material’s surface.

contact. Choosing metals that are as close together on

25

Pitting corrosion Pitting is one of the most destructive types of corrosion caused by a local break or damage to the protective oxide film or a protective coating. Its a localized form of corrosion, in which a local point forms a small corrosion

the galvanic series helps to reduce the risk of galvanic corrosion. For example, aluminium and zinc work well together, but aluminum and stainless steel have an increased risk of galvanic corrosion.

Salt corrosion

cell with the surrounding normal surface. Once a pit

Salt accelerates corrosion because it enhances

has initiated, it grows into a “hole” or “cavity” typically

electrical conductivity in water, allowing current to

penetrate from the surface downward in a vertical

flow more easily. Since rust formation depends on the

direction.

movement of electrons, iron rusts more quickly in salt

Crevice corrosion Crevice corrosion is also a localized form of corrosion and usually results from a stagnant micro-environment.

Crevice corrosion occurs in shielded areas such as those under washers, bolt heads, gaskets, gaps at incomplete welds, etc. These smaller areas allow for a corrosive agent to enter but do not allow enough circulation within, depleting the oxygen content neccessary for passivation to happen.

water than in fresh water. 26 Additionally, salt is hygroscopic—it attracts water. By drawing moisture from the environment, salt speeds up the oxidation process. As a result, salt water corrodes metal up to five times faster than fresh water, and salty, humid ocean air can cause metal to corrode up to ten times faster than air with normal humidity.

Salt Spray Testing is a method used to evaluate corrosion resistance by exposing materials to a controlled salt mist, simulating harsh environmental conditions.

Metals _ 55

Electropolishing metals helps resist corrosion by minimizing the microscopic surface features that come into contact with the corrosive environment.

INUMBRA PARASOL / Electropolished stainless steel

56

Surface treatments Surface treatments are used to clean parts, improve corrosion resistance, adhesion for coatings, aesthetics, etc.

Some common surface treatments for metals are the following.

Pickling & Passivation

Electropolishing

Pickling uses a solution, which usually contains

Electropolishing does the opposite of shot blasting.

aggressive acid, as cleaning treatment for many

It’s an electrochemical process that removes material

coatings. Pickling removes impurities, such as grease,

from a metallic part, reducing the surface roughness

stains, inorganic contaminants, heat discoloration and

by levelling micro-peaks and valleys. It improves the

rust or scale. After pickling, the metal surface is active.

surface finish and corrosion resistance (as it reduces

Depending on the type of metal, it will immediately

the total surface area that comes in contact with the

corrode without further treatment.

corrosive environment.)27

In the case of stainless steel, a passive chromium oxide

Anodising

layer will naturally form after 24 -48 hours by exposure to the air. To prevent contamination pickup and to speed up the natural passivation after pickling, production lines often require a faster, chemical passivation

Anodising is a electrolytic process that converts metal surfaces into durable, decorative, corrosion-resistant finishes. This process is mainly used for aluminum, but

treatment.

also works on other nonferrous metals like magnesium

Blasting

oxide film of about 3nm, but anodizing increases this to

and titanium. Aluminum naturally forms a protective

Shot blasting is an alternative substrate cleaning method, it avoids caustic chemicals and it is ideal for large parts unsuitable for chemical dipping processes. It involves ‘blasting’ the substrate with various types of shot like sand, metal, soda ash, etc. Shot blasting removes mill scale, rust buildup, oils & dirt, weld spatter, etc. and creates a surface profile that enhances coating adhesion. The choice of shot depends on the substrate being prepared.

a much thicker layer, enhancing corrosion resistance.

Conversion coating Conversion coatings react with the surface to create complex films via dipping, spraying, or brushing, providing corrosion protection and enhancing primer adhesion. Chromate and chromate-phosphate coatings have been effective in preventing corrosion of aluminum alloys for decades, but their use is limited due to carcinogenic effects, prompting research for alternatives.

Cleaning -> Pickling -> Conversion coating -> Metallic / Organic coating Example of a pretreatment process for steel

Metals _ 57

Metallic coatings All coatings are susceptible to damage from scratching

Galvanizing methods are broadly classified into two

or chipping, which can expose the bare metal beneath.

categories: hot galvanizing and cold galvanizing. In

Once the underlying metal is exposed, corrosion can

general, hot galvanized coatings have a much better

begin, leading to adhesion loss and the formation of

metallurgical bond to the base metal, because they

growing blisters. This issue is particularly severe with

create a layer of zinc alloy.28 The thickness and coverage

regular steel, as it lacks inherent protective properties.

of the galvanizing layer can also indicate its protective

Metallic zinc coatings, commonly referred to as galvanizing, provides an effective way to protect iron or steel from corrosion. These types of coatings

properties. The following section will provide a more detailed explanation of some of the most common galvanizing methods.

form a protective barrier that seals the metal from environmental exposure. Even if the coating is scratched and the underlying iron is exposed, the surrounding zinc will corrode first, producing protective precipitates that cover the exposed area. This self-healing effect, known as sacrificial anodes or cathodic protection, prevents further damage.

DID YOU KNOW? Another example of cathodic protection is used on boats with steel hulls. This steel is protected by acting as a cathode, while a cheap and easy to replace zinc bloc performs as a sacrificial anode.

58

ZINC as a gardian angel

HOPPER FRAME / Hot-dip galvanized steel

Metals _ 59

Hot-dip galvanizing With Hot-dip galvanization, the zinc layer is applied

Hot-dip galvanization is primarily used in industrial

by immersing the metal in a bath of molten zinc at a

applications (stairs, railings, fences and other

temperature of around 450°C. The process of hot-dip

constructions) because of its exceptional durability. For

galvanizing results in a metallurgical bond between the

example, research has shown that galvanised steel used

steel and zinc, with a series of distinct iron-zinc alloys

to build bridges would last longer than the concrete

that protects both the out and inside of a part.

structures along our roads: up to seventy years in the

Good quality hot-dip galvanization requires a suitable

wind and rain.

type of steel that is thoroughly cleaned. Typically, the

The galvanisation process used in many outdoor

steel is chemically cleaned to remove all oils, greases,

products is so sustainable that it even received the

soil, mill scale, and oxides. Surface preparation is

Cradle2Cradle certificate from the Cradle to Cradle

critical as zinc will not react with unclean steel.

Products Innovation Institute (San Francisco – USA) from its auditor ‘EPEA’ in Hamburg. Cradle-to-Cradle (C2C) describes the idea of thinking in complete product cycles and thus ultimately preventing any environmentally harmful waste from being produced at all, with materials passing through a cycle as they do in nature.

However, the thermal application of the zinc layer is a

The undefeated world champion of coatings

process that consumes a lot of energy. The product’s incredibly long lifespan amply compensates for that.

What is more, the steel structure is perfectly recyclable.

So after all, it is a very raw, industrial technique.29

(with some personality issues)

60

HOPPER LEG / Hot-dip galvanized steel

Hot-dip galvanized parts can easily be identified by the crystallization patterning on the surface, which is also a good indicator for the quality of the coating. At first, galvanised products have a greyishblue sheen, over time, the look becomes more matt and neutral.

Metals _ 61

Sherardized steel Hot-dip galvanized steel

GARGANTUA / Legg connection

62

Electroplating

Sherardizing

Electroplating uses electrolysis to cover iron parts in a

Sherardizing also called vapor galvanizing or dry

very thin layer of another metal about 5-25 micrometers

galvanizing is a cementation process. It is a strong

thick. In the most corrosive environments, zinc plating

coating and provides good abrasion resistance, used

alone will probably not be sufficient. It is suggested to

in high temperature conditions. It involves heating up a

always combine zinc plating with an organic coating

steel part to a very high temperature. It is then put into a

for outdoor applications. Electroplating provides good

rotating drum which also contains zinc dust. The steel is

coverage, although it does not reach the insides of

then rolled in the drum full of zinc at a high temperature

hollow parts like tubes.

where the zinc will then evaporate and diffuse, bonding to the steel and filling in very small crevices.

Thermal spraying

Usually used for smaller parts nuts, bolts, screws,

Also called metallization, is the process of applying

spanners, etc. Applicable for base metal like steel.

a thin metallic coating to a substrate with a special technical gun. The gun is heated either electronically or using a flame, to melt the zinc upon spraying it onto the substrate. Because the substrate remains cooler than with hot-dip galvanization, there is virtually no risk of damage or distortion of the substrate.

Thermal spraying can also be done with aluminium (TSA-coating) or a combination of the two in order to provide extra chemical resistance, lower cost than pure zinc, etc.

Typical zinc coating thickness on steel 140 µm

0 µm

Hot-dip galvanizing Shot blasting + Hot-dip galvanizing Zinc spraying Zinc electroplating Sherardizing Zinc rich paints

Pure zinc Zinc alloy layers Dispersed zinc pigment

Metals _ 63

Organic coatings The term “organic” refers to coatings that are primarily composed of carbon-based compounds, typically derived from natural or synthetic polymers, resins, or oils. Organic coatings are generally the last step in the process as they mostly have an aesthetic function. They can also provide some corrosion protection, however, it can be difficult to protect the inside of tubes or hard to reach corners. Corners and bends are the weakest parts of a coating because they naturally receive less coverage. If underlying corrosion occurs, this can cause the resin and pigment particles to lose adhesion, leading to the formation of ever growing blisters.

In the case of steel, organic coatings and metallic coatings can also be combined. This is called a duplex coating combining the best of both techniques. The protective properties of a galvanised coating with the aesthetics of an organic coating.

Liquid coating

E-coating

Liquid coating is simply another term for applying paint

Electrophoretic Painting is a high-tech process

in liquid form, which dries to a solid finish. Because

developed over the last fifty years for applying anti-

this method doesn’t require heating, it’s commonly

corrosive coatings to steel car bodies. In this process,

used for large structures, bridges, and buildings where

coating materials (resins, pigments, additives) are

deconstruction is impractical. However, due to limited

dispersed in a water bath. Parts are immersed in this

layer thickness and adhesion, wet coatings need regular

solution and an electrical current is applied, using the

reapplication to protect against corrosion.

parts as an electrode. This makes the resin insoluble in

Liquid coatings consist of a liquid carrier (water-based or solvent-based) and solids, which remain after drying.

The solids include resins for toughness, pigments for color, and additives for properties like UV protection and rust inhibition. Solids can be acrylic, enamel, or urethanes. Some liquid coatings cure through chemical reactions, notably in two-component (2K) coatings systems with a curing chemical component.30

64

water, causing it to adhere to the parts’ surfaces. The electrical current ensures a consistent coating thickness.

The coated parts are then removed and cured by baking to harden the coating. E-coating efficiently covers all surfaces, even complex shapes, with nearly 100% material utilization, resulting in lower unit costs and high-quality production.31

DID YOU KNOW? The Golden Gate Bridge is a constant painting canvas to protect the steel from corrosion. It’s a never-ending labor of love, as workers battle the elements.

GOLDEN GATE BRIDGE / Painted Carbon steel

Metals _ 65

MEASURING COATING THICKNESS / Powder coated stainless steel

66

Powder coating Powder coating is a dry finishing process where an

For outdoor use, a single layer of polyester or epoxy

electrically charged powder adheres to metal surfaces,

coating on reactive metals is insufficient, as the

then bakes in a curing oven for a smooth, durable finish.

elements can still penetrate the coating and attack

It’s tougher than traditional wet paint, offering better

the surface beneath. It is only when these coatings are

resistance to chipping, scratching, and wear due to

combined that they offer solid protection against the

thermal bonding. Because the particles size in most

outdoors. Alternatively, pretreatments like zinc-coating

powders is 30–50 µm, the coating should exceed at least

or anodizing can be applied to protect the base metal.

50 µm in thickness for effective protection. Applying

You can go even further for some components, using

too much powder can lead to uneven textures, improper

stainless steel as the foundation before applying a

curing, and compromised durability, causing issues like

coating. This is just one example of how higher quality

chipping, peeling, or cracking.

comes at a higher cost to meet outdoor durability

There are many types of powders on the market, the most commonly used are: Epoxy is considered the best in terms of corrosion and chemical resistance. It has excellent surface wetting

standards. Unfortunately, these added precautions are almost invisible at the surface level. The real benefits become evident only after the typical warranty period expires. Extremis products are designed to last far beyond that.

and adhesion to substrates. However, epoxy will not withstand exposure to UV light, the color will fade and the surface will chalk fairly quickly. This is why for outdoor use, epoxy coatings are only used as a primer.

Providing additional protection from corrosion beneath a polyester topcoat.

Polyester coatings are widely used because they provide excellent value and offer great impact, mechanical, and chemical resistance. Even though they cure at a low temperature, they exhibit high heat resistance. Polyester coatings also provide superior UV resistance, making them suitable for some outdoor applications.

Metals _ 67

Metal recycling

Unlike some materials like plastics or wood, metals are

Non-ferrous metals (like aluminum) are much easier to

permanent materials that can be recycled again and

recycle than steel. few materials are as easily recycled

again with no loss of quality. This makes them ideal for

as aluminium. It requires only 5% of the energy needed

a circular economy. However, recycling metals does

to produce the initial primary metal to recycle it. In

require a significant amount of energy, especially to

fact, 75% of all aluminum ever extracted is still in use.32

melt and process them into new products.

However, the extraction of aluminum is extremely energy

The production of ferrous metals (such as steel and

intensive.

iron) is particularly energy-intensive because they need

Carbon steel is an environmentally friendly material, as it

to be heated to very high temperatures for melting and

is easily recyclable. It is also energy-efficient to produce,

reshaping. For example, the melting point of steel is

as it requires less energy than other metals such as

nearly double that of aluminum.

aluminium.

68

GALVANIZING STEEL TABLE LEGS / Extremis production facility

Metals can be recycled again and again with no loss of quality

Metals _ 69

Metal maintenance Some metals require more maintanance than other, but all metals will benefit from regular care. Without it, dirt and corrosives like salt, acids, small iron particles can accumulate and cause damage. Whenever possible, store metals in dry, temperate conditions, as extreme heat, moisture, or exposure to chemicals can accelerate corrosion or degradation.

Galvanized steel

While the surface may naturally develop scratches over

Galvanized steel is almost maintenance free, making

movement of rough or uneven objects over the material.

them ideal for public or semi-public spaces. However,

Most stains can be cleaned using stainless steel-specific

sometimes, white rust on galvanized steel can occur as

cleaners. When cleaning, always use non-ferrous tools—

a result of corrosion caused by moisture and improper

never use rust-prone items such as ferrous sponges,

handling or storage. While it doesn’t usually cause

scrapers, or steel wool, as these can damage the

severe damage, it can lead to the gradual deterioration

surface.

of the zinc coating. Preventing its formation through proper cleaning is key to maintaining the protective qualities of galvanized steel. Small damage can be touched up with zinc spray. If the zinc coating is in really bad condition, consider re-galvanizing the steel to restore its corrosion resistance before rust damage occurs.

Stainless steel Stainless steel is highly resistant to corrosion but should still be protected from salt exposure. Surface rust should be removed immediately to prevent damage.

70

time, major scratches can be minimized by avoiding the

Coated metals Use a mild detergent diluted in water. Avoid harsh or abrasive cleaners that can damage the coating.Also avoid the impact of sharp objects that can damage the coating. Scratches or dents can be repaired with a paint touch up pen. However this only camouflages the scratches without removing them.

HOPPER PICNIC/ Cleaning the powder coated legs with Extremis multicleaner

Metals _ 71

Textiles Textiles have been identified as the catalyst of technological changes. Their importance during the industrial revolution cannot be overstated. The textile industry was also the first to use modern production methods. In order to meet the demand for cloth and clothing of the ever growing population.

Upholstered furniture, cushions, blankets, shades, carpets, etc. are what gives outdoor design good comfort and cosiness. This is done by gluing, stitching or welding different pieces of textile and/or foam together into a final product. Textiles can be quite complex as there are many aspects to it, all having a big impact on the final quality of the product.

72

Textiles _ 73

Introduction to textiles Textile is an umbrella term that includes various fiber-

Textiles are divided into two groups: consumer textiles

based materials, such as yarns, filaments, threads,

for domestic purposes and technical textiles. In

different fabric types, etc. At first, the word ‘textiles’ only

consumer textiles, aesthetics and comfort are the most

referred to woven fabrics. However, weaving is not the

important factors, while in technical textiles, functional

only manufacturing method, and many other methods

properties are the priority. Geotextiles, industrial textiles,

were later developed to form textile structures based

medical textiles, and many other areas are examples of

on their intended use. Knitting and non-woven are other

technical textiles, whereas clothing and furnishings are

popular types of textile manufacturing.

examples of consumer textiles.

Fibers Yarn Non-Woven

74

Complex Yarn

Woven

Knitted

A fiber is the smallest component of a textile, it

After manufacturing, fabrics undergo various processing

determines the base properties of the textile, strength

and finishing techniques to enhance their value.

and stretchability, UV resistance, fire resistance, etc.

Methods such as washing, dyeing, steam treatment,

The sources of fibers may be natural, synthetic, or both.

coating, film application, lamination, linings, backings,

For non-woven fabric, the fibers are directly transformed into a fabric by mechanical, thermal or chemical processes. Most common example is felt, where fibers like wool or acrylic are bonded together as a result of the inherent friction (entanglement) from one to another.

etc. are applied to textiles. These post-processing treatments improve properties such as aesthetics, strength, abrasion resistance, water resistance, mold resistance, waterproofing, water repellency, fire retardancy, lightfastness, etc.

Yet, unless densified or reinforced by a backing, nonwoven fabrics often lack sufficient strength compared to woven fabrics.

Coating

For woven fabrics, the fibers are typically spun into a simple yarn, a long continuous length of interlocked fibres. Multiple yarns can be combined in different ways

Fabric

to create a complex-yarn.33 Yarns are then used to make different kinds of fabric by weaving or knitting. Most

Liner/interliner

commenly this is done in 2D to create a continuious sheet of fabric at a specific width. However, it is also

Backing

possible to structure yarns directly in 3D (Think about braiding, 3D knitting, etc.).

Textile fibres Natural

Synthetic

Animal fibres

Vegetable vibres

Inorganic/Mineral

Wool, Cashmere, Silk, ...

Cotton, Flax, Hemp, Jute, Sisal, ...

Glass, Carbon, Metallic, Stone

Organic /Polymer Acrylic, Polyester, Nylon, Poly-vinyl, Poly-urethanes, Poly-olefins, Rubber

Textiles _ 75

Three must-know fabrics Most outdoor fabrics on the market will be made from synthetic organic/polymer fibres because they tend to wear better than natural fibers and are more naturally resistant to moisture. Here we will dive a little deeper into three common fabrics used for outdoor architecture and furniture: Polypropylene, Polyester and Acrylic. The quality of a fabric depends on many different factors like weight (weight/area used to define the thickness of the fabric), fabric structure, chemical treatments, manufacturer, etc. Yet, at the core, many characteristics are defined by the choice of the base material.

Polypropylene (PP) Polypropylene is the chemical name given to the textile we know as olefin. Olefin fiber is a synthetic fiber made from a polyolefin, a byproduct of refining petroleum. Olefin fabric was developed from a form of polypropylene that came about in the 1930s. Since then, olefin fabric has become a popular choice in outdoor apparel and outdoor furniture upholstery due to its water-repellent properties and lightweight composition. One of the most important properties of olefin is its strength as it keeps its strength in wet and dry conditions and is very resilient. It’s also fire, and chemical resistant, colorfast and comfort, its resistance to mildew, abrasion, and sunlight. Olefin fibers have low moisture absorption, but they can wick moisture and dry quickly. Consequently, Olefin fibers do not dye well, but are very stain resistant without the use of stain treatment baths.

POLYPROPYLENE YARN / Panigiri Byos

76

Polyester (PES) Polyester and polyester-blend is a tough, versatile fabric that is cost effective. Polyester works well outside because it is resistant to stretching, abrasion - it’s also lightweight and flexible. Polyester is water-resistant, however, it’s not waterproof unless it’s coated with special materials. Polyester fabrics require a PFC chemical finish for stain resistance, this way they can resist mold, mildew, and surface stains. Polyester is usually batch-dyed, therefore, polyester fabrics on average will have a lightfastness score no higher than 1000 hours. Solution-dyed polyester is especially great for outdoor use - it has exceptional UV/sun resistance and wear properties. Not to mention, solution-dyed fabrics are much better for the environment (less water waste is used during production).

HI-TECH POLYESTER SHADE / Inumbra parasol

Acrylic Acrylic fabrics are made from acrylic fibers. Acrylic along with Olefin is extremely resistant to fading from the sun. Excellent lightfastness. Acrylic is extremely easy to stain when not treated with a stain treatment bath, it combines the best of fade-resistance with mold- and mildew-resistant properties. These properties make acrylic upholstery ideal for humid environments, poolside lounging, and sun-loving patio spaces.

Solution-dyed acrylics were made famous by outdoor fabric brands like Sunbrella®. It’s typically on the higher end of the price-range, but well worth it, since it lasts as long as 5 to 10 years.

SUNBRELLA® ACRYLIC / Walrus cushions and blanket

Textiles _ 77

78

Textile finishes Textile dyeing Batch dyeing refers to fabrics that are woven white and

Solution dyeing diverts from traditional wet processing.

then dyed in drums to its desired color. This process is

Pigment is added to the molten plastic before making

great for obtaining mass amounts of colored fabrics but

the fiber. Since the yarn is created in a specific color

these fabrics are very receptacle to staining because

(versus first being produced and then dyed), the

of the mass about of dye sites in polyester fiber. These

color is confined within the yarn. The color becomes

fabrics tend to look great at first but become stained as

intrinsic to the fibers, so the process often yields

the treatment wears off.

stronger fibers than batch dyeing, which weakens and

34

damages the fiber’s integrity. Yet, not all solution-dyed fibers are created equal. Solution-dyed Acrylic can be atmospherically dyed, this means that the fiber has dye sites. The more dye sites a fiber has, the more stains can penetrate the fiber.

Batch Dying

Solution Dying

Textiles _ 79

Textile coating Textile coatings are often the last step in the process, when the fabric is already woven and a coating is applied either on one or both sides of the fabric. Coatings can be applied to make a fabric waterproof, improve strength, abrasion resistancy, UV resistancy, fire resistancy, etc.

It is also possible to coat the yarns upon weaving, this will produce a mesh fabric that is not watertight but breathable. Thermo-fixing allows the yarns to fuse together after weaving to ensures dimensional stability.

Nano-coating Are ultra-thin layers (measured on the nanoscale) that are built upon the fabric often by spraying. Some nanocoatings are polymers, either polymerized in-situ or prior to application. At the nanoscale, quantum physics comes into play, creating a hydrophobic effect that repels water and dirt. An industry definition is that a nano-coating is no more than 1–100 nanometers thick. Therefore, nano-coatings also wear off very quickly and have to be reaplied often. Historically, many nano-coatings have contained—or still contain—PFAS. However, growing environmental and health concerns have led to increasing pressure to reduce or eliminate their use. In response, the industry has been shifting

PVC-coating Is strong and durable, making it ideal for use in a variety of applications. They do not stretch and are resistant to many chemicals and weather conditions, making it ideal for outdoor use. PVC is relatively inexpensive to produce, making it a popular choice for many applications.

However, the plasticizers used in soft PVC release toxic chemicals during production and its lifetime. PVC coated fabrics are also difficult to recycle because it is a complex material made up of several different components that are hard to separate.

Silicone-coatings Have different properties compared to traditional PU and PVC coated fabrics. Silicone coatings do not use plasticizers, which are often found in PVC products.

They also do not break down under UV light, deteriorate in cold temperatures, and maintains consistency and shape over time. It has been determined that there are no known health hazards associated with the use of silicone, hence the use in many food-grade applications.

PU-coating

toward the development of non-PFAS alternatives for

Polyurethane coating have a plump feel, they are

nano-coatings.

elastic,and have a film feel on the surface. PU coated fabrics are mainly used in outdoor clothing and military industries,and are characterized by moisture permeability, wear resistance, wind resistance, and softness.

80

PVC TARPAULIN / Walrus sofa

When stitching a coated fabric, make sure to glue the seams to prevent water from entering.

Textiles _ 81

Textile maintenance Frequent washing can shorten the lifespan of fabrics by weakening fibers, fading colors, and gradually wearing away protective surface coatings. At the same time, leaving textiles dirty for too long can cause issues— organic matter such as rotting leaves or bird droppings may penetrate the fabric and lead to permanent stains.

Therefore, it’s important to clean them immediately.

The best strategy is to prevent dirt buildup in the first place. Store cushions and blankets indoors when not in use, and keep parasols closed or covered. If your furniture is placed near trees or dense vegetation, be aware that they will require more frequent care. This applies for all materials but textiles in particular.

Textile labeling Always consult the specific maintenance instructions from the manufacturer. These instructions are tailored to the materials and technologies used in your outdoor products.

The requirements for labeling textiles vary from country to country. For instance, in the US, textile and apparel products must be labeled with fiber content, the manufacturer or dealer identity, and the care instructions. On the other hand, in the Europe Union (EU), Regulation (EU) No 1007/2001 states that textile labels should include either mandatory or voluntary information such as the country of origin and size.

82

HI-TECH POLYESTER SHADE & ACRYLIC FABRIC CUSHIONS / Garden

Close and cover parasols to shield them from debris and weather exposure.

Store cushions and blankets indoors when not in use.

Textiles _ 83

Sustainable design In 1987, the United Nations Brundtland Commission defined sustainability as “meeting the needs of the present without

compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”

Nowadays, sustainability has become merely a buzzword used in every corporate marketing campaign, sometimes with little meaning behind. Why? Because the complexity of the topic makes it easy to fool people with greenwashing claims. This leaves the customer on its own in making a good assessment of a products sustainability.

Sustainability is a progressive insight, we do not pretend to know the single truth about what’s really sustainable and what not. Yet we do know some things that certainly matter...

84

Sustainable Design _ 85

STEEL MINING CRANE / Black Rocky Soil

86

The price of fast design Global Footprint Network calculated that Earth

According to Jonathan Chapman38, “The mess we are

Overshoot Day 2024 falls on August 1st. This marks the

in today is more likely to be a result of unsustainable

date when humanity’s demand for ecological resources

developments in the way we design, manufacture and

and services in a given year exceeds what Earth’s

consume objects in the modern world”. Even recycling

ecosystems can regenerate in that year. Material

does not break this cycle since as chapman point out

resource extraction could increase by almost 60% from

“consumers continue on, but do so, now, with recycled

2020 levels by 2060, from 100 to 160 billion tonnes – far

materials instead of virgin ones.” Recycling provides

exceeding what is required to meet essential human

consumers with a false sense of security – recycling

needs for everyone.

gives the consumer a cleaner conscious when it is time

35

36

A major issue is “fast furniture”, made in the last 10 to 15 years using low-quality materials. This furniture is often cheaper and considered disposable as it’s often hard to repair. The Environmental Protection Agency reported that Americans discarded over 12 million tons of furniture in 2018, with over 80% ending up in landfills and only 0.3% recycled. This means furniture accounts

to potentially throw away or replace an object. Chapman thinks that the current methods that designers employ has devolved into a treatment of non-sustainable ‘symptoms’. ‘Sustainable design’ regularly settles for a marginalized role in the product life cycle. As a designer, there is an imperative duty to work with a product’s entire life cycle in mind.

for about 6.6% of total landfill waste.37

Earth Overshoot Day 2024 falls on August 1st.

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May.

Jun.

Jul.

Aug.

Sep.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Sustainable Design _ 87

Impact in the long-run The chair with the least environmental impact is sitting

impacts, will reduce every year a piece of furniture is

on the floor. However, in order to add value for the user,

used. This demonstrates the significance of product

we have to use at least some resources and energy to

lifespan in creating lower environmental impacts.39

produce a real chair. The goal here should be to use

Good design aims for ways to reduce, rethink, and

these recourses as sustainably as possible. The focus on

reform consumption in the long run.

a long-term vision and avoiding overconsumption and waste underlines the importance of sustainable design for the present and future.

Total Life Cycle Impacts per year

Sarah Ingram of Arizona State University studied the environmental impact of durable design. The study found that if the lifetime of a chair doubles, the total life cycle impact per year halves. This important (though also somewhat intuitive) finding illustrates that resource depletion, as well as ecological and human health

15 year

88

30 year

45 year

60 year

Chair lifetime

“What makes a design sustainable?

Not only the durability of the materials, but also the longevity of the idea.”

Dirk Wynants

Durability

Longevity

Durability is the ability of a product to perform its

Longevity encompasses more than just the material

required function over a lengthy period of time.

properties of the product41. User behaviour, and broader

This includes the physical aspects of a design: the way a product or building is engineered, the materials used,

social and cultural trends play important roles in the product’s longevity.

and how the components are shaped and connected.

Will the importance of a design still be relevant to

Can the product remain functional, without requiring

the user and society in the future? Why do we readily

excessive maintenance or repair, when faced with the

dispose of some things, whereas we keep and maintain

challenges of normal operation over its lifetime?

others for years and years?

A parasol should not break in heavy winds, and a metal

A product that doesn’t have or quickly loses its reason

table should not rust shortly after purchase. Therefore,

of existance, because its a variation on an existing

we should develop and buy products that can withstand

product without offering anything extra, is in essence

‘wear and tear’ without breaking down. Designing

not a sustainable design. Regardless of whether it has

products for easy maintenance is also a big part to

been made out of the most durable materials. This often

ensure designs last well past their warranty period.

happens with products that follow a particular hype,

40

style or fashion trend, they quickly go ‘out of fashion’.

Sustainable Design _ 89

PICNIK / Design classic by Dirk Wynants & Xavier Lust for Extremis

A holistic approach The power of holistic design lies in considering every life-cycle stage, from raw materials to distribution, to minimize environmental impact. It is a more integrated approach to sustainability, transcending the superficial aspects of furniture or architectural design. At the start of a design process, you should consider certain aspects and make sacrifices that comply with timeless values. This is what makes design pieces endure and become heirlooms.

Timeless designs are often known as such for a reason; their existence has demonstrated the ability to withstand the test of time and the judgment of the community across many different aspects of design. The right balance between functionality, aesthetics, circular design, and human connection.

90

Emotional value Cultural changes

Problem solving

Cultural changes

Design for people

Minimize environmental impact

Be inspired by social change, strive to promote social

Usefulness

Aesthetics

Biophilic

Maximize positive impact Functionality

interaction and harmony between people and their environment with outdoor designs that transcends the principles of form follows function.

Biophilic You boost human wellbeing with designs that are connected with nature through architecture and design.

Key principles of biophilic design, creating healthy, quality and productive environments based on the patterns of nature.

Emotional value Products that are loved, liked, and trusted create a certain attachment that makes them stay relevant for longer. The best way to make a product last is to make it beautiful in every aspect. Aesthetically sustainable objects continuously add nourishment to human life, focusing on the psychological and sensuous bond between subject and object. They inspire both care and enjoyment, becoming a focal point of memories and experiences.

Functionality Be practical – fit the design to the purpose and what people need. Only develop an idea if it is both necessary and useful. User-centered design tries to optimize the product around how people can, want, or need to use the product, rather than forcing the users to change their behavior to accommodate the product. In essence, function always comes first and form follows.

Minimize environmental impact Closing the loop between the end of a product’s life and production is what supports a circular economy.

In contrast to a linear economy, where products are made from virgin materials and disposed of in landfills or simply burned, discarded products are often viable goods that can be repaired but are tossed prematurely.

Repair is often seen as difficult by consumers or deliberately made difficult by producers in order to sell more new products. Creating reusable, repairable, regenerable, and recyclable products that generate zero waste is paramount for sustainable design.

Sustainable Design _ 91

Conclusion Ultimately, everything begins with the design. A new product must earn its reason for being.

Even though a product is created using the most sustainable methods possible, that alone is not enough. If a product fails to improve present and future lives more effectively than existing alternatives, then what is its purpose? A compelling WHY is identified even before the design process starts. Instead of thinking in terms of rooms, tables, chairs, the focus is on enhancing interactions among people while addressing the evolving needs of society. Rather than simply making products, the aim is to create “tools for togetherness”.

When designing or buying outdoor design, consider this: Start with a purpose—create sustainable design that fulfills a clear need.

Minimize environmental impact—good design aims for ways to reduce, rethink, and reform consumption in the long run.

Incorporate biophilic design—moreover in the E-guide to Biophilic design

92

AMAI TABLE / Design by Dirk Wynants for Extremis

Conclusion _ 93

References

94

1

Stach, E. (2017). Mies van der Rohe Space, Material and Detail.

2

Klepeis, N. E., Nelson, W. C., Ott, W. R., Robinson, J. P., Tsang, A. M., Switzer, P., Behar, J. v., Hern, S. C., & Engelmann, W. H. (2001). The National Human Activity Pattern Survey (NHAPS): A resource for assessing exposure to environmental pollutants. Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology, 11(3). https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.jea.7500165

3

CMF Design - the fundamental priciples of colour, material and finish design

4

“To Paint Miss Liberty.; Bronze Plates Are Corroding Under Influence of Salt-Laden Air.” The New York Times, 19 July 1906, https://www.nytimes.com/1906/07/19/archives/ to-paint-miss-liberty-bronze-plates-are-corroding-underinfluence-of.html.

5

Sakuragawa, S., Kaneko, T., & Miyazaki, Y. (2008). Effects of contact with wood on blood pressure and subjective evaluation. Journal of Wood Science, 54(2), 107–113. https://doi. org/10.1007/s10086-007-0915-7

6

Editors, The. n.d. Review of Design Q & A: Charles and Ray Eames. Herman Miller. WHY Magazine. https://www.hermanmiller.com/stories/why-magazine/design-q-and-a-charles-and-rayeames/

7

Hickey, M.; King, C. (2001). The Cambridge Illustrated Glossary of Botanical Terms. Cambridge University Press.

8

Ferrer, C., Hildebrand, T., & Martinez-Cañavate, C. (Eds.). (2023). Touch wood: Material, architecture, future. Lars Müller Publishers

9

Yang, K. C., & Hazenberg, G. (1990). Relationship Between Tree Age and Sapwood/Heartwood Width in Populus tremuloides Michx.

10

World Wildlife Fund. “Stopping Illegal Logging.” World Wildlife Fund, www.worldwildlife.org/ initiatives/stopping-illegal-logging.

11

World Resources Institute. “Estimating the Role of Seven Commodities in Agriculture-Linked Deforestation: Oil Palm, Soy, and Cattle Ranching.” World Resources Institute, research.wri. org/gfr/forest-extent-indicators/deforestation-agriculture.

12

“Economic Impact of Deforestation.” Forestry.com, forestry.com/economic-impact/economic-contributions/economic-impact-of-deforestation.

13

Fusion of 3D point clouds and hyperspectral data for the extraction of geometric and radiometric features of trees. - Scientific Figure on ResearchGate. Available from: https://www. researchgate.net/figure/Proportion-and-distribution-of-global-forest-area-by-climatic-domain-2020-1_fig1_351245826 [accessed 18 Apr 2025]

14

J. Gibson Mcilvain. “Which Is Better: Burmese or Plantation Teak?” Teak Wood Supply, 30 July 2018, https://www.teakwoodsupply.com/which-is-better-burmese-or-plantation-teak/. Accessed 12 Sept. 2024.

15

European Committee for Standardization (CEN). (2016). EN 350: Durability of wood and wood-based products - Testing and classification of the durability to biological agents of wood and wood-based materials. Brussels: CEN.

16

ASTM D. 143; Standard Test Methods for Small Clear Specimens of Timber. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) International: Conshohocken, PA, USA,

17

Wood drying Moisture content of wood. (n.d.).

18

Herritsch, A. (2007). Investigations on Wood Stability and Related Properties of Radiata Pine.

19

ThermoWood ® HANDBOOK. (n.d.). www.thermowood.fi

20

Roberts, David (15 January 2020). “The hottest new thing in sustainable building is, uh, wood”.

Vox. Retrieved 5 April 2024.

21

AZoM. (2012, February 6). The history of bronze. AZoMaterials. https://www.azom.com/article. aspx?ArticleID=6101

22

Study.com. (n.d.). Metals on the periodic table: Definition, reactivity & quiz. Retrieved February 13, 2025, from https://study.com/academy/lesson/metals-on-the-periodic-table-definition-reactivity-quiz.html

23

Henry Hazlitt (1959). “The failure of the “new economics”: an analysis of the Keynesian fallacies”

24

Koch, G. (2017). Cost of corrosion. In Trends in Oil and Gas Corrosion Research and Technologies: Production and Transmission. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-101105-8.00001-2

25

Gibson Stainless & Specialty, Inc. “Corrosion Types and Prevention.” Gibson Stainless, June 2017, www.gibsonstainless.com/types-of-corrosion.html. Accessed 18 Apr. 2025.

26

Gillespie, Claire. (2018, April 5). How Does Salt Water Rust Metals?. sciencing.com. Retrieved from https://www.sciencing.com/salt-water-rust-metals-5150093/

27

Asma, R. B. A. N., Yuli, P. A., & Mokhtar, C. I. (2011). Study on the effect of surface finish on corrosion of carbon steel in CO2 environment. Journal of Applied Sciences, 11(11). https://doi. org/10.3923/jas.2011.2053.2057

28

Galvanizers Association. (n.d.). Sacrificial protection. https://galvanizing.org.uk/sacrificial-protection/

29

Galvanizers Association. (n.d.). Corrosion rates. Retrieved April 18, 2025, from https://galvanizing.org.uk/corrosion/rates/#:~:text=The%20rate%20of%20corrosion%20is,%C2%B5py%20 (microns%20per%20year)

30

The Protech Group. “What Are Liquid Coatings?” The Protech Group, 16 Nov. 2021, www. theprotechgroup.com/what-are-liquid-coatings/.31 https://clearclad.com/products/what-ise-coat/

32

“Aluminum Recycling.” The Aluminum Association, https://www.aluminum.org/Recycling.

Accessed 4 Feb. 2025.

33

National Institute of Open Schooling. (n.d.). Yarn and its construction (Lesson 23, Home Science Module 5). https://nios.ac.in/media/documents/srsec321newE/321-E-Lesson-23.pdf​

34

Lewis, D. M. (2011). Batch/continuous: A review of textile dyeing processes. ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/293076433_Batchcontinuous_a_review_of_textile_dyeing_processes

35

Lin, D., & Wackernagel, M. (n.d.). Nowcasting the World’s Footprint & Biocapacity for 2024¦ May 2024 ¦ Global Footprint Network Estimating the Date of Earth Overshoot Day 2024 Outline Overview: Earth Overshoot Day Calculation The Need for Nowcasting.

36

UN Environment Progamm. (2024). Global Resources Outlook 2024: Bend the trend - Pathways to a liveable planet as resource use spikes. In International Resource Panel.

37

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2024). Durable goods: Product-specific data. EPA. https://www.epa.gov/facts-and-figures-about-materials-waste-and-recycling/durable-goods-product-specific-data#FurnitureandFurnishings

38

Chapman, J. (2012). Emotionally durable design: Objects, experiences and empathy. Emotionally Durable Design: Objects, Experiences and Empathy, 1–211. https://doi. org/10.4324/9781849771092

39

Ingham, S. (2013). Furniture Longevity: How Mass-Produced Heirloom Furniture Supports Sustainable Consumption. In Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling (Vol. 53, Issue 9).

40

Cooper, T. (1994). BEYOND RECYCLING The longer life option.

41

Cooper, T (2010). “The significance of product longevity”. In Cooper, T. (ed.). Longer Lasting Products: alternatives to the throwaway society. Farnham: Gower. pp. 3–36.

References _ 95

Pictures All images, infographics and designs are considered the intellectual property of Extremis unless mentioned here below:

ICONS

96

downloaded from The Noun Project

COPPER PATINA / Statue of liberty in New York

by Victor Muñoz downloaded from Pexel

TREE ANALYSIS AND RESEARCH / by forestry worker

by Toa55 from Shutterstock

GOLDEN GATE BRIDGE / Painted Carbon steel

by Wendy Wei downloaded from Pexels

EIFFEL TOWER PARIS / made from Wrought Iron

by Kim Stewart downloaded from Unsplash

HOT ROLLED STEEL PROFILES / metal stock shelf

by Rodho downloaded from Shutterstock

WALT DISNEY CONCERT HALL / Los Angeles

by Tobias Keller downloaded from Unsplash

STEEL MINING CRANE/ Black Rocky Soil

by Pixabay downloaded from Pexels

References _ 97

www.extremis.com

Couthoflaan 20b, 8972 Poperinge, Belgium _ T +32 57 346020 _ info@extremis.com