2015 equis proceedings by ESDA

Gathering to Share Hiroshimaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Desire for Peace

EQUIS 2015 The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice

Proceedings ISSN 2188-6865

Hosted by: INTESDA www.intesda.org

EQUIS Proceedings Contents Index Page 4 to 5: EQUIS Peer Review Details Page 6 to 41: EQUIS Program and Schedule Page 42 to 61: EQUIS Abstracts Section* Page 62 to 111: EQUIS Full Papers Section* * To find a specific abstract or full paper, please use the find option at the topic of the document

Gathering to Share Hiroshima’s Desire for Peace About EQUIS 2015 The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice (EQUIS 2015) Building on the outcomes and participant feedback from last year’s inaugural theme of ‘Equity and Social Justice: The Road to Reform,’ we have expanded the range of themes that intersect with education reform as well as broadening the contemporary areas of equity, social justice and activism (human rights, race, gender, social support, migration, etc.). Global initiatives, such as Millennium Development Goals, have made some headway in bringing education and social justice issues to the forefront of mainstream discussion, such as universal primary education, gender equality, eradication of poverty, hunger and disease, but still the disparities data illustrate that the so-called “road to reform” is, indeed, a very long road. Thus, the theme for EQUIS 2015 is Challenges and Possibilities, which contrasts the difficulties and hopes that many of us, as educators, share. We are delighted to welcome academics, researchers, students, non-profit professionals, healthcare professionals and other educators to join us from December 20-22, 2015 at the KKR Hotel in Hiroshima, Japan for the Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice. The symposium is an international and interdisciplinary event. Abstracts and papers passing the peer-review selection will appear in the EQUIS Proceedings (ISSN 2188-6865). EQUIS 2015 Acknowledgements We extend our deepest appreciation to the following people: Alan Brady, Ph.D., Kwansei Gakuin University (Japan) Bhimaraya Metri, Ph.D., The International Management Institute (India) Kristy King Takagi, Ed.D. Deputy Director of the Language Center, Fukui University (Japan) Susan Miller, Ph.D., Professor, Nippon Sport Science University (Japan) Michael K. Sasaoka, Alvord Program Director, INTESDA (Japan) Gary Smith, Program Coordinator, INTESDA (Japan) Suman Chakrabarty, Ph.D., Head, Dept. of Anthropology, Mrinalini Datta Mahavidyapith (India) Takayuki Yamada, Chairman, INTESDA (Japan) William P. Kittredge, Ph.D., President, Cervelet Management and Strategy Consultants (Thailand) Brian Andrews, Program Coordinator, INTESDA (Japan) EQUIS Organizer This symposium was made possible by INTESDA, The International Education for Sustainable Development Alliance, which is a diverse community of educators, academics and nonprofit professionals founded in 2015, in part, to support the Sustainable Development Global Goals set by the United Nations. It is committed to addressing sustainable development issues through capacity building, advocacy, networking and sharing knowledge. Finally, on behalf of our team, we would like to extend our deepest thanks to the people of Hiroshima, Japan for their support and gracious hospitality. For more information about INTESDA and its programs, please visit www.intesda.org

Gathering to Share Hiroshima’s Desire for Peace Proceedings The proceedings for this symposium have been approved and assigned an International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) through the Japanese National Centre for ISSN under the auspices of the National Diet Library. The National Diet Library, which acquires national serial publications exhaustively as the only national and deposit library in Japan, plays a role as the Japanese National Centre for ISSN. The Proceedings will be sent to all registered participants and made available through the INTESDA homepage shortly after the symposium. Please note that the proceedings are published in electronic format only as we strive to be a carbon neutral event. This event has been registered as ISSN 21886865. Reading and Editorial Committee We deeply appreciate the tireless effort and commitment to confidentiality and professionalism of our reading and editorial committee members. Under the guidance of Dr Suman Chakrabarty and our team of readers, we reviewed more than 100 abstracts. The final distribution was as follows: •

EQUIS: 116 submissions received with 78 accepted (67.24% acceptance rate)

We employed a double-blind review system with instructions and a scoring rubric that assessed areas such as originality, clarity/organization, spelling/grammar and suitability for the event. We wish to thank the following people for their willingness and effort to assist with the reading and editorial committee work: Ms Staci-Anne Ali, Aichi University - Toyohashi, Japan Dr Marie Therese Angeline Bustos, University of the Philippines - Diliman, The Philippines Dr I-Chia Chou, Wenzao Ursuline University of Languages, Taiwan Professor Wei-Shang Fan, Nanhua University, Taiwan Mr Roberto Jr Figueroa, University of the Philippines, The Philippines Ms Evianne HO, Macau English Teachers Association, Macau Ms Diana Kartika, Waseda University, Japan Dr Jose Lalas, University of Redlands, USA Mr Joshua Lee, University of Macau, Macau Professor Susan Miller, Nippon Sport Science University, Japan Mr Joseph Nunez, Gwangju International Center, Korea Dr Christiaan Prinsloo, Seoul National University, Korea Dr Muhammad Rizal Razman, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia Professor Hong-Chi Shiau, Shih-Hsin University, Taiwan Dr Gerardo Sierra, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico Dr Yi Lee Wong, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Mr Michael K. Sasaoka, Alvord Program Director, INTESDA, Japan Dr Suman Chakrabarty, Head, Dept. of Anthropology, Mrinalini Datta Mahavidyapith, India Mr Takayuki Yamada, Chairman, INTESDA, Japan

Gathering to Share Hiroshimaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Desire for Peace

EQUIS 2015 The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice

Schedule & Agenda December 20-22, 2015 at the KKR Hotel, Hiroshima, Japan

Hosted by: INTESDA www.intesda.org

A letter from the EQUIS 2015 Organizing Committee Welcome to all colleagues: On behalf of the EQUIS 2015 Organizing Committee, we would like to extend our deepest appreciation to all of our presenters, audience, plenary speakers and special guests. Following our inaugural event last year, which was also held in Hiroshima, we received a considerable amount of feedback that encouraged us to not only run this event again, but to also broaden the range of topics with a particular focus on the intersection of education across equity and social justice. We have approximately sixty participants from seventeen countries. EQUIS has attracted participants not only from Japan, but also from Korea, Thailand, Taiwan, Mexico, Colombia, Turkey, The Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia and many other places. As a means of allowing everyone an opportunity to meet and mingle, please join us on Monday, December 21st from 4:00 p.m. in the Suehiro Ballroom for the Poster and Networking Reception. We will serve coffee, tea and light snacks. The reception is open to all participants and provides an ideal environment for learning from the posters, sharing ideas, networking and making new friends. In addition, we are pleased to announce that our two keynote speakers, Professor Kristy King Takagi and Professor Susan Miller will engage us during the plenary session on Sunday, December 20th from 3:00 p.m. to 5:00 p.m. The plenary will be held in the Suehiro Ballroom. Coffee, tea and light snacks will be served. Organizing events, whether large or small, is a long and arduous undertaking. We have always felt committed, however, to the overarching goal of providing an opportunity for academics, scholars, nonprofit workers, students and others concerned with education, equity and social justice to exchange views in a setting encouraging respectful dialogue. Finally, we wish to extend special thanks to all the members of the reading and editorial committee that have assisted in selecting a range of topics and caliber of presenters that is befitting the theme of this symposium. We are confident that everyone will find reason to be inspired by the research presented during these combined events. It is in this spirit of friendship, peace and international cooperation that we express our warmest welcome to every participant. We hope you will have a memorable and fruitful experience here in Japan! Yours most sincerely,

Alan Brady, Ph.D., Kwansei Gakuin University, Japan Bhimaraya Metri, Ph.D., The International Management Institute, India Michael K. Sasaoka, Alvord, Program Director, INTESDA, Japan Gary Smith, Program Coordinator, INTESDA, Japan Suman Chakrabarty, Ph.D., Head, Dept. of Anthropology, Mrinalini Datta Mahavidyapith, India Takayuki Yamada, Chairman, INTESDA, Japan William P. Kittredge, Ph.D., President, Cervelet Management and Strategy Consultants, Thailand Brian Andrews, Program Coordinator, INTESDA, Japan

Gathering to Share Hiroshima’s Desire for Peace About EQUIS 2015 The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice (EQUIS 2015) Building on the outcomes and participant feedback from last year’s inaugural theme of ‘Equity and Social Justice: The Road to Reform,’ we have expanded the range of themes that intersect with education reform as well as broadening the contemporary areas of equity, social justice and activism (human rights, race, gender, social support, migration, etc.). Global initiatives, such as Millennium Development Goals, have made some headway in bringing education and social justice issues to the forefront of mainstream discussion, such as universal primary education, gender equality, eradication of poverty, hunger and disease, but still the disparities data illustrate that the so-called “road to reform” is, indeed, a very long road. Thus, the theme for EQUIS 2015 is Challenges and Possibilities, which contrasts the difficulties and hopes that many of us, as educators, share. We are delighted to welcome academics, researchers, students, non-profit professionals, healthcare professionals and other educators to join us from December 20-22, 2015 at the KKR Hotel in Hiroshima, Japan for the Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice. The symposium is an international and interdisciplinary event. Abstracts and papers passing the peer-review selection will appear in the EQUIS Proceedings (ISSN 2188-6865). EQUIS 2015 Acknowledgements We extend our deepest appreciation to the following people: Alan Brady, Ph.D., Kwansei Gakuin University (Japan) Bhimaraya Metri, Ph.D., The International Management Institute (India) Kristy King Takagi, Ed.D. Deputy Director of the Language Center, Fukui University (Japan) Susan Miller, Ph.D., Professor, Nippon Sport Science University (Japan) Michael K. Sasaoka, Alvord, Program Director, INTESDA (Japan) Gary Smith, Program Coordinator, INTESDA (Japan) Suman Chakrabarty, Ph.D., Head, Dept. of Anthropology, Mrinalini Datta Mahavidyapith (India) Takayuki Yamada, International Advisory Board Chairperson, INTESDA (Japan) William P. Kittredge, Ph.D., President, Cervelet Management and Strategy Consultants (Thailand) Brian Andrews, Program Coordinator, INTESDA (Japan) EQUIS Organizer This symposium was made possible by INTESDA, The International Education for Sustainable Development Alliance, which is a diverse community of educators, academics and nonprofit professionals founded in 2015, in part, to support the Sustainable Development Global Goals set by the United Nations. It is committed to addressing sustainable development issues through capacity building, advocacy, networking and sharing knowledge. Finally, on behalf of our team, we would like to extend our deepest thanks to the people of Hiroshima, Japan for their support and gracious hospitality. For more information about INTESDA and its programs, please visit www.intesda.org

EQUIS: 116 submissions received with 78 accepted (67.24% acceptance rate)

We employed a double-blind review system with instructions and a scoring rubric that assessed areas such as originality, clarity/organization, spelling/grammar and suitability for the event. We wish to thank the following people for their willingness and effort to assist with the reading and editorial committee work: Ms Staci-Anne Ali, Aichi University - Toyohashi, Japan Dr Marie Therese Angeline Bustos, University of the Philippines - Diliman, The Philippines Dr I-Chia Chou, Wenzao Ursuline University of Languages, Taiwan Professor Wei-Shang Fan, Nanhua University, Taiwan Mr Roberto Jr Figueroa, University of the Philippines, The Philippines Ms Evianne HO, Macau English Teachers Association, Macau Ms Diana Kartika, Waseda University, Japan Dr Jose Lalas, University of Redlands, USA Mr Joshua Lee, University of Macau, Macau Professor Susan Miller, Nippon Sport Science University, Japan Mr Joseph Nunez, Gwangju International Center, Korea Dr Christiaan Prinsloo, Seoul National University, Korea Dr Muhammad Rizal Razman, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia Professor Hong-Chi Shiau, Shih-Hsin University, Taiwan Dr Gerardo Sierra, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico Dr Yi Lee Wong, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Mr Michael K. Sasaoka, Alvord Program, Director, INTESDA, Japan Dr Suman Chakrabarty, Head, Dept. of Anthropology, Mrinalini Datta Mahavidyapith, India Mr Takayuki Yamada, International Advisory Board Chairperson, INTESDA, Japan

Gathering to Share Hiroshima’s Desire for Peace

EQUIS 2015 GENERAL INFORMATION Designated Hotel – KKR Hotel Hiroshima All sessions will be held in the KKR Hotel Hiroshima, which is located a short distance from Hiroshima Castle and the government offices of Hiroshima Prefecture. Three public transportation rail systems pass within a short distance of the KKR Hotel Hiroshima: 1. 2. 3.

JOHOKU Station on the ASTRAM Rail Line is only 3 minutes west on foot. HAKUSHIMA Station on the Dentetsu Streetcar Line (also known as the ‘Hiroden’) is also 3 minutes west on foot. Please transfer at “Hacchobori” to Hakushima-line and get off at the termination. JR HIROSHIMA Station or JR YOKOGAWA Station is only 5 minutes by taxi

Venue As one of the largest cities in western Japan, Hiroshima has been a bustling, affluent and prosperous city with a rich history dating back to 1589, when it was established as the capital city of a powerful samurai warlord. Today, of course, Hiroshima is most well-known as the first city in the world to have suffered an atomic bombing, which occurred towards the end of World War II on August 6, 1945. Around the city of Hiroshima, you will find many well-used green spaces, none of which are more important than the poignant Peace Memorial Park, where various statues and monuments reside, as well as the A-Dome building, which has become a symbol of peace and has been registered as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. In addition, Hiroshima boasts some of the best traditional Japanese landscaping, including the beautiful Shukkeien Garden complete with tea-houses, ponds and bridges – located just a short distance on foot from the KKR Hotel. Finally, there is the iconic Miyajima Shrine Island, which is revered as on of the “three views of Japan” with its towering red torii gate standing in the midst of the Inland Sea. Dress During sessions and receptions, the expected dress code is business casual. Weather December temperatures in Hiroshima tend to be cool and dry. The temperature at night will be chilly. Equipment Presentation rooms are equipped with PC notebook computers, screens, projectors, speakers, laser pointers and microphones. Please note that the computers are not connected to the sound system in the room. If you intend to have an audio track during your presentation, please let us know. We also provide onsite technical support, if needed.

Gathering to Share Hiroshimaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Desire for Peace

Time Moderators Presentations during regular sessions have been allotted 25 to 30 minutes. We advise that presenters limit their presentation to 25 minutes and then use the remaining 5 minutes for questions and answers. We also ask that you allow time for the next presenter to prepare. As it is difficult for presenters to be mindful of the time, we have selected (2 to 3) people from each panel to alert the presenters when the presentation has reached the 25-minute mark. The primary task of the moderator is simply to remind presenters when the presentation time has expired so as to allow for a smooth transition for the next presenter. The moderators are not required to introduce the speakers because details are included in the schedule program regarding the name and affiliation of the speaker. If a presenter is absent or arrives late, the moderators should start the next presentation and inform the audience accordingly. If a moderator arrives late or is absent the panel should nominate an alternate moderator. Any presenters arriving late must wait until the final presenter has finished, and then may use any remaining time to present. Internet Access WIFI access is available in the KKR lobby area. Please see the front desk for login and password details. If you are staying in the KKR, then you can access the Internet free-of-charge in your room using the LAN cable provided. Having difficulty connecting to the WIFI inside the KKR? Please note that the organizers have no control over the WIFI access, so please inquire at the hotel front desk. Printing Photocopies can be made at the Lawson convenience store near the KKR. Alternatively, for larger printing needs, there is a Kinkoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s located on Hon-Dori Avenue. See the KKR front desk for directions. Stores near the KKR There are two convenience stores within easy walk of the KKR: the nearest is a Lawson across from the KKR. Also, there is a 7-11 approximately 5 minutes on foot. Ask the front desk for a map and directions. Banks / ATM / Currency Exchange There is a bank that offers currency exchange within 5 minutes on foot from the KKR. Please ask the hotel front desk for a map and directions. All banks in Hiroshima are open Monday to Friday from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. and closed on Saturday and Sunday. Please remember to bring your passport when exchanging money. International ATMs with English menus are also available at 7-Eleven convenience stores, which are open 24 hours with locations throughout the city.

EQUIS 2015 Co-Chairperson

Takayuki Yamada Chairperson, The International Advisory Council for INTESDA, Japan Charter and Founding Member of RID 2760 Rotary Club of Chubu Nagoya Mirai Special Adviser, Polio Plus Committee of Japan Committee Member, Rotary International Youth Exchange of Japan Mr. Yamada also serves as a special adviser of the Polio Plus Committee of Japan. In 2011 and 2013 he led humanitarian and medical missions to India and Bhutan to assist with immunization efforts to eradicate polio in South Asia. Most recently, Mr. Yamada was appointed to serve on the strategic planning committee for the Rotary International Youth Exchange Program in Japan.

EQUIS 2015 Co-Chairperson and Program Director

Michael K. Sasaoka Alvord Program Director INTESDA, Japan Michael oversees special programs, events and business development for INTESDA, which mobilizes ideas and raises awareness for sustainable development and the Global Goals. Michael holds degrees in international business and Japanese from San Diego State University, USA. Combining his interests in business and education he has been involved with education and training in Japan for the past seventeen years at the secondary, tertiary and corporate level. His research interests include globalization, sustainable development and education rights. In his free time, he is an avid aquarist and maintains a sixteen-hundred liter, aquascaped saltwater aquarium. He is passionately concerned about the impact of pollution and over-fishing on the global health of oceans and reefs.

EQUIS 2015 Review Chair and Editor

Suman Chakrabarty, M.Sc., Ph.D. (Calcutta University) Assistant Professor and Head of Department of Anthropology Mrinalini Datta Mahavidyapith (Govâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t aided degree college under West Bengal State University), West Bengal, India He is a bio-cultural Anthropologist working in the Central and Eastern Parts of India. His research generally explores the bio-social & bio-cultural aspect of health and nutritional status among the scheduled tribes in India. Dr. Suman Chakrabartyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s specific research interest investigates the inter-relationship between forest conservation, rehabilitation/displacement issues and its impact on food security among the Indian tribes living in different protected areas in India. Currently, his research projects include household food security and nutritional status among the Rabha Tribe living in Northern Part (Jaldapara and Buxa Wildlife Sanctuary in Dooars) of West Bengal, India. He has published several articles on the themes of chronic energy deficiency and its correlates among the scheduled tribes in Central and Eastern India. Specifically, he has published few articles on the current livelihood condition (Socio-economic aspect of health and nutritional status) of Indian tribes living inside protected areas and their rehabilitated counterparts.

EQUIS 2015 Organizing Committee Adviser

Alan Brady, Ph.D. Professor, Faculty of Sociology Kwansei Gakuin University, Japan Dr. Alan Brady is a full-time professor at Kwansei Gakuin University in Kansai, Japan and has worked there in the Sociology Faculty since 1991. He has lived and worked In Japan for over 40 years. His main research interests are the sociology of education and integrated social-natural worlds sustainability, language education policy, planning, and practices at university in Japan, and the development of a civic responsibility and global and glocal citizenship through integrated language and content higher learning. His most recent publications have centered on that development.

EQUIS 2015 Plenary Speaker

Kristy King Takagi, M.S., M.A., M.A., Ed.D. Professor and Deputy Director of the Language Center Fukui University, Japan First Plenary Speaker 15:00 to 15:45 Building a Validity Argument for Our Tests Kristy King Takagi was born in West Virginia, an American state that is small but rich in beautiful mountains, natural places, and Appalachian arts and music. A lifelong student of language, psychology, and pedagogy, she holds a bachelorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s degree in foreign language, masterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s degrees in child development, English, and advanced Japanese studies, and a doctorate in TESOL. She came to Japan in 1990 and has been teaching English in a wide variety of settings in Yamagata, Yokohama, Tokyo, Akita, and most recently, Fukui. Her research interests include the teaching and learning of reading and writing in English, student achievement, testing, and quantitative research methods.

EQUIS 2015 Plenary Speaker

Susan Miller, Ph.D. Professor of English Nippon Sport Science University, Japan Second Plenary Speaker 16:00 to 16:45 Coping with Deception and Displacement through Prayer Susan was born in Redding, California, and also lived in Hawaii and Australia as a child. She earned her bachelorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s degree in English from the University of California at Berkeley with highest honors and high general scholarship, a masterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s degree in English focusing on Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language from San Francisco State University, and a doctorate in English Literature from the University of Glasgow, Scotland. She is a professor of English at Nippon Sport Science University in Tokyo where she teaches a variety of courses relating to English and communication. Her research interests include Percy Bysshe Shelley, medieval English mystery plays, and the intersection between spirituality, literature and the arts. She particularly supports associations concerned with the Romantic poets, such as Keats, Shelley and Lord Byron. She won the Keats-Shelley Prize in 2008.

Gathering to Share Hiroshimaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Desire for Peace Symposium Schedule Overview Day 1: Sunday, December 20, 2015 Commencement will be held in the Suehiro Ballroom Light snacks and refreshments will be served 13:00 to 14:00

Participant Check-in (Receive your name badge, receipt and schedule) Location: KKR Hotel Lobby

14:00 to 14:20

EQUIS Commencement Held in Suehiro Introduction by INTESDA â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Organizers of EQUIS 2015

14:20 to 14:40

Opening Remarks

14:40 to 15:00

Recess

15:00 to 15:45

First Plenary Speaker Kristy King Takagi, M.S., M.A., M.A., Ed.D. Professor and Deputy Director of the Language Center Fukui University, Japan

15:45 to 16:00

Recess

16:00 to 16:45

Second Plenary Speaker Susan Miller, Ph.D. Professor of English Nippon Sport Science University, Japan

17:15 to 18:45

Welcome Reception (Ticketed event. Sold out.)

Gathering to Share Hiroshima’s Desire for Peace Symposium Schedule Overview Day 2: Monday, December 21, 2015 All sessions will be held in the Suehiro, Chidori and Hakucho Ballrooms 09:00 to 15:00

Participant Check-in (Receive your name badge, receipt and schedule) Location: KKR Hotel 1st Floor Lobby

10:00 to 12:30

Oral Session A1: The Future of Higher Education Suehiro Ballroom: 0292, 0294, 0295, 0309, 0316

10:00 to 12:30

Oral Session A2: Globalization, Human Rights and Education Technology Chidori Ballroom: 0230, 0310*, 0268, 0279, 0248*

10:00 to 12:30

Oral Session A3: Perspectives in Education, Equity and Social Justice I Hakucho Ballroom: 0214, 0246, 0290, 0273*, 0247*

12:30 to 13:30

Lunch (voucher provided for use in the KKR café or restaurant) We regret that vegetarian entrees might be limited or unavailable

13:00 to 13:30

Featured Virtual Session C1: Curriculum, Education and Peace Hakucho Ballroom: 0223, 0258 and 0282

13:30 to 15:30

Oral Session B1: Perspectives in Education, Equity and Social Justice II Suehiro Ballroom: 0227, 0235, 0237, 0262

13:30 to 15:30

Oral Session B2: Innovations in Language Education and Teaching Chidori Ballroom: 0216, 0225, 0245, 0297

13:30 to 15:30

Oral Session B3: Challenges for Educators and Learners Hakucho Ballroom: 0250, 0269, 0280, 0313*

15:45 to 16:00

Poster Set Up (outside of Suehiro Ballroom)

16:00 to 17:00

EQUIS Poster Session and Networking Reception Suehiro Ballroom: Light snacks and refreshments will be served 0222, 0229, 0240, 0243, 0251, 0254, 0271, 0274, 0277, 0278, 0284, 0285, 0287, 0300*, 0306, 0311, 0314

Symposium Schedule Overview Day 3: Tuesday, December 22, 2015 Closing Remarks 09:00 to 10:00

Closing Remarks KKR Hotel, 1st Floor in the Assiette Café Join us for coffee, light breakfast and closing remarks in a relaxing atmosphere

Gathering to Share Hiroshimaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Desire for Peace Day 1 Sunday, December 20, 2015 Opening Remarks, Plenary Speakers and Welcome Reception 14:00 to 14:20 EQUIS Commencement Held in Suehiro Introduction by INTESDA 14:20 to 14:40 Opening Remarks

14:40 to 15:00 Recess First Plenary Speaker 15:00 to 15:45 Building a Validity Argument for Our Tests Kristy King Takagi, M.S., M.A., M.A., Ed.D. Professor and Deputy Director of the Language Center Fukui University, Japan 15:45 to 16:00 Recess Second Plenary Speaker 16:00 to 16:45 Coping with Deception and Displacement through Prayer Susan Miller, Ph.D. Professor of English Nippon Sport Science University, Japan 17:15 to 18:45 Welcome Reception The EQUIS Welcome Reception is an optional, ticketed event. We will depart as a group from the KKR promptly at 17:15. All tickets for this reception have been sold.

Gathering to Share Hiroshimaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Desire for Peace

Oral, Poster and Virtual Presentations

Gathering to Share Hiroshimaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Desire for Peace Day 2: Oral Session A1 Monday, December 21, 2015 10:00 to 12:30 Oral Session A1: The Future of Higher Education Suehiro Ballroom: 0292, 0294, 0295, 0309, 0316 Time Moderators: Chanin Yoopetch, Ki-Seok Kwon and Evianne HO

10:00 to 10:05 Set Up / 10:05 to 10:25 Presentation / 10:25 to 10:30 Question & Answer 0292 Activating University Students by Google Classroom: An Action Research Ozcan Akgun, Istanbul Medeniyet Universitesi, Turkey1

10:30 to 10:35 Set Up / 10:35 to 10:55 Presentation / 10:55 to 11:00 Question & Answer 0294 Factors Effecting Studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Lifelong Learning in Higher Education Mustafa Bayrakci, Sakarya University, Turkey1 Hande Dindar, Ankara University, Turkey2

11:00 to 11:05 Set Up / 11:05 to 11:25 Presentation / 11:25 to 11:30 Question & Answer 0295 Intention to Work in Tourism and Hospitality Industry: The Case of College Students of Tourism and Hospitality Management Program in Thailand Chanin Yoopetch, Mahidol University International College, Thailand1

11:30 to 11:35 Set Up / 11:35 to 11:55 Presentation / 11:55 to 12:00 Question & Answer 0309 Research and Knowledge-transfer Activities of the Different Types of Korean Universities Ki-Seok Kwon, Hanbat National University, South Korea1

12:00 to 12:05 Set Up / 12:05 to 12:25 Presentation / 12:25 to 12:30 Question & Answer 0316 Constructing Professional Identity: Non-Native TESOL Teachers' Feedback on Best Practices to Prepare Students for the TOEIC Test Evianne HO, Macau English Teachers Association, Macau1

Gathering to Share Hiroshimaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Desire for Peace Day 2: Oral Session A2 Monday, December 21, 2015 10:00 to 12:30 Oral Session A2: Globalization, Human Rights and Education Technology Chidori Ballroom: 0230, 0310*, 0268, 0279, 0248* Time Moderators: Reinald Adrian Pugoy, Murat Topal and Joseph Nunez 10:00 to 10:05 Set Up / 10:05 to 10:25 Presentation / 10:25 to 10:30 Question & Answer 0230 Virtual Reality: A proposed alternative to educational tours for students with limited finances Roberto Jr Figueroa, University of the Philippines, Philippines1 June Kate Perello, Phinma Education, Philippines2 Marcela Bacani Figueroa, Philippines3 Roberto Tolentino Figueroa, Philippines4 Reuel Palit-Ang, Day Star Academy, Philippines5 10:30 to 10:35 Set Up / 10:35 to 10:55 Presentation / 10:55 to 11:00 Question & Answer 0310 How Can Any City Community Appreciate And Advance Human Rights?* Joseph Nunez, Gwangju International Center, South Korea1 11:00 to 11:05 Set Up / 11:05 to 11:25 Presentation / 11:25 to 11:30 Question & Answer 0268 Augmented Reality In Nursing Education: A Collaborative Approach for ASEAN Integration Reinald Adrian Pugoy, University of the Philippines Open University, Philippines1 Rita C. Ramos, University of the Philippines Open University, Philippines2 Roberto B. Figueroa Jr., University of the Philippines Open University, Philippines3 Mark Harold C. Rivera, Philippines4 Boontip Siritarungsri, Sukthothai Thammathirat Open University, Thailand5 Aree Cheevakasemsook, Sukthothai Thammathirat Open University, Thailand6 Premruetai Noimuenwai, Sukthothai Thammathirat Open University, Thailand7 Pattaya Kaewsarn, Sukthothai Thammathirat Open University, Thailand8 11:30 to 11:35 Set Up / 11:35 to 11:55 Presentation / 11:55 to 12:00 Question & Answer 0279 Player Views Towards Possibility Of Using World Of Warcraft Game Environment In Second Language Learning Murat Topal, Sakarya University, Turkey1 Safa Eroglu, Sakarya University, Turkey2 12:00 to 12:05 Set Up / 12:05 to 12:25 Presentation / 12:25 to 12:30 Question & Answer 0248 May I use Dynamic Geometry Software to show my knowledge in Mathematics?* Kan Kan Chan, University of Macau, Macau1

Gathering to Share Hiroshimaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Desire for Peace Day 2: Oral Session A3 Monday, December 21, 2015 10:00 to 12:30 Oral Session A3: Perspectives in Education, Equity and Social Justice I Hakucho Ballroom: 0214, 0246, 0290, 0273*, 0247* Time Moderators: Hong-Chi Shiau, Janet Atutubo and Kazutoshi Yoshino

10:00 to 10:05 Set Up / 10:05 to 10:25 Presentation / 10:25 to 10:30 Question & Answer 0214 Precariousness, gossip and collegiate bonding: negotiation of identity among freshmen on SMS (Short Messaging Services) Hong-Chi Shiau, Shih-Hsin University, Taiwan1

10:30 to 10:35 Set Up / 10:35 to 10:55 Presentation / 10:55 to 11:00 Question & Answer 0246 Struggles for Independence: A Popular Perspective Janet Atutubo, University of Santo Tomas, Philippines1

11:00 to 11:05 Set Up / 11:05 to 11:25 Presentation / 11:25 to 11:30 Question & Answer 0290 A Comparative Analysis and Transformative Approach to the Sustainable Self Kazutoshi Yoshino, University of Manitoba, Canada1

11:30 to 11:35 Set Up / 11:35 to 11:55 Presentation / 11:55 to 12:00 Question & Answer 0273 The Curriculum Integration Policy of Gender Equity Education Issue: Retrospect and Prospect* Hui-Ling Wendy Pan, Tamkang University, Taiwan1

12:00 to 12:05 Set Up / 12:05 to 12:25 Presentation / 12:25 to 12:30 Question & Answer 0247 Sexuality and Reproductive Health Education Has Been Neglected in Indonesia* Yusran Sartiah, The University of Halu Oleo Kendari, Indonesia1 Yoo Eka Yana Kansil, The University of Halu Oleo Kendari, Indonesia2 Lies Andriyani, The University of Halu Oleo Kendari, Indonesia3

Gathering to Share Hiroshimaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Desire for Peace

Lunch Break 12:30 to 13:30 All registered participants will receive a lunch voucher ticket, which can be used at either CafĂŠ Assiette on the 1st Floor or the Hakushima Restaurant located on the B1 Floor. The voucher ticket will be distributed at the registration table. Tickets are only valid for Monday, December 21st, 2015. Lost or misplaced tickets cannot be replaced. Please note that Oral Sessions B1, B2 and B3 will begin promptly at 13:30 We regret that vegetarian menu items might be limited or unavailable.

Gathering to Share Hiroshimaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Desire for Peace

Day 2: Oral Session B1 Monday, December 21, 2015 13:30 to 15:30 Oral Session B1: Perspectives in Education, Equity and Social Justice II Suehiro Ballroom: 0227, 0235, 0237, 0262 Time Moderators: Yi Lee Wong, Corazon Regacho and Jose Lalas We kindly ask presenters in Session B1 (Suehiro) to finish promptly at 15:30 and exit the ballroom so that we can remove chairs and set up for the poster session starting at 16:00. Thank you.

13:30 to 13:35 Set Up / 13:35 to 13:55 Presentation / 13:55 to 14:00 Question & Answer 0227 Five Female Japanese Undergraduate Students Re-Imagine Their Future Career Journeys Through A Graphic Novel Assignment Ai Wee Seow, Tamagawa University, Japan1

14:00 to 14:05 Set Up / 14:05 to 14:25 Presentation / 14:25 to 14:30 Question & Answer 0235 Making Sense Of The Choices And Constraints Facing Community College Students In Hong Kong In Getting Transferred To University Yi Lee Wong, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong1

14:30 to 14:35 Set Up / 14:35 to 14:55 Presentation / 14:55 to 15:00 Question & Answer 0237 Economy of Giving in SIMBAHAYAN Community Development Program: A Qualitative Research Corazon Regacho, University of Santo Tomas, Philippines1 Ma. Belinda Mandigma, University of Santo Tomas, Philippines2 Jommar A. De Guzman, University of Santo Tomas, Philippines3 Franz Guiseppe Cortez, University of Santo Tomas, Philippines4

15:00 to 15:05 Set Up / 15:05 to 15:25 Presentation / 15:25 to 15:30 Question & Answer 0262 Faculty and Student Mentoring: Considering the Roles of Social and Cultural Capital as Vehicles for Social Justice Jose Lalas, University of Redlands, United States of America1

Gathering to Share Hiroshimaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Desire for Peace Day 2: Oral Session B2 Monday, December 21, 2015 13:30 to 15:30 Oral Session B2: Innovations in Language Education and Teaching Chidori Ballroom: 0216, 0225, 0245, 0297 Time Moderators: Given Lee, Amanda Wallace and Joshua Lee

13:30 to 13:35 Set Up / 13:35 to 13:55 Presentation / 13:55 to 14:00 Question & Answer 0216 Explicit vocabulary instruction helps students learn in an English-as-a-medium-of-instruction class I-Chia Chou, Wenzao Ursuline University of Languages, Taiwan1

14:00 to 14:05 Set Up / 14:05 to 14:25 Presentation / 14:25 to 14:30 Question & Answer 0225 Effects of Flipped Learning on EFL College English Classrooms Given Lee, Seoul National University, South Korea1 Amanda Wallace, Seoul National University, South Korea2

14:30 to 14:35 Set Up / 14:35 to 14:55 Presentation / 14:55 to 15:00 Question & Answer 0245 Reflective Practice as an Approach to Motivating EFL Learning Fang rong Kuo, National United University, Taiwan1

15:00 to 15:05 Set Up / 15:05 to 15:25 Presentation / 15:25 to 15:30 Question & Answer 0297 Identity construction in public speaking discourse Joshua Lee, University of Macau, Macau1

Gathering to Share Hiroshimaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Desire for Peace Day 2: Oral Session B3 Monday, December 21, 2015 13:30 to 15:30 Oral Session B3: Challenges for Educators and Learners Hakucho Ballroom: 0250, 0269, 0280, 0313* Time Moderators: Wen-Hua Chen, Diana Kartika and Maria Lisak

13:30 to 13:35 Set Up / 13:35 to 13:55 Presentation / 13:55 to 14:00 Question & Answer 0250 Co-construction of Critical Literacy curriculum: Case Study of a Junior High School Class in Taiwan Wen-Hua Chen, National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan1

14:00 to 14:05 Set Up / 14:05 to 14:25 Presentation / 14:25 to 14:30 Question & Answer 0269 Supporting Inclusive Education through Assessment of Foundational Skills of Students with Additional Needs (SWANS) in the Philippines Marie Therese Angeline Bustos, University of the Philippines â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Diliman, Philippines1 Darlene D. Echavia, University of the Philippines-Diliman, Philippines2 Kerry Woods, Assessment Research Centre, University of Melbourne, Australia3 Masa Pavlovic, Assessment Research Centre, University of Melbourne, Australia4

14:30 to 14:35 Set Up / 14:35 to 14:55 Presentation / 14:55 to 15:00 Question & Answer 0280 Providing Quality Education for Children with Disabilities in a Developing Country Context: Possibilities and Limitations of Inclusive Education in Cambodia Diana Kartika, Waseda University, Japan1

15:00 to 15:05 Set Up / 15:05 to 15:25 Presentation / 15:25 to 15:30 Question & Answer 0313 Reframing the Confucian Classroom* Maria Lisak, Chosun University, South Korea1

Gathering to Share Hiroshimaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Desire for Peace

Day 2: Featured Virtual Session C1 Monday, December 21, 2015 13:00 to 13:30 Virtual Session C1: Curriculum, Education and Peace Hakucho Ballroom: 0223, 0258 and 0282 Session Moderator: Michael Sasaoka

Virtual Presenter Curriculum, Research and Development 0223 English as Academic and Professional Lingua Franca across the circles of world English Christiaan Prinsloo, Seoul National University, South Korea1

Virtual Presenter ESL / EFL Education 0258 An Activity on Teaching Students How to Ask Questions Staci-Anne Ali, Aichi University-Toyohashi, Japan1

Virtual Presenter Politics, Conflict and Peace Studies 0282 Women as Champions of Human Rights through Conflict Transformation Daniel Karanja, University of Maryland, United States of America1

Gathering to Share Hiroshimaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Desire for Peace

Day 2: Poster and Networking Session Monday, December 21, 2015 15:45 to 16:00 Poster Set Up outside of the Suehiro Ballroom Easels, Poster Boards, Tape and Tacks Provided 16:00 to 17:00 EQUIS Poster Session and Networking Reception Suehiro Ballroom: Light snacks and refreshments will be served Poster Presenters 0222, 0229, 0240, 0243, 0251, 0254, 0271, 0274, 0277, 0278, 0284, 0285, 0287, 0300*, 0306, 0311, 0314 Session Moderators: Michael Sasaoka and Brian Andrews

Gathering to Share Hiroshima’s Desire for Peace Poster and Networking Reception (continued) Posters are listed in numerical order. Poster Presenter Education for Sustainable Development 0222 Sustainability In Chemistry Education Sharifah Zarina Syed Zakaria, Institute for Environment & Development (LESTARI), Malaysia1 Poster Presenter Administration, Policy and Leadership 0229 The Application of the Criminal Law in Malaysia Towards Sustainable Development Within the Framework of Sustainability Science Muhammad Rizal Razman, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia1 Syed Zahirruddin Syed Zakaria, Research Centre for Sustainability Science and Governance (SGK), Institute for Environment and Development (LESTARI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia2 Poster Presenter Politics, Conflict and Peace Studies 0240 Dealing with Crises of Violence and Conflict: Forgiveness Susan Miller, Nippon Sport Science University, Japan1 Poster Presenter Teaching and Learning 0243 From Paper to Keyboard----Blended Learning in Foreign Language Chinese Education Shen Min, University of Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Darussalam1 Poster Presenter ESL / EFL Education 0251 A Descriptive Study of a Teacher’s Intertextual Talk in an EFL Class Fan Chi Cho, National Chung Chen University, Taiwan1 Poster Presenter Education 0254 Frequency of Perceived Bullying in Clinical Practices of Last Year Interns of a Medicine School: A Cross Sectional Study Nubia Fernanda Sánchez Bello, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Colombia1 Lina Paola Bonilla Mahecha, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Colombia2 Martha Lucía Rodríguez López, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Colombia3 Javier Hernando Eslava-Schmalbach, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Colombia4 Yirdley Gisella Sandoval Vargas, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Colombia5 Juan Pablo Alzate Granados, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Colombia6 Adriana Carolina Villada Ramírez, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Colombia7 Natalia Valentina Murcia Ardila, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Colombia8 María Cristina Suarez Ángel, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Colombia9 Silvia Catalina Luque Angulo, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Colombia10 Juan Manuel Arteaga Díaz, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Colombia11 José Fernando Galván Villamarín, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Colombia12

Gathering to Share Hiroshima’s Desire for Peace Poster and Networking Reception (continued) Posters are listed in numerical order. Poster Presenter Education 0271 Will “Dual Certificate” Programme Really Solve the Issue of Medium-Skilled Labour Shortage in Thailand? Kittisak Kaweekijmanee, National University of Singapore, Singapore1 Poster Presenter Education Technology and Globalization 0274 Will global citizenship supersede national citizenship in East Asia? Realities and Limitations in Japan and Singapore. Choi Wu Law, National University of Singapore, Singapore1 Poster Presenter Higher Education / Further Education 0277 Development and validation of the Resistant Attitude/Behavior Scale in Higher Education Akihiro Saito, Hachinohe Institute of Technology, Japan1 Michael Smith, Aomori University of Health and Welfare, Japan2 Poster Presenter Health, Sex and Physical Education 0278 Modified Concentration Index For Measuring Inequities In Health Martha Lucía Rodríguez López, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Colombia1 Javier Hernando Eslava-Schmalbach, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Colombia2 Poster Presenter Health, Sex and Physical Education 0284 Relationships of Physical Activity Levels and Quality of Life Behaviors of University Elvin Onarici Gungor, Anadolu University, Turkey1 Gulsun Aydin, Anadolu University, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Turkey2 Dilek Yaliz, Anadolu University, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Turkey3 Poster Presenter Health, Sex and Physical Education 0285 Examining The Level of Moral Maturity of Physical Education and Sports Teaching Department Students from Different Variables Dilek Yaliz Solmaz, Anadolu University, Turkey1 Poster Presenter Health, Sex and Physical Education 0287 Physical Activity Levels of Students at Faculty of Sport Science Gülsün Aydın, Anadolu University, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Turkey1 Dilek Yalız Solmaz, Anadolu University, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Turkey2

Gathering to Share Hiroshima’s Desire for Peace Poster and Networking Reception (continued) Posters are listed in numerical order. Poster Presenter Aging and Population 0300 Indonesia Pension System: A Challenge toward Ageing Population* Yayat Budianto, National University of Singapore, Singapore1 Poster Presenter Curriculum, Research and Development 0306 Interdisciplinary Education on Language Engineering Gerardo Sierra, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico1 Azucena Montes, CENIDET, México2 Víctor Mijangos, Instituto de Ingeniería, UNAM, Mexico3 Poster Presenter ESL / EFL Education 0311 Using Cooperative Learning to Improve High School Students’ Reading Comprehension Pruksapan Janthorn, Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand1 Poster Presenter Curriculum, Research and Development 0314 Video-assisted Empathy Training for Medical Student: A Pilot Curriculum of Patientphysician Communication Skill Shih-Li Tsai, National Taiwan University Hospital, Taiwan1

Gathering to Share Hiroshimaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Desire for Peace

Day 3: Tuesday, December 22, 2015 09:00 to 10:00 Closing Remarks KKR Hotel, 1st Floor in the Assiette CafĂŠ Join us for coffee, light breakfast and closing remarks in a relaxing atmosphere

EQUIS 2015 Presenter Index Last Name Akgun Ali Atutubo Aydin Bayrakci Bello Budianto Bustos Chan Chen Cho Chou Figueroa Gungor HO Janthorn Karanja Kartika Kaweekijmanee Kuo Kwon Lalas Law Lee / Wallace Lee Joshua Lisak Lopez Miller Min Nunez Pan Prinsloo Pugoy Razman Regacho Saito Sartiah Seow Shiau Sierra Solmaz Topal Tsai Wong Yoopetch Yoshino Zakaria

Session A1 C1 A3 Poster A1 Poster Poster B3 A2 B3 Poster B2 A2 Poster A1 Poster C1 B3 Poster B2 A1 B1 Poster B2 B2 B3 Poster Poster Poster A2 A3 C1 A2 Poster B1 Poster A3 B1 A3 Poster Poster A2 Poster B1 A1 A3 Poster

Ballroom Suehiro Hakucho Hakucho Suehiro Suehiro Suehiro Suehiro Hakucho Chidori Hakucho Suehiro Chidori Chidori Suehiro Suehiro Suehiro Hakucho Hakucho Suehiro Chidori Suehiro Suehiro Suehiro Chidori Chidori Hakucho Suehiro Suehiro Suehiro Chidori Hakucho Hakucho Chidori Suehiro Suehiro Suehiro Hakucho Suehiro Hakucho Suehiro Suehiro Chidori Suehiro Suehiro Suehiro Hakucho Suehiro

Start Time 10:00 13:10 10:30 16:00 10:30 16:00 16:00 14:00 12:00 13:30 16:00 13:30 10:00 16:00 12:00 16:00 13:20 14:30 16:00 14:30 11:30 15:00 16:00 14:00 15:00 15:00 16:00 16:00 16:00 10:30 11:30 13:00 11:00 16:00 14:30 16:00 12:00 13:30 10:00 16:00 16:00 11:30 16:00 14:00 11:00 11:00 16:00

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The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

ISSN 2188-6865

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

EQUIS 2015 Abstracts

ISSN 2188-6865

The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

0214 Precariousness, gossip and collegiate bonding: negotiation identity among freshmen on SMS (Short Messaging Services) While precariousness marks a common lived experience (Butler, 2004), the beginning of the freshmen year presents such precariousness as they physically uncouple from the sphere of the parents and work out their own direction. This study examines how college freshmen gossip on Line –presently the most popular communicative space on smartphone in Taiwan – to bond. The data in this paper are dependent on the seventeen informants in ethnographic interviews. As much integrated into people’s lives, the ubiquitous and perpetual use of SMS may facilitate forms of interaction that are not possible to develop and maintain without using SMS. Gossip are common among Line users in small groups with less than eight people in them. Three forms of gossips classified in this study are (1) gossip against authorities, (2) celebrity gossip and (3) drama – strategic talking back against gossip. As scholars argued (Tagg, 2012; Liu, 2009, 2010) that gossips can be situated in diverse local practices that are collectively performed, the results shed light upon how texting becomes a glocalized practice through an accumulation of highly vernacular and localized linguistic practices.They are sources of conversational comfort and sartorial security, creating a safer net so that the freshmen can navigate through their precarious interstitial space without disclosing themselves excessively. SMS has afforded wider and more multimodal dissemination of information to which the freshmen might otherwise have not been able to access. Hong-Chi Shiau, Shih-Hsin University, Taiwan1

0216 Explicit vocabulary instruction helps students learn in an English-as-a-medium-of-instruction class Extensive research has highlighted the influence of English as a medium instruction (EMI) on academic performance of non-native-English-speaking (NNES) students in second language (L2) higher education contexts. However, some studies argued that EMI may not be effective (Lee, 2013; Sweller, Ayres, & Kalyuga, 2011). The lack of English language proficiency is one of the crucial problems interfering students’ learning outcome in EMI classes. Moreover, the acquisition of academic vocabulary seems to be a fundamental skill which will lead to the success of one’s reading, listening and other skills. However, only a few studies have conducted empirical research to test the effects of academic vocabulary instruction on NNES students’ learning outcome in EMI classes at the tertiary education level. In light of the need for empirical and pedagogical evidence, this study examined the effects of academic vocabulary instruction on NNES students’ academic performance in an EMI course in an EFL higher education context. This experimental study was carried out with 113 freshmen at a Taiwanese university from two intact classes (59 from Class A with explicit vocabulary instruction and 54 from Class B without explicit vocabulary instruction). The t-test result showed that students with explicit vocabulary instruction got significant higher achievement scores than those without explicit vocabulary instruction. This indicates that explicit vocabulary instruction is an effective way to help EFL students learn not only in language classrooms but also in academic disciplines. Pedagogical suggestions are also given. I-Chia Chou, Wenzao Ursuline University of Languages, Taiwan1 0219 The Training Mode of Integrated Educational Technology, Web-based Interaction and Learning Satisfaction on Taiwan Internet Auction Businesses This study uses the structure equation model to establish an integrated cause-effect relationship model to confirm the influences of integrated educational technology, web-based interaction to learning satisfaction on Internet auction businesses in Taiwan. The Internet auction businesses of three Taiwan web portals, namely Hinet, Yahoo, and Pchome, are selected as the research subjects. Their employees are required to complete the questionnaires during E-commerce trainings. With questionnaire survey, 450 copies are distributed and 216 effective ones are retrieved, with the retrieval rate 48%. The research results confirm that two variables positively influence users learning satisfaction and the validation results show that the overall model fit criteria and internal structure fit both reached criteria indicating that the theoretical model is supported. Wei-Shang Fan, Nanhua University, Taiwan1

ISSN 2188-6865

The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

0220 The Concept of Education of Upanishad Education may be defined as a process of facilitating learning. Knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits of a group of people are transferred to other people, through storytelling, discussion, teaching, training, or research or any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts may be considered educational. It is a process of waking up to life or a mental faculty, which is meant to aid the human being in his/her pursuit of harmonious development all around. The Upanishad are not considered as a mechanical process or a ritualistic process, but a process by which consciousness is psychologically awakened and put into an operation by which the individual and the object of realisation can be linked. The linking process, when effectively accomplished, brings about the state of peace. The teacher is seen only as an aid in providing the necessary elements by means of which the lotus of knowledge which is enclosed in the bud can flower into its fullness. The teacher initiates his disciple by declaring that he shall speak to the student of the truth, satyam vadiśyāmi, and he shall speak to the student of righteousness, rtam vadiśyāmi. These two words i.e. rtam and satyam, are central in the process of education in the Upanishads. The emphasis on the truth and on righteousness in the Upanishads and their connection are similar to what we find in the Famous doctrine of Socrates, "Virtue is Knowledge". Aditya Angiras, Panjab University, India1 0222 Sustainability In Chemistry Education Good health and healthy environment are important and can be maintain by producing and using products and processes that engage in sustainability. To achieve sustainability, many challenges have to be faced. From the challenge to identify alternate energy to the aspect of producing and supplying clean water, food, shelter and health support facilities for human daily consumptions. Thus, to solve these challenges, chemistry education has a very important role. Chemistry education must incorporate not only facts and knowledge regarding chemistry concepts but also the safety aspects which include awareness, skills and ethics regarding sustainability. As sustainability became the global agenda, we must educate and prepare generations who will not on only become innovators for sustainable technologies but also consumers who support sustainability. The content of chemistry education in the curriculum and textbooks, are part of the process that are vital in introducing sustainability aspects to the learners. This paper will look at the current state of chemistry education in Malaysia, to identify the elements regarding chemical safety, environmental awareness, skills and ethics that supports sustainability. It will also identify obstacles and barriers to the integration of sustainabily aspects in the curriculum, and consider alternative strategies. Sharifah Zarina Syed Zakaria, Institute for Environment & Development (LESTARI), Malaysia1 0223 English as Academic and Professional Lingua Franca across the circles of world English The purpose of this paper is to investigate how universities across the circles of world English conceptualize and curriculize English for Specific Purposes (ESP) to address local needs and remain globally relevant. The research purpose is realized through a case study methodology that considered each circle of world English as instrumental case. Within each circle, a sample of three university-level ESP-type curricula were subjected to a thematic analysis to determine how the sample universities conceptualize and curriculize ESP. Preliminary findings indicate that ESP-type curricula within the inner and outer circles of world English accentuate the academic functions of English over its professional purposes thus affirming a biased ascendancy of functional pedagogic approaches. Despite major global demographic and socio-political changes that demand strategic curricular redevelopment, the expanding circle of world English remains disproportionately dependent on communicative pedagogic approaches. Such pedagogic biases stifle the development of ESP-type curricula that respond to the academic and practical needs associated with the influences of globalization. Within the circles, ESP seems relatively homogenous; however, across the circles disparities in the curriculization of ESP accentuate the traditional linguistic functions associated with each circle. The currents of globalization contradict such inertia and suggest a re-examination of these traditional linguistic functions. Consequently, it may be more apt to consider ESP as English as Academic and Professional Lingua Franca (EAPLF). The implications of the findings include the (re)evaluation of the local and global purposes of EAPLF and the applied linguistic functions of each circle of world English. Christiaan Prinsloo, Seoul National University, South Korea1

ISSN 2188-6865

The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

0225 Effects of Flipped Learning on EFL College English Classrooms Although many teachers and researchers have recently discussed positive effects of the flipped learning approach, a newly emerged teaching method, there is little empirical evidence about whether the new approach can promote students’ English learning. This study investigates and reports on the results of flipping two intermediate levels of English classes at a Korean university over the course of a 15-week long semester. The participants included 72 students who were enrolled in the four English courses offered by the two instructors (i.e., one native English-speaking instructor and the other a non-nativeEnglish-speaking instructor). Each instructor flipped one section of the course, while they taught the other section with a typical communicative language teaching approach. Data were gathered by using various methods; the students’ achievements in quizzes and exams, oral presentations, and writing assignments; their responses to surveys; and the two instructors’ observations and descriptions of the students’ engagement in class. The data from the flipped groups were compared with the data in the non-flipped groups. Findings demonstrated that the students in the experimental groups performed better in several class tasks than those in the control groups. In addition, the surveys and the two instructors’ observations of the students’ learning process demonstrated that those in the flipped classroom appeared to be more engaged in the class activities and discussions than those in the nonflipped groups. The study suggests invaluable pedagogical implications not only for English teachers but also for content teachers. Given Lee, Seoul National University, South Korea1 Amanda Wallace, Seoul National University, South Korea2 0227 Five Female Japanese Undergraduate Students Re-Imagine Their Future Career Journeys Through A Graphic Novel Assignment Challenging five Japanese female undergraduate students to re-imagine their future career journeys led to interesting discussions about subtle but pervasive women’s issues in Japanese society. These discussions took place in a five-week segment on Art and Feminism within a fifteen-week Theory and Practice class. Initially designed to provide a survey of feminist works, the class shifted to focus more on empowering the five female students to think ambitiously about their future. Initial discussions with the students also revealed they had some knowledge about women’s issues but to them, it was a problem in far-away countries such as India and Iran but not in Japan. Their limited exposure might not be surprising since topics such as gender equality and human rights were seldom discussed in the K-12 setting or addressed in the media (Fujimura-Fanselow, 2011). Further, students were surprised to learn that Japan's longstanding poor record of addressing women’s issues in a male dominated society is known in the international community. Participants in this thirty-minute presentation will: 1). learn specific details about the curriculum design of this five-week segment, which included visiting a museum and conducting interviews with successful women in the field of education; 2). examine students' graphic novel assignment detailing their future career journeys, an assignment inspired by the work of graphic novelist Marjane Satrapri; and 3). learn how students’ knowledge and perception about women’s issues in Japan might have shifted and/or changed in the duration of this rigorous five-week segment. Ai Wee Seow, Tamagawa University, Japan1 0229 The Application of the Criminal Law in Malaysia Towards Sustainable Development Within the Framework of Sustainability Science Criminal law in Malaysia plays an essential role towards sustainable development within the framework of sustainability science. The application of the criminal law in Malaysia is largely in respond to the inevitability to protect environment, social and economics of mankind in order to achieve sustainable development. Therefore, this article examines the application of the criminal law in Malaysia within the framework of sustainability science from the national law approach by identifying actions and cases in order to achieve sustainable development. Muhammad Rizal Razman, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia1 Syed Zahirruddin Syed Zakaria, Research Centre for Sustainability Science and Governannce (SGK), Institute for Environment and Development (LESTARI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia2

ISSN 2188-6865

The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

0230 Virtual Reality: A proposed alternative to educational tours for students with limited finances Field trips or educational tours are important activities recognized to enhance and supplement lessons in the classroom by widening learnersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; awareness of the real world. However, due to limited financial support, many public schools and low-cost private schools in the Philippines are not able to provide these tours to their learners, their educational value notwithstanding. Fortunately, bringing distant or even imaginary environments into a personâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s own room has become possible with the introduction of virtual reality (VR). This technology involves the use of a headgear that covers the upper area of oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s face, including the eyes and ears so that the virtual world fed by the device can be fully perceived through sight and hearing with minimal interference from the real world. This creates an artificial reality for the user, thereby providing an immersive experience despite spatial limitations. With human ingenuity and low-cost materials, this once pricey technology has now become inexpensive. This study explores the feasibility of this affordable technology in providing an entertaining and learning experience for young learners in a low-cost private school in the Philippines. The reception and feedback of the students, parents, and teachers are collected as a result of this exploratory study. It hopes to provide guidance to future implementers and researchers on how it can be effectively used to enrich the learning experience of schools with similar conditions so that educational equity in this aspect can be achieved. Roberto Jr Figueroa, University of the Philippines, Philippines1 June Kate Perello, Phinma Education, Philippines2 Marcela Bacani Figueroa, Philippines3 Roberto Tolentino Figueroa, Philippines4 Reuel Palit-Ang, Day Star Academy, Philippines5 0235 Making Sense Of The Choices And Constraints Facing Community College Students In Hong Kong In Getting Transferred To University Since 1995, there has been a set annual quota of 14,500 students, about 18% of students of the relevant age group, who could get onto a publicly-funded degree program. In order to provide a higher proportion of the relevant age group with a post-secondary rather than a university education, in 2000 the Hong Kong government launched the community college policy offering a variety of associatedegree programs, which lead to a sub-degree. Because of the transfer function of associate-degree, despite the intention of the government, community college is taken up not as a means of getting a terminal sub-degree but as a second chance of getting onto a degree program by many students who fail to get straight into university. While the introduction of community college provides students with a newly available alternative route to university, it remains to be seen whether students of different class backgrounds could equally benefit from this second chance. I seek to address this issue by referring to a qualitative study of community college of 85 community-college students seeking a second chance. In this presentation, I examine what constraints are facing respondents of different classes while making educational choices at two stages in order to get transferred: deciding what options (degree programs) to apply for their transferal and finally deciding what offer to accept. Yi Lee Wong, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong1

ISSN 2188-6865

The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

0237 Economy of Giving in SIMBAHAYAN Community Development Program: A Qualitative Research This is the qualitative exploration phase of the survey project that will attempt to build an accounting model to keep track 'social accounts' as goods and services are given away. We present an alternative way of understanding Economy of Giving (EoG) as one possible approach for developing a social sustainability reporting framework. Our approach is motivated by our desire to help organizations realize returns against various forms of capital they have invested in communities which need to be sustained. An interpretative case study approach was used to generate data from multiple data sources, the different Simbahayan Community Development Program stakeholders of the University of Santo Tomas in Manila, Philippines. This is in line with the bottom-up assessment where criteria and indicators fro community development projects were developed with the direct involvement of various stakeholders, using the alternative EoG framework. Not only participant observation and interviews were employed, but also extensive document analyses. The social context of the case was also explored to generate survey instruments for the quantitative phase of a future research project. In addition, the study used less structured interview protocols including primary open-ended questions. Studying EoG within the proposed accounting framework would allow comparison of social performance among institutions adopting this radically different type of reporting. Businesses would no longer focus purely on traditional P & L but also consider impacts on society as well. Corazon Regacho, University of Santo Tomas, Philippines1 Ma. Belinda Mandigma, University of Santo Tomas, Philippines2 Jommar A. De Guzman, University of Santo Tomas, Philippines3 Franz Guiseppe Cortez, University of Santo Tomas, Philippines4 0239 Coping with Deception and Displacement through Prayer The existential crisis of Volkswagen and its deception of the Environmental Protection Agency’s emission standards has sent shock waves through the United States and the world. Long a trusted brand with a special reputation, the cars are now a liability and many owners regret having ever purchased them. The problem seems to have stemmed from an over-aggressive ‘think big’ sales policy, while ignoring a concern for the earth and air quality, which can affect the respiratory system. Regulators and legislators are in the early stages of addressing Volkswagen’s actions, and the European Commission is keen to get to the bottom of it as well. At the same time, the world is grappling with one of the largest humanitarian crises in recent memory, with millions of Syrians and Iraqis fleeing the violence of ISIS in desperation. While these two problems may seem to be unrelated, they both require time consuming and painstaking effort across business, industry, religious bodies, and governments in order to be solved and to rebuild trust. Yet individuals who feel betrayed need concrete steps that they can take right away for their own peace of mind. This paper, therefore, will not address the framework of cooperation required of various leaders, but, relating to the theme of hope, will focus instead on prayerful actions that an individual can take to feel empowered and at peace in this time of turmoil. Such actions will hopefully enhance mental and physical health while making a valuable contribution toward solving these problems. Susan Miller, Nippon Sport Science University, Japan1

ISSN 2188-6865

The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

0240 Dealing with Crises of Violence and Conflict: Forgiveness As the year 2015 draws to a close, violent incidents are seared into our collective memories. Some involve random shootings, including the church massacre in Charleston, North Carolina in June, and the Roseburg, Oregon massacre at Umpqua Community College on October 1. Others include acts of atrocity perpetrated by a rebel group, such as ISIS in the Middle East, particularly in Syria and Iraq, which has resulted in a humanitarian crisis that defies comprehension. In addition, the deadly US air strike on a Doctors Without Borders hospital in Kunduz, Afghanistan, at 2:15 AM on October 3 has the world reeling. Doctors Without Borders, also known as Medecins Sans Frontieres, is an international medical charity which abandoned the bombarded hospital in Kunduz after the attack and is calling for an independent investigation by the International Humanitarian Fact-Finding Commission, which was founded in 1991 but has never been activated. (Three military investigations are currently underway.) Nevertheless, in addition to legal procedures, it is necessary to address the loss of life and injury which have been incurred in these and other tragedies on a personal level. Therefore, in accordance with the theme of Challenges and Possibilites, this paper will explore how the incomprehensibility of such events can be dealt with through forgiveness. A discussion of various approaches to forgiveness will be engaged in, along with a consideration of resistance which may be encountered, and of the profound effect of individual action on personal, political and legal outcomes. Susan Miller, Nippon Sport Science University, Japan1 0243 From Paper to Keyboard----Blended Learning in Foreign Language Chinese Education Increasing trades and social interaction between China and ASEAN have considerably increased the demand of learning Chinese as a foreign language in the region. At the University of Brunei Darussalam, there is an average of 300 students per semester option to study Chinese as a foreign language. However, due to the nature of language teaching in the classrooms and the scarce of teaching staff, registration number is limited to be 200 only. Consequently, some students do not have enough to graduate at the end of their undergraduate programme. To solve the problem, especially in seek of a method to reduce contact hours while maintain or to improve the quality of teaching, CANVAS the online learning management system is applied. In the process, language teaching shifts from explicit instructions in the classrooms to the blended learning model. This study therefore aims to investigate students' perception and acceptance of this shift, provide empirical research in Bruneian Chinese as a foreign language classrooms on the practices of blended learning, and explore new dimensions of blended learning. Shen Min, University of Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Darussalam1 0245 Reflective Practice as an Approach to Motivating EFL Learning Engaging and motivating students is always a key factor for successful learning. In a setting where English is a foreign language (EFL), a big challenge of EFL pedagogy is that students do not need to speak English and communicate in this language because it is not the indispensable medium for communication in their daily life. Students usually learn English with low intrinsic motivation as it is considered irrelevant with their needs. Without an appropriate environment involving learners in social interaction with native English speakers, English learning more or less becomes a product of curricular demands, passing exams, or academic success (Adi, 2012; Wei, 2011). EFL students who are instrumentally motivated are extrinsically driven, studying English to fulfill external goals such as completing required courses, acquiring skills for vocational competence, or earning a degree (Wu, 2006). Drawing on the person-in-context relational perspective on L2 motivation proposed by Ushioda (2009), this qualitative study designs mixed activities in an EFL classroom to explore the dynamic process of reflective practice and its impact on motivational learning. Findings from the exploration are discussed and the pedagogical implications are provided as well. Fang rong Kuo, National United University, Taiwan1

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The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

0246 Struggles for Independence: A Popular Perspective Philippines, like most of Asian countries, was colonized by Western Europeans and after World War II, attained their independence. The irony, however, so much of the western dictates are still dominant. In our History classes, for example, the narratives of our history is still according to the stories of the leaders and the contributions of the colonizers, totally ignoring the participation of the native Filipinos. According to Max Weber, a group of people creates and acknowledges symbols that identifies them, these are what shape the collective responses as they live in their homeland, these are their binds, customs, responses to changes around them. Thus, this paper deals with the other data "not used in the mainstream" in order to reinterpret, present and hopefully rewrite the histories of colonized countries based on the experiences and participations of the majority of the colonized population. This kind of narrative of the history of the people of Southeast Asia tries present the flow of events according to how the native population understand the meaning of the changes they experienced, how they tried to acomodate whatever was introduced to them according to the needs of western colonization. This is a narrative of their struggle to regain the reigns of governance and reclaim their lands, customs, traditions and beliefs vis a vis the impositions and influx of western European influencess. Janet Atutubo, University of Santo Tomas, Philippines1 0248 May I use Dynamic Geometry Software to show my knowledge in Mathematics? There is some evidence to support the use of dynamic geometry software (DGS) in mathematics classroom and many teachers have the experience of using DGS in order to assist their instruction. However, the use of DGS in real classroom is still limited. This study argues that there should be changes in examination in order to encourage more teachers and students to use dynamic geometry software in the teaching and learning of mathematics. This study begins with the introduction of dynamic geometry software and its value in mathematics education. Then the use of DGS in Macau mathematics education is presented with its challenges and new developments. Using the lens of social justice, the study explores the possibility of using DGS in examinations. Kan Kan Chan, University of Macau, Macau1 0250 Co-construction of Critical Literacy curriculum: Case Study of a Junior High School Class in Taiwan This study aims to go into critical literacy involves the analysis and critique of the relationship among text, language, gender, power, social class and social practice, and then a mathematics teacher in Taiwan intended to introduce that concept to students and invite them to interpret and challenge inequities in society together via co-construction of critical literacy curriculum design. That is multiple methods are used to collect research data including participant observation, interviews and document analysis. Results of this study are as followings: I. The co-construction of critical literacy curriculum initiatives the Classroom Level began with the teacher and students deconstructing beliefs about mathematics as a culturally-neutral subject, as universal truth, as non-reasoning system, and as an exclusively Western discipline. II. The co-construction of critical literacy curriculum initiatives the Classroom Level were achieved through the teacher and studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; identification of specific ways and strategies to integrate multicultural or culturally relevant contents. That is, they proposed word problems that were culturally familiar, expressed their own language and lived experiences, scaffolded mathematics instruction through peer support learning, and even advanced to develop their own group assets for supporting their teaching and learning. III. The co-construction of critical literacy curriculum initiatives at Classroom Level promoted the mathematics teacher and students intending to use a range of approaches to advance their thinking and action level. Reflective practices were methods and techniques that help them on their experiences and actions in order to engage in a process of coconstruction of critical literacy curriculum. Wen-Hua Chen, National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan1

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The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

0251 A Descriptive Study of a Teacher’s Intertextual Talk in an EFL Class Intertextual talk benefits EFL learners by establishing links among their learning experiences. It develops connections between learners and the text, which enables them to negotiate the meaning of the text through their background knowledge and what they have learned in class. This study aimed to examine when and how a middle school EFL teacher used intertextual talk to provide comprehensible input and interacted with learners, and the roles the teacher played in the focal class. A middle school teacher with 32 first graders participated in this study. The learners have an intermediate level of English proficiency based on the test results from school, and were required to speak English in the English class. The class was observed and video-taped for three months, and data were collected from the participants’ discourse, oral interviews, and field notes taken during classroom observations. These data were examined according to Boyd and Maloof’s (2000) five categories of intertextual links. The preliminary findings indicated that the contents influenced the usage of intertextual links, and that classroom community links served as a positive force for enhancing the students’ engagement in classroom discussions. In addition, a clarifier and reflector were effective in aiding the teacher to help the students better understand the text. Fan Chi Cho, National Chung Chen University, Taiwan1 0254 Frecuency of Percieved Bullying in Clinical Practices of Last Year Interns of a Medicine School: A Cross Sectional Study During the year of the medical internship, students are surrounded by other interns, specialists and professors. The last two are responsible for the interns’ learning processes at the same time that represent an authority role. Bullying is defined like an aggressive behavior that occurs between the perpetrator and the victim. These can occur in different scenarios in which power relationships take place. Objective: Describe the perceived frequency of bullying by the interns of a Medicine School during their internship. Likewise, it is intended to describe their relation with sex, and the place in which the internship takes place. Materials and Methods: We perform a transversal analytical design study, with a questionnaire applied to 82 medical interns of the Faculty of Medicine. Results: The frequency of perceived bulling was of 90%. Statistically differences were not found in the stratified analysis by gender or place of practice. Usually, it was perpetrated by other interns and in some occasions by residents and specialists. Conclusions: The frequency of perceived bulling was higher than the expected and was homogeneously distributed in the study population. Nubia Sanchez, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Colombia1 Lina Paola Bonilla Mahecha, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Colombia2 Martha Lucía Rodríguez López, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Colombia3 Javier Hernando Eslava-Schmalbach, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Colombia4 Yirdley Gisella Sandoval Vargas, Universidad Nacional de Colombia,5 Colombia Juan Pablo Alzate Granados, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Colombia6 Adriana Carolina Villada Ramírez, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Colombia7 Natalia Valentina Murcia Ardila, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Colombia8 María Cristina Suarez Ángel, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Colombia9 Silvia Catalina Luque Angulo, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Colombia10 Juan Manuel Arteaga Díaz, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Colombia11 José Fernando Galván Villamarín, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Colombia12

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The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

0258 An Activity on Teaching Students How to Ask Questions There are many ways to communicate these days. One of the key components of conversation that I teach my students, is how to ask a variety of questions. Although in Japanese society asking too many questions may be not be encouraged as people tend to be too shy to ask what they really want to know. Questions are a natural part of having balanced conversations. Being able to ask and answer questions in a conversation not only conveys interest, but also allows speakers to express their thoughts and feelings to others about any given topic. In my communication classes, students are encouraged to ask as many questions as they can about related topics. This question practice activity seems to allow them enough thinking time to form questions so that they can have smoother conversations Staci-Anne Ali, Aichi University - Toyohashi, Japan1 0262 Faculty and Student Mentoring: Considering the Roles of Social and Cultural Capital as Vehicles for Social Justice Faculty and Student Mentoring: Considering the Roles of Social and Cultural Capital as Vehicles for Social Justice Mentoring goes beyond guiding one’s career advancement and nurturing one’s identity development. It provides the opportunity to raise the mentor’s and the mentee’s level of understanding about the issues of race, racism, and diversity in the classroom. Specifically, they can engage in courageous conversations about enduring social inequalities, privilege, color-blind racism, and genderblind sexism in the classroom (Stoll, 2013). While social capital and cultural capital are key engaging elements, both the mentor and the mentee should also study, discuss, and share information on issues related to curriculum and racism, culturally relevant education and racism, school funding and racism, as well as high-stakes testing and racism (Leonardo & Grubb, 2014). Mentoring also becomes a vehicle for social justice as it creates a space for conversation and advocacy for equity, democracy, criticality, equality, and ethic of care (Marshall & Oliva, 2010). As a way of advancing social justice mindset for both the mentor and the mentee, engagement in mentoring becomes a lifelong process that involves understanding one’s identity, examining how inequality affects opportunities of different people, exploring experiences and how those inform a person’s unique worldviews, perspectives, and opportunities (Darling-Hammond, French, & Garcia-Lopez, 2002). In a democratic, vibrant, and diverse society like the United States, mentoring for faculty engagement and successful career development carried out from a socially and culturally situated perspective becomes a transformative tool for social change. Jose Lalas, University of Redlands, United States of America1 Therese Bustos, University of the Philippines, Phiilippines2 0268 Augmented Reality In Nursing Education: A Collaborative Approach for ASEAN Integration The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) seeks economic integration by end of 2015 to establish a common market. Some of the key areas of cooperation in ASEAN integration include human resources development and capacity building, recognition of professional qualificiations, and integration of industries across the region. In light of this development, the University of the Philippines Open University (UPOU) and Sukthothai Thammathirat Open University (STOU) has joined forces to conduct collaborative research on possibly improving and integrating nursing education in ASEAN. In this research, they shall develop appropriate apps that contain open educational resources (OERs) for nurses in ASEAN, using Augmented Reality (AR) as the main technology. AR is a technology that allows real world objects and virtual/digital objects to be interspersed with each other. Because of this advancement, AR can be applied to a much wider range of application domains, which includes nursing education. AR shall revolutionize how printed materials and physical artifacts are being used in nursing education, thereby making learning more interactive, interesting and convenient for everyone. Moreover, a usability test based on the system usability scale shall be conducted on the prototype apps. Reinald Adrian Pugoy, University of the Philippines Open University, Philippines1 Rita C. Ramos, University of the Philippines Open University, Philippines2 Roberto B. Figueroa Jr., University of the Philippines Open University, Philippines3 Mark Harold C. Rivera, Philippines4 Boontip Siritarungsri, Sukthothai Thammathirat Open University, Thailand5 Aree Cheevakasemsook, Sukthothai Thammathirat Open University, Thailand6 Premruetai Noimuenwai, Sukthothai Thammathirat Open University, Thailand7 Pattaya Kaewsarn, Sukthothai Thammathirat Open University, Thailand8

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The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

0269 Supporting Inclusive Education through Assessment of Foundational Skills of Students with Additional Needs (SWANS) in the Philippines Increasing participation of children with disabilities in education is contingent on schools’ capacity to identify the children’s zone of proximal development (Vygostky, 1986) and begin teaching them at the level where they are most ready to learn (Griffin and Care, 2009). The role of assessment in responding to educational needs of children with disabilities cannot be undermined. Recent Philippine research, however, reported the lack of assessment tools in the field. The Assessment Research Centre of the University of Melbourne developed a battery of assessments of foundational skills for students with additional needs (SWANs). Foundational skills refer to core capabilities that all students, with or without disabilities, should have in order to participate in learning activities. Under the Philippines Response to Indigenous and Muslim Education (PRIME) project, the SWANs assessment tool was validated for Philippine use. Validation results demonstrated very high indices of item, person, and alpha reliability. Ease of use and the quick generation of reports and teaching strategies were found to be very helpful by Filipino general education and special education teachers who used the instrument. Marie Therese Angeline Bustos, University of the Philippines - Diliman, Philippines1 Darlene D. Echavia, University of the Philippines-Diliman, Philippines2 Kerry Woods, Assessment Research Centre, University of Melbourne, Australia3 Masa Pavlovic, Assessment Research Centre, University of Melbourne, Australia4 0271 Will “Dual Certificate” Programme Really Solve the Issue of Medium-Skilled Labour Shortage in Thailand? Thailand has confronted a severe shortage of medium-skilled workers whose skills and competency match with the industry’s demand. This presents a threat to productivity of manufacturing, service, and agricultural sectors and hinder the country’s mission to leave a middle-income trap. The formal vocational system has already reached its full capacity in preparing the medium-skilled workers to the market and expanding its training capacity may not be implementable in a short-run. To respond to this issue, in May 2015, Thailand’s Ministry of Education (MOE) decided to scale up a programme called “Dual Certificates”, suddenly increase a number of students in this programme from 1500 to 31,000 over a year. This programme will allow high school students to graduate with concurrent Mathayom Suksa 6 (Grade 12) and Vocational Certificate qualifications and be ready to enter job market, therefore increasing a pool of vocational graduates to the labour market. This study will analyse the alignment of programme design to its objectives and its efficiency in solving the medium-skilled labour shortage. The study will also identify the potential deviation from the programme’s expected outcome. Lastly, it will conclude whether or not the policy should be continued or how it can be better implemented in future to meet its original objectives. The analysis will be based on reviews of secondary materials including MOE annual statistics, study reports from MOE’s organisations, MOE’s press release and official documents related to the programme, news articles as well as other scholarly articles. Kittisak Kaweekijmanee, National University of Singapore, Singapore1 0273 The Curriculum Integration Policy of Gender Equity Education Issue: Retrospect and Prospect Many countries strive for gender equity. Education plays a noteworthy role for achieving this goal and curriculum development is the key. In Taiwan, the nine-year curriculum has its separate Curriculum Framework for the issue of gender equity education and the approach of curriculum integration has been employed since the late 1990s. Gender equity was selected as an issue in the official curriculum document which signals Taiwanese society being more multicultural and also indicates the power struggle of curriculum reform politics. In this decade, the concept of gender evolves from two genders, males and females, to multi-genders. Transformational orientation, integrating the competence indicators of gender issue and learning area to design teaching activities, is deemed as a legitimate way of curriculum integration. However, the efforts made fails to acquire the expected outcomes. Thus, the paper aims to review what had been done for the curriculum integration of gender equity issue. Starting with discussing the main ideas, this paper also analyzes the problems schools face in achieving gender equity. Based on the retrospect of the past, the author proposes what can be done for the new wave of curriculum reform of the 12-year basic education. Hui-Ling Wendy Pan, Tamkang University, Taiwan1

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The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

0274 Will global citizenship supersede national citizenship in East Asia? Realities and Limitations in Japan and Singapore. With the sweeping wave of globalization, many argue that a global identity will be superseding a national identity. Meanwhile, many countries in East Asia is trying to cultivate a global vision among students so as to meet the economic needs. The paper tries to delve into the construction of a global identity through education in East Asia by drawing the cases of Singapore and Japan and answers the following research questions: 1) What are the incentives to promote a global identity? What are the economic, political and social reasons behind? 2) What efforts have been made in the East Asian countries to cultivate a global identity? 3) To what extent of a global identity do the governments want to construct? How would be their ideal balance between a national identity and a global identity? 4) In reality, how far has the governments' efforts succeeded? What are the limitations and why? The paper chooses Japan and Singapore as the case studies is because Singapore, due to its economic development needs, has always maintained a close link with the rest of the world. The government has always tried to encouraged its citizens have a global mindset. On the other hand, Japan is a monocultural society. There has been a strong sense of national citizenship. By drawing on these two cases, it would be interesting to see how globalization has played a role in identity construction in the two different societies. Choi Wu Law, National University of Singapore, Singapore1 0277 Development and validation of the Resistant Attitude/Behavior Scale in Higher Education This study reports a pilot project that developed a Resistance Attitude/Behavior (RAB) scale. The scale is designed to measure higher education studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; apparently disobedient attitudes and behavior in relation to university learning, with the scale being the interpretative continuum of obedience versus resistance. 34 items were drawn from conceptual sub-components of resistance as observed in Japanese tertiary education contexts. A convenience sample of 145 engineering students took part in the study. The survey was completed online by participants, and this data collection was conducted over a threemonth period. Exploratory factor analysis yielded five-factor solution, and these constituted sub-scales; lack of commitment, lack of responsibility, neglect, anti-social orientation, and disorientation. Each sub-scale of RAB showed good internal consistency and reliability. Potential ways in which the RAB scale may be put to use will be discussed. Akihiro Saito, Hachinohe Institute of Technology, Japan1 Michael Smith, Aomori University of Health and Welfare, Japan2 0278 Modified Concentration Index For Mesure Inequities In Health The aim of this study is to modify the methodology of the Concentration Index for measure in a more sensitive way the inequities between the population of differents countries using the indicators of The Goals of Millennium by the OMS and the indicators in health by the World Bank. Actually the indexes by measure inequities in Health in a major way did not was made for measure inequities in health or by measure inequities between two or more population. In this study, we pretend to optimize the performance of this index, by the mathematical analysis and adjust of the type of data that is introduced in this, and the design of a new symmetry measure for try to determine how the inequities apear in the study population. Martha Rodriguez, National University of Colombia, Colombia1 Javier Hernando Eslava-Schmalbach, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Colombia2

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The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

0279 Player Views Towards Possibility Of Using World Of Warcraft Game Environment In Second Language Learning As a result of technological improvements information and communication technologies; and also internet; will always be for our students. Impression of these technologies[1], as Prensky[2] said, “our digital natives” have different habits of than their predecessors. In this study views of the players; “natural members of this game-WoW (World of Warcraft – a MMORPG (Massive Multiplayer Online Role Playing Game))”; were investigated towards possibility of using these games in second language learning. Data was collected via semi-structured interview with 14 participants who playing WoW on original servers. Two of the participants were female and age range was 18-28. Data analyzed with content analysis method.According to the findings %50 of the participants reported that WoW could be used for educational purposes, %71.4 of them support the idea that WoW could be use second language learning. %78.5 of the participants reported that they felt themselves to must join in-game and out-ofgame communities, %35.7 of the participants reported that they learn a little additional languages except than English like Turkish, Spanish and Deutsch. %57.1 of the participants prefer “speaking over internet tools” while playing in contrast with “just typing in chat boxes”. Results show that players of WoW find it possible that second language learning can be practiced through MMORPG games like WoW because of their in-game-typing and voice-over-ip tools as a platform or a group aims at solving game-related problems. Findings are discussed based on the literature. Murat Topal, Sakarya University, Turkey1 Safa Eroglu, Sakarya University, Turkey2 0280 Providing Quality Education for Children with Disabilities in a Developing Country Context: Possibilities and Limitations of Inclusive Education in Cambodia In the field of inclusive education, Cambodia provides a least developed country context for the international community to reflect on complex realities to address the global goal of ensuring quality education in developing countries. This study demonstrates the realities that stakeholders in Cambodia face, what is already being done on the ground, what deters inclusive in education from flourishing, and opportunities that present. Qualitative interviews were conducted, where children with disabilities (CWDs) are the units of analysis. Samples were selected among their corresponding school principals, teachers, and parents/guardians. A total of 103 interviews were conducted in the Phnom Penh, Kampot, Kandal, Battambang, and Ratanakiri, in February and July 2015. Preliminary findings suggest that attitudes toward how to educate CWDs differ by the types and severity of disabilities. While school principals and teachers acknowledge the rights of CWDs to education, they expressed difficulties and frustrations accommodating deaf, blind, children with learning disabilities, because making accommodations was disruptive to the class. Narratives from respondents also demonstrate how socioeconomic status of parents affects privilege, power, and control over education of CWDs. In developing countries where governments lack the resources or political will to invest in inclusive education, family resources define whether CWDs gain access to quality education and stay in it. Based on dialogue with respondents, this study highlights possibilities for community-based inclusive education; at the same time recognising the need for special education, especially when special skills like sign language and braille are needed to teach, at least in the short term. Diana Kartika, Waseda University, Japan1

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The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

0282 Women as Champions of Human Rights through Conflict Transformation The ideals of Pan-Africanism, unity, self-reliance and integration identified by the African Union strategy known as “Agenda 2063” are built around unity, prosperity and peace. These values are best demonstrated in the lives of brave African women who despite decades of war and violence remain unbroken and most resilient. In this presentation, I will offer a Pan-African feminist theory to stimulate further dialogue and hopefully create practical applications that could add value to the on-going conversations about the “Future we want for Africa”. Drawing from African examples and beyond, I will make the case that women are most effective when it comes to discernment of relationships and the ever-important need for terminating the cycles of reciprocal violence through revenge mostly caused by the winner-loser dynamic. A recent practice among Kenyan women will be fronted as a model worth of consideration where women groups formed for economic self-empowerment through micro-financing have reaped outstanding benefits. The same empowerment model could be focused on identifying and addressing root causes of violence of which some are based in the intricate web of structural violence. I will propose a hybrid method of indigenous and modern conflict transformation approaches to build lasting peace while reinforcing self-empowerment and regional integration among women. The theories and practical applications proposed here could be provide cross-cultural nuggets of wisdom and advance the dialogue on human rights and the critically important role of women in society. Daniel Karanja, University of Maryland, United States of America1 0284 Relationships of Physical Activity Levels and Quality of Life Behaviors of University The purpose of the present study was to determine and examine the relationship of physical activity levels and quality of life behaviors of university students. All physically active one hundred and twenty two students from Anadolu University, Department of Coach Training in Sports participated in this study. Data were collected using HRQL from the Medical Outcomes Survey short form-36 (SF-36) and International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) short form. In the data analysis, “frequencies, percentage, mean, standard deviation, Product-Moment Correlation coefficients” were used. According to study findings, it is determined that %7.7 of students were attending low intensity physical activity while %33.2 of them were attending middle intensity physical activity and %59.1 of them were attending high intensity physical activity. According to evaluation of students’ quality of life behaviors with SF-6 Health Survey in eight domains of functioning, the highest point means belong to in PF status, RP status and BP status. The lowest point means belong to SF status, GH status, RE status, MH status and VT status. According to Pearson Correlation analysis, it has been found out that there is a positive and significant relationship between GH status and physical activity. It has also been found out that there is a positive yet no significant relationship between physical activity and PF status, RP status, VT status, MH status. It has also been found out that there is a positive yet no significant relationship between physical activity and PF status, RP status, VT status, MH status. It has also been found out that there is a negative yet no significant relationship between physical activity and RE status, SF status, BP status. Elvin Onarici Gungor, Anadolu University, Turkey1 Gulsun Aydin, Anadolu University, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Eskisehir, Turkey2 Dilek Yaliz, Anadolu University, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Eskisehir, Turkey3

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The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

0285 Examining The Level of Moral Maturity of Physical Education and Sports Teaching Department Students from Different Variables The purposes of this article was aimed to investigate the level of moral maturity of Physical Education and Sports Teaching Department students at Anadolu University in terms of gender and grade level. One hundred and thirty nine students from first, second, third and fourth grades of Anadolu University, Department of Physical Education and Sports Teacher Training participated in this study. Data were collected by means of “The Moral Maturity Scale” which was originally developed by Şengün and Kaya (2007). The Moral Maturity Scale is a five-point Likert scale instrument with one-dimension. Students are required to rate themselves between 1 to 5 points for each item (“yes, every time= 5”, “most of the time= 4”, “occasionally= 3”, “very rare=2”, “no, never=1”). There are 52 positive and 14 negative statements. In the data analysis, “mean, standard deviation, t-test and ANOVA” were used. According to study findings, the students’ all moral maturity scores varied between 1 and 5, with a mean of 4.20, which suggests that their overall moral maturity was slightly the high score of the scale. Moreover, female and male students’ scores for the whole scale of moral maturity were above the average determined by the scale. However, the average of female learners were found to have scored higher than the male ones (M=4.28 and M=4.13 respectively). Also, the difference between these scores was found to be statistically significant (p=0.02). When assessed the whole scale, there is no statistically significant difference in moral maturity level of students according to grades (p=0.77). Dilek Yaliz Solmaz, Anadolu University, Turkey1 0287 Physical Activity Levels of Students at Faculty of Sport Science The main purpose of this study is to identify students’ physical activity levels and to investigate the relationships between their physical activity levels and various variables such as departments, grades, ages, genders, tobacco and alcohol consumption status. 208 students from Anadolu University, Faculty of Sport Science participated in this study. The Short Form of International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) was used to assess the physical activity levels of students at faculty of sport science. According to study findings, it is determined that %7.7 of students were attending low intensity physical activity (LIPA) while %33.2 of them were attending middle intensity physical activity (MIPA) and %59.1 of them were attending high intensity physical activity (HIPA). In contrast, Ölçücü and et. al (2015) reported in their research which was made with university students that %21 of students were in LIPA level, %43 of them were in MIPA level and %36 of them were HIPA level. According to another research, same results were reported, that University students’ LIPA attendance is , MIPA attendance is %68 of and HIPA attendance is . As it was shown HIPA attendance level of students at sport faculty are higher than university students according to these studies. There is no significant difference between students’ physical activity levels according to departments, ages, genders, tobacco consumption status and alcohol consumption status However, according to some researches which were made with university students in other faculties in the literature physical activity levels of male students were significantly higher than female students. Gülsün Aydın, Anadolu University, Turkey1 Dilek Yalız Solmaz, Anadolu University, Turkey2 0290 A Comparative Analysis and Transformative Approach to the Sustainable Self The fundamental factor to realize sustainability of the environment and human life lies in the understanding of our own self as a primary factor of promoting the sustainability. This article discusses a comparative analysis between the sustainable self and unsustainable self in order to clarify the conditions required to achieve the sustainability. The sustainable self is deliberately constructed through raising social actions and forging social relationships. The author suggests a transformative approach to the sustainable self drawing on the concepts in indigenous culture, Buddhism philosophy and deep ecology. The idea of collective well-being is suggested as a human capability to perceive a unity of well-being in ourself with that of others. The condition of sustainability is promoted through the approach to collective well-being while forging social relationships. A case study of collective action is introduced as a dynamic transformation in practice to foster the sustainable self in individuals and community. The author utilizes an transformative approach to cultivate the sustainable self in a pedagogical development. Kazutoshi Yoshino, University of Manitoba, Canada1

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The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

0292 Activating University Students by Google Classroom: An Action Research Quality in Higher education has been more focused on today with Bologna process and accreditation requirements of universities, especially young universities. Today, more competence based and quality management based approaches are being used to ensure graduate qualifications. But beyond institutional efforts and accomplishments to build quality management systems, teaching and learning mostly occur in classroom and still it is a key element for raised qualified graduates. When we look at research results there are some problems in students’ achievement and motivation in higher education. And also there are some problems with activating students in classes for making them more active learners and active learning. In this research a real problem situation with students was tried to be solved by using action research method. In this case most of the students were very uninterested to express their opinions, join discussions and answering questions. Beginning of the course only very few numbers of students (3) gave answers, and join discussion show very little of classroom interaction and engagement. This case similarly continued for three weeks. Then the action research started. The researcher tried to identify reasons and made an action plan to activate the students. According to findings, students have some problems and experiences that preventing them from actively participate to classroom interaction. They were lack of knowledge, being uneager to talk because of prior experiences. The action plan with using Google Classroom and conclusion and implications according to findings will be presented in symposium. Ozcan Akgun, Istanbul Medeniyet Universitesi, Turkey1 0294 Factors Effecting Students’ Lifelong Learning in Higher Education More and more the concept of lifelong learning gains importance in both governmental and educational perspectives. As higher education is dominant force in education, learners’ experiences in higher education will have ramifications for the practice of teaching and learning at all levels. In this study it is aimed to identify who is the lifelong learner through literature review then a scale was conducted to undergraduate university students. After determining the factors and dimensions of the scale, ANOVA and t-test have been made to specify if there is any difference between undergraduate university students in terms of their gender, age, programs they study, grade, family income. The results show that gender doesn’t lead any changes among factors effecting lifelong learning of students in general, except the dimension “Curiosity” in which female students with higher points differ significantly from male students. Also factors effecting undergraduate students’ lifelong learning significantly differ according to programme they study in favor of students at literature branches while age differences, grade differences and family income differences don’t lead any significant change. Mustafa Bayrakci, Sakarya University, Turkey1 Hande Dindar, Ankara University, Turkey2 0295 Intention to Work in Tourism and Hospitality Industry: The Case of College Students of Tourism and Hospitality Management Program in Thailand Tourism and hospitality education is fundamental to the development of tourism industry. With significant growth of tourism industry, there is greater demand in tourism and hospitality graduates to join the workforce. However, past studies indicated that graduates tended to work in the different industries from their degrees or majors. The objective of this study is to understand the intentions, barriers and other factors related to career choice. Research method for the current research was qualitative approach, particularly based on in-depth interviews with students in their final year of study. The results showed that starting income, popular career choice at the moment and friends’ recommendation appeared to be crucial for their decisions. Few respondents mentioned about longterm growth and career path as important factors for their decisions. The conclusions and practical recommendations were also provided. Chanin Yoopetch, Mahidol University International College, Thailand1

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The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

0297 Identity construction in public speaking discourse Different varieties of speeches have a long history in China as outlined by Yue (2010) and how it varied in purpose and in different regions of China. Most of the research (Yue 2013) has been done primarily about students in Hong Kong, mainland China and Taiwan. Yet Yue et al (2014) made a point that more study needs to be done in places like Macau. There is however limited work done on students in Macau and the discourse in speeches in English. Bell (2009) suggests humor could serve an important function in language education, as the students in the sample were learners’ of English and explored ways to creatively use language. The data comes from 7 undergraduate videos of students performing at a speech contest in Macau as part of a class. The paper addresses the issue of language used by students in Macau with special attention to the discourse used by the students to connect to the audience. Specifically, it will analyze issues of solidarity and identity, in order to show different methods and styles students used to relate their audience. This will discuss gender and compare differences in male and female constructed language. The videos were transcribed and analyzed for these discourse patterns. In conclusion, this project, by closely examining student speeches in Macau, sheds new light on the discourses being used in English in Macau. Joshua Lee, University of Macau, Macau1 0300 Indonesia Pension System: A Challenge toward Ageing Population Indonesia is heading toward ageing population that the number of elderly people (60 years and above) will increase from 19.6 million in 2010 to 47.3 million in 2030, and will nearly double to 82.6 million by 2050. Rapid growing ageing population poses challenge to maintain the elderly income security due to their vulnerability to health issues, physical capacity and social problem like poverty. Moreover, the existing pension system benefits only government civil servants and military which constitute only eight percent from the total elderly. Current pension system, Pay as You Go, has burdened government budget and is not an ideal scheme for the rising elderly population for it will suffer the working age population who fund the pension scheme through tax payment. Indonesia government then introduced national social security system in 2004, SJSN, covering not only pension but also health, old-age savings, death benefits and worker accident. Despite the right direction to expand pension coverage, SJSN is a weak-implemented program due to the absence of strong institution and regulation. In 2006, the elderly social assistance (ASLUT) was introduced to benefit poor elderly through cash transfer. However, the beneficiaries were only 1.5 percent out of 2.5 million poor elderly in 2014. To secure the elderly income, reforming pension scheme is not only improving the current schemes but, through deep analysis, determining which of the multi-pillar pension system introduced by the World Bank is well suited in accordance to Indonesia’s country specific. Yayat Budianto, National University of Singapore, Singapore1 0306 Interdisciplinary Education on Language Engineering Interest in human language analysis with computer applications brought about research groups from multiple disciplines around the world, in order to gather the knowledge necessary to build computer systems capable of decoding and generating natural language. Language engineering, with a high amount of interdisciplinary knowledge, is the modeling and implementation of linguistic knowledge in the development of systems that can recognize, understand, interpret and generate human language in all its forms. In interdisciplinary careers, there is a need to include knowledge of dissimilar areas in order to ensure that students are able to anticipate potential scenarios to be encountered. For current problem solutions, the involvement of various disciplines is required, as one on its own cannot solve the problem. Therefore, when designing an interdisciplinary course, a number of competencies that enable better performance for the graduate must be taken into account. A language engineering course aims of creating well trained engineers, not only experienced in computational tools, but also kindred to the knowledge of language understanding. The purpose is that alumnus contribute in the construction of an ideal future for our society, being able to compete in a world where information processing in digital media is becoming an everyday necessity of life in society. This paper presents the linguistics engineer’s comprehensive curriculum design, starting from the most basic knowledge of languages, mathematics and computing, to the most advanced tools that provide language technologies. In addition, the student will have courses to guide him/her about current trends in the global market. Gerardo Sierra, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico1 Azucena Montes, CENIDET, México2 Víctor Mijangos, Instituto de Ingeniería, UNAM, Mexico3

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The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

0309 Research and Knowledge-transfer Activities of the Different Types of Korean Universities Three missions of universities (i.e. teaching, research, and knowledge transfer) are becoming important due to the role of universities in the national economy. Furthermore, a university’s three missions differ according to the university’s type. However, it is challenging to find existing literature addressing the diversity of the activities based on rich evidence. Therefore, according to university typology, we investigated these three activities and the constraints faced by the dozen types of Korean universities. Thereafter, some general traits and specific characteristics of research and knowledge-transfer activities of the Korean universities are discussed and analyzed. According to the results, firstly, teaching in larger universities tends to be oriented towards fundamental research techniques in the laboratories, while small and regional universities are likely to put more emphasis on technical vocational training. Secondly, large or prestigious universities enjoy abundant research resources, such as postgraduates, professors, and governmental funding. Thirdly, large universities and those in the capital area tend to make an effort to exploit the output from their industrial collaboration, seeing it as an opportunity to increase their academic reputation. Finally, based on the results, we put forward some theoretical and policy implications. Ki-Seok Kwon, Hanbat National University, South Korea1 0310 How Can Any City Community Appreciate And Advance Human Rights? If given the opportunities, how would citizens speak up for human rights? The World Human Rights Cities Forum (WHRCF) Discussion Groups provided Korean and international residents with such resources at the Kimdaejung Convention Center on May 15 to 18, 2014 and 2015, in Gwangju, South Korea. Established in 2010, the WHRCF exists for professionals and visitors to receive up-to-date advancements in modern-day human rights, while interacting with the current community of Gwangju. At the WHRCF, human rights experts, researchers, and activists also gather to impart their wisdom for their countries’ human rights past history and current progress for all to learn. For two years, over 200 Discussion Group participants attended and recorded their findings for personal growth and development, through notes, personal notes and papers. Through face-to-face discussions and community action, Discussion Group Participants proved the benefits of their Forum participation. After witnessing how human rights can be achieved with environmental conservation, two previous Discussion Group Participants created “Clean Gwangju,” an initiative where Koreans and international residents remove garbage from their neighborhoods and photograph their efforts. The writer of this abstract is a Coordinator at the Gwangju International Center (GIC), was the WHRCF Program Manager for both years, providing preparatory training sessions, resources, and on-site assistance for Discussion Group participants. From the United States, he also wrote four articles pertaining to this topic, as well as creating the monthly column: “Rights to the City,” published in Gwangju News, the first English publication in South Korea and produced at the GIC. Joseph Nunez, Gwangju International Center, South Korea1 0311 Using Cooperative Learning to Improve High School Students’ Reading Comprehension Cooperative learning has been used for many decades in various fields. Many researchers have tried using different methods in cooperative learning to improve students’ reading comprehension in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context. This study was conducted using Student Team Achievement (STAD) with Thai high school students to improve their reading comprehension. Therefore, the purpose of this study aims to investigate using Student Team Achievement (STAD) of cooperative learning to improve high school students on reading comprehension. The study was constructed with 38 eleventh – grade students from diverse language ability and gender. Subjects were heterogeneous group and chosen purposively. Single group pretest - posttest design was used in this study. The participants were received reading instruction through STAD activities for 7 weeks - 90 minutes each lesson. The result of the study focuses on students' achievement of reading comprehension after training by STAD activity in cooperative learning. The statistical result revealed that there are significant differences at .05 level of significant. The study concluded that STAD activities in cooperative learning method can enhance high school students’ reading comprehension. Moreover, it can be claimed that cooperative learning is considered as the useful method to teach reading. Pruksapan Janthorn, Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand1

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The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

0313 Reframing the Confucian Classroom In Reframing the Confucian Classroom, the presenter shares her learning about culturally relevant teaching (CRT) and pedagogy in South Korea. Her discussion gives examples of student work and teacher reflection about the flipped classroom and new media literacy by discussing the question: “When everyone is now a media outlet, how do teachers support learning ethically and respectfully as we come to understand and negotiate our changing living and learning spaces?” As educators we attempts to corral education technology into methods and existing behaviors, when in fact we should be enquiring into finding most ethically inclusive practices and behaviors to enable, assist and support learners. Her presentation discusses issues and problems of cultural legacies and change, generational and social friction, the essentialization of learners and new media tyranny. Power, agency and identity support within the pedagogical framework of CRT, intercultural competence, and social justice are key aspects of her scaffolding of her learners. Maria Lisak, Chosun University, South Korea1 0314 Video-assisted Empathy Training for Medical Student: A Pilot Curriculum of Patientphysician Communication Skill Aim: Patient-physician communication skill is a core clinical competency that is indispensable to medical education. Literature reviews suggest that empathy training is an essential part of patientphysician communication skill, and an integrated teaching strategies including video-assistance is the better way to develop a curriculum of this skill. The aim of this study is to determine the effect of a pilot curriculum of medical student empathy training with video-assistance. Methods: A four-hour curriculum of patient-physician communication skill was developed taking into consideration the local Taiwanese cultures. One hundred and forty-two fifth grade medical students from National Taiwan University were required to participate in this curriculum in September 2014. Within the curriculum, five video clips were shown and followed by small group discussion, role-play with empathy training scenario, video replay and feedback. Every participant completed a questionnaire before and after the curriculum. And that questionnaire was to evaluate medical students’ perspectives of the importance of patient-physician communication skill and confidence of demonstrating empathy. Results: Significant improvements were noted after the curriculum in terms of the importance of communication skills (before 3.71 vs. after 3.95, p<0.05) and self-confidence of demonstrating empathy (before 4.70 vs. after 4.82, p<0.05). Conclusions The use of video in medical student empathy training was effective in improvement of confidence of demonstrating empathy. An integrated design with teaching strategies including video-assistance is a good way to develop a curriculum of patient-physician communication skill. Shih-Li Tsai, National Taiwan University Hospital, Taiwan1

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The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

ISSN 2188-6865

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

EQUIS 2015 Full Papers

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The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

Co-construction of Critical Literacy Curriculum: Case Study of a Junior High School Class in Taiwan Wen-Hua Chen Teacher, Municipal Qing Shui High School, New Taipei Municipal, Taiwan PhD student, Institute of Curriculum and Instruction, Department of Education, National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan

ABSTRACT This study aims to go into critical literacy which involves the analysis and critique of the relationships among text, language, gender, power and social practice. A mathematics teacher in Taiwan intended to introduce the concept to students and invite them to interpret and challenge inequities in society via co-construction of critical literacy curriculum. Multiple methods are used to collect research data including participant observation, interviews and document analysis. Results of this study are as follows: (1) The initiatives of co-constructing critical literacy curriculum at the Classroom Level began with teacher and students deconstructing such beliefs of regarding mathematics as a culturally-neutral subject, as universal truth, as non-reasoning system, and as an exclusively Western discipline. (2) The initiatives of co-constructing critical literacy curriculum at the Classroom Level were achieved through the teacher and students’ identification of specific ways and strategies to integrate multiculturally or culturally relevant contents. They proposed word problems that were culturally familiar, expressed their own language and living experiences, scaffolded mathematics instruction, and developed group assets in support of their teaching and learning. (3) The initiatives of co-constructing critical literacy curriculum at Classroom Level inspired teacher and students to use a range of approaches to advance their thinking and action level. Reflective practices were methods and techniques that helped them with their experiences and actions engaged in a process of co-construction of critical literacy curriculum. Key words: Co-construction, Critical Literacy, Reflective Practice.

1. Introduction The implementation of 12-year basic education system is a milestone program for Taiwan’s educational model transfer as well as the teaching and learning system transformation (MOE, 2015). This article proposes indicates that in order to adapt the globalization trend and achieve self-consciousness, in Taiwan, the case teacher and students strive to re-invent and go beyond simplify decoding and understanding texts by taking a critical literacy as a way of thinking. Critical literacy leads to understanding of power relationships that many help people to perceive and take actions against injustice. That is, the more lenses and mirrors utilize, the more commonplace circumstances will be challenge. 2. Research question As such above, the research foci are guided by the following questions: 2.1. How was the co-construction of critical literacy curriculum operating in teacher and students’ daily activities classroom? What were the relative decisions made in the classroom? 2.2. What reflective practice did teacher and students act as well as content in the process?

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The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

3. Literature Review 3.1. About the origins history of curriculum negotiation theory and practice Curriculum negotiation is based upon a number of foundational ideas. John Dewey stressed the precept that quality experience must form the basis of the curriculum rather than it be external to and disconnected from children’s lives; Vygotsky’s idea further provided us another critical concept ─ Instructional scaffolding. The ZPD is a range of tasks that are within a child’s cognitive ability to learn with assistance. Freire’s generative themes are a student centered system of learning that challenges how knowledge is constructed in the formal education system and in society at large. Bruner (2006) laid a lot of emphasis on the importance and diversity of cultural settings. All of them provide a statement in justification of that learning is an active process connection to learners’ life experiences, and the ideas which supported curriculum negotiation arose out of questions about effective learning and teaching. 3.2. About the contemporary theory and practice related to curriculum negotiation: Co-constructivist model of teaching and learning No sharply exact and widely accepted definition of the concept and process of the term “co-construction” can be found in psychological or educational literature. What has been provided is very diverse and depends on the theoretical context in which it is embedded. There are at least three different aspects can be found (Reusser,2001): (a) The social type of discourse eligible to be called co-constructive: mother-child dialog, peer interaction, teacher-student interaction, learning in teams, computer-supported collaborative work; (b) the psycho pedagogical processes involved in productive co-constructive activity: productive dialogue such as exploratory talk and collective argumentation, collaborative negotiation after socio cognitive conflict or as a process of reciprocal sense-making, joint construction of a shared understanding, elaboration on mutual knowledge and ideas, giving and receiving help, tutoring and scaffolding; (c) The expected outcomes of collaboration: taken-as-shared individual vs. socially shared cognitions; convergence and inter-subjectivity; academic task fulfillment, student motivation, and conceptual development; effects on skills in listening, discussion, disputation, and argumentation. This interpretive study responds to the dearth of research in Taiwan junior high school classrooms about such approaches. Most people in Taiwan considered it would be difficult to implement such pedagogy in currently because of the restricted nature of Classroom Level decision-making. However, transformation is claimed to occur in and through dialogue, and the reciprocity of influence between learner and teacher might be active. 3.3. Critical literacy AND Critical mathematics education Critical literacy is an instructional approach, and critical mathematics education stemming from Marxist critical pedagogy, that advocates the adoption of "critical" perspectives toward text. Regarding to “Critical mathematics education”, Skovsmose

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The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

(2008) stated that it was an attempt to reconceive school mathematics as a site of political power, ethical contestation, and moral outrage. And Ernest & Siriraman (2015) also thought, critical mathematics challenges “old” assumptions and actively attacks the idea like “mathematics is pure, objective, and value‐neutral”. 4. Methodology 4.1. Study site This study site was in a junior high classroom in QS High School, established in 1990 and located in Taiwan New Taipei Municipal. It is a large-scale community high school with over 100 classes. The case teacher, this researcher, was a “Participant-as-Observer” and responsible for mathematics teaching in Class AA which included 13 boys and 14 girls aged around 13-year-old. This study time period was nearly 2 years from Aug. 2012 to studends’ graduation in Jun. 2014. 4.2. Data collection Qualitative research is the case study (Yin, 1989) which examines in depth "purposive samples" to better understand a phenomenon. Multiple methods are used to collect research data including participant observation, interviews and document analysis. 5. Findings 5.1. The context of the co-construction of critical literacy curriculum At the beginning of this study, most of students in class AA were used to had an attitude of mind especially “wait to be spoon-fed” learning. Students always thought “how to get an efficiency and correct answers”, few students took “problem-posing” or “problem-solving” is a valuable learning. So, the case teacher scheduled to take some action actively. The first step, introducing briefly the “critical literacy” concept to class, and as long as there were good examples in text, teacher advanced to demonstrate. “yes, I never know we could ask so many interesting and serious mathematics questions…, I always think the textbook is right and teacher is right… and…, I gradually like this learning style, even though I hated mathematics teacher always pushing us to go beyond understanding texts at the beginning…”(S7, 20140501)

The second, to equip with basic literacy and competences such as expression ability, communication skill, and writing and reading skills might be necessary. The case teacher discussed with students and made decisions together to have a “training plan”, including “to learn a few reading comprehensive strategies”, “to additive oral-presentation training”, and “ to reflect practices everywhere and every time” and so forth. 5.2. The content of the co-construction of critical literacy curriculum The case developed at-least-two-lens-wear and at-least-three-dimension-challenge for linking Mathematics Education and critical literacy.

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The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

At-least-two-lens-wear (i)Mathematics can be interpreted as a Descriptive tool Mathematics is used throughout the world as an essential tool in many fields, including natural science, engineering, medicine, finance and the social sciences. (ii)Mathematics can be as a source for decision and action This brings into focus the notion of “symbolic power”, discussed by Bourdieu (1991), and the theme of “knowledge and power”. Foucault (1980) has concentrated much of his work on unmasking the interplay between “knowledge” and “power”. “…why we always focus on GDP? Why we always focus score (laughing)... the claim is not that this thesis is true, but that thesis might be a possible truth…” (S20, 20140318)

At-least-three-dimensions-challenge (i)Breaking the commonplace The case saw critical mathematics education as an essence with challenges emerging from the critical nature of mathematics education. “before, after finishing the quiz, I always double-checked to gain high core…but now, I try to be aware of thinking the implication of this data showed (as Figure 5.2.1.). How to measure the ‘crime number’? Where is the data from? Is the analysis correct?”(S10, 20131219) “I was sexually harassed last month, as far as I’m concerned, what is my community crime mapping?”(S23, 20131219)

Figure 5.2.1. A part of the quiz titled “Crime Mapping”. Resource From: Tzai-Hung Wen Tzer-Chang Liu Min-Hau Lin (2010: 54) In teacher and students’ everyday practice, they encouraged each other to think deeply and critically examine what are they read and view. As the interview showed, student tried to connect the knowledge with their life experience and community environment. (ii)Considering multiple viewpoint In this case, being founded on critical literacy as an open-minded Len, “the notion of mathematics either right or wrong” was discarded by the teacher and

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The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

students. S18: Checking this data from internet, I found one thing interesting…the same data showed with different ways in Chinese version and English version. The former is Graph display, and the latter is Table display. Two displays, it’s so sweet T : Anyone have comment or supplement? S22: (hands up) I don’t think so. I think that Graphs display information using visuals and tables communicate information using exact numbers. They both organize data in different ways, but using only one for each version is not necessarily better than using the other.” S18: ha-ha! Yes, and my English is not very good, I pass it… S07: but…, many foreigners in Taiwan, maybe they need these information. S01: In fact, not only the display type. Check, the details are kinds of different. (Class observation, 20140417)

Chinese version

English version

Figure 5.2.2.

“Crime Mapping” data showed in different ways between Chinese version and English version. Resource From: Taiwan New Taipei City Police Department Website1

(iii)Taking action to promote social justice “after class, I can’t wait to google to seek for local crime mapping…, but, when I entered the local governmental website,…uh…I was so surprised that the relative data had been not updated for nearly two seasons…, and I discussed these with class…yes, be a citizen, l think I should have right to know about that, so I left some comment on the internet… ” (S01, 20140423)

Mathematics education can mean disempowerment or empowerment. Critical mathematics education challenges the neutrality of the teaching and learning of mathematics, showing how these are value‐laden activities indissolubly linked to social and political life. 5.3. The teacher and students’ reflective practices In this case, teacher and students developed the co-construction of curriculum─ “at-least-two-lens-wear” and “at-least-three-dimension-challenge” for linking 1

Website locates http://www.police.ntpc.gov.tw/cp-‐47-‐993-‐2.html)

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The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

Mathematics Education and critical literacy. They drew together many themes in critical literacy teaching and learning via continually reflective practices. The themes included: the natures of mathematics and critical mathematics education, Ideology, the hegemony of mathematic, Capitalism, language, gender, politics, social class, real‐ life education, habitus, citizenship and equity so forth. These multi-aspects were as Figure 5.3.1. Showed.

Figure 5.3.1.

The main component of the case’s reflective practices. Resource From: This study (2015)

In addition, various ways were used for reflective practices In this case. Some kept their own diary or journal is an easy way to get started, some tried working on it with partners, doing peer review, clinical supervision or mentoring and so forth. That involved looking to experiences, connecting with feelings, and attending to theories in use. It entails building new understandings to inform one’s actions in the situation that is unfolding. 6. Conclusion 6.1. The initiatives of co-constructing critical literacy curriculum at the Classroom Level began with the teacher and students deconstructing such beliefs of regarding mathematics as a culturally-neutral subject, as universal truth, as non-reasoning system, and as an exclusively Western discipline.

“Wow! Is the notion of mathematics Not Really an either right or wrong decision?” (S19, 20131028)

Figure 6.1.1.

“Sometimes, I thought mathematics was Western discipline.” (S10, 20131016)

Approved Mathematics Textbooks of Junior high school in Taiwan

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The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

6.2. The initiatives of co-constructing critical literacy curriculum at the Classroom Level were achieved through the teacher and studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; identification of specific ways and strategies to integrate multiculturally or culturally relevant contents. That is, they proposed word problems that were culturally familiar, expressed their own language and living experiences, scaffolded mathematics instruction through peer support learning, and even advanced to develop their own group assets in support of their teaching and learning.

Figure 6.2.1. Build trust and relationship among students by having them work frequently in partnerships and small groups.

Figure 6.2.2. Learners can express their own language and living experiences to support their learning.

6.3. The initiatives of co-constructing critical literacy curriculum at Classroom Level inspired the mathematics teacher and students to use a range of approaches to advance their thinking and action level. Reflective practices were methods and techniques that helped them with their experiences and actions engaged in a process of co-construction of critical literacy curriculum.

Figure 6.3.1. Case teacherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s reflection practices by individual and with group.

6.3.2. Case students preferred grouping reflection practices.

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The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

Reference Bourdieu, P.(1991) Language and Symbolic Power (John B. Thompson, ed.; transl. by Gino Raymond and Matthew Adamson) Cambridge: Polity Press, 37-42. Bruner, J. S. (1986). Actual minds, possible worlds. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Dewey, J. (1963). Experience and education. New York: Collier Books. (Original published 1938) Freire, P. (1993) Pedagogy of the Oppressed: New Revisited 20th Anniversary Edition. New York: Continuum. Foucault, M.(1980), Power and Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings 1972-1977, edited by Colin Gordon, Harvester, London. Minister of Education (MOE) of Republic of China (Taiwan). From http://engl Minister of Educationish.moe.gov.tw/ Paul Ernest, & Bharath Sriraman (2015). Critical Mathematics Education Theory, Praxis and Reality. University of Montana. Lyn English. Reusser, K. (2001). Co-constructivism in educational theory and practice. In N.J. Smelser, P. Baltes & F.E. Weinert (eds.), International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences. (pp. 2058-2062). Oxford: Pergamon/Elsevier Science. Skovsmose, O. (1994). Towards a philosophy of critical mathematics education. Dordrecht: Kluwer Skovsmose, O., & Säljö, R. (2008). Learning mathematics through inquiry. Nordic Studies in Mathematics Education, 13(3), 31–50. Schön, D. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. New York: Basic Books. Torres, C. A. (2014). First Freire: early writings in social justice education. New York: Teachers College Press, Teachers College Columbia University. Tzai-Hung Wen & Tzer-Chang Liu &Min-Hau Lin(2010). Crime Mapping and Hotspot Analysis: A Case Study of Residential Burglaries in Taipei City, 1998-2007 Journal of Geographical Research, 52, 43-63. Yin, R.K. (1989), Case Study Research Design and Methods , Sage, Newbury Park.

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The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

Reflective Practice as an Approach to Motivating EFL Learning Fang-rong Kuo Department of Applied Foreign Languages National United University

ABSTRACT Engaging and motivating students is always a key factor for successful learning. In a setting where English is a foreign language (EFL), a big challenge of EFL pedagogy is that students do not need to speak English and communicate in this language because it is not the indispensable medium for communication in their daily life. Students usually learn English with low intrinsic motivation as it is considered irrelevant with their needs. Without an appropriate environment involving learners in social interaction with native English speakers, English learning more or less becomes a product of curricular demands, passing exams, or academic success (Adi, 2012; Wei, 2011). EFL students who are instrumentally motivated are extrinsically driven, studying English to fulfil external goals such as completing required courses, acquiring skills for vocational competence, or earning a degree (Wu, 2006). Drawing on the person-in-context relational perspective on L2 motivation proposed by Ushioda (2009), this qualitative study designs mixed activities in an EFL classroom to explore the dynamic process of reflective practice and its impact on motivational learning. Findings from the exploration are discussed and the pedagogical implications are provided as well. Keywords: EFL pedagogy, sociocultural theories, reflective practice, journal writing

1 INTRODUCTION Engaging and motivating students is always a key factor for successful learning. In a setting where English is a foreign language (EFL), a big challenge of EFL pedagogy is that students do not need to speak English and communicate in this language because it is not the indispensable medium for communication in their daily life. Students usually learn English with low intrinsic motivation as it is considered irrelevant with their needs. Without an appropriate environment involving learners in social interaction with native English speakers, English learning more or less becomes a product of curricular demands, passing exams, or academic success (Adi, 2012; Wei, 2011). EFL students who are instrumentally motivated are extrinsically driven, studying English to fulfil external goals such as completing required courses, acquiring skills for vocational competence, or earning a degree (Wu, 2006). There have been many studies relating the sociocultural theories to L2 learning and development. From the perspectives of sociocultural theories, learning English is not only acquiring grammatical forms of the language but also involving social interaction in the learning process. The teacherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s role as a facilitator is to maximise interaction in the classroom and encourage autonomous awareness in learning. Exploring connections between L2 motivation and learner autonomy, Ushioda (2003) emphasized the importance of teachers in helping students to reflect on their learning process and to engage in constructive thinking about themselves as active agents of their learning. Allwright (2006) advocated the promising directions in applied linguistics shifting from prescriptive to descriptive understanding and from commonality to idiosyncracy. He implied the best teaching to be the one â&#x20AC;&#x153;which generates the most, and the most productive, learning opportunitiesâ&#x20AC;? (p. 14). Reflective practice has drawn great attention over the recent decades throughout various disciplines. Davies (2012) explained that reflective practice involves internal exploration and analysis of a problem or situation that can be used to identify personal and professional strengths and weaknesses, encourage self-motivated and self-directed learning, and promote deep learning. Richards and Lockhart (1996) pointed out that reflective practice is a dynamic process that involves evaluating the process of teaching and learning; it also involves learning from this process and in turn initiating change. In other words, the importance of reflective practice for the enhancement of

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teaching and learning cannot be overemphasized and teachers can examine their pedagogical attitudes, beliefs, assumptions and teaching practices through reflective teaching. Ushioda (2009) proposed the person-in-context relational perspective on L2 motivation and suggested pedagogical practices in language classrooms that “encourage students to develop and express their own identities through the language they are learning—that is, to be and become themselves” (p. 223). Based on the above theoretical foundations, I view my college Freshman English classroom as a learning community, language teaching as a sociocultural process through which the activities in the classroom will not only teach students the English language but also engage them for meaningful experiences and learning. 2 THE DYNAMIC PROCESS OF REFLECTIVE PRACTICE IN EFL CLASSROOM 2.1 EFL classroom as a learning community Brown (2007) described a community of classroom to be a social space in which difference, diversity, and inclusiveness may interact to develop a classroom culture where different social positions may be constructed at different times within the community. Conceiving that my students and I are members participating in our EFL learning community, I consider my role as a facilitator is to create an environment of as many opportunities as possible to motivate students to relate English learning to the socially-situated contexts in daily life. In doing so, each of us may recognize our identities and become ourselves through the process of deep learning. Thus it makes reflective practice the main concern in our learning community and the purpose in this study is to explore the dynamic process of reflective practice and its impact on motivational learning. Concerning the length limits of this paper, I would report a case study in my EFL classroom in the following sections. 2.2 Journal writing as a self-directed and self-motivated reflective practice There's an old saying "you don't know what you know till you've written it down." According to Dilg (2010), journal writing “is an ideal form for reflection, raising questions, rethinking, and engaging in dialogues with the self” (p. 88). Lipp and Jones (2010) discovered that the weekly journal task could help students succeed in undergraduate history course. By keeping a record of learning experiences, they can track the progress they have made and begin to notice the gaps between the past and the present experiences. I value students’ various ways of expressing their experiences, thoughts, and feelings so I arranged fifteen minutes before the end of each three-hour class for students to keep journals to know themselves better and to discover the meanings of their lives. Below is the dynamic process of interaction between Jenny (pseudonym) and I, in which ‘reflection-in-action’ and ‘reflection-onaction,’ proposed by Schön (1987) were adopted for analysis. Reflection in action refers to reflecting on practice while practitioners are in the middle of it and reflection on action refers to reflecting on practice after its completion. Jenny, one of my female students with excellent scores on paper tests, was very quiet and shy. I observed that she listened to my instruction wholeheartedly with all her eyes focusing on me but became flushed and lowered her head timidly whenever I passed the microphone to her. She could answer quickly if the questions were about the facts in the text. It would be a big challenge for her if I asked for personal opinions on certain issues. That day I asked students’ opinions about fast food. It happened that she was unable to say anything about her personal ideas even though I encouraged her and waited for twenty seconds or longer. Seeing her red cheeks and nervousness, I comforted her with empathy by sharing my understanding and admitting the difficulty to express ourselves in public and softly passing the microphone to other student. She wrote in her journal the following message that day before the end of the class:

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I kind of hate myself for being so scared of speaking in public. This morning my group had an oral presentation in the Chinese Literature and Culture class. I noticed I was trembling with fear when I was on the stage. When I finally finished my part and went back to my seat, I could feel my hair stand on end and the whole body cold. And now in English class, teacher asked me about my opinions. OMG (oh my god), I felt numbed and my brain was blank and empty. How I wished I could say something instead of being silent and embarrassed! Maybe speaking in public is the most important thing I should train myself in college. Thank you teacher for being patient and not forcing me to answer. I like journal writing much much more than speaking in class. Harumi (2011) suggested teachers engage with students’ non-verbal responses so as to be able to interpret silence in a productive way. Jenny’s case is a very good example to show the multiple roles of silence that can be observed in classroom setting. From her side as a student, her silence could mean the shyness of her personality trait and the uneasiness of expressing herself in public. From my side as an instructor, noticing her nervousness, I used the prolonged wait-time to relax her and lessen her anxiety by speaking softly with smile and standing beside her instead of in front of her, which was somewhat like the opposing two sides. I did my best to show my caring and let her know that it was fine with me even though she could not respond at that moment. In the early years of my teaching, I used to wait for just few seconds for fearing that silence would slow down the instruction pace and cause the atmosphere of uneasiness if no immediate response was given. Now I believe it takes time and practice to cultivate a habit and build good relationship, which I consider one of the important features of learning process. At that moment I decided to put into practice of my new belief and I noticed our relationship and transportable identities (Zimmerman, 1998) shifted from teacher-student to decision maker and recipient when Jenny decided to say nothing because of her trust on me that it was OK for silent response and I accepted her descision. The silence of wait-time in this case indicated comfort and support from me which enhanced our relationship. As a result, when Jenny reflected such experience, she found the strength and determination to train her courage to speak up in public rather than be defeated and give up. Her gratitude revealed in her journal indicated that we share the mutual understanding like Buber’s IThou relationship (1994). Moreover, journal writing provides an alternative way of verbalizing in written words instead of vocalizing in spoken words for those shy and anxious students, who are very often observed in Chinese culture. It can also serve as a productive period of time for students to think and express their own thoughts in tranquillity. In the end of the semester, I asked the students to read over their journals and write an ending journal to foster their reflection either on their lives or learning, or both. Below is Jenny’s reflection: When I read what I did this semester, I found that I did many things in the class. I think reflective is really important. If we don’t reflect ourselves, we may not know we are progressing or stay at the same position. When I look back I can experience the feeling on that time. “Each person has to shape his own philosophy as best he can.” “Holding a hand and chaining a soul.” These are good sentences but not just sentences, they are alive from my eyes. I enjoy them and I also profit much. To improve my English ability, I decide to have a test for Toeic, to know what level my ability is in. Ushioda (2003) argued that autonomy can be enhanced by engaging with students as ‘people’ rather than as simply ‘language learners’, involving students in some of the decision-making processes. In Jenny’s case, journal writing brought her positive impact on English learning that she decided to take TOEIC test. Moreover, she had internalized her learning such as the sentences in our lessons and made them meaningful to her. It is a dynamic process that her self-directed and selfmotivated learning in turn initiates change (Davies, 2012; Richards and Lockhart, 1996).

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3 THE ROLE OF REFLECTIVE PRACTICE IN MOTIVATING EFL LEARNING Learning arises out of the learning opportunities emerging through interaction in the classroom, which composition is complex and exerts diverse effects on learning. (Allwright, 2006; Brown, 2007). Reflective practice was clearly a profound experience for students and me, implying the interrelation of inner change and outer action. I constantly reflected on my pedagogical practice while developing students’ capacities to reflect on their learning by prompting them to observe their experiences and relate them to real lives. I needed to be conscious of what I said and how I said it so I could support students’ development of reflective attitudes and practice. I have learned to create a learning community to support students’ learning in different ways through reflective teaching. Journal writing is one of the effective ways to encourage reflection on the meanings and values of the self-perception. Such reflective practice also raises awareness of the connection between people and the contexts and makes learning more meaningful and fruitful. Students have become more self-aware and actively engaging in the processes of their own learning. As Ushioda remarked (2003, 2009), engaging with EFL students as ‘people’ rather than as simply ‘language learners’ and creating opportunities for them to express their own meanings and identities will more likely motivate them to engage themselves in the process of autonomous learning. REFERENCES [1] Adi, S.S. (2012). Communicative language teaching: Is it appropriate for Indonesian context? Foreign Language Annuals, 7 (3), 110-121. [2] Allwright, D. (2006). Six promising directions in applied linguistics. In Gieve, S & IK Miller (Eds), Understanding the language classroom. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.11-17. [3] Brown, R. (2007). Exploring the social positions that students construct within a classroom community of practice. International Journal of Educational Research 46, 116-128. [4] Buber, M. (1923/1994). I and thou. Edinburgh, UK: T&T Clark. [5] Davies, S. (2012). Embracing reflective practice. Education for Primary Care, 2(3): 9-12. [6] Dilg, M. (2010). Our worlds in our words: Exploring race, class, gender, and sexual orientation in multicultural classrooms. New York: Teachers College Press. [7] Harumi, S. (2011). Classroom silence: voices from Japanese EFL learners. ELT Journal, 65(3), 260-269. [8] Richards, J. C., & Lockhart, C. (1996). Reflective teaching in second language classrooms. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [9] Schön, D. (1987). Educating the Reflective Practitioner. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. [10] Ushioda, E. (2003). Motivation as a socially mediated process. In D. Little, J. Ridley, and E. Ushioda (Eds.), Learner autonomy in the foreign language classroom: Teacher, learner, curriculum and assessment (pp. 90–102). Dublin: Authentik. [11] Ushioda, E. (2009). A person-in-context relational view of emergent motivation, self and identity. In Z. Dörnyei and E. Ushioda (Eds.), Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (pp. 215–228). Bristol: Multilingual Matters. [12] Wei, L. (2011). Communicative language teaching in EFL contexts: Not a universal medicine. Idiom, 41(3), 18-29. [13] Wu, W. (2006). EFL optimal learning environment: perspectives of faculty and students in a Taiwanese technical university, USA, Vermillion: The University of South Dakota. [14] Zimmerman, D. (1998). Discoursal identities and social identities. In C. Antaki and S. Widdicombe (eds.): Identities in Talk. London: Sage, pp. 87–106.

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Augmented Reality in Nursing Education: A Collaborative Approach in ASEAN Integration Reinald Adrian DL. Pugoy

Boontip Siritarungsri

Faculty of Information and Communication Studies University of the Philippines Open University

School of Nursing Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University

Rita C. Ramos

Aree Cheevakasemsook

Faculty of Management and Development Studies University of the Philippines Open University

School of Nursing Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University

Roberto B. Figueroa Jr.

Premruetai Noimuenwai

Faculty of Information and Communication Studies University of the Philippines Open University

School of Nursing Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University

Mark Harold C. Rivera

Pattaya Kaewsarn

Philippines

School of Nursing Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University

ABSTRACT The Association of Southeast Asian Nations seeks economic integration by end of 2015 to establish a common market. Some of the key areas of cooperation in ASEAN integration include human resources development and capacity building, recognition of professional qualifications, and integration of industries across the region. In light of this development, the University of the Philippines Open University and Sukthothai Thammatirat Open University has joined forces to conduct collaborative research on possibly improving and integrating nursing education in ASEAN, using the framework based on Teplechuk (2013). A prototype that contains an open educational resource for English nursing communication was developed. It uses augmented reality, a technology that allows real world objects and digital objects to be interspersed with each other. Because of this advancement, AR can revolutionize how learning materials are being used in nursing education, thereby making learning more interactive, interesting and convenient for everyone. Moreover, a usability test based on the system usability scale was conducted to evaluate the prototype. Keywords: ASEAN, augmented reality, nursing education, English communication, usability test, prototype

1 INTRODUCTION The Association of Southeast Asian Nations or ASEAN is composed of 10 member-countries, namely, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam. By the end of 2015, ASEAN member-countries are envisioned to combine into one community called the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC). AEC seeks economic integration by establishing a common market. It aims to promote understanding among member-countries, and to maintain peace, security and political stability, economic prosperity, social and cultural development. Some of the key areas of cooperation include human resources development and capacity building, recognition of professional qualifications, and integration of industries across the region. Consequently, ASEAN promotes free movement of goods, investments, services and people of various backgrounds and professions. One profession for which there is an arrangement is on nursing services. The ASEAN Mutual Recognition Arrangement (MRA) on Nursing Services has been formed with the following objectives:

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• • • •

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To facilitate mobility of nursing professionals within ASEAN; To exchange information and expertise on standards and qualifications; To promote adoption of best practices on professional nursing services; and To provide opportunities for capacity building and training of nurses.

Moreover, the MRA allows nurses who meet certain qualifications to register and to apply for license in other ASEAN countries, subject to law and regulations of host countries. Therefore, nursing personnel development is necessary, using English as the language of communication since it is the official working language of ASEAN. Every nurse shall practice communicating in English and shall continue learning the language to acquire necessary competency. This would eventually help in strengthening the ASEAN MRA on Nursing Services. In light of this development, the University of the Philippines Open University (UPOU) and Sukthothai Thammatirat Open University (STOU) joined forces to conduct collaborative research on possibly improving and integrating nursing education in ASEAN. This research presents a prototype that they developed; it contains an open educational resource (OER) for nursing communication in English. It uses augmented reality (AR), a technology that allows real world objects and virtual/digital objects to be interspersed with each other. It allows computer-generated inputs such as sound, video, graphics or GPS data to be overlaid or placed in the real world. Because of this advancement, AR can be applied to a much wider range of application domains. AR can revolutionize how printed materials and physical artifacts are being used in the different application domains, including nursing education, thereby making learning more interactive, interesting and convenient for everyone. 2 RESEARCH FRAMEWORK This research was a collaboration among 3 departments: 1. Faculty of Management and Development Studies (FMDS), UP Open University 2. School of Nursing, Sukthothai Thammatirat Open University 3. Faculty of Information and Communication Studies (FICS), UP Open University FMDS and the School of Nursing of STOU were primarily responsible for the review of related literature and relevant nursing principles, and the selection of content included in the prototype. On the other hand, FICS was primarily responsible for the actual development and testing of the prototype, and the conduct and analysis of the usability survey. Because of the collaborative nature of this research, the methodology flowchart below was designed and observed, patterned after the framework of Teplechuk (2013). The framework has 3 distinct sections, namely, Theoretical, Empirical and Analytical.

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Figure 1. Methodology flowchart.

2.1 Review of Related Literature 2.1.1

AR for Nursing Education and Services

From reviewing several related works, augmented reality has been used both in nursing services and education. However, AR has been far more used in nursing education than in nursing services. It has been used in educating and training nursing staff and undergraduate nursing students to enhance their knowledge and clinical skills through realistic situations with computer-aided technology. Moreover, it has been increasingly used in a wide range of topics in healthcare education, such as endotracheal intubation, clinical breast examination, laparoscopic surgery, and life support training (Zhu, Hadadgar Masiello and Zary, 2014). One application of AR in nursing is the Evena Glass (Tansey, 2014). The Evena Glass has high-tech 3D light imaging, used by nurses to visualize the blood flowing through the veins of patients and capture images of the veins on the skin layer. Another application is the Tablet-Based AR System developed in Sheffield Hallam University used in nursing and midwifery training to build up empathy and to promote caring approaches while delivering technical skills. They adopted this technology through iPads. It displays videos of patients played by actors that are superimposed onto training manikins. When nursing students and trainees look at the dummies through their iPads, they will get a taste of a real-life situation, including the possible reactions and emotions of patients.

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2.1.2

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AR Technology Providers and Tools

Different authoring and development tools for AR available in the market were reviewed. After the review, the following criteria were formed in choosing the approriate AR tools for development. 1. 2. 3. 4.

Free and trial licenses are available. Creating simple applications can be easily done and tested. Enough documentation and instructions in creating AR scenarios are available and provided. The AR tool is widely used.

For this research, CraftAR was selected to develop the prototype. Aside from the fact that it fits the criteria above, CraftAR enables everyone to create AR content without requiring programming skills. Buttons, videos and 3D models can be easily dragged and dropped to create an AR environment. It is cloud-based and image recognition-powered. Documentation and a support center is available in the main website of CraftAR. 2.2 Prototype Design and Implementation Based on the literature, AR has been used to train nursing staff by simulating realistic situations with computer-aided technology. Moreover, aiding nurses to practice English communication is necessary. Considering these, a prototype called â&#x20AC;&#x153;talking comic stripâ&#x20AC;?, an OER content for nursing communication in English, was developed. The prototype works this way: Whenever the mobile device is pointed to a character or person in the comic strip, its accompanying audio is automatically played. This then allows the user to read the comic strip and hear its audio at the same time. Furthermore, the role of augmented reality is to facilitate the interspersing of the physical entity (comic strip) and the digital entity (audio conversation). Listed below are the phases involved in the development of the prototype. 1. First, the script of the conversation between the nurse and the patient was written. A nursing professional wrote the script in English. The theme of the script is about providing basic care to patients.

Figure 2. Snippet of the script.

2. The comic strip was designed and drawn, using the script as the basis.

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Figure 3. Sample comic strip. 3. Audio was recorded by voice actors, acting out the conversation in the script. This is done so that nurses will be able to learn proper pronunciation and intonation of English words and statements. 4. The recorded audio and the comic strip were integrated using augmented reality. To make the comic strip â&#x20AC;&#x153;talk backâ&#x20AC;? to users whenever their mobile devices are pointed to it, CraftAR was used to combine the comic strip and the recorded audio.

Figure 4. Screenshot of AR content creation in CraftAR.

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5. The prototype was configured and installed in the mobile device. Afterwards, the user may now use the app.

Figure 5. A user pointing her mobile device to the comic strip. 2.3 Data Collection and Evaluation 2.3.1

System Usability Test

To determine the usability of the prototype, a usability test based on the System Usability Scale (SUS) was given to respondents. The SUS, cited in over 1300 articles and publications, provides a quick, reliable tool for measuring usability. It can effectively differentiate between usable and unusable systems. It consists of 10 items that the respondents can rate on a 5-point scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Listed below are the items of the test. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

I think that I would like to use the app frequently. I found the app unnecessarily complex. I thought the app was easy to use. I think that I would need the support of a technical person to be able to use the app. I found the various functions in the app were well integrated. I thought there was too much inconsistency in the app. I would imagine that most people would learn to use the app very quickly. I found the app very cumbersome to use. I felt very confident using the app. I needed to learn a lot of things before I could get going with the app.

To compute the usability score from each respondent, the following steps are applied. 1. For odd-numbered items: Subtract 1 from the respondent response. 2. For even-numbered items: Subtract the respondent response from 5. 3. Get the sum of the converted responses and multiply that total by 2.5. Once the usability scores from each respondent are computed, the average is obtained from them. If the usability score is higher than the global mean score of 68, this means that the system or app being evaluated is relatively usable. 2.3.2

Other Survey Items

Another survey with the following items was also given. The respondents were asked to rate each item, from 1 (strongly agree) to 5 (strongly disagree).

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1. The AR-enhanced material is better than the printed material alone. 2. It enhances my learning experience. 3. I will recommend it to training institutions. 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 3.1 System Usability Test Result The system usability test was given to 17 respondents. The prototype obtained a mean system usability score of 68.5937, which is higher than the global mean score of 68. This means the AR app is relatively usable.

Figure 6. Frequency distribution of system usability scores from each respondent. 3.2 Results of the Other Survey Items

Figure 7. Summary of responses for the item on whether the AR-enhanced material is better than the printed material. The first item obtained an average rating of 4.5294. Moreover, 14 out of 17 respondents agreed (those who chose a rating of 4 or 5) that the material enhanced by AR is better than the printed material.

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Figure 8. Summary of responses for the item on whether AR enhances learning experience. The second item got an average rating of 4.3529, with 14 out of 17 respondents agreeing that AR has enhanced their learning experience.

Figure 9. Summary of responses for the item on recommending AR-enhanced materials to educational and training institutions. Finally, for the third item that has an average rating of 4.3529, 14 out of 17 respondents said that they would recommend the AR-enhanced materials to training institutions.

4 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORKS The collaborative methodology based on the framework by Teplechuk was successfully carried out. The sections in the framework were equally important and each of them was completed. This ultimately culminated in the design and development of the prototype that may help nurses practice English communication in their profession. Though the prototype was found to be usable,

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more work needs to be done in improving its usability. For future studies, other factors and issues such as inclusion of more OER materials, improvement of OER design and content, accessibility and sustainability shall be taken into consideration.

REFERENCES [1] ASEAN Mutual Recognition Arrangement on Nursing Services Association of South East Asian Nations. Retrieved from http://www.asean.org/communities/asean-economic-community/item/asean-mutual-recognitionarrangement-on-nursing-services [2] CraftAR. Retrieved from http://catchoom.com/product/craftar/augmented-reality-and-image-recognition/ [3] Pugoy, R.A.D.L. (2015). Mobile Solutions For Synchronized and Offline Version of Open Educational Resources. Paper presented at the 29th Annual Conference of Asian Association of Open Universities, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. [4] Rahn, A. and Kjaergaard, H.W. (2014). Augmented reality as a visualization facilitator in nursing education. Retrieved on 4 August 2015 from http://library.iated.org/view/RAHN2014AUG [5] Sheffield Hallam University, UK university introduces augmented reality technology into nurse training. Retrieved from http://www.hospitalmanagement.net/news/newsuk-university-introduces-augmented-realitytechnology-into-nurse-training [6] System Usability Scale. Retrieved from http://www.usability.gov/how-to-and-tools/methods/system-usabilityscale.html [7] Tansey, B. (2014). Augmented reality meets nursing in Evenaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s vein-hunting glasses. Retrieved from http://www.xconomy.com/san-francisco/2014/01/29/augmented-reality-meets-nursing-in-evenas-vein-huntingglasses/ [8] Teplechuk, E. (2013). Emergent models of Massive Open Online Courses: An exploration of sustainable practices for MOOC institutions in the context of the launch of MOOCs at the University of Edinburgh [Unpublished MBA Dissertation]. University of Edinburgh, United Kingdom. [9] Zhu, E., Hadadgar A., Masiello I., and Zary, N. (2014). Augmented reality in healthcare education: an integrative review. Peer Journal, DOI 10.77/peerj.469

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Will “Double Certificate” Programme (DCP) Really Solve the Issue of Medium-Skilled Labour Shortage in Thailand? Kittisak Kaweekijmanee Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy National University of Singapore

……..

ABSTRACT Thailand has confronted a severe shortage of medium-skilled workers whose skills and competency match with the industry’s demand. This presents a threat to productivity of manufacturing, service, and agricultural sectors and hinder the country’s mission to leave a middle-income trap. To respond to this issue, in 2015 Thailand’s Ministry of Education (MOE) decided to scale up a programme called “Double Certificates”. This programme will allow high school students to graduate with concurrent Grade 12 of general education and Vocational Certificate qualifications and be ready to enter job market, therefore increasing a pool of vocational graduates to the labour market. By investigating available secondary resources, the current paper provides an analysis of how effectively this programme will solve the medium-skilled labour shortage in Thailand. The analysis covers aspects of policy rationale, target groups, planning, stakeholder, and design of curriculum. It anticipates that the programme will enhance opportunities of rural students to access career education with high potential of the programme to respond to the need of local businesses and industries. However, the programme may not be effective at significantly increasing country’s productivity as the training quality will not be better than the existing technical and vocational training (TVET) model. Lastly, recommendations on how the programme can be better implemented in future are discussed. Keywords: vocational education; career education; secondary education; Thailand education system;

1 INTRODUCTION Thailand has transitioned from a lower-income nation to the middle-income status since the mid-1990s. To rise further to the high-income status, Thailand needs to increase productivity in manufacturing, agriculture and service sectors. To do so, the country has to transform its economy from being labour-intensive to technology-intensive industry [10]. Qualified human capital is the most crucial factor to drive this transformation. An introduction of technology-intensive jobs require medium-skilled workers as a complementary to support such high-tech production activities. However, a shortage of qualified medium-skilled workers presents a hindrance to this transformation and deserves great attention from policy makers. Ministry of Education (MOE) has introduced various models of technical and vocational training (TVET) programmes to solve this issue including the Dual Certificate Programme (DCP) which was introduced in 2007 and underwent rapid nationwide scale-up in 2015. By investigating available secondary resources, the current paper will examine the efficiency of this programme in solving the medium-skilled labour shortage and suggest how it can be better implemented in future. 2 SHORTAGE OF MEDIUM-SKILLED WORKERS IN THAILAND In Thailand, the shortage of medium-skilled workers have been widely discussed among policymakers and educators. Several surveys conducted on the private sectors (such as those of Rittirong and Tadee (2015) [18] and Amornvivat et al. (2015) [1]) have shown that the shortage is most severe for labours with vocational qualification compared with those with high school or bachelor degrees qualifications. It was forecasted that during 2010-2019 the demand in new medium-skilled workers will be greater than the number of those who graduate from TVET programmes and are ready to enter job market (see Figure 1) [11].

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Figure 1: Demand for new medium-skilled workers (Demand) and supply of fresh TVET graduates who are ready to enter job market (Supply) from 2010-2019. Source: ONEC (2010). However, the shortage of medium-skilled workers is not an issue of quantity of supply, but rather a matter of TVET graduates’ willingness to enter job market. To clarify, the number of graduates with Vocational Certificate (VC) qualification who are ready to work are very low compared with the actual number of graduates in each cohort, accounting for around 7% for several years (shown in Figure 2). These graduates prefer continuing to university rather than entering job market owing to several reasons such as higher payment for bachelor degree holders, their personal ability to carry on to university [12], social acceptance, and parents’ influence on education and career choices [3, 16]. Moreover, their motivation to go to university has been encouraged by a policy in expanding opportunities of college attendance during 1990s-2000s [17].

Figure 2: Percentage of TVET graduates with VC qualification who are ready to enter job market from 2010-2015. Source: calculated using data from MOE (2015) and ONEC (2010) Beside these, a number of literatures also report mismatch of skills acquired by the TVET graduates and those required by the industry. There are several reasons behind this. First, firms cannot find the workers which possess certain knowledge and skills because not many TVET schools offer the courses in that disciplines [11]. Secondly, the curriculums used in schools have become out-of-date and incomprehensive. Thirdly, the TVET system faces a lack of qualified teachers [18]. Most importantly, top-performing students do not want to enter TVET track in the first place because of factors such as parents’ influence, low social acceptance, and higher economic incentive for entering general education track [3].

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The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

3 PROGRAMME ANALYSIS 3.1 Background of Dual Certificate Programme (DCP) The DCP admits students who have completed lower secondary education (Grade 9). Upon completion of the programme which lasts for three years, they will receive double certificates, Grade 12 of general education and VC qualifications. The programme’s main objective is to equip students with career skills and prepare qualified medium-skilled labours for the market. The programme has two main partners: 1.) schools under the Office of Basic Education Commissions (OBEC schools) which provide general education modules and 2.) technical and vocational colleges under the Office of Vocational Education Commission (OVEC colleges). Students need to enroll basic core subjects worth 41 credits with OBEC schools and another careerfocused modules worth 71 credits with OVEC colleges. Classes are either based in OBEC schools or OVEC colleges subject to their agreements. Initially, the DCP was implemented only in small scales. As of 2014, there were 1,478 students in this programme [7]. However, to urgently solve a problem of medium-skilled workers shortage, MOE decided to rapidly expand the programme in May 2015. As shown in Table 1, in 2015, the number of enrolments in vocational system increases to 285,320 students (around 23% increase from 2014), 32,883 of which enter the DCP track [8]. Table 1: TVET and DCP enrollment rate from 2010-2015. Source: MOE (2015). Years Total number of new VC students entering TVET Total number of new VC students entering DCP % of new VC students in DCP track

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

287,191

289,400

275,839

245,552

231,934

285,320

1,670

1,498

1,342

1,597

1,478

32,883

0.58%

0.52%

0.49%

0.65%

0.64%

11.52%

MOE’s objectives of expanding the DCP are: 1.) To increase the percentage of students in TVET system from 32% in 2014 [7] to be 60% of the total number of students in the cohort in 2018 [16]; 2.) To equip high school students with career skills and knowledge to become ready for job market and: 3.) To increase opportunities of career education to school-age population according to their interest and capability. [14] 3.2 Rationale of Option MOE prefers expanding the DCP into the OBEC schools rather than expanding training capacity of OVEC colleges. The main reason is based on students and parents’ preference towards general education track. The DCP track will not crowd out the students’ opportunity to receive Grade 12 qualification which is preferred by them and their parents and is also more recognized by universities than the VC. Moreover, the DCP’s high dependence on OVEC’s resource and a recent decline in TVET enrollment suggest that the OVEC’s capacity are still under-utilized. Therefore, expanding OVEC’s training capacity in order to increase the number of TVET graduates would not make sense. The option of expanding DCP model is therefore preferred. 3.3 Target Groups Target groups of this programme are schools in rural, remote areas and schools for the disadvantaged groups [12]. Targeting these schools offer two major benefits. First, the programme would equip these students with career skills and would allow them to better prepare for job market if they drop out from schools before completion. School drop-out rate is especially high in rural, remote area because of poverty, family problem, health problem, and the need for students to work and support their family [9]. Secondly, the programme would prepare medium-skilled labours for

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The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

serving the local businesses and industries, including the Special Border Economic Zone projects approved by the Cabinet in September 2015. While the decision to target these schools appears highly feasible in equity aspect, it may score low in the efficiency part. This is due to a possibility of attrition from programme as previously discussed. Moreover, the decision to target these students would confirm the perception that career education is mainly for disadvantaged students (as reported by Pimpa (2007) [16] and Poapongsakorn et al. (2012) [18]), and therefore would exacerbate the image of TVET system as a whole as well as of the programme itself. 3.4 Policy and Planning This programme presents four unclear aspects at the planning stage. Firstly, MOE has set a clear goal and timeframe to increase a percentage of TVET enrollment to become 60% of the cohort by 2018 [15]. However, MOE has not made clear the proportion of contribution from the DCP towards the goal. Secondly, MOE favours the supply-push approach rather than the demand-driven method in implementing this programme. Although MOE has identified the target schools of this programme, it failed to prioritise which industry sectors need to be served first. These unclear directions would lead to a vicious circle of skill mismatch of the graduates as well as oversupply of graduates in some disciplines and shortage in the others. Thirdly, there is no guideline on how OBEC schools and OVEC colleges will cooperate. Since a number of these schools have no prior experience in such collaboration, a lack of clear guideline and mechanism would lead to confusion and inefficiency in the implementation. Lastly, there is no clear plan for sustaining the programme in a long-term. It remains unknown which roles OBEC schools and OVEC colleges should play after the goal has been achieved and what would be the exit plan for OBEC schools, if any. 3.5 Stakeholders Proponents • Military Government: Recently, a steady decline in TVET enrolment (shown in Table 1) has put great pressure on the military government which has suffered from a lack of political legitimacy to rule the country. Although there is a risk of failure at implementing the programme in such a large scale, the increase in the enrollment rate would increase the government’s popularity and is therefore very politically feasible. • OBEC schools: rural OBEC schools suffer a shortage of qualified teachers. A study reveals that only 50% of rural schools have enough teachers with appropriate teaching ability [2]. The shortage is especially crucial for “opportunity expansion schools” and this is a big constraint in delivering high quality education. Adjusting the school’ mission to be more career-oriented would better serve local community’s need and increase school’s credibility; • Students and parents: students are better off by this policy due to more available alternatives in education and future career path. Thai parents have great influence on students’ decision to go to vocational education [16]. In a presence of the DCP, parents foresee more alternatives for their children’s future education and career path and become supportive of the programme. Opponents • OVEC colleges: ONEC (2009) reported that continuing the DCP would pose negative impact on OVEC colleges’ own training activities [11]. One possible explanation is that the mobilisation of resource from OVEC colleges to OBEC schools, including teachers and equipments, would result in less efficiency of training within the OVEC colleges, leading to lower students’ performance. More workloads also give burdens to OVEC’s teachers.; • Industries: the DCP has tendency to serve local, small-medium industries rather than the large technology-intensive firms. The high-tech industries who look for qualified mediumskilled labours may not realise significant benefit of this programme since the programme focuses more on increasing the quantity of labours rather than improving the quality. Also, a

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The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

trend for large entreprises to establish their own TVET institution or collaborate with vocational colleges in arranging cooperative education implies that the large firms would prefer other TVET models to the DCP model. 3.6 Curriculum and Implementation DCP curriculum has a great potential to satisfy local industries’ demand. The curriculum can incorporate local contexts into the learning while preserving the elements of general education required by OBEC’s national core curriculum. The transfer of OVEC courses into OBEC curriculum is allowed by the National Education Act which recognizes schools’ authority to prescribe curriculum relating to needs of community, society and local wisdoms [4]. Despite such potential, there is still a lack of clear supportive mechanism for school-industry collaboration in customizing the work-oriented curriculum. The design of curriculum itself also discourages the learning to become fully work-oriented. Since the students need to spend half of their hours learning the OBEC’s core modules, there is very limited time availability left for them to gain apprenticeship from the industries. While the apprenticeship is explicitly encouraged by Vocational Education Act [5], it is difficult to implement in the DCP system since OVEC requires that students should spend at least 50% of their hours in the entreprises to be eligible for the apprenticeship qualification [13]. Such constraint would limit the programme’s efficiency in preparing qualified workforce corresponding to industrial needs. Consequently, this would result in a disparity between quality of graduates from the mainstream TVET system and DCP system [11]. 4 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS The DCP offers great advantages to students in rural and remote areas. Firstly, in terms of equity, it enhances their opportunities to access career education and equip them with employability skills once they leave schools. Secondly, if well-designed, the curriculum will have great potential to respond to the need of local businesses and industries. Thirdly, the programme does not crowd out students’ opportunities to obtain high school qualification. Hence, it is likely to receive positive feedback from both parents and students. However, the programme presents some limitations which hinder the success of reaching its objectives. The quality of training provided by this programme is unlikely to be better than those offered by other TVET models due to a low engagement with industries. While the programme can train the workforce for local industries and businesses, it may not solve the issue of medium-skilled labour shortage for the large high-tech entreprises which look for excellent quality. Consequently, the programme is not very effective at significantly increasing country’s productivity. Additionally, resource mobilisation from OVEC colleges may affect efficiency of operations within OVEC colleges and result in lower quality of training as a whole. In conclusion, the programme is unlikely to successfully solve the problem of high qualified mid-skilled worker shortage in Thailand, but it will certainly improve equity of accessing career education in rural area. The latter aspect corresponds to the country’s mission to promote inclusive growth [10]. Therefore, the programme should be continued with the following recommendations in order to ensure better implementation of the programme in future. Firstly, collaboration between OBEC schools and OVEC colleges must be strengthened. MOE should provide a standard operation procedure as a guideline for collaboration between the partner institutions. Also, administrative functions devoted to operation of this programme must be established within these institutions. Moreover, MOE should establish a coordinating agency to facilitate collaboration between them. Secondly, to improve effectiveness, the programme should be implemented based on demand in labour to serve local businesses. This would minimize skill mismatch between the graduates and the skills needed by the industries. Thirdly, to continue improving the equity aspect, the programme should allow students to enrol in a part-time basis, especially in the schools where drop-out rate is high. To achieve this, OVEC can partner with Office of Non-formal and Informal Education to

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The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

provide the equivalent programme with more flexible learning schedule. Lastly, since economic incentives and social attitudes have great influence on the decision to enrol in TVET programme, these aspects must also be improved. The government should allow accreditation of work experience after completing the TVET programme to be equivalent to university degree and hence eligible to higher salary. Also, to improve TVETâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s image, the government should identify the champion of TVET colleges with success story and promote them to the public. REFERENCES [1] Amornvivat, S., et al., Strategic Planning for Overcoming Thai Labour Crisis. 2015, SCB Economic Intelligence Center. (in Thai) [2] Atagi, R., Secondary teachers in Thailand. 2011, UNESCO: Bangkok, Thailand. [3] Chalamwong, Y. Thai Workforce in New Context: Vocational Education for the Nation. News & Report 2014; Available from: http://tdri.or.th/tdri-insight/thai-labour-force/. Accessed on December 1, 2015. (in Thai) [4] Government of Thailand. National Education Act 1999 (B.E.2542). 1999. [5] Government of Thailand, Vocational Education Act 2008 (B.E.2551). 2008. [6] Ministry of Education. Progress on Two Vocational Education Policy Implementation: Double Certificates and TVET Volunteer. 2015; Available from: http://www.moe.go.th/websm/2015/mar/079.html. Accessed on December 2, 2015. (in Thai) [7] Ministry of Education. Summary of Annual Statistics. National Education Information System 2015; Available from: http://www.mis.moe.go.th/mis-th/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=34&Itemid=189. Accessed on November 28, 2015. (in Thai) [8] Ministry of Education. Vocational Education Admission Result. 2015; http://www.moe.go.th/websm/2015/jun/191.html. Accessed on November 26, 2015. (in Thai)

Available

from:

[9] Ministry of Social Development and Human Security. Situation of School Drop-Out in 2009. 2009; Available from: http://www.m-society.go.th/article_attach/9872/14246.pdf. Accessed on December 1, 2015. (in Thai) [10] National Economic and Social Development Board, The Eleventh National Economic and Social Development Plan (2012-2016) 2012. [11] Office of National Education Council, A Study on Labour Demand for National Manpower Planning. 2010: Bangkok, Thailand. (in Thai) [12] Office of National Education Council, Technical and Vocational Training Policy and Planning in response to Country's Demand: Industry Sector Case Studies. 2009, Office of National Education Council: Bangkok, Thailand. (in Thai) [13] Office of Vocational Education Commission. Guideline for Dual and Apprenticeship Education System. Available from: http://www.kanpoly.ac.th/kan/tavi/tavi2.pdf. Accessed on December 2, 2015. (in Thai) [14] Office of Vocational Education Commission, Guideline for Joint Certificate Programme between Vocational and General Educations. 2015: Bangkok, Thailand. (in Thai) [15] Office of Vocational Education Commission, Policy and Strategy in Reforming Vocational Education 2010. (in Thai) [16] Pimpa, N. Reference groups and choices of vocational education: Case of Thailand. in International Education Research Conference. Fremantle: University of Notre Dame Australia. 2007. [17] Poapongsakorn, N., Y. Chalamwong, and D. Lathapipat, Linkages between educational institutions and labour market: quality of graduates and a shortage of quality labours, in Revamping Thai Education System: Quality for All, T.D.R. Institute, Editor. 2012: Bangkok, Thailand. (in Thai) [18] Rittirong, J. and R. Tadee, Challenges in Producing Thai Skilled Labor for AEC Job Market, in Population and Social Diversity in Thailand 2015. 2015: Bangkok, Thailand. (in Thai)

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Intention to Work in Tourism and Hospitality Industry: The Case of College Students of Tourism and Hospitality Management Program in Thailand Chanin Yoopetch Tourism and Management Division Mahidol University International College

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ABSTRACT Tourism and hospitality education is fundamental to the development of tourism industry. With significant growth of tourism industry, there is a greater demand in tourism and hospitality graduates to join the workforce. However, past studies indicated that graduates tended to work in the different industries from their degrees or majors. The objective of this study is to understand the intentions, barriers and other factors related to career choice. Research method for the current research was qualitative approach, particularly based on in-depth interviews with students in their final year of study. The results showed that starting income, popular career choice at the moment and friendsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; recommendation appeared to be crucial for their decisions. Few respondents mentioned about long-term growth and career path as important factors for their decisions. The conclusions and practical recommendations were also provided.

Keywords: Intention to work, Tourism and Hospitality Industry, Tourism Education

1 INTRODUCTION Tourism in Thailand is highly important as the main source of income for the country. The growing contribution of tourism income from international tourists supports the strong development of hospitality industry, including hotels, airlines and restaurants. In addition, the key component of tourism and hospitality development is human resources. However, in the competitive job markets, there are many other business sectors that the tourism and hospitality graduates may apply for the jobs. As many research studies in the past had suggested that students from tourism and hospitality program applied for the job in other industries in order to have higher salaries (Chang and Tse, 2015). In studying intention to work or career choice selection of tourism and hospitality students, the aim is to understand the reasons of joining the industry and their consideration about long-term working in this industry. The purpose of the current study is to explore the intention to work in the tourism and hospitality industry of the students. The objective is to explore the intention to work in the tourism and related fields, reasons to join the industry and expected length of work in the tourism and hospitality industry. Based on Baruch et al., (2015), the research on career development and career selection of students were very limited in some occupational groups and it is necessary to investigate in various types of occupation. Obviously, the importance of understanding more about intention to work in the tourism and hospitality industry can lead to reduce one of the major problems in the industry about employee turnover (Kim, 2014). Due to the fact that employee turnover is exceptionally high in the tourism industry. Therefore, the results of the current research should provide additional information and

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The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

insights so that universities can support the student’s career more effectively and firm’s executives can identify ways to retain their staff for sustainable business operations. 2 LITERATURE REVIEW One of the key concepts is the study is tourism education. Leiper (1981), Mayaka and Akama (2007), and Hjalager (2003) noted that tourism education is considered an integrative learning and teaching process, because students need to develop both knowledge and practical skills. Moreover, the tourism education is distinctive from other disciplines. The students usually are trained and required to have practical experiences in hotels or other tourism-related organizations to be ready for work after graduation, especially with good service minds. According to Amoah and Baum (1997) and Kusluvan and Kusluvan (2000), the issue of human resource development in tourism are multi dimensional. The image of working in the industry may link to the ability to attract the graduates to join the industry. In the process of preparing students for real work in the tourism and hospitality field, stakeholders, including universities and employers, played important roles in improving the quality of the students (Cooper and Westlake, (1998), Amoah and Baum (1997)). The other main keyword for this study is intention to work. Intention to work of students towards the real world is crucial for each student and also the hiring firms as well as the development of the industry (Shibata et al., 2015). There are several factors affecting intention to work, such as perceived workloads, information from friends and relatives, expected income, and expenditures related to works (e.g. transportation cost and living expenses). In addition, some factors related to intention to work were job security and occupational well-being (Mauno et al., (2014), Galliott and Graham (2014) and Baruch et al., (2015)). Another study (Surienty et al., 2014) in relation to working life proposed that job characteristics and ability to maintain work-life balance were important for the employees to continue to work in the firm. Chang and Tse (2015), noted that salaries in tourism and hospitality industry in Hong Kong, which appeared to be much less than in other industries, can affect the graduates career decisions to start working in other industries, rather than in the tourism and hospitality industry. 3 RESEARCH METHOD The current research applied in-depth interviews with tourism and hospitality students in their last year. 30 students were included the the study. The questions for the interview were developed from the past literatures related to the key concepts of the study. Each interview was conducted around 30-45 minutes. 4 RESEARCH RESULTS Demographic information of the respondents showed that around 60% of respondents were female. The age range was between 20-22 years old. Only students in their last year of study were selected to participant in the study. The following results were presented in the main themes of the information collected from the respondents. The key concepts for the study included intention to work in the tourism and hospitality industry, reasons to join the industry, sources of influence for decision making, and career path. Working in Tourism and Hospitality About the question of “If you graduate, do you plan to work in Tourism and Hospitality Industry?”, the result indicated that most students would like to start working in the field. In addition, one third of them preferred to have their own business in the future. For types of •

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The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

organization for their career choice, the interests of respondents were in the wide range from restaurants, tour operations, hotels and airlines. About one fourth of the respondents would like to continue directly to Master’s degree after working for two to three years. Some responses from the respondents were as follows. “I think the people who study in this (tourism and hospitality) program have passion for service. For me, I am always delightful to be able to make others happy and have a great moment through the services of the organizations like hotels or airlines. That’s why I decided to study this field”. “I plan to start working in the airline industry because I love travelling for only 3-5 years, then I will consider to have my own business.” Criteria for Career Choice Regarding criteria for career choice, the students mostly require good salary and employee benefits. Another aspect is related to working conditions and passion. •

“My career choice concerns whether I can further my skill in the field.” “I follow my passion and I consider the working environment of the organization. It is my dream job.” Main reasons to Join Tourism and Hospitality Industry Most students intended to work in the tourism and hospitality field for the reason that they have strong interest in this area and they have already developed their knowledge and skills for many years, including practical internship. One aspect is also about that the tourism industry in Thailand has increasingly growing quickly and jobs are easier to find in several areas, including hotels, airlines, events and tour operators. •

Some of the answers to this question are as follows. “Because I have studied in this industry for many years in both theories and practices, so I want to use my skill and knowledge that I have learned to work.” “I love to serve people and I love travel. I hate working behind the desk in the office.” “Tourism in Thailand is booming and there are many more interesting career choice in the industry. I can earn a good salary as my friends who work in other industries.” Sources of influence Almost all the respondents answered that friends and parents were the main sources of influence for their decision. •

“When it comes to big decisions, I usually discussed with my parents since they have more experiences and they can give me a good advice.” “I consulted with my friends who have already worked and I can learn from them about what is like to work in the real world.” Expected length of time to work in the Tourism and Hospitality field. Most respondents stated that they planned to work in the hospitality fields for the range of 3 - 5 years before moving on to other industries. •

“I will work in the industry until I gain enough experience. Then I will look for the next challenge in other industries” When asked about the their intention to leave the tourism and hospitality in the future, many respondents stated that there are many ups and downs of the tourism industry in Thailand, mainly due to the political instability. The risk has been increased highly. “It depends on my ability and the future attractiveness and opportunity of the industries

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The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

and the opportunities to learn more or to challenge myself to the next level.â&#x20AC;? Figure 1 summarized the results in the aspect of intention to work in tourism and hospitality industry of the respondents.

Figure 1: Intention to work in tourism and hospitality industry and other related factors 5 DISCUSSIONS From the study, the findings of this current investigation showed interesting phenomena about intention to work of the students in tourism and hospitality program. Regarding the influencing source of information, in contrast with Galliott and Graham (2014), the results provided that many students discussed their career choice with parents and friends, rather than with university professors or other governmental organizations. Dale and Robinson (2001) noted that educators had important roles to provide career guidance to the students. However, the results indicated that the respondents preferred to discuss about their future career with parents and friends, rather than consulting with the educators. 6 CONCLUSION The research showed new insights about intention to work of tourism and hospitality students in the context of Thailand. Key components of the study indicated that students intended to work in this industry from the beginning when they decided to study in the field. Learning from the findings of this research, managers should always pay attentions to the expectation of the employees in order to retain the employees to have commitment to build their long-term career. Providing attractive employee benefits and supporting the employees to participate in decision

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The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

making process in their works should help retaining the employees to stay longer in the organization (Kim, (2014), Surienty et al., (2014)). For directions for further research, to generalize the findings, cross-cultural research should be conducted in order to understand some similarities and differences among various cultures. REFERENCES [1] Amoah, V. A., & Baum, T. (1997). Tourism education: policy versus practice.International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 9(1), 5-12. [2] Baruch, Y., Wordsworth, R., Mills, C., & Wright, S. (2015). Career and work attitudes of blue-collar workers, and the impact of a natural disaster chance event on the relationships between intention to quit and actual quit behaviour.European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 1-15. [3] Chang, S., & Tse, E. C. Y. (2015). Understanding the Initial Career Decisions of Hospitality Graduates in Hong Kong Quantitative and Qualitative Evidence.Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 39(1), 57-74. [4] Cooper, C., & Westlake, J. (1998). Stakeholders and Tourism Education. Curriculum Planning Using a Quality Management Framework. Industry and Higher Education, 12(2), 93-100. [5] Dale, C., & Robinson, N. (2001). The theming of tourism education: a three-domain approach. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 13(1), 30-35. [6] Galliott, N. Y., & Graham, L. J. (2014). A question of agency: applying Sen's theory of human capability to the concept of secondary school student career ‘choice’. International Journal of Research & Method in Education, 37(3), 270-284. [7] Hjalager, A. M. (2003). Global tourism careers? Opportunities and dilemmas facing higher education in tourism. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education, 2(2), 26-37. [8] Kim, N. (2014). Employee turnover intention among newcomers in travel industry. International Journal of Tourism Research, 16(1), 56-64. [9] Kusluvan, S., & Kusluvan, Z. (2000). Perceptions and attitudes of undergraduate tourism students towards working in the tourism industry in Turkey. Tourism Management, 21(3), 251-269. [10] Leiper, N. (1981). Towards a cohesive curriculum tourism: The case for a distinct discipline. Annals of tourism Research, 8(1), 69-84. [11] Mauno, S., De Cuyper, N., Tolvanen, A., Kinnunen, U., & Mäkikangas, A. (2014). Occupational well-being as a mediator between job insecurity and turnover intention: Findings at the individual and work department levels.European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 23(3), 381-393. [12] Mayaka, M., & Akama, J. S. (2007). Systems approach to tourism training and education: The Kenyan case study. Tourism Management, 28(1), 298-306. [13] Shibata, S., Thepthien, B. O., & Sermsri, S. (2015). Intention toward working in the private sector among fourthyear nursing students in Thailand. Journal of Health Research, 29(1),23-29. [14] Surienty, L., Ramayah, T., Lo, M. C., & Tarmizi, A. N. (2014). Quality of work life and turnover intention: a partial least square (PLS) approach. Social Indicators Research, 119(1), 405-420.

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The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

Coping with Deception and Displacement through Prayer Susan Miller Department of Foreign Languages Nippon Sport Science University Abstract The existential crisis of Volkswagen and its deception of the Environmental Protection Agency’s emission standards has sent shock waves through the United States and the world. Long a trusted brand with a special reputation, the cars are now a liability and many owners regret having ever purchased them. The problem seems to have stemmed from an over-aggressive ‘think big’ sales policy, while ignoring a concern for the earth and air quality, which can affect the respiratory system. Regulators and legislators are in the early stages of addressing Volkswagen’s actions, and the European Commission is keen to get to the bottom of it as well. At the same time, the world is grappling with one of the largest humanitarian crises in recent memory, with millions of Syrians and Iraqis fleeing the violence of ISIS in desperation. While these two problems may seem to be unrelated, they both require time consuming and painstaking effort across business, industry, religious bodies, and governments in order to be solved and to rebuild trust. Yet individuals who feel betrayed need concrete steps that they can take right away for their own peace of mind. This paper, therefore, will not address the framework of cooperation required of various leaders, but, relating to the theme of hope, will focus instead on prayerful actions that an individual can take to feel empowered and at peace in this time of turmoil. Such actions will hopefully enhance mental and physical health while making a valuable contribution toward solving these problems.

Keywords: environment, humanitarian crisis, prayer & health, religion

1 Introduction On December 18, 2015, International Migrants Day, a worldwide candlelight vigil was held in honor of lost migrant lives (International Organization for Migration, 2015). That same day, the United Nations issued a statement on the refugee crises around the world, noting that the “number of people who have been forced to flee war, violence and persecution looks set to soar in 2015 past last year’s record of nearly 60 million” (Larson, 2015). The UN Refugee Agency (UNHCR) indicated that “2015 is likely to exceed all previous records for global forced displacement. … That basically means that one in every 122 people on the planet is today someone who has been forced to flee their

ISSN 2188-6865

The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

home” (Larson, 2015). This is a 45% jump since 2011, with the “main contributor being the ruthless conflict in Syria” (Larson, 2015). Excluding data from Syria, the increase from 2011 would have been only about 5% (Larson, 2015). UN refugee chief, Antonio Guterres, has called on the world to respond with kindness to this crisis: “Forced displacement is now profoundly affecting our times. Never has there been a greater need for tolerance, compassion and solidarity with people who have lost everything” (Larson, 2015). Addressing the need for compassion, this paper will explore the concept of prayer and how it can benefit us in terms of developing inner strength. 2 Troubled Times In addition to the refugee problem, Volkswagen’s violation of the Environmental Protection Agency’s emissions standards in the United States has called into question the ability of government and industry to work together to help create cleaner air and a better quality of life for all. On December 10, 2015, Volkswagen said that “only a small group of employees was responsible for cheating U.S. diesel emissions tests and there was no indication board members were involved in the biggest business crisis in the carmaker’s history. Chairman Hans Dieter Poetsch said investigations into the affair were going well, but the scandal was the result of a ‘chain of errors’ and it would still take months to say which individuals were to blame” (Cremer, 2015). On a positive note, a landmark climate accord was reached in Paris on December 12, 2015. It has been called “historic, durable and ambitious,” for “with all 196 nations having a say, the UN climate deal, with all its frustrations and drama, has proven that compromise works for the planet” (Harvey, 2015). Perhaps the sentiments of the executive director of Greenpeace International, Kumi Naidoo, are shared by many: “It sometimes seems that the countries of the UN can unite on nothing, but nearly 200 countries have come together and agreed a deal. Today, the human race has joined in a common cause. The Paris agreement is only one step on a long road and there are parts of it that frustrate, that disappoint me, but it is progress. The deal alone won’t dig us out of the hole that we’re in, but it makes the sides less steep” (Harvey, 2015). Sadly, it is also necessary to recall the recent terrorist attacks in Paris and in San Bernardino, California. That we are living in tumultuous times has been highlighted by the Pope’s sudden calling of a Jubilee Year of Mercy. The next jubilee year had not been scheduled until 2025, but sometimes exceptions are made, and “extraordinary” jubilee years are called. Clearly Pope Francis thought that now was the time to do so. “The tradition of Holy Years started 700 years ago. Since then, the Catholic Church has

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celebrated 26 jubilees. Of those, only three have been ‘extraordinary’ (including this one called by Francis)” (San Martín, 2015). 3 Remaining Optimistic For us as individuals, it can be overwhelming living in times such as these. We may wonder what difference our small lives make in the big scheme of things. It is important for us not to get discouraged. Margaret Mead advises us to “Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed citizens can change the world; indeed, it is the only thing that has ever happened” (Noor, 2015c), and Friedrich Nietzsche insists that “You have your way. I have my way. As for the right way, the correct way, and the only way, it does not exist” (Noor, 2015c). Moreover, it is important for us to have the courage to pursue our dreams actively with hope for a positive and bright future, and to try to understand those who are different from us. Andre Gide notes that “You can never cross the ocean unless you have the courage to lose sight of the shore” (Noor, 2015a). Atticus in To Kill a Mockingbird teaches us that “You never really understand a person until you consider things from his point of view. … Until you climb inside of his skin and walk around in it” (Noor, 2015b). Nevertheless, this is not easy, as Fyodor Dostoyevsky has pointed out: “Nothing is easier than to condemn the evildoer, nothing is harder than to understand him” (Noor, 2015d). Yet Emma Goldman assures us that “Before we can forgive one another, we have to understand one another” (Noor, 2015d). Although the topic of this paper is prayer rather than meditation, the two are interrelated, so I would like to share with you an email message that I received from the president of the Blue Mountain Center of Meditation in Tomales, California, founded by Sri Eknath Easwaran: Dear Friends, Our hearts are full of sadness following the recent tragedies in Paris, France, and in Beirut, Lebanon. We want to share with you a message that we have just posted on our website, reminding us all of Easwaran's response to such acts of violence. "I keep in close touch with what happens in the world. And there are times when I feel deeply grieved by the suffering I read about, and wonder why life

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December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

has to be this way. But I never despair. At those times I go deep, deep into meditation until I reach the very source of love and wisdom that exists in each of us. "So what I would tell all of you is this: meditate every day, throw yourself into some form of selfless work, and use your sense of suffering to relieve the suffering of others. It is a wonderful gift to be able to give" Sri Easwaran (Bishop, 2015). 4 The Benefits of Prayer Religious practitioners have long stressed the value of prayer in terms of mental, physical and spiritual well-being, and today doctors are extolling us to do so as well. For example, the Mayo Clinic offers advice on meditation, including prayer as one form, because it “helps you reduce your stress and feel better overall” (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2014). Various physiological effects of prayer and meditation have been discovered, including Dr. Herbert Benson’s “relaxation response”, in which the “body's metabolism decreases, the heart rate slows, blood pressure goes down, and our breath becomes calmer and more regular” (Schiffman, 2012). In addition, Dr. Andrew Newberg “found that prayer and meditation increase levels of dopamine, which is associated with states of well-being and joy” (Schiffman, 2012). Elderly people who pray tend to live longer than those who don’t (Schiffman, 2012). In one National Institutes of Health funded study, individuals who prayed daily were shown to be 40 percent less likely to have high blood pressure than those without a regular prayer practice. Research at Dartmouth Medical School found that patients with strong religious beliefs who underwent elective heart surgery were three times more likely to recover than those who were less religious. A 2011 study of inner city youth with asthma by researchers at the University of Cincinnati indicates that those who practiced prayer and meditation experienced fewer and less severe symptoms than those who had not. Other studies show that prayer boosts the immune system and helps to lessen the severity and frequency of a wide range of illnesses (Schiffman, 2012). Moreover, those who pray and are predisposed to depression may experience fewer symptoms due to the thickening of the brain cortex. Dr. Lisa Miller found that “A

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December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

thicker cortex associated with a high importance of religion or spirituality may confer resilience to the development of depressive illness in individuals at high familial risk for major depression, possibly by expanding a cortical reserve that counters to some extent the vulnerability that cortical thinning poses for developing familial depressive illness” (Miller, 2014). In other words, prayer, or a religious outlook, may positively affect brain function and provide a defense against developing depression, especially for those with a family history of depression. While the results are encouraging, Miller notes that “these findings are correlational and therefore do not prove a causal association between importance and cortical thickness” (Miller, 2014). On the other hand, some studies find no positive results for prayer. For example, the Mayo Clinic found that “intercessory prayer had no significant effect on medical outcomes after hospitalization in a coronary care unit” (Aviles, 2001), as did a large study on intercessory prayer and cardiovascular health called STEP (Study of the Therapeutic Effects of Intercessory Prayer) released in 2006 (Soares, 2006). The STEP experiment relied on strangers praying for people whom they did not know, so the chief chaplain at the Mayo Clinic felt that the design of the study might have been partially responsible for the outcome: “The sense of community was not there. You could call it interpersonal prayer rather than intercessory prayer” (Soares, 2006). The authors of the STEP study stopped “short of suggesting that the healing power of prayers by friends and family might reside in the personal connections rather than in the prayers” (Soares, 2006), and they indicated that they had no plan to conduct further research on the matter (Soares, 2006). In fact, the scientific study of prayer “has been a contentious one among researchers. Proponents have argued that prayer is perhaps the most deeply human response to disease, and that it may relieve suffering by some mechanism that is not yet understood. Skeptics have contended that studying prayer is a waste of money and that it presupposes supernatural intervention, putting it by definition beyond the reach of science” (Carey, 2006). Dr. Richard Sloane explains that the “problem with studying religion scientifically is that you do violence to the phenomenon by reducing it to basic elements that can be quantified, and that makes for bad science and bad religion” (Carey, 2006). Nevertheless, studies on spirituality and medicine, pioneered by Dr. Benson, are growing. One technique of prayer which is particularly useful is the repetition of a mantram or mantra. This is a “powerful spiritual formula, which, when repeated silently in the mind, has the capacity to transform consciousness. There is nothing magical about this. It is simply a matter of practice” (Easwaran, 1977). Mantrams are part of all major

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religious traditions because they fill “a deep universal need in the human heart” (Easwaran, 1977). Some examples of mantrams are the name of Jesus or the Ave Maria (Christianity), Barukh attah Adonai or Ribono shel olam (Judaism), the name of Allah or Allahu akbar or Bismillah ir-rahman ir-rahim (Islam), Om mani padme hum (Buddhism), and Rama Rama or Hare Rama Hare Rama, Rama Rama Hare Hare, Hare Krishna Hare Krishna, Krishna Krishna Hare Hare (Hinduism) or simply the universal sound Om (Easwaran, 1977). From my own personal experience I can say that repeating the mantram can fill us with confidence when we are nervous, peace when we are agitated, and a willingness to face difficult situations with faith in the other party involved. It is surely worth trying. 5 Conclusion Although scientific research on prayer is divided, it is clear that deep resources are required to stay calm, positive and steadfast in times such as these, and prayer and meditation can be a big help in this regard. As we have learned, concepts such as prayer and meditation are no longer solely in the realm of religion, but are also vaunted by members of the scientific community. Indeed, during the recent UN climate meeting in Paris, one of the headlines read, “Scientists enlist the big gun to get climate action: Faith” (Borenstein, 2015). In spite of the results of scientific studies which call into question the efficacy of prayer, those who believe in it have no plans to stop. Bob Barth, who runs a prayer ministry in Missouri entitled Silent Unity, concludes that “we've been praying a long time and we've seen prayer work, we know it works, and the research on prayer and spirituality is just getting started” (Carey, 2006). In addition, health practitioners, such as those at the Mayo Clinic, the Benson-Henry Institute for Mind Body Medicine at Massachusetts General Hospital, and the Spirituality and Mind Body Institute at Teachers College, Columbia University, in New York, among others, are encouraging people to practice some form of prayer and meditation to help alleviate stress and lessen the chance of illness. Finally, it is important to remember that peace and joy are ever-present and are within our reach, as the zen master, poet and peace activist, Thích Nhất Hạnh, teaches: The mind can go in a thousand directions, but on this beautiful path, I walk in peace. With each step, the wind blows. With each step, a flower blooms (Hạnh, 2015).

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References Aviles, Jennifer M., Ellen Whelan, Debra A. Hernke, Brent A. Williams, et al. 2001. “Intercessory Prayer and Cardiovascular Disease Progression in a Coronary Care Unit Population: A Randomized Controlled Trial.” Mayo Clinic Proceedings 76 (12):1192-98. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11761499

Bishop, David. Nov. 20, 2015. E-mail correspondence received by the author. www.easwaran.org

Borenstein, Seth. Dec. 6, 2015. “Scientists enlist the big gun to get climate action: Faith.” AP - The Big Story. http://bigstory.ap.org/article/6b4f4f4ec9a9491ea7c6c01c34a04931/scientists-enlist-big-gun-get -climate-action-faith

Carey, Benedict .March 31, 2006. “Long-Awaited Medical Study Questions the Power of Prayer.” The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/31/health/31pray.html?pagewanted=1&_r=2

Cremer, Andreas. Dec. 10, 2015. “VW says only small group to blame for emissions scandal.” Reuters. http://news.yahoo.com/vw-chairman-says-winning-back-trust-top-priority-102610425--finance. html?soc_src=copy

Easwaran, Eknath. 1977. The Mantram Handbook. Tomales, CA: Nilgiri Press, 8, 37-56. http://www.easwaran.org/mantrams-recommended-by-easwaran.html

Editorial Team. Jan. 20, 2014. “10 ways praying actually benefits your health!” The Health Site. http://www.thehealthsite.com/diseases-conditions/10-ways-praying-actually-benefits-your-health -p114/

Hạnh, Thích Nhất. 2015. “Quotable Quote” www.goodreads.com. https://www.goodreads.com/quotes/208997-the-mind-can-go-in-a-thousand-directions-but-on

Harvey, Fiona. Dec. 14, 2015. “Paris climate change agreement: the world's greatest diplomatic success.” The Guardian. http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/dec/13/paris-climate-deal-cop-diplomacy-deve loping-united-nations

International Organization for Migration (IOM). 2015. “i am a migrant.” http://iamamigrant.org/

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Larson, Nina. Dec. 18, 2015. “Number of people forced to flee war, violence to hit record in 2015: UN.” AFP. http://news.yahoo.com/number-people-forced-flee-war-violence-hit-record-053848155.html?soc _src=copy

Mayo Clinic Staff. July 19, 2014. “Meditation: A simple, fast way to reduce stress.” Tests and Procedures: Meditation. http://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/meditation/in-depth/meditation/art-20045858?pg=1 http://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/meditation/in-depth/meditation/art-20045858?pg=2

Miller, Lisa, Ravi Bansal, Priya Wickramaratne, Xuejun Hao, et al. 2014. “Neuroanatomical Correlates of Religiosity and Spirituality: A Study in Adults at High and Low Familial Risk for Depression.” JAMA Psychiatry 71 (2): 128-35. http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1792140

Noor, Masi. 2015a. “Curiosity & Courage” in “The Forgiveness Toolbox.” The Forgiveness Project. http://www.theforgivenesstoolbox.com/courage-and-curiosity/

-----. 2015b. “Empathy” in “The Forgiveness Toolbox.” The Forgiveness Project. http://www.theforgivenesstoolbox.com/empathy/

-----. 2015c. “Resisting Conformity” in “The Forgiveness Toolbox.” The Forgiveness Project. http://www.theforgivenesstoolbox.com/resisting-conformity/

-----. 2015d. “Understanding” in “The Forgiveness Toolbox.” The Forgiveness Project. http://www.theforgivenesstoolbox.com/beyond-forgiveness/

San Martín, Inés. March 13, 2015. “In a surprise move, Pope Francis declares a Holy Year of Mercy.” Crux. http://www.cruxnow.com/church/2015/03/13/in-surprise-move-pope-francis-declares-a-holy-ye ar-of-mercy/ Schiffman, Richard. Jan. 18, 2012. “Why People Who Pray are Healthier Than Those Who Don’t.” Huff Post: Religion. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/richard-schiffman/why-people-who-pray-are-heathier_b_1197313.html Soares, Christine. June 19, 2006. “No Prayer Prescription: Send good vibrations, but keep it to yourself.” Scientific American. http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/no-prayer-prescription/

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Dealing with Crises of Violence and Conflict: Forgiveness Susan Miller Department of Foreign Languages Nippon Sport Science University Abstract As the year 2015 draws to a close, violent incidents are seared into our collective memories. Some involve random shootings, including the church massacre in Charleston, South Carolina in June, and the Roseburg, Oregon massacre at Umpqua Community College on October 1. Others include continual acts of violence in the Middle East, particularly in Syria and Iraq, which has resulted in a humanitarian crisis that defies comprehension. In addition, the deadly US air strike on a Doctors Without Borders hospital in Kunduz, Afghanistan, at 2:15 AM on October 3 has the world reeling. Doctors Without Borders, also known as Medecins Sans Frontieres, abandoned the bombarded hospital in Kunduz after the attack and is calling for an independent investigation by the International Humanitarian Fact-Finding Commission, which was founded in 1991 but has never been activated. (Three military investigations are currently underway.) Nevertheless, in addition to legal procedures, it is necessary to address the loss of life and injury which have been incurred in these and other tragedies, including the more recent terrorism in Paris, on a personal level. Therefore, in accordance with the theme of Challenges and Possibilities, this paper will explore how the incomprehensibility of such atrocities can be dealt with through forgiveness. Various approaches to forgiveness will be discussed, along with a consideration of the health benefits it offers, and of resistance which may be encountered. This paper is based on the premise that individual action can exert a profound effect on personal, political and legal outcomes.

Keywords: violence, forgiveness, religion, health benefits

1 Introduction When faced with sudden acts of violence, terrorism, or hostility, generally speaking, the last thing people want to do is forgive. Oftentimes this leads to a continual cycle of violence affecting more and more people. An exception to this was the warmth of forgiveness extended to Dylann Roof, the shooter at the Emanuel AME Church in Charleston, South Carolina, in June. When the relatives of the victims publicly offered their forgiveness, observers were amazed, and found it to be both noble and at the same time slightly incomprehensible. Those who had been killed were long-time members of

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a prayer group, so their relatives reached deep down, fought against their natural tendencies, and forgave without question, longing to be just like their lost loved ones, and to live up to their example. This required a great deal of courage, and as such, “it has a tremendous power and appeal” (Gerson, 2015). It also shows us that “Forgiveness is not something soft or passive. It demonstrates spiritual maturity, strength of character, depth, discipline and steadiness” (Gerson, 2015). Moreover, “Forgiveness is also a form of freedom — a refusal to be ruled by anger or resentment. It is like laying a burden down” (Gerson, 2015). As the Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. noted, “History has proven over and over again that unmerited suffering is redemptive” (Gerson, 2015). Many of us may not be faced with the same type of crisis as did those in Charleston, but the need to find forgiveness in our hearts for the sorrows which plague us is equally valid and important. 2 Religious Perspectives Forgiveness has long been in the domain of religious thought. Jesus admonished his followers to “Love your enemies, bless them that curse you, do good to them that hate you, and pray for them which despitefully use you and persecute you” (Matthew 5:44). In “The Twin Verses” of the Dhammapada, the Buddha also encouraged his followers to let go of their feelings of resentment: “He insulted me, he struck me, he cheated me, he robbed me”: those caught in resentful thoughts never find peace. “He insulted me, he struck me, he cheated me, he robbed me”: those who give up resentful thoughts surely find peace. For hatred does not cease by hatred at any time: hatred ceases by love. This is an unalterable law (Easwaran, 2003). Hinduism stresses forgiveness in a special way. For example, in the Bhagavad Gita (9.29), Sri Krishna tells Arjuna, “I am the same to all beings. My love is the same always. Nevertheless, those who meditate on me with devotion, they dwell in me, and I shine forth in them” (Easwaran, 2003). Moreover, the “Bhagavad Gita (16.3) mentions forgiveness as one of the divine qualities. In the Devi Mahatmyam (5.38-40) sages offer ‘repeated salutations to the Divine Mother who dwells in all beings as patience, forbearance, and forgiveness’” (Yuktatmananda, 2011). The religion of Islam also places a high value on forgiveness, as the Prophet

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Muhammad was a forgiving, gentle being. We find, for example, this description of the Prophet Muhammad in the Quran (21:107), “We have sent you as a mercy for all the worlds” (Abdulsalam, 2006). Apparently, the “Prophet was all for forgiveness and no amount of crime or aggression against him was too great to be forgiven by him. He was the complete example of forgiveness and kindness, as mentioned in the following verse of the Quran: ‘Keep to forgiveness (O Muhammad), and enjoin kindness, and turn away from the ignorant’ (7:199)” (Abdulsalam, 2006). The Prophet Muhammad relished kindness, “for, in his view, an antidote was better than poison” (Abdulsalam, 2006). According to Abdulsalam, he seems to have embodied the following verse of the Quran: Good and evil are not alike. Repel evil with what is better. Then he, between whom and you there was hatred, will become as though he was a bosom friend (41:34) (Abdulsalam, 2006). Judaism strongly supports forgiveness too. According to Rabbi Eliezer Shemtov, “The Torah explicitly forbids us to take revenge or to bear grudges (Leviticus19:18). It also commands us, ‘Do not hate your brother in your heart’ (ibid. 19:17)” (Shemtov, 2011). Shemtov stresses that forgiving oneself may be the hardest task of all, yet it must be done because Judaism is a religion of joy, and as such, the “only way to overcome life’s challenges is through agility, and agility is a byproduct of joy. The worst enemy a Jew can have is misplaced sadness” (Shemtov, 2011). His recommendation for finding this joy and avoiding the many pitfalls of pain in life is to fill “your mind with the living waters of Torah. Water fills every crevice, leaving no room for harmful feelings of guilt and other such negative thoughts that only serve to destroy the one who harbors them” (Shemtov, 2011). Confucius’s teachings include sayings such as “Forget injuries, never forget kindnesses” and “To be able to practice five things everywhere under heaven constitutes perfect virtue. ... [They are] gravity, generosity of soul, sincerity, earnestness, and kindness” (Confucian Analects, 2008). And in the Native American Spirituality of North America, forgiveness is supported through rituals and ceremonies: The fourth gift of the Sacred, 100 Eagle Feather Hoop is the Power to Forgive the Unforgivable. The abilities to both apologize and to forgive one another stand as great personal gifts of healing. I’m sorry, please forgive me can express the desire between individuals and nations alike to reconcile differences and re-enter life together after periods of conflict and struggle. Yes,

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I forgive you can be said in words or expressed in behaviors without words. In our traditions and customs there are also ways to apologize and forgive in ceremonies without specific words but with the same feelings and purpose (White Bison, Inc, 2015). 3 Scientific Research and Advancement While forgiveness in the religious sphere is well-documented, forgiveness is no longer solely in the religious domain; many scientists are extolling the value of forgiveness for health and well-being. One of the foremost among them is Dr. Fred Luskin, who offers a universal definition: “Forgiveness is the ability to make peace with the word ‘no’. … The essence of forgiveness is the ability to be resilient when things don’t go the way you want” (Luskin, 2015). Research on forgiveness is relatively new, but “studies are finding connections between forgiveness and physical, mental, and spiritual health and evidence that it plays a key role in the health of families, communities, and nations” (Worthington, Jr., 2004). In addition, “The practice of forgiveness has been shown to reduce anger, hurt, depression and stress and leads to greater feelings of hope, peace, compassion and self-confidence. Practicing forgiveness leads to healthy relationships as well as physical health. It also influences our attitude which opens the heart to kindness, beauty and love” (Luskin, 2010). Yet many of us may not feel adept at forgiving. It can be intimidating to say “I’m sorry”. The researchers assure us, however, that forgiveness is a skill which can be learned, and that practice makes perfect. “Forgiveness usually takes time … and the amount of time spent trying to forgive [is] highly related to the actual degree of forgiveness experienced” (Worthington, Jr., 2004). Luskin offers 9 steps to forgiveness (Luskin, 2010), Robert Enright has created a Forgiveness Process Model (Enright, 2001), and Everett Worthington, Jr., has formulated a plan called REACH (Sharma, 2003). In addition, The Forgiveness Project has compiled a Forgiveness Toolbox, which is a “skills-based toolbox enabling individuals and groups to transform the impact of harm and violence and nurture peaceful co-existence” (Noor, 2015c). Contained within the toolbox are seven skills, including going beyond understanding, building bridges, empathy, curiosity and courage, accepting responsibility, resisting conformity and moving beyond resentment (Noor, 2015c). Nevertheless, there can be resistance to embracing forgiveness, as others may not agree with this approach. “Indeed, our [American] culture seems to perceive forgiveness as a sign of weakness, submission, or both. Often we find it easier to

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stigmatize or denigrate our enemies than to empathize with or forgive them. And in a society as competitive as ours, people may hesitate to forgive because they don’t want to relinquish the upper hand in a relationship” (Worthington, Jr., 2004). Yet a lack of forgiveness, called “unforgiveness” by experts, is associated with hostility, and hostility and anger are linked to ill health (Worthington, Jr., 2004). Therefore, it might be worth going against the grain and trying to forgive for the sake of one’s health, happiness and peace of mind. As Henry Wadsworth Longfellow noted, “If we could read the secret history of our enemies, we would find in each person’s life sorrow and suffering enough to disarm all hostility” (Noor, 2015a). Nour Shehadah tried this, and she reports, “I knew that non-violence would work better than violence with Israelis. A lot of people in Tulkarem disagreed and called me a traitor, but I refused to listen” (Noor, 2015b). 4 Political Action Various governments throughout history have made apologies for their actions. For example, on February 13, 2008, the Australian government apologized to the indigenous peoples in Australia (White Bison, 2015), and on June 11, 2008, Prime Minister Stephen Harper offered an apology to the Aboriginal peoples of Canada on behalf of the Canadian government (White Bison, 2015). These are steps which will bring about long-term healing for all people in those nations. In addition, studies have shown that people in Rwanda, Sierra Leone and Northern Ireland, where genocide, war and conflicts have occurred, have benefitted from learning to forgive (Why Practice Forgiveness?, 2015). Perhaps the most famous and far-reaching steps taken toward forgiveness occurred in South Africa at the end of apartheid with the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (Why Practice Forgiveness?, 2015). As Worthington, Jr., notes, “For years, political and religious figures, such as Nelson Mandela and Archbishop Desmond Tutu in South Africa, have demonstrated the beauty and effectiveness of forgiveness in action” (Worthington, Jr., 2004). Tutu explains, “All South Africans were less than whole because of apartheid. Blacks suffered years of cruelty and oppression, while many whites became more uncaring, less compassionate, less humane, and therefore less human. … For our nation to heal and become a more humane place, we had to embrace our enemies as well as our friends” (Tutu, 2004). A profound example of this can be seen in the work of the Amy Biehl Foundation. Amy was a “Stanford graduate working on women’s rights in South Africa on a Fulbright scholarship” (This Emotional Life, 2011) who was murdered during apartheid. Her parents returned to testify at the Truth

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and Reconciliation Commission, forgave the perpetrators, and established the Amy Biehl Foundation to continue their daughter’s work. Two of the murderers now work for the Foundation (This Emotional Life, 2011). Tutu insists that “confession, forgiveness, and reconciliation in the lives of nations are not just airy-fairy religious and spiritual things, nebulous and unrealistic. They are the stuff of practical politics” (Tutu, 2004). This has led him to determine that “if peace is our goal, there can be no future without forgiveness” (Tutu, 2004). 5 Conclusion Wars and violence have existed since the dawn of time, yet it seems that we are living in an increased state of aggression and tension in the early years of the twenty-first century. Many people have forsaken religion and instead put their trust science. Fortunately, scientific evidence is supportive of the concept of forgiveness, and a variety of reasons have been supplied for this. For example, Luskin notes that forgiveness has resulted in “positive changes in measures of participants’ cardiovascular and nervous systems” (Luskin, 1999), and he has further observed that “even people who are not depressed or particularly anxious can obtain the improved emotional and psychological functioning that comes from learning to forgive” (Luskin, 1999). Thus, forgiveness can benefit healthy individuals as well as those suffering from severe mental anguish or physical ailments. The Dalai Lama encourages us to “notice how everything depends on thought—how thought itself organizes what we perceive” (Hopkins, 2006). Surely the act of forgiveness can shake up our thought patterns, refresh our minds, and rearrange our perceptions. Thus, “Forgiveness may be viewed as an analogous example of the ability to see one’s life through a positive or healing lens. … In this way, forgiveness may be, as the religious traditions have been claiming all along, a rich path to greater peace and understanding that also has both psychosocial and physiological value” (Luskin, 1999). It seems like something worth trying, doesn’t it? References Abdulsalam, M. Feb. 27, 2006. “The Forgiveness of Muhammad shown to Non-Muslims (parts 1 & 2).” The Religion of Islam. http://www.islamreligion.com/articles/205/viewall/forgiveness-of-muhammad-shown-to-non-muslims/

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Barry, Michael S. 2010. The Forgiveness Project: The Startling Discovery of How to Overcome Cancer, Find Health, and Achieve Peace. Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Publications.

Cantacuzino, Marina. 2015. The Forgiveness Project: Stories for a Vengeful Age. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. http://theforgivenessproject.com/

Confucian Analects, The. Feb 24, 2008. http://confucius-sage.blogspot.jp/2008/02/confucius-on-kindness.html

Dalai Lama, His Holiness the. 2006. How to See Yourself As You Really Are. Translated and edited by Jeffrey Hopkins. New York: Atria Books.

Easwaran, Eknath. 2003. God Makes the Rivers to Flow: Sacred Literature of the World, 3rd ed., 86, 166. Tomales, CA: Nilgiri Press.

Enright, Robert. 2001. “Enright Forgiveness Process Model.” Forgiveness is a Choice. Washington, D.C.: APA Books. http://internationalforgiveness.com/files/EnrightForgivenessProcessModel.pdf

Gerson, Michael. June 22, 2015. “The Power of Forgiveness in Charleston.” The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/the-power-of-forgiveness/2015/06/22/a331c77e-19 0d-11e5-bd7f-4611a60dd8e5_story.html

Hopkins, Jeffrey. 2006. Foreward to His Holiness the Dalai Lama, How to see Yourself as you Really Are, xi-xii. New York: Atria Books.

Luskin, Fred. 1999. “The art and science of forgiveness.” Stanford Medicine 16 (4). http://sm.stanford.edu/archive/stanmed/1999summer/forgiveness.html

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http://www.theforgivenesstoolbox.com/resisting-conformity/

-----. 2015c. “The Forgiveness Toolbox.” The Forgiveness Project. http://www.theforgivenesstoolbox.com/

Sharma, Vijai P. Feb. 2003. “The ‘Reach’ Method for Forgiveness Works.” Mind Publications. http://www.mindpub.com/art471.htm

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This Emotional Life, PBS Online. 2011. “Forgiveness: Understanding forgiveness.” Journeys of Forgiveness. http://www.pbs.org/thisemotionallife/topic/forgiveness/understanding-forgiveness

Tutu, Desmond Mpilo. 1999. No Future Without Forgiveness. New York: Image Books.

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White Bison, Inc. “History of Apology; The Apologies Time Line.” http://www.whitebison.org/boarding-school-apology/history-of-apology.php

“Why Practice Forgiveness?” 2015. Greater Good, The Science of a Meaningful Life. http://greatergood.berkeley.edu/topic/forgiveness/definition#why_practice

Worldwide Forgiveness Alliance, 2015. http://www.forgivenessalliance.org/index.php

Worthington, Jr., Everett L. Sept. 1, 2004. “The New Science of Forgiveness” in “Education”. Greater Good, The Science of a Meaningful Life. http://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/the_new_science_of_forgiveness

Yuktatmananda, Swami. 2011. “Divine Qualities: Forgiveness.” Minister’s Message. RamakrishnaVivekananda Center of New York. http://www.ramakrishna.org/activities/message/message67.htm

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Building a Validity Argument for Our Tests Kristy King Takagi University of Fukui

…….. ABSTRACT Testing has long been an inevitable part of educational life in Japan. Examples of educational tests in Japan include high-stakes tests such as entrance examinations for high school and university and the National Center Test for University Admissions, as well as lower-stakes tests, such as classroom tests and placement tests for English language programs. The focus of this short article is to discuss the importance of validity generally, but especially in an educational, language testing context, and an approach that educators and administrators in Japan might use to examine and gather evidence needed to build validity arguments for their tests. After this approach is discussed, some examples of evidence drawn from previous studies of two tests are used for illustration. These examples demonstrate that building validity arguments for our tests is quite a challenging task, and that tests used in Japan, even high-stakes tests that tend to be accepted by the public, are in need of further study and revision. Keywords: educational testing, validation evidence, Center Test for University Admissions

INTRODUCTION Testing has long been inextricably linked to education in Japan. Students undergo long hours of study for tests that have important consequences for them, such as high school and university entrance examinations and the National Center Test for University Admissions, as well as lowerstakes classroom tests and placement tests for university English language programs. However, despite the deeply ingrained nature of tests in Japan, it is far from clear whether any of these tests is appropriate and useful for the designated purposes. One notable example is high-stakes university entrance examination testing, an object of much criticism over the years (Brown, 1996; Brown & Yamashita, 1995; Murphey, 2001). It is still not clear whether the criticism has led to substantive and wide-spread improvement or not (Kikuchi, 2006). In order to create tests that work well and fairly for their intended purposes, it is crucial that those who make and use tests gather, evaluate, and share the kind of evidence that will enable them to make the claim that the tests are being used in a valid manner. This paper will briefly discuss the concept of validity, especially in terms of its relation to educational testing and language testing, and then outline the kind of evidence that is needed to build a validity argument for tests, along with examples of evidence derived from previous studies of two tests. The purpose of providing these examples is twofold: to present validation evidence in a specific, concrete way, and to make it possible to examine and evaluate validation evidence for each of the two tests discussed. VALIDITY AND EDUCATIONAL TESTING As Messick (1989) said, validity was viewed for many years as a “trichotomy of content, criterion, and construct validities” (p. 5). Each was viewed as a separate sort of validity, and each tended to be tied to certain aims in testing; Messick considered this view of validity “insidious” because the implication was that one type of validity might be enough in and of itself in a particular testing context (p. 5). Messick’s own view of validity as multi-faceted but unitary is now the standard accepted by the American Psychological Association, AERA, and NCME, and is defined as “an integrated evaluative judgment of the degree to which empirical evidence and theoretical rationales support the adequacy and appropriateness of inferences and actions based on test scores or other modes of assessment” (p. 5). With the “trustworthiness of empirically grounded score interpretation” at its heart, validation is not validation of the test, but validation of our inferences from test scores, and of actions that may result from our inferences (p. 5). As validation is ISSN 2188-6865

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“scientific inquiry into score meaning,” both theory and data are essential to the process, and central issues include the “meaning, relevance, and utility of scores, the import or value implications of scores as a basis for action, and the functional worth of scores in terms of the social consequences of their use” (p. 5). In the validation process, we also must consider threats to validity and aim to correct any problems. Messick said that the two most important threats to validity are construct underrepresentation (when a test is too narrow and does not include all important aspects of a construct being measured) and construct-irrelevant test variance (when a test is easier or more difficult for reasons that are not related to the construct being measured) (p. 7). As McNamara (2006) said, despite valuable contributions in recent years, Messick’s is still “the most comprehensive conceptualization of the validation process to date” (p. 48), and his “daunting” body of work “remains a primary reference point for us” (p. 45). However, as Messick (1975) said, unlike the field of psychology, education has been “slow to embrace construct validity as a means of developing educational tests as instruments of educational theory” (p. 955). He explained reasons why: education tends to focus on performance standards rather than constructs; constructs are considered “unimportant or irrelevant” (p. 957); variability, a fundamental notion in psychological testing, is not regarded favorably; and most important, educational testers believe that tests are already valid on the basis of “content validity,” how well test items represent the domain being tested (p. 959). Like the field of education, language testing has also tended to focus on observing and scoring performance and to lack strong theories, according to Fulcher (2015). He said that because this field is the “only assessment and measurement discipline that has a content domain as the focus of its research” (p. 107), we tend to focus on “observable attributes” and define them in terms of ability to complete tasks within a domain. In other words, language testing is still concerned in large part with the “content validity” discussed above, and many in this field view Messick’s framework as too difficult to implement in practice (p. 109). Rather than relying on theory and having some grasp of “truth” to defend the fairness of our judgments about performance, Fulcher said that we tend to defend the correctness of our testing decisions on the basis of following a particular process or procedure (p. 110). Messick objected to the notion that “content validity” is sufficient grounds for claiming use of test scores is valid. While validation rightly focuses on inferences made from test scores, this notion of “content validity” is primarily tied to test forms and instruments, rather than to test scores; therefore, he said, “content validity” should be called “content relevance” instead (p. 961). This coverage of content is important in constructing and interpreting a test, but by itself “does not provide validity” (p. 960). Messick emphasized the importance of construct validity; he said it is “just as important for educational measurement as for psychological measurement” because “there are no adequate options” (p. 961). Constructs are important for all measurement, and “all measurement should be construct-referenced” (p. 957); in addition, because words such as “skill,” “comprehension,” or “reasoning,” refer to constructs, even subject matter tests are tied to constructs, according to Messick. In our tests, we want to measure “how much of something” a person possesses; the fundamental question is determining the nature of that “something” and the next question is to find out whether the amount we measure is “a lot or a little” (p. 957). Our task is to connect test performance and behaviors to a “more general attribute, process, or trait,” or construct, because doing so gives us a basis for more valid interpretations of scores and their implications (p. 961). (See Wilson (2005) for a concrete way to connect behaviors to constructs with the construct map.) In order to implement Messick’s framework, we must consider and gather a variety of kinds of evidence in order to build our validity argument.

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EVIDENCE NEEDED TO BUILD A VALIDITY ARGUMENT FOR OUR TESTS Messick (1989) recommended that we examine “multiple lines of evidence” that overlap with one another to determine to what degree the evidence agrees with our inferences about test scores; at the same time, we need to determine that other kinds of inferences about the test scores are not supported well (p. 5). Test score interpretation is the focus in test validation; as Messick said, the “bridge or connective tissue that sustains this unified view of validity is the meaningfulness or trustworthy interpretability of the test scores, which is the goal of construct validation” (p. 8). By understanding and interpreting test scores, we can have a clear way to discuss construct validation and defend our tests. Credited by McNamara (2006) as the person who deserves most credit for introducing Messick’s notion of validity and the validation process to the field of language testing, Bachman (2004) said that validation evidence includes: analysis of test content; correlation of test scores with scores of other tests of the same ability; and correlation of test scores with future performance (p. 260). In addition, Messick (1989) and McNamara (2006) said that gathering evidence regarding the impact and consequences of test use is also an essential part of validation. EXAMPLES OF VALIDATION EVIDENCE FOR TWO TESTS Messick (1989) said that test score interpretations should be seen as “tested or testable inferences” (p. 6). In this section I will discuss a number of examples of testing inferences about two specific tests. The first test is the Sentence Form Test (SFT), an objective, 20-item multiple choice test of English sentence form knowledge, which I developed as a supplement or alternative for English writing placement (Takagi, 2016). The underlying hypothesis was that sentence form knowledge is closely tied to general writing knowledge and ability; with this hypothesis in mind, test items were written to be incrementally more difficult, with item 1 the easiest, and item 20, the most difficult. Examples to be shown were derived from a small-scale study of scores of 50 university students beginning their sophomore English writing classes. In the one-hour English writing placement test, students took the timed, 20-minute SFT and then wrote a short essay. The SFT was scored quickly, and then four raters scored the essays (Two raters used a holistic rubric, and two used an analytic rubric that produced separate scores for organization, development, grammar, mechanics, and style. Both rubrics were scored on a 100-point scale.) The second test is the National Center Test for University Admissions, the high-stakes test of five subjects (with subtests): foreign language (usually English), Japanese, mathematics, science, and social studies. It was designed to be both a high school achievement test and a university entrance examination (National Center for University Examinations, 2013). Though, according to The Japan Times, the Ministry of Education has announced that it will likely replace the Center by about 2018 (“Unified College Entrance Test to be Replaced,” 2013), any problems found in using the test are still relevant because those responsible for creating the Center Test will apparently also be involved in creating the new test. That is, any problems found in the use of the Center might be repeated in the new test, if more care is not taken in the future. Examples to be shown regarding the Center Test are drawn from data used for an earlier study conducted in an English-medium, international university (Takagi, 2012). Following Bachman (2004), Messick (1989), and McNamara (2006), examples of types of validation evidence for use of the two tests focus on: analysis of test content; correlation of test scores with scores of other tests of the same ability; correlation of test scores with future performance; and evaluation of consequences of test use.

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Analysis of Test Content Traditionally, test content has been analyzed by experts in the field, in order to determine whether a test adequately covers the intended domain, and whether construct-irrelevant variance might be present. However, as Messick (1989) said, experts can also make mistakes or overlook problems in a test. Although this “line of evidence” is a good place to start, another kind of approach, Rasch analysis, provides much information about test content, as well as about processes that underlie test performance, another area that Messick said we must investigate. The Rasch model, first developed by the mathematician and statistician, Georg Rasch, is based on probability; as Bond and Fox (2007) said, “the probability of success” on a test item “depends on the ability of the person and the difficulty of the item” (p. 10). The model allows us to measure test items and persons on the same scale. Just as we want to measure physical items with the same ruler, we need one “ruler” for measuring people and test items. The Rasch model also gives indications of how well persons and items “fit” the model (necessary for good measurement). As Bond and Fox said, the variety of Rasch models now available provide the “closest generally accessible approximation” of “fundamental measurement principles for the human sciences” (p. 14). Figure 1 shows a variable map produced by Rasch analysis, of the content of the SFT. (The software used was Winsteps, Version 3.90.0, developed by J. M. Linacre.) On the right are the 20 items, with most difficult (item 16) at the top, and least difficult at the bottom of the map. On the left are the 50 students; the most able student (22) is at the top, and the least able students are at the bottom of the map. The variable map also shows how spread out both items and students are, and how well the items match the test takers. By examining this variable map, we can see the good news about test content, that test items are mostly a good match for the students, and there is a good spread of item difficulty. Ability levels of students are also spread out in a way that is useful for placement purposes. On the other hand, the theory behind the writing of test items did not completely pan out. Though items 4, 5, 8, and 9 are easier, and items 16 to 20 are more difficult, as intended, items 1 and 2 were considerably more difficult, and item 14, easier, than theorized. Despite this need to reconsider and revise items for level of difficulty, these results are positive validation evidence in that the test content is achieving its purpose, and generally working in a positive way to measure students. ───────────────────────────────────────── MEASURE KID - MAP - ITEM <more>│<rare> 4 ┼ │ 22 │ 3 ┼ │ │ Item16 2 03 T┼ 35 58 │T Item18 10 20 55 │ 1 01 S┼S Item2 Item20 26 36 57 │ Item19 Item6 05 21 23 24 32 56 69 70 │ Item17 0 04 06 08 34 60 61 66 M┼M Item1 Item12 02 │ Item11 Item13 Item15 Item3 Item7 07 09 12 13 16 18 28 29 59 68 │ Item10 Item8 Item9 -1 15 17 31 65 ┼S Item14 Item4 Item5 25 27 33 63 64 S│ 30 │T -2 11 14 62 ┼ <less>│<freq> ─────────────────────────────────────────

Figure 1. Variable map for person ability and item difficulty of the Sentence Form Test (SFT)

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Figure 2 shows what is called a bubble chart pathway plot; it is a representation of the fit of items of the SFT (specifically looking at “infit”). According to Bond and Fox (2007), fit statistics help us “to determine whether the item estimations may be held as meaningful quantitative summaries of the observations (i.e., whether each item contributes to the measurement of only one construct)” (p. 35). Acceptable fit is between -2 and +2 (p. 57). Items that are less than -2 “overfit,” or are too predictable, as when, for example, items are too predictably easy or difficult for the test takers; items above +2 “underfit,” or are unpredictable, as when test takers are guessing. Items that underfit affect the measurement in a negative way and should be examined and revised. In addition, the size of the circles in this plot is a reflection of error; larger circles reflect more error in the measurement. In the figure below, the results are generally positive regarding the fit of SFT items because most test items fit within the range of -2 and +2. However, we also can see that some items might need further examination. For example, we see that item 10, on the left, is too predictable, and one item on the right, item 20, is close to underfitting. In other words, item 20 should be examined and probably revised. In addition, the items at the top of the plot, 16 and 18, display relatively more error; therefore, these also should be examined for possible revision as well. In short, this line of validation evidence for the use of the SFT is mostly positive in that almost all items are contributing in a meaningful manner to measurement of one construct.

Figure 2. Item infit for SFT items As for the second test, the Center, it is practically impossible for independent researchers to obtain access to the data needed to examine test items in the manner just displayed because the data are regarded as highly confidential and guarded by both the testing bureaucracy in Japan and university admissions departments (Ito, 2005; Westrick, 2005). Correlation of Test Scores with Scores of Other Tests of the Same Ability The second type of evidence that we can gather in the validation process is correlation of test scores with scores of other tests of the same ability. In Table 1, an example of this kind of evidence is presented: correlations of the SFT with essay ratings. Because it was hypothesized that sentence form knowledge is closely tied to general writing knowledge and ability, the SFT scores and essay ratings were hypothesized to be correlated at approximately the same level; the results in Table 1 show that there is support for this hypothesis. All (unadjusted) correlations are large, according to Field (2005). These correlations are not by themselves sufficient evidence for our validation argument, but they constitute one line of evidence that supports using the SFT as a test of writing. ISSN 2188-6865

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We can also use other statistical approaches to examine the relationship of test scores with other tests of the same ability. For example, we can use principal components analysis or factor analysis, to examine underlying dimensions, and to determine whether the test scores â&#x20AC;&#x153;reflect a single variableâ&#x20AC;?or not (Field, 2005, p. 619). In other words, this technique allows us to examine our theory that an assortment of test scores are all related to a latent variable that we cannot measure directly. Structural equation modeling is another powerful statistical approach that can also be used to evaluate our theory that test scores are all related to one latent variable (Cohen, Cohen, West, & Aiken, 2003). In the case of the SFT, for example, we would look for evidence that the SFT scores and essay ratings are linked to one latent variable of writing knowledge and ability. Table 1. Intercorrelations of Holistic Essay Ratings, Analytic Essay Ratings, and SFT Scores Measure 1. Holistic Rater 1 2. Holistic Rater 2 3. Analytic Rater 1 4. Analytic Rater 2 5. SFT Note. *p < .01. N = 50.

1 --.83* .71* .69* .65*

--.60* .57* .57*

--.72* .63*

--.57*

Table 2 shows the results for a principal components analysis of all essay ratings and the SFT. The analysis resulted in one component, and an eigenvalue of 3.62, accounting for 72.31% of the variance. According to Armor (1974), any factor that accounts for 40 to 60% is a good solution; therefore, these results are favorable. In short, the essay ratings and SFT were fundamentally unidimensional, and seem to be tapping into the same construct of writing ability. Although a larger sample size would be preferable for principal components analysis, this line of validation evidence also supports using the SFT as a test of writing. Table 2. Factor Loadings from Principal Components Analysis of Essay Ratings and SFT: Communalities, Eigenvalue, and Percentage of Variance Course Holistic Rating 1 Holistic Rating 2 Analytic Essay Rating 1 Analytic Essay Rating 2 SFT % of variance

Component 1 .92 .84 .86 .83 .80 72.31

Communality .84 .71 .74 .69 .64

As for building a validation argument for the use of the Center Test, we can examine the relationship of Center subject tests with high school grades in the same subject area. Since the Center was designed to be a test of high school achievement, these Center subject tests and high school grades in the same subject should correlate strongly. The following are the correlations between the Center subject tests and their related high school grades (along with significance level and number of participants): Center English and high school English grade, r = .23, p < .0001, N = 303; Center Japanese and high school Japanese grade, r = .06, p is nonsignificant, N = 267; Center Social Studies and high school history grade, r = .20, p < .01, N = 214; Center Social Studies and high school civics grade, r = .11, p is nonsignificant, N = 212; Center Science and high school science grade, r = .03, p is nonsignificant, N = 156; and Center Math and high school math grade, r ISSN 2188-6865

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= .06, p is nonsignificant, N = 144. As already noted, these results were derived from a follow-up study with data used for an earlier study in an English-medium, international university (Takagi, 2012). These results lend very little support for the hypothesis that the Center is a test of high school achievement because four of the six correlations are not statistically significant. In the two cases when the correlations are significant, the size is small (Field, 2005). Therefore, this line of validation evidence for using the Center as a high school achievement test is generally very weak. We can also take a language testing perspective, and examine the correlations among the Center English test and other measures of English: the ITP TOEFL total scores (from a test done soon after the students entered university) and cumulative grades in a one- to three-semester-long university English for Academic Purposes (EAP) program. Since these are all measures of English ability and achievement, the correlation among the measures should be strong. The results are shown below in Table 3. The correlations all are statistically significant and range in size, from small to medium. These results lend some support to the hypothesis that all tests are tapping into the same construct of English ability and achievement; however, we must also consider alternative explanations. For example, the objective, multiple-choice testing method used and the listening sections included in the ITP TOEFL and the Center English Test were similar, and may account, at least in part, for the relatively larger size of this correlation. Messick (1989) said we must beware of the “ubiquitous problem of irrelevant test variance, especially method variance” (p. 7). Though such alternative explanations must be explored, there is some positive validation evidence for using the Center English test as a measure of English proficiency. Table 3. Intercorrelations of Center Test English Subject Test, High School English Grade, ITP TOEFL Total Score, and EAP Program Cumulative Grade Measure 1 2 3 4 1. Center English Test --2. High School English Grade .23* --3. ITP TOEFL Total Score .43* .20* --4. EAP Program Cumulative Grade .20* .32* .27* --Note. *p < .01. Scores are based on different numbers of students, depending on number available at the time the data were obtained, but the minimum N was 303. Correlation of Test Scores with Future Performance The third type of evidence that we can gather in building a validation argument is correlation of test scores with future performance. Of course, the quality of the measure of future performance is always an important issue to consider when evaluating this line of evidence. As for the SFT, it was not possible to gather data concerning future performance of students. Unfortunately, as is often the case, no data were gathered beyond initial placement of the students into English writing classes. In fact, as Fulcher (2015) said, language tests like the SFT are rarely used to predict future performance. However, TOEFL scores have been used successfully in a number of past studies in predicting later university grades (Takagi, 2012). Fox (2004) said that these predictive validity studies are often difficult to execute, but that there is need for more research in this area. As for the Center Test, it was possible to obtain correlations of subject scores with a measure of future performance, specifically grade point average (GPA) in the first year of university. A hierarchical multiple regression analysis was conducted with the data, to determine whether the Center Test subject scores predicted later grades in university. Since the second stated purpose of the Center was to be a university entrance test, these Center subject tests should predict later grades in university. As Zwick (2002) said, “the primary role of all admissions exams is essentially the same—to predict a candidate’s academic performance—usually defined in terms of ISSN 2188-6865

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first-year grade-point average” (p. 34). Because high school grade point average (HSGPA) is frequently found to be a significant predictor of later grades (Zwick, 2002), it was entered in the model first, and the Center Test subject scores were entered next, in order to determine if they could predict first-year GPA above and beyond the HSGPA. In Table 4, the correlations and partial correlations of HSGPA and the five Center Test subject tests with first-year university GPA are shown. While HSGPA has a medium, statistically significant correlation with first-year GPA, none of the Center subject test has a statistically significant correlation with first-year GPA. Table 5 shows the results of the hierarchical multiple regression analysis. Initially, HSGPA accounted for a significant amount of variability in first-year GPA in university, R2 = .13, F(1, 125) = 19.39, p < .0001. A second analysis was done to determine whether the Center subject test scores predicted first-year university GPA over and above HSGPA. These subject scores did not account for a statistically significant amount of variability in first-year university GPA, R2 change = .04, F(5, 120) = 1.28, p = .28. The results in Tables 4 and 5 lend no support for the hypothesis that the Center is an effective university entrance test because the subject tests do not predict students’ academic performance in the first year of university. This line of validation evidence does not support using the Center as a university entrance test. Table 4. The Bivariate and Partial Correlations for High School GPA and Center Test Subject Tests with First-Year GPA Predictor HSGPA Center English Test Center Japanese Test Center Social Studies Test Center Math Test Center Science Test Note. ** p < .0001. N = 127.

Correlation with First-Year GPA .37** .07 -.11 -.02 .10 .13

Partial correlation with First-Year GPA .37 .06 -.09 -.04 .17 .11

Table 5. Multiple Regression Results for Predicting First-Year GPA from HSGPA and Five Subject Tests of the Center Test B

SEB

Model 1 Constant 1.64 .34 HSGPA .35 .08 Model 2 Constant .85 .90 HSGPA .35 .08 Center English Test .002 .004 Center Japanese Test -.004 .004 Center Social Studies Test -.002 .004 Center Math Test .01 .003 Center Science Test .01 .004 Note. R2 = .13 for Model 1; R2 change = .04 for Model 2 (p = .28). **p < .0001. Evaluation of Consequences of Test Use

.37** .37** .06 -.08 -.04 .16 .11

The final type of evidence that we can gather in building a validation argument is derived from an evaluation of the consequences of test use. This type of evaluation has been, and still is, ISSN 2188-6865

The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

often neglected (Messick, 1989). There are a number of ways to evaluate consequences of test use. In the case of an English placement test, for example, because inappropriate class placement tends to have negative consequences for students, Fox (2004) suggested that teacher comments about the appropriateness of students’ class placement are needed. Student comments are also clearly needed, as well. These types of evidence seem an obvious need, but, in my experience in Japanese universities, they are rarely invited. Besides these two avenues, other possibilities exist for evaluating consequences for all stakeholders, for this and other kinds of tests, and much more should be done to obtain and evaluate this kind of evidence (Brown, 2008). Of the two tests discussed here, only evidence for the Center can be evaluated. As for the SFT, as is often the case in placement examinations, students were not asked to give their opinions about the test, nor were teachers. In the case of the Center, I have investigated students’ opinions over the last five years, by asking groups of students to write and talk about their experiences and reactions to the test. A number have written that the Center was a good test, and a good challenge for building their skills, and certainly, no student ever questioned the authority of the test. However, the majority of students wrote comments that mirrored the following: What we learn in my school was only for preparing the Center examination. All I had to do is studying for it and have good score in that exam. Teachers always say about Center exam because it is the most important exam to enter college. I thought it was just cramming in of knowledge. So it was nothing but pain for me. I was upset as the day of exam drawing near. So was everybody. Clearly, preparing for and taking the Center Test is typically a stressful experience for students. In addition, because students usually need to attain a particular minimum score on the Center in order to be eligible to sit the additional examination given by each university, students who cannot attain this minimum score lose the chance to take the second examination. The consequence is that students either study for an additional year and then retake the Center the following year (since the test is given only once each year), or enter other universities that are not their first choices. In either case, it is easy to imagine that consequences for students can be life-altering. Considering the lack of validation evidence for the Center as a university entrance test, such consequences are untenable. The Center is not what Brown (2008) would call a “stakeholder-friendly” test (p. 307). CONCLUSION The purpose of this paper has been to discuss validity, what Messick (1989) called the “only genuine imperative in testing” (p. 11), and the necessity of gathering and evaluating validation evidence for our tests. Through analysis of test content, correlation of test scores with scores of other tests of the same ability, correlation of test scores with future performance, and evaluation of consequences of test use, the SFT, a small test that is in development, and the National Center Test were examined in light of available evidence. The validity evidence for the SFT was mostly positive in supporting its use as a test of English writing. As for the Center, the lines of evidence from available data via correlations, hierarchical multiple regression, and evaluation of consequences of test use, did not support using the Center as a university entrance test. Validation evidence for use of the Center as a high school achievement test was also weak. On the other hand, there was some positive validation evidence for using the Center English test as a measure of English proficiency. Despite being a widely accepted test in Japan, this examination of the Center Test revealed problems. Evaluating our tests step by step by examining the lines of evidence discussed above can be time consuming and sometimes difficult, but what is the alternative? As Fulcher (2015) said, ideas underlying our testing practices can become “dormant” and “sleep” as we create tests that are used for important decisions; as a result, testing can become “an end in itself,” and we can forget how important the opportunities are that are tied to these tests we make (p. ix). Without gathering and evaluating validation evidence for our tests we can easily reach the place where we accept ISSN 2188-6865

The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan

“contingently useful score interpretations and uses that are potentially unethical” (p. 111). All of us involved with testing in any capacity have the responsibility to learn more and do more to ensure that our tests are used in a valid manner, for the sake of those who bear the brunt of the consequences. REFERENCES Armor, D. J. (1974). Theta reliability and factor scaling, Sociological Methodology, 5, 17-50. Bachman, L. F. (2004). Statistical analyses for language assessment. Cambridge: CUP. Bond, T. G. & Fox, C. M. (2007). Applying the Rasch model: Fundamental measurement in the human sciences. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Brown, J. D. (1996). English language entrance examinations in Japan: Problems and solutions. Proceedings of the JALT 1995 conference, Nagoya, Japan, 272-283. Brown, J. D., & Yamashita, S. O. (1995). English language entrance examinations at Japanese universities: 1993 and 1994. In J. D. Brown & S. O. Yamashita (Eds.), Language testing in Japan (pp. 86-106). Tokyo: Japan Association for Language Teaching. Brown, J. D. (2008). Testing-context analysis: Assessment is just another part of language curriculum development. Language Assessment Quarterly, 5(4), 275-312. Cohen, J., Cohen, P., West, S. G., & Aiken, L. S. (2003). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences (3rd ed.). Mahwah, N. J.: Erlbaum. Field, A. (2005). Discovering statistics using SPSS (2nd ed.). London: Sage. Fox, J. (2004). Test decisions over time: Tracking validity. Language Testing, 21(4), 437-465. Fulcher, G. (2015). Testing: A philosophical and social inquiry. London: Routledge. Ito, A. (2005). A validation study on the English language test in a Japanese nationwide university entrance examination. The Asian EFL Journal Quarterly, 7(2), 90-116. Kikuchi, K. (2006). Revisiting English entrance examinations at Japanese universities after a decade. JALT Journal, 28(1), 77-96. Linacre, J.M. (2015). Winsteps® (Version 3.91.0) [Computer Software]. Beaverton, Oregon: Winsteps.com. Retrieved January 1, 2015. Available from http://www.winsteps.com/ McNamara, T. (2006). Validity in language testing: The challenge of Sam Messick’s legacy. Language Assessment Quarterly, 3(1), 31-51. Messick, S. (1975). The standard problem: Meaning and values in measurement and evaluation. American Psychologist, 30, 955-966. Messick, S. (1989). Meaning and values in test validation: The science and ethics of assessment. Educational Researcher, 18(2), 5-11. Murphey, T. (2001). Nonmeritorious features of the entrance exam system in Japan. The Language Teacher, 25(10), 1-4. National Center for University Examinations. (2013). Retrieved December 31, 2015, from: http://www.dnc.ac.jp/albums/abm.php?f=abm00001486.pdf&n=%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6%E5%85%A5 %E8%A9%A6%E3%82%BB%E3%83%B3%E3%82%BF%E3%83%BC%E8%A6%81%E9%A0%85%EF% BC%88English%EF%BC%89.pdf Takagi, K. K. (2012). Predicting academic success in a Japanese international university. Ann Arbor: UMI. Takagi, K. K. (2016). Writing assessment in university entrance examinations: The case for indirect assessment. Manuscript submitted for publication. Unified college entrance test to be replaced. (2013, June). The Japan Times. Retrieved August 1, 2015, from http://www.japantimes.co.jp/tag/national-center-test/ Westrick, P. (2005). Score reliability and placement testing. JALT Journal, 27(1), 71-93. Wilson, M. (2005). Constructing measures: An item response modeling approach. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Zwick, R. (2002). Fair game? The use of standardized admissions tests in higher education. New York: RoutledgeFalmer.

ISSN 2188-6865

The Second Asian Symposium on Education, Equity and Social Justice EQUIS 2015 Proceedings

ISSN 2188-6865

December 20-22, 2015 Hiroshima, Japan