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has been blending ethanol into gasoline since 1975, and Brazilian carmakers have adapted their gasoline engines to run smoothly with this range of mixtures, while in Nigeria they have not. We do know that this scandal made a lot of people in Nigeria very angry. The Department of Petroleum Resources (DPR) was forced to act, demanding that the poor quality gasoline be sent back to Amsterdam. Oando in turn stated that it would sue Gunvor, accusing the trader of concealing the ethanol content in the fuel.85 Gunvor responded in the media and to us, stating that the facts reported were incorrect, that the gasoline had been controlled during loading in Amsterdam and delivery in Lagos, and that it had complied with quality specifications set out in the contract between Gunvor and the Nigerian buyer.86 Asked to respond to specific questions on this old case, Gunvor stated to us that the ethanol was not the problem but blamed the importer in Nigeria for improper storage that “caused the product to be mixed with water and mud, among other contaminants, which resulted in the issue with the cars.” The E20 gasoline was shipped back to OTA in Amsterdam. According to our source, who was close to the case, Dutch pro secutors charged OTA for violation of the EU’s Waste Shipment Regulation by illegally importing waste but neglecting to notify the competent authorities. It is not clear to us why the terminal, and not Gunvor as owner of the waste fuel, was charged. However, the case on OTA was reportedly settled and no more details are available. We do not know what happened to the batch of E20 gasoline. Gunvor confirmed to us that it had provided information to the Dutch authorities but that it had “effectively demonstrated our compliance with all regulations. Neither Gunvor nor its traders have been found guilty of any violation and no fines were imposed on Gunvor.” 10.3.4 – CHEMICAL CONTAMINATION BY MANGANESE: A CONTROVERSIAL ALTERNATIVE FOR LEAD
Sometimes chemicals are intentionally mixed into fuels in the form of additives – not as a cheap blendstock but to improve the performance or quality of the product. For decades, lead was added to gasoline to increase the octane level, for example. But scientists identified leaded gasoline as a major health and environmental hazard, and a campaign by UNEP and The Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles (PCFV), which began in 2002, eventually led to a near global ban that has been in effect ever since.87 Achim Steiner, UNEP executive director, commented in 2011 on the near global phase out of leaded gasoline: “This will go down in history as one of the major environmental achievements of the past few decades.” But, he added, the cleaner fuel effort still has a long way to go. He was referring to other hazardous vehicle emissions, including the unacceptably sulphurous fuels still being sold in African countries.88 The phasing out of lead additives did not happen smoothly, however. Some still put commercial interests before human health. Between 2000 and 2008, executives from Octel – which subsequently changed its name to Innospec – bribed officials in Iraq and Indonesia millions of dollars to allow the continued
sale of leaded gasoline, even after it was banned from western countries on health grounds.89 The executives were subsequently convicted by US and British courts between 2010 and 2014. But Iraq still allows leaded gasoline. As the regulations restricting the use of lead came into force, a controversial alternative additive, an octane enhancer called Methylcyclopentadienyl Manganese Tricarbonyl (MMT), emerged, that we also found in several of our samples (see chapter 6). MMT is produced by Afton Chemical Corporation (formerly Ethyl Corporation) – the company that, for decades, produced a controversial lead additive (tetraethyl).90 According to the producer, MMT can be used in very small amounts, increases octane in an environmentally friendly and cost effective manner, and poses no risks to human health.91 But MMT is based on the heavy metal manganese, a neurotoxin. When burned in gasoline, MMT releases particles such as manganese phosphates, manganese sulphates and manganese oxides into the air. When inhaled, these compounds enter the bloodstream through the lungs and deliver dangerous doses of manganese to the brain. Accumulation of this element can lead to Parkinson’s disease-like symptoms, including loss of motor control, memory loss, and erratic behaviour.92 As with lead, this additive raises serious concerns for public health. In 2009, the European Union effectively banned MMT in European gasoline. As shown in chapter 6, the current maximum level of MMT in Europe makes its use uneconomical and it is not used anymore in European fuels. In the US, manganese is prohibited in reformulated gasoline (which comprises 60 percent of US fuel supply), while the state of California bans it outright.93 According to Paul Deelen, it’s possible that manganese additives are used to increase the octane level of gasolines destined for the African market.94 Indeed, none of the ten African countries, where we took samples, bans manganese in gasoline. Only Ghana restricts manganese to a maximum 18 mg per litre. This is the level recommended by Afton Chemical.95 And two gasoline samples from Senegal and Côte d’Ivoire showed high levels of manganese (see chapter 6). While ARA countries have de facto banned the use of MMT in their own gasoline, MMT is surely added to gasoline intended for other destinations. We found for example Afton Chemical’s HiTEC 3062 on Hazardous Components Lists collected from tank terminals in Amsterdam (see chapter 11). According to Afton Chemical’s website, its HiTEC ® 3000 Series of products all contain MMT, which enables the delivery of economic and on-specification gasoline – whatever the octane target. “That’s why 150 refineries and blenders in 53 countries are happy to use our solutions.”96 According to the ICCT, MMT is not widely used in western countries, but it is being marketed heavily in developing nations as a convenient and low-cost lead replacement. Afton does not publish the list of countries where its product is sold, and there is no data publicly available to show what volume of MMT is being channelled to Africa.97