Technical and Vocational Education and Training as a Framework for Social Justice
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traditions it is very much oriented to boys rather than girls, though some apprenticeship training does take place in female dominated trades such as hairdressing and embroidery. While the training agreement is governed by informal rules, a lack of formal regulation and certification means that apprentices usually do not gain standardised skills. Moreover, the quality of training varies greatly depending on the pedagogical skills of the master craftsperson, with some having secondary or vet education, and with others having far more basic education. (International Labour Organization, 2013b, section 7.2 p. 5)
King (1989, p. 3) found that important educators of workers in the informal economy were ‘backstreet colleges’ which operated similarly to informal economic units. The International Labour Conference (2015) adopted several recommendations to support a transition from the informal to the formal economy, and the International Labour Office (2018, p. 51) added that ‘training and skills development are essential contributing factors for the transition to the formal economy’. It found that informal employment was related to low levels of education (International Labour Office, 2018, p. 52). Oketch (2007, p. 233) recommended that tvet increase its contribution to the informal economy by increasing its links to the informal economy. The International Labour Organization (2013b, section 7.2 p. 4) notes that public vocational education and training systems have often been established to serve the needs of the formal economy and ‘tend to require significant prior education including literacy, numeracy and high school education, thus marginalising a large section of the poor from entry’. Other obstacles to people in the formal economy accessing formal tvet are fees and income lost while training. The ilo (2013b, section 7.2 pp. 10, 11-12, 13) notes that apprentices may need financial support such as training subsidies and transport allowances.
Implications of Case Studies
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