Journal of the Louisiana Association for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance

Journal of the Louisiana Association for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance FALL 2021 VOLUME 85 | NUMBER 1

Louisiana Association for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance www.lahperd.org

Journal of the Louisiana Association for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance FALL 2021 VOLUME 85 | NUMBER 1 CONTENTS REFEREED PAPERS................................................................................................................................. 1 Exercise Motivation of Attendees in a Senior Adult Fitness Program ....................................................................1 YuChun Chen, Western Kentucky University Louisiana High School Students’ Physical Education Attendance Frequency ........................................................7 Jaehun Jung, Northwestern State University of Louisiana LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................................ 14 Caffeine Consumption: A Literature Review ........................................................................................................14 Victoria Ardoin and Courtney Huck Hebert, McNeese State University INVITED PAPER ................................................................................................................................... 18 Your Final Answer: So You Still Want to Be a Coach? ........................................................................................18 Brad Strand, North Dakota State University and Former President of the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance (currently SHAPE America) ADS AWARDS’ CRITERIA JOURNAL SUBMISSION GUIDELINES MINI-GRANT APPLICATION EDITORIAL BOARD Editor: Dan Denson, McNeese State University (Retired) Layout Designer: Dustin Hebert, Louisiana Tech University Wynn Gillan, Southeastern Louisiana University; Bob Kelly, Southern University; Ron Byrd, Louisiana State University at Shreveport; Susan Lyman, University of Louisiana at Lafayette; Hans Leis, Louisiana College CONTRIBUTING EDITORS Millie Naquin, Southeastern Louisiana University; YuChun “Jean” Chen, Western Kentucky University; Brad Strand, North Dakota State University

Journal of the Louisiana Association for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance

REFEREED PAPERS EXERCISE MOTIVATION OF ATTENDEES IN A SENIOR ADULT FITNESS PROGRAM YuChun Chen Western Kentucky University Abstract Despite the various health benefits, many adults age 50 years and older still do not participate in physical activities outside of their regular jobs. An alarming report conducted in 2014 revealed that Louisiana held a 34% prevalence of inactivity among adults age 50 years and older, which stood number 5 in the nation. To change the status quo, physical educators and health professionals are on a mission to encourage adults to establish and maintain a healthy, physically active lifestyle by adhering to an exercise program. Previous research, although limited, has suggested that senior adults who exercise regularly were motivated by reasons such as enjoyment, appearance, fitness, physical and psychological health, individualized care and social engagement. The purpose of the study, therefore, was to examine participation motives and reasons for exercising regularly among individuals attending a senior adult fitness program. Sixty-two participants age 55 to 94 years (M = 69.38; SD = 9.145) completed the second version of exercise motivations inventory in the fall of 2015.

Descriptive statistics, an independent-samples t test, and a Welch’s t test were used to analyze the data.

The results supported previous research that senior adults were motivated to exercise for the health reasons. Other findings, limitations and future research directions are discussed.

Keywords: exercise motivation, senior adults, intrinsic regulation, extrinsic regulation Introduction Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2019) recommends older adults to maintain “at least 150 minutes a week of moderate intensity activity such as brisk walking” and “at least 2 days a week of activities that strengthen muscles” with VOL. 85, NO. 1

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some “activities to improve balance such as standing on one foot” (p. 1). There are many health benefits associated with regular physical activity, including, but not limited to, controlling weight, reducing the risks of cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome, and some cancers, strengthening bones and muscles, improving mental health and mood, enhancing the ability to do daily activities, and increasing the chances of living a longer and better quality life (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2017).

Despite these benefits, 27.5% of adults age 50 years and older are still inactive as they do not participate in physical activities or exercises other than performing their regular jobs (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2016). According to a selfreported survey, the state of Louisiana stands the fifth (34%) highest prevalence of inactivity among adults 50 years and older after Arkansas’s 38.8%, Mississippi’s 35.6%, and Kentucky and Oklahoma’s 34.8% (Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, 2014). Physical educators and health professionals should take these alarming reports seriously and do something beneficial to change the status quo.

Literature Review There are many theories explaining reasons why individuals participate in exercise, and one of the driving forces behind this particular human behavior is motivation. According to the selfdetermination theory, people may exercise for their inherent interest and enjoyment (i.e., intrinsic motivation – intrinsic regulation), they may exercise because it is congruent with their values and life goals (i.e., extrinsic motivation – integrated regulation), because it is important for them to make the effort to do so on a regular basis (i.e., extrinsic motivation – identified regulation), because they feel anxious, ashamed or guilty when they do not (i.e., extrinsic motivation – introjected regulation) or because their family/friends say they should (i.e., extrinsic motivation – external regulation), or they may not have the intention to exercise at all (i.e., amotivation – non-regulation) (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000). Many exercise-specific measures of motivation find their roots in this self-determination theory, and one of FALL 2021

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the most commonly used measures is the Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire (BREQ). Mullan et al. (1997) made their first attempt at developing the 15-item BREQ to tap four behavioral regulations (i.e., external, introjected, identified and intrinsic). With the intention to surpass the limitation in accessing the full spectrum of behavioral regulations, Markland and Tobin (2004) revised the questionnaire (i.e., BREQ-2) with four additional items on the amotivation factor.

The inability to access the integrated regulation prompted the creation of BREQ-3, which is a 24item instrument with four statements under each of the six regulation factors (Wilson et al., 2006).

Using the BREQ-2, the 20 South Korean senior adults in Lee et al. (2016) study indicated identified regulation as the highest ranked motivator to exercise, followed by intrinsic motivation, introjected regulation and extrinsic regulation.

After the 13-month exercise program, intrinsic motivation appeared to be the most motivated factor for the same group of senior adults, followed by identified regulation, introjected regulation, and extrinsic regulation (Lee et al., 2016). Also using BREQ-2 to collect data, Pelssers et al. (2018) investigated the association between the social identity’s norm and autonomous motivation among 409 senior adults in Belgium and found that those who perceived themselves as older adults were more autonomously motivated to exercise because exercising was an identified norm in that particular society for the age group. Research on the exercise motivation of senior adults, although limited, suggests that identified regulation is a fairly strong motivator for senior adults to exercise. In other words, this conscious value of regular exercise may more likely to cause this extrinsically motivated behavior than any other reasons.

Using more specific reasons for participants to identify their exercise motivations, Stiggelbout et al.

(2008) listed 16 different motivators (i.e., appearance, peer contact, acceptance by others, challenge, exercising together, health, fitness, weight reduction, quality of the instructor, social contact, self-esteem, recreation, pleasure, relaxation, doctor’s advice, and competition) and asked for yes/no answers. After using the principal component analysis to reduce the 16 motivators to three motivational categories, they found that VOL. 85, NO. 1

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“relax-and-enjoy exercisers were more often widowed and had a lower education, care-and-cure exercisers had a higher body mass index and worse general health, and competition exercisers were less often obese, had a higher education, and were more often male” (Stiggelbout et al., 2008, p. 348). Using the same approach to identify specific exercise motivations, a consensus was found that senior adults who exercise regularly were motivated by reasons such as enjoyment, appearance, fitness, physical and psychological health, individualized care and social engagement, and that those who did not exercise were defeated by personal laziness and unpleasant exercise experience (Jones et al., 2020; Kirkland et al., 2011; Resnick et al., 2006; Schuler et al., 2004).

It is evident that there is limited research on exercise motivations of senior adults, and yet it is important for them to be physical active on a regular basis. Understanding what really motivates this group of individuals to participate in exercise regularly could potentially help lower the prevalence of inactivity among senior adults in the community and increase their health, fitness and quality of life. Results from the present study may help physical educators and health professionals have better directions on creating meaningful marketing plans to recruit members for their programs and also have better ideas on improving daily operations to retain current members as they continue to exercise within their programs. The purpose of this study, therefore, was to examine participation motives and reasons for exercising regularly among individuals attending a senior adult fitness program.

Methods Instrument Drawn from Deci and Ryan’s (1985) selfdetermination theory and revised from Markland and Hardy’s (1993) original exercise motivations inventory (EMI), the second version of the EMI (EMI-2) (Markland & Ingledew, 1997) was used to collect data for its specific motivation factors that are lacking in the different versions of BREQ (Markland & Tobin, 2004; Mullan et al., 1997; Wilson et al., 2006). The EMI-2 consists of 51 FALL 2021

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statements, which are arranged in a random order representing 14 different motivation factors (i.e., stress management, revitalisation, enjoyment, challenge, social recognition, affiliation, competition, health pressures, ill-health avoidance, positive health, weight management, appearance, strength & endurance, and nimbleness). Responders are instructed, whether they are currently exercise regularly or not, to indicate why they personally choose to exercise or may choose to exercise on a six-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (not at all true for me) to 5 (very true for me). The questionnaire also includes two general demographic questions: age and gender.

Data Collection The senior adult fitness program was operated under the Department of Kinesiology at a regional university in the southeastern United States. The program offered three chair/floor exercise classes at 7 a.m., 8 a.m. and 9 a.m., two water aerobics classes at 7 a.m. and 8 a.m., one bowling class at 8 a.m., and one high-intensity fitness class at 5 p.m. three times a week for 10 weeks. All classes were designed specifically for individuals age 55 years and older. The researcher visited each class three times during the fall of 2015 and presented the study to the attendees in the beginning of the class.

Those who showed interest and gave consent to participate in the study were given a hardcopy of the EMI-2 and a pen to complete the questionnaire.

On average, it took the participants approximately 15 minutes to complete the two-page, double-sided questionnaire.

Participants A total of 66 questionnaires were collected from the seven classes. After reviewing for completeness and usability of the responses, two participants did not complete the other side (the back) of the questionnaire and another two marked the same response to each item (straight-lining) (Herzog & Bachman, 1981), so these four were dropped from the study. A total of 62 completed questionnaires remained; however, two of the participants (3.2%) chose not to disclose their age and gender. The sample subsequently included 13 (21.0%) male and VOL. 85, NO. 1

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47 (75.8%) female adults age 55 to 94 years (M = 69.38; SD = 9.145).

Data Analysis The EMI-2 responses of the participants were entered and analyzed in SPSS. As per Markland and Ingledew’s (1997) instruction, a mean score for each of the 14 motivation factors from the appropriate three (or four) statements was computed as the initial step. Descriptive statistics of the 14 motivation factors were then utilized to describe the overall ranking and the rankings by age and gender.

Furthermore, two additional tests were conducted to detect any significant differences in the 14 motivation factors by age and gender. Due to the small sample size, the age range was divided into two groups, with 31 (50.0%) participants age 69 years and younger, and 29 (46.8%) participants age 70 years and older. The age range division was determined based on the nearest whole number of the mean (i.e., 69.38 years). An independentsamples t test was utilized to compare the means of the two age groups for statistical significance. Since the variances were far from equal in the gender variable, a Welch’s t test was used to examine any significant differences in the two groups. The significant level was set at p  .05 for both tests.

Findings and Discussion Table 1 illustrates the means and standard deviations of the 14 motivation factors as the entire sample group, by the two age groups, and by the two gender groups. Positive Health appeared to be the highest-ranking motivation factor across the board, ranging from a mean score of 4.38 by the male participants to 4.65 by the 69-years-andyounger age group and the female participants. In congruence with previous research (Jones et al., 2020; Kirkland et al., 2011; Resnick et al., 2006; Schuler et al., 2004), the participants in this study valued the health benefits of being physical active and perceived it as the top-rated motivation factor to maintain regular exercise. Also applying to all sample groups, Ill-Health Avoidance and Nimbleness were the second and third highest rated motivation factors. The rankings were altered between the two by different sample groups; the 69FALL 2021

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Table 1 Means and Standard Deviations of Motivation Factors ≤ 69 years ≥ 70 years Male Female (N = 31) (N = 29) (N = 13) (N = 47) EMI-2 Factors M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD Stress Management 3.00 1.278 3.12 1.070 2.88 1.478 2.68 1.303 3.09 1.271 Revitalisation 3.95 .870 3.82 .802 4.09 .930 3.77 .672 4.00 .917 Enjoyment 3.53 1.308 3.34 1.394 3.74 1.200 3.67 .939 3.49 1.399 Challenge* 2.76 1.194 2.46 1.211 3.07 1.109 2.83 .898 2.74 1.271 Social Recognition 1.00 1.086 0.86 .888 1.15 1.264 1.30 1.145 0.92 1.067 Affiliation 2.86 1.352 2.55 1.274 3.19 1.375 2.74 1.592 2.89 1.295 Competition* 1.43 1.285 0.99 .951 1.91 1.435 2.12 1.394 1.24 1.201 Health Pressures# 2.52 1.411 2.51 1.240 2.52 1.596 1.76 1.382 2.73 1.359 Ill-Health Avoidance# 4.43 .658 4.37 .663 4.49 .658 4.08 .683 4.52 .625 Positive Health 4.59 .535 4.65 .455 4.55 .613 4.38 .559 4.65 .520 Weight Management# 3.62 1.241 3.73 1.112 3.51 1.378 2.91 1.212 3.82 1.187 Appearance# 2.79 1.322 2.63 1.291 2.96 1.357 2.29 .847 2.93 1.402 Strength & Conditioning 4.21 .809 4.18 .677 4.23 .943 3.96 .805 4.27 .806 Nimbleness 4.43 .742 4.33 .710 4.54 .774 4.18 .715 4.50 .742 Note. *Significant difference between the age groups, p  .05; #significant difference between the gender groups, p  .05; scale from 0 (not at all true for me) to 5 (very true for me).

Overall

years-and-younger age group and the female participants indicated that avoiding health problems was a more motivated reason to exercise regularly than staying/becoming more agile/flexible, while the other three sample groups revealed the opposite.

Social Recognition, on the other hand, was rated as the least motivated factor, ranging from a mean score of 0.86 by the 69-years-and-younger age group to 1.30 by the male participants. Apparently, gaining recognition from others for their accomplishments was fairly low in motivating this group of senior adults to exercise regularly.

Competition and Health Pressures were the other two bottom rated motivation factors. The former was ranked the second last motivation factor across the board except for the male participants (who rated Health Pressure as their second last), and the latter was ranked number 12 by all sample groups except for the 69-years-and-younger age group (who rated Challenge as the #12) and the male participants (who rated Competition as the #12).

Obviously, defeating others in any form of physical activity and health issues/family health history did not seem to be appealing reasons that prompted them to exercise regularly.

An independent-samples t test comparing the means of the two age groups found significant differences in Challenge (t(58) = -2.037, p = .046) VOL. 85, NO. 1

and Competition (t(58) = -2.941, p = .005). The mean scores of the 70-years-and-older age group were significantly higher than the mean scores of the 69-years-and-younger age group in both motivation factors (Table 1). It was evident that the older participants were more motivated to exercise regularly by their competitive nature than the younger ones.

A Welch’s t test comparing the means of the two gender groups found significant differences in Health Pressures (t(18.924) = -2.249, p = .037), IllHealth Avoidance (t(17.951) = -2.132, p = .047), Weight Management (t(18.861) = -2.408, p = .026), and Appearance (t(32.254) = -2.051, p = .048). The female participants rated significantly higher in all four motivation factors than their male counterparts (see Table 1). The test results revealed that health and appearance were more significant motivators for the female senior adults in the present study to exercise regularly than the males.

Conclusions The purpose of the study was to examine exercise motivations of individuals attending a senior adult fitness program. Sixty-two (13 males and 47 females with two chose not to answer the two general demographic questions) participants FALL 2021

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age 55 to 94 years (M = 69.38; SD = 9.145) gave consent and completed the EMI-2 before their respective classes in the fall of 2015. Descriptive statistics revealed that Positive Health, Ill-Health Avoidance and Nimbleness were the top three ranked motivational factors while Social Recognition, Competition and Health Pressures were the bottom three. In addition, the independentsamples t test indicated that the order age group was significantly more motivated by the Challenge and Competition factors to exercise regularly than the younger group. Lastly, the Welch’s t test showed that Health Pressures, Ill-Health Avoidance, Weight Management, and Appearance had significantly higher impact on motivating the female participants to exercise regularly than their male counterparts.

It is important to understand what motivates an individual to exercise because such motive(s) serves as the driving force for him/her to establish a routine and ultimately maintain a healthy, physically active lifestyle. In this study, the senior adults tended to exercise for the health reasons, which echoed what was found in the literature (Jones et al., 2020; Kirkland et al., 2011; Resnick et al., 2006; Schuler et al., 2004). It is always a good idea for physical educators and health professionals who serve the older population in the allied-health field to acknowledge the trend, so that they could design a better program for retention and recruitment purposes.

The study was limited to 62 participants age 55 to 94 years one senior adult fitness program.

Recruiting more senior adults who exercise regularly in a variety of settings could potentially increase validity and power of the results. Besides, the data were collected in the Fall season of the year. Had the senior adults completed the questionnaire in the winter and/or springtime of the year, the analyses might yield different results.

Future research with data collected from the same group of individuals during different times of the year may produce interesting results. Lastly, further investigation on the exercise motivation of senior adults using qualitative research methods may help researchers and practitioners find more effective ways to encourage this group of individuals to adhere to an exercise program for the long-term physical and quality of life benefits.

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References Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System.

(2014). 2013 Codebook report: Land-line and cell-phone data. https://www.cdc.gov/brfss/annual_data/2013/pd f/CODEBOOK13_LLCP.pdf Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2016).

Physical inactivity among adults 50 years and older. https://www.cdc.gov/physicalactivity/inactivityamong-adults-50plus/mmwr-data-highlights.pdf Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2017).

Benefits of physical activity. https://www.cdc.gov/physicalactivity/basics/pahealth/index.htm Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2019).

Physical activity recommendations for different age groups. https://www.cdc.gov/physicalactivity/basics/pdf s/FrameworkGraphicV11.pdf Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. Plenum Press.

Herzog, A. R., & Bachman, J. G. (1981). Effects of questionnaire length on response quality. Public Opinion Quarterly, 45(4), 549-559.

Jones, S. A., Alicea, S. K., & Ortega, J. D. (2020).

A self-determination theory approach for exercise motivation in rural dwelling older adults. Activity, Adaptation & Aging, 44(1), 2441.

Kirkland, R. A., Karlin, N. J., Stellino, M. B., & Pulos, S. (2011). Basic psychological needs satisfaction, motivation, and exercise in older adults. Activity, Adaptation & Aging, 35(3), 181-196.

Lee, M., Kim, M. J., Suh, D., Kim, J., Jo, E., & Yoon, B. (2016). Feasibility of a selfdetermination theory-based exercise program in community-dwelling South Korean older adults: Experiences from a 13-month trial. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 24, 8-21.

Markland, D., & Hardy, L. (1993). The exercise motivations inventory: Preliminary development and validity of a measure of individuals' reasons for participation in regular physical exercise.

Personality and Individual Differences, 15, 289296.

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Markland, D., & Ingledew, D. K. (1997). The measurement of exercise motives: Factorial validity and invariance across gender of a revised Exercise Motivations Inventory. British Journal of Health Psychology, 2, 361-376.

Markland, D., & Tobin, V. (2004). A modification to the behavioural regulation in exercise questionnaire to include an assessment of amotivation. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 26(2), 191-196.

Mullan, E., Markland, D., & Ingledew, D. K. (1997). A graded conceptualisation of selfdetermination in the regulation of exercise behaviour: Development of a measure using confirmatory factor analytic procedures.

Personality and individual Differences, 23(5), 745-752.

Pelssers, J., Hurkmans, E., Scheerder, J., Vanbeselaere, N., Vos, S., Smits, T., & Boen, F. (2018). Acting one’s age in physical exercise: Do perceived age norms explain autonomous motivation among older adults? Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 26, 521-529.

Resnick, B., Vogel, A., & Luisi, D. (2006).

Motivating minority older adults to exercise.

Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 12, 17-29.

Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Selfdetermination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 6878.

Schuler, P. B., Broxon-Hutcherson, A., Philipp, S. F., Ryan, S., Isosaari, R. M., & Robinson, D. (2004). Body-shape perceptions in older adults and motivations for exercise. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 98, 1251-1260.

Stiggelbout, M., Hopman-Rock, M., & van Mechelen, W. (2008). Entry correlates and motivations of older adults participating in organized exercise programs. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 16, 342-354.

Wilson, P. M., Rogers, W. T., Rodgers, W. M., & Wild, T. C. (2006). The psychological need satisfaction in exercise scale. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 28(3), 231-251.

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LOUISIANA HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS’ PHYSICAL EDUCATION ATTENDANCE FREQUENCY Jaehun Jung Northwestern State University of Louisiana Abstract Physical education (PE) can provide meaningful time spent in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity for school-aged children and adolescents. However, information regarding Louisiana high school students’ PE attendance remains unclear. Therefore, the purposes of this study were (a) to describe PE attendance of high school students in Louisiana and (b) to investigate the relationships between Louisiana high school students’ PE attendance and their demographic characteristics. A secondary analysis using data from the High School Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS) 2019 dataset was employed. The analytic sample included 1305 high school students in Louisiana.

Prevalence estimates of Louisiana high school students’ PE attendance frequency were calculated.

Multiple regressions were conducted to investigate the impacts of demographic characteristics on Louisiana high school students’ PE attendance. The study results indicated that high school students in Louisiana attend PE classes for averaged 2.88 (95% CI [2.76, 3]) days per week. Only grade level was identified as statistically significant predictors for Louisiana high school students’ PE attendance frequency. Considering the potential contributions of PE classes to promote physically active lifestyle, more legislative efforts will be needed.

Introduction Physical activity (PA) is essential for all-aged individuals (Piercy et al., 2018). For school-aged adolescents, the benefits of regularly engaging in PA have been well documented. First, regular engagement in PA is positively associated with anxiety, depression symptoms (McDowell et al., 2017), and well-being (McMahon et al., 2017) among adolescents. Adolescents also benefit improved physical health including improved bone health, weight status, cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness, and cardio-metabolic health by VOL. 85, NO. 1

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regularly engaging in PA (Piercy et al., 2018).

Improved cognition and school achievement were also associated with regular engagement in PA among adolescents (Martin et al., 2018). Despite of these identified PA benefits, significant proportion of adolescents in the U.S. are physically inactive.

According to Morbidity and Mortality report written

by Centers for Disease Control (CDC), only 23.2% of high school students across the U.S. had been physically active for ≥60 minutes/day on all 7 days (Merlo et al., 2020). In the same dataset, only 21% of high school students in Louisiana had been physically active for ≥60 minutes/day on all 7 days.

About 56.4 million students are projected to attend elementary, middle, and high schools across the U.S. (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2019). School-aged children and adolescents spend averaged 35 hours per a week, thus these school hours are a crucial part of their life (Hardy et al., 2011). Due to the accessibilities to almost every children and adolescents, schools have been considered as the most efficient vehicles to promote physically active lifestyle for school-aged children and adolescents (Hills et al., 2015). Physical education (PE) is an academic subject taught in most schools in the U.S., and it has the potential to contribute substantially to recommended levels of moderate-to-vigorous PA (Booth et al., 2015). It was reported that PE programs contributed 12 min of moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) within a 30 min lesson (Wickel & Eisenmann, 2007).

Society of Health and Physical Educators (SHAPE) America proposes comprehensive school PA program (CSPAP). CSPAP is a multicomponent approach aiming to provide all opportunities for students to be physically active, meet the national guideline of 60 minutes of PA each day, and build the knowledge, skills, and confidence to be physically active for a lifetime (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2015). The components of CSPAP include PE, PA before and after school, PA during school, family and community engagement, and staff involvement (CDC, 2017). Among the components, SHAPE America designates PE as the foundation of CSPAP (Beighle & Moore, 2012). The role of PE in CSPAP is to deliver a planned sequential K-12 standardbased program of curricula and instruction designed to develop motor skills, knowledge, and behaviors FALL 2021

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for healthy active living, physical fitness, sportsmanship, self-efficacy, and emotional intelligence (Webster & Nesbitt, 2017).

Aligned with these crucial roles of PE in CSPAP, SHAPE America also recommends that schools provide 150 minutes of instructional PE classes for elementary school children, and 225 minutes for middle and high school students per week for the entire school year (Hills et al., 2015).

To meet the recommendations, middle and high school students would need to attend five 45 minutes PE classes per a week. The State of Louisiana does not require either 150 minutes of instructional PE classes for elementary school children or 225 minutes of PE classes for middle and high school students.

Considering the potential contributions of PE programs to promote physically active lifestyle for school-aged adolescents, PE attendance of high school students in Louisiana should be investigated.

However, Louisiana high school students’ PE attendance remains unclear. Therefore, the purposes

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of this study are to describe PE attendance of high school students in Louisiana and to investigate the relationships between Louisiana high school students’ PE attendance and their demographic characteristics.

Methods Data Source and Sample

This study employed a secondary analysis of data drawn from the High School Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS) 2019 dataset (CDC, 2019). YRBSS is a national survey periodically conducted to collect information regarding six categories of health-related behaviors that contribute to the leading causes of death and disability among youth and adults, including (1) behaviors that contribute to unintentional injuries and violence; (2) sexual behaviors related to unintended pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV infection; (3) alcohol and other drug use: (4) tobacco use; (5) Table 1 unhealthy dietary behaviors, and (6) Demographic Characteristics and PE Attendance Frequency of the Sample inadequate PA. The YRBSS survey contains PE Attendance 89 questions measuring Variables 0 days 1 day 2 days 3 days 4 days 5 days Total the six categories of Sex health-related behaviors, 357 41 23 31 16 183 Female 651 and five questions were (54.8%) (6.3%) (3.5%) (4.8%) (2.5%) (28.1%) used to measure the 258 42 30 38 16 164 Male 548 (47.1%) (7.7%) (5.5%) (6.9%) (2.9%) (29.9%) inadequate PA Grade behaviors. As part of the 151 35 18 30 15 163 YRBSS 2019, the 9th 412 (36.7%) (8.5%) (4.4%) (7.3%) (3.6%) (39.6%) inadequate PA data were 158 25 14 14 15 124 10th 350 extracted in this study.

(45.1%) (7.1%) (4.0%) (4.0%) (4.3%) (35.4%) A more detailed 186 13 16 19 3 41 11th 278 description of YRBSS (66.9%) (4.7%) (5.8%) (6.8%) (1.1%) (14.7%) 120 11 5 5 0 15 methodology and copies 12th 156 (76.9%) (7.1%) (3.2%) (3.2%) (0.0%) (9.6%) of the included Ethnicity questionnaires can be 193 19 14 21 15 129 found elsewhere (CDC, Caucasian 391 (49.4%) (4.9%) (3.6%) (5.4%) (3.8%) (33.0%) 2013). The YRBSS Black or African 271 50 25 32 13 133 524 (e.g., Rasberry et al., American (51.7%) (9.5%) (4.8%) (6.1%) (2.5%) (25.4%) 89 6 8 6 3 35 2017; Miller et al, 2017) Hispanic/Latino 147 (60.5%) (4.1%) (5.4%) (4.1%) (2.0%) (23.8%) have been used in 50 6 5 6 2 40 previous studies.

All other races 109 (45.9%)

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(5.5%)

(4.6%)

(5.5%)

(1.8%)

(36.7%)

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A total of 1,305 high school students in Louisiana were identified to participate the inadequate PA survey as a part of the YRBSS 2019.

Of the sample, 46.2% were male students while 52.7% were female students. Within the sample, 34.3% were at 9th grade while 29% were at 10th grade. Most of the respondents in the survey were African American (44.6%) and Caucasian (30.8%).

The details in demographic characteristics of the respondents are presented in Table 1.

Variables Demographic Characteristics Three separate survey items were used to measure of the respondents’ demographic characteristics including sex, grade levels, and ethnicity. To measure sex, the respondents were asked: “What is your sex?” Based on affirmative responses to this question, the respondents were asked to indicate sex. Response options for sex included (a) Female and (b) Male. To measure grade levels, the respondents were asked: “In what grade are you?” Based on affirmative responses to this question, the respondents were asked to indicate grade levels. Response options for grade levels included (a) 9th grade, (b) 10th grade, (c) 11th grade, (d) 12th grade, or (e) ungraded or other grade. To measure race, the respondents were asked: “What is your race?” Based on affirmative responses to this question, the respondents were asked to indicate race. Response options for ethnicity included (a) American Indian or Alaska Native, (b) Asian, (c) Black or African American, (d) Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, or (e) White.

PE Attendance One separate survey item was used to measure PE attendance of high school students in Louisiana.

To measure PE attendance, respondents were asked: “In an average week when you are in school, on how many days do you go to PE classes?” Based on affirmative responses to these questions, the respondents were asked to indicate PE attendance.

Response options for PE attendance included (a) 0 days, (b) 1 day, (c) 2 days, (d) 3 days, (e) 4 days, or (f) 5 days.

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Data Analysis Prevalence estimates, including percentages and 95% confident intervals (CIs), of Louisiana high school students’ PE attendance were calculated.

Multiple linear regression was conducted to investigate the impacts of demographic characteristics on Louisiana high school students’ PE attendance. In the multiple linear regression, dependent variable was Louisiana high school students’ PE attendance while independent variables were demographic characteristics including sex, grade levels, and ethnicity. All analyses were evaluated with an alpha level of .05 and conducted using SPSS software (version 25).

Results The PE attendance frequency among Louisiana high school students averaged 2.88 (95% CI [2.76, 3]) days per week. Approximately 47.5% of the students reported to attend 0 days, followed by 5 days (28.8%), 1 day (7.1%), 3 days (5.7%), and 2 days (4.5%). The PE attendance frequency among female students averaged 2.78 (95% CI [2.61, 2.95]) days while the PE attendance frequency among male students averaged 3.01 (95% CI [2.82, 3.19]) days. The PE attendance frequency among 9th graders averaged 3.51 (95% CI [3.3, 3.73]) days, followed 3.21 (95% CI [2.97, 3.46]) days for 10th graders, 2.15 (95% CI [1.93, 2.37]) days for 11th graders, and 1.71 (95% CI [1.47, 1.96]) days for 12th graders. The PE attendance frequency among Caucasian averaged 3.08 (95% CI [2.86, 3.31]) days, followed 2.74 (95% CI [2.56, 2.93]) days for Black or African American, 2.54 (95% CI [2.2, 2.89]) days for Hispanic/Latino, and 3.22 (95% CI [2.78, 3.66]) days for all other races. Table 1 includes detailed information regarding demographic characteristics and PE attendance frequency of the sample.

A multiple regression was run to examine the impacts of demographic characteristics including sex, grade levels, and ethnicity on Louisiana students’ PE attendance frequency. The multiple regression model including sex, grade levels, and ethnicity significantly predicted Louisiana high school students’ PE attendance frequency, F(3, 1153) = 38.76, p < .05. Only grade level was FALL 2021

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identified as Table 2 statistically significant Multiple Regression Outcomes predictors for Louisiana high Unstandardized school Coefficients students’ PE Variables B SE attendance Sex .19 .13 frequency.

Grade -.63 .06 The amount of Ethnicity -.07 .07 variance Note. SE = standard error, B = beta. explained in Louisiana high school students’ PE attendance frequency accounted for by the model was 9.2%, R = .30. Table 2 includes detailed statistical outcomes from the multiple regression model.

Discussion The purposes of this study were to describe PE attendance of high school students in Louisiana and to investigate the associations between Louisiana high school students’ PE attendance and their demographic characteristics. The study results indicated that high school students in Louisiana attend PE classes for averaged 2.88 (95% CI [2.76, 3]) days per week. Approximately 47.5% of the high school students in Louisiana reported to attend PE for 0 days per a week. Only 28.8% of the students in Louisiana reported to attend PE for 5 days per a week. For the relationships between PE attendance and students’ demographic characteristics, only grade level was identified as statistically significant predictors for Louisiana high school students’ PE attendance frequency. When considering potential contribution of PE to promoting physically active lifestyle for schoolaged youth and adolescents, efforts should be made to encourage high school students in Louisiana to attend more PE classes.

The averaged PE attendance days per week of the high school students in Louisiana was significantly lower when it compared to the study results used nationally representative samples of the U.S. high school students. Clennin et al. (2018) examined the changes in PE attendance over time by using the national YRBS data published from 1991 to 2015. In the study, the averaged PE attendance days per week among national high VOL. 85, NO. 1

Beta .04 -.30 -.03

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school students in 2015 was 4.11 days per week. Since 95% Confidence Interval these were for Beta Lower Upper 2015 data Sig. Bound Bound results, they .13 -.05 .44 may not .01* -.75 -.52 directly .31 -.20 .06 compare to the current study results. However, they can provide valuable insight about the trends in PE attendance in the U.S. The current study results indicated that high school students in Louisiana have been placed in worse situations. Researchers pointed out that emphasis on academic performance in the U.S. schools have reduced the amount of PE that is being provided to students.

This study results also indicate that only grade level was identified as statistically significant predictors for Louisiana high school students’ PE attendance frequency. It was revealed that one grade increase was associated with a decrease in Louisiana high school students’ PE attendance by .30 (95% CI [-.75, -.52]) days. As the students enter to 10th grade, the PE attendance was significantly decreased. According to the shape of nation report developed by SHAPE America, 44 states mandated public high schools to provide PE. Of these 44 states, state law requires high school students to enroll in PE for at least 1 school year and/or earn PE credit to meet graduation requirements.

However, 31 states allowed students to substitute other activities such as sport participation, Reserve Officers’ Training Corps (ROTC), and marching band to meet PE requirements for graduation (SHAPE America, 2016). In Louisiana, high school students have to take 1.5 credit hours of PE for graduation. It requires the students to take a PE class in 3 semesters. Many schools can allow students to waive attending PE classes when the students participate in other activities including sport participation, ROTC, and marching band.

In 2003, National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE) issued a position paper. In the position paper, NASPE insisted that other school activities (e.g., marching band, ROTC, FALL 2021

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cheerleading, school sports) can provide students with meaningful PA opportunities. However, these activities have distinctly different goals than PE and may not be able to provide the content of a comprehensive, standards-based PE program.

Therefore, the main message from the position paper was that PE requirement should not be fulfilled with substitutions of other school activities (NASPE, 2003). In addition, waivers and exemptions from PE classes may have negative impact on PE attendance of high school students in Louisiana. Previous literature also reported that high school graduates who completed PE classes, maintained higher PA levels after the graduation compared to high school graduates who were granted the waiver of PE classes (Mears, 2010).

Legislative efforts may need to address this issue to increase PE attendance in Louisiana.

Sex and race have not been identified as significant predictors for Louisiana high school students’ PE attendance. This study’s results aligned with previous literature examined the relationships between students’ characteristics and PE attendance using nationally representative data set (Clennin et al., 2018). The previous study also revealed that there are no statistically significant differences on PE attendance between male and female and among subgroups in race (Clennin et al., 2018). This is reasonable because state and district PE policies do not differ for male and female students and for subgroups in race.

In conclusion, national organizations including SHAPE America recommend 150 minutes per week of PE for elementary schools and 225 for secondary schools, and 30 minutes of PA during each school days (Cooper et al., 2016). Despite of the recommendations, only six states specifically required the recommended 225 minutes per week of PE for high school (SHAPE America, 2016).

Louisiana requires public schools provide 30 minutes of PA during each school day. This is a positive legislative movement, and this requirement can provide rational for providing more PE in public schools. By making additional legislative efforts, PE attendance of high school students in Louisiana can be significantly improved. Previous research has also suggested that state-level PErelated policies exert an important influence on district-level policies and schools’ PE practices VOL. 85, NO. 1

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(Carlson et al., 2013; Chriqui et al., 2013; Perna et al., 2012). Improved PE attendance can contribute to provide the students with valuable PA opportunities and to help achieve active lifestyle.

References Beighle, A., & Moore, M. (2012). Physical activity before and after school. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 83(6), 25-28. https://doi.org/10.1080/07303084.2012.1059879 2%20 Booth, V. M., Rowlands, A. V., & Dollman, J. (2015). Physical activity temporal trends among children and adolescents. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 18(4), 418-425. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2014.06.002 Carlson, J. A., Sallis, J. F., Chriqui, J. F., Schneider, L., McDermid, L. C., & Agron, P. (2013). State policies about physical activity minutes in physical education or during school. Journal of School Health, 83(3), 150-156. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12010 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2015).

Comprehensive school physical activity programs: A guide for schools. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/healthyschools/physicalact ivity/index.htm Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2017).

National framework for physical activity and physical education. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/healthyschools/physicalact ivity/pdf/National_Framework_Physical_Activit y_and_Physical_Education_Resources_Support _CSPAP_508_tagged.pdf Chriqui, J. F., Eyler, A., Carnoske, C., & Slater, S. (2013). State and district policy influences on district-wide elementary and middle school physical education practices. Journal of Public Health Management and Practice, 19, S41-S48.

Clennin, M. N., Demissie, Z., Michael, S. L., Wright, C., Silverman, S., Chriqui, J., & Pate, R. R. (2018). Secular changes in physical education attendance among U.S. high school students, 1991–2015. Research Quarterly for FALL 2021

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Exercise and Sport, 89(4), 403-410. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2018.1502411 Cooper, K. H., Greenberg, J. D., Castelli, D. M., Barton, M., Martin, S. B., & Morrow, J. R. (2016). Implementing policies to enhance physical education and physical activity in schools. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 87(2), 133-140. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2016.1164009 Hardy, L. L., King, L., Espinel, P., Okely, A. D., & Bauman, A. (2011). Methods of the NSW schools physical activity and nutrition survey 2010 (SPANS 2010). Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 14(5), 390-396.

Hills, A. P., Dengel, D. R., & Lubans, D. R. (2015).

Supporting public health priorities: Recommendations for physical education and physical activity promotion in schools. Progress in Cardiovascular Diseases, 57(4), 368-374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcad.2014.09.010 Martin, A., Booth, J. N., Laird, Y., Sproule, J., Reilly, J. J., & Saunders, D. H. (2018). Physical activity, diet and other behavioural interventions for improving cognition and school achievement in children and adolescents with obesity or overweight. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 1(CD009728). https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.cd009728.pub 3 McDowell, C. P., MacDonncha, C., & Herring, M. P. (2017). Brief report: Associations of physical activity with anxiety and depression symptoms and status among adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 55, 1-4.

McMahon, E. M., Corcoran, P., O’Regan, G., Keeley, H., Cannon, M., Carli, V., Wasserman, C., Hadlaczky, G., Sarchiapone, M., & Apter, A. (2017). Physical activity in European adolescents and associations with anxiety, depression and well-being. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 26(1), 111-122.

Mears, D. (2010). Physical education waivers and young adult activity. Physical Educators, 67(2), 90-100.

Merlo, C. L., Jones, S. E., Michael, S. L., Chen, T. J., Sliwa, S. A., Lee, S. H., Brener, N. D., Lee, S. M., & Park, S. (2020). Dietary and physical activity behaviors among high school VOL. 85, NO. 1

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students—Youth Risk Behavior Survey, United States, 2019. MMWR Supplements, 69(1), 64.

Miller, G., Merlo, C., Demissie, Z., Sliwa, S., & Park, S. (2017). Trends in beverage consumption among high school students United States, 2007–2015. MMWR Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 66(4), 112-116. http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6604a5 National Association for Sport and Physical Education. (2003). Opposing substitution and waiver/exemptions for required physical education (ED497181). ERIC. http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED497181.pdf National Center for Education Statistics. (2019).

Enrollment in elementary, secondary, and degree-granting postsecondary institutions, by level and control of institution, enrollment level, and attendance status and sex of student [Data set]. https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d19/tables/ dt19_105.20.asp Perna, F. M., Oh, A., Chriqui, J. F., Mâsse, L. C., Atienza, A. A., Nebeling, L., Agurs-Collins, T., Moser, R. P., & Dodd, K. W. (2012). The association of state law to physical education time allocation in US public schools. American Journal of Public Health, 102(8), 1594-1599.

Piercy, K. L., Troiano, R. P., Ballard, R. M., Carlson, S. A., Fulton, J. E., Galuska, D. A., George, S. M., & Olson, R. D. (2018). The physical activity guidelines for Americans.

JAMA, 320(19), 2020-2028. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2018.14854 Rasberry, C. N., Tiu, G. F., Kann, L., McManus, T., Michael, S. L., Merlo, C. L., Lee, S. M., Bohm, M. K., Annor, F., & Ethier, K. A. (2017).

Health-related behaviors and academic achievement among high school students United States, 2015. MMWR Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 66(35), 921-927. http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6635a1 SHAPE America. (2016). 2016 Shape of the nation: Status of of physical education in the USA. https://www.shapeamerica.org/uploads/pdfs/son /Shape-of-the-Nation-2016_web.pdf Webster, C. A., & Nesbitt, D. (2017). Expanded roles of physical education teachers within a CSPAP and implications for PETE. Journal of FALL 2021

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Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 88(3), 22-28.

Wickel, E. E., & Eisenmann, J. C. (2007).

Contribution of youth sport to total daily physical activity among 6-to 12-yr-old boys.

Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 39(9), 1493.

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LITERATURE REVIEW CAFFEINE CONSUMPTION: A LITERATURE REVIEW Victoria Ardoin and Courtney Huck Hebert McNeese State University Introduction Caffeine is one of the most consumed substances among populations around the world, with 82-92% of adults in North America regularly consuming caffeine (Armstrong, 2002). Research shows that consumption has increased dramatically over the last decade through both coffee consumption and other caffeine-containing beverages (McIlvain et al., 2011). Armstrong reported that in the U.S., the average adult coffee drinker consumes 200-400 mg of caffeine (2-4 cups of coffee) each day and that 20-30% of these adults consume up to 600 mg per day. Another point of concern is that energy drinks are on the rise and though they are defined as having beneficial propriety blends, some are known to have very high amounts of caffeine (Branum et al., 2013).

Caffeinated energy drinks, as defined De Sanctis et al. (2017), are beverages that contain caffeine and varied other substances, such as guarana, taurine, ginseng, vitamins, herbal supplements, and sugar.

They are advertised as increasing energy, improving athletic performance, concentration, reactions, wakefulness, attention, emotions, and metabolism.

Safe limits of caffeine consumption are still undetermined, but data suggest that maximum recommended intake of caffeine per day is around 100 mg/day in adolescents and up to 400 mg/day in adults (De Sanctis et al., 2017). This literature review intends to examine caffeine consumption trends among young adults, awareness and perceptions of its use, and overall health effects.

Patterns and Trends of Caffeine Consumption among Young Adults In a study by Mahoney et al. (2019), it was determined that caffeine, in any form, was consumed by 92% of students from five VOL. 85, NO. 1

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geographically dispersed United States universities.

The researchers included a total of 1,248 students from Louisiana State University in Louisiana (LSU; N = 301); Kent State University in Ohio (Kent State; N = 286); University of Massachusetts Amherst in Massachusetts (UMASS; N = 238); California State University Fullerton in California (Cal State; N = 212); and Tufts University in Massachusetts (Tufts; N = 211). Mean daily caffeine consumption for all students, including non-consumers, was 150 mg/d with a mean intake of 173 mg/d among caffeine users. The researchers analyzed intake from coffee, tea, soft drinks, energy drinks, gums, and medication, and found that coffee was the main source of caffeine intake in male (120 mg/d) and female (111 mg/d) consumers. Mahoney et al. (2019) found that students, especially women, tend to consume somewhat more caffeine than the general population of individuals aged 19-30 years old but also consumed less than individuals aged 31-50 years old.

From a study conducted by Tran et al. (2016), research focused on caffeine consumption among U.S. teenagers (13-17y), young adults (18-24y), and adults (25-29y) for a 10-year period utilizing NHANES 2003-12 for examination purposes. The goal of this study was to determine whether caffeine habits were within safe limits and void of any adverse effects. The researchers found that mean caffeine intake per consumption occasion was equivalent between coffee and energy drinks for teenagers and young adults. They determined that caffeine intake from energy drinks was only statistically significant for ages 18-24 years of age, accounting for a total of <9% caffeine intake. Tran et al. (2016) used linear regression models in order to analyze the relationships between caffeine intake from energy drinks against caffeine from coffee, as well as tea and soda among energy drink consumers in the upper 50th percentile, which showed a statistically significant inverse relationship (R2 = 28%, coffee β = −0.35, p < 0.001; tea: β = −0.44, p < 0.001; soda: β = −0.22, p = 0.036). They concluded from this study that mean caffeine consumption was within considerably safe and moderate levels established by health authorities among teenagers and young adults, and that despite the introduction of new sources of caffeine to the marketplace, there are persistently small numbers of FALL 2021

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energy drink consumes, with the majority of dietary caffeine for the general population coming from coffee, tea, and soft drinks.

McIlvain et al. (2011) designed a study with purposes of determining the amount of caffeine consumed by a sample of college students, beliefs regarding caffeine consumption, reported perceived benefits and adverse effects of caffeine consumption, reasons for consuming caffeine, and predictors of caffeine consumption. They utilized an anonymous survey which was administered to 300 freshmen students, 118 men (39.3%) and 182 women (60.7%), attending a southeastern university. In their study, they note that the researchers at Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine reported that moderate doses (200-300 mg/day) of caffeine for adults are not harmful, but doses of more than 500-600mg/day can cause side effects. Shockingly, they found that students in the study had a mean caffeine consumption of 849.86 mg/day and there was 12.1 mg of caffeine consumed per kg. of body weight. In order to reach this value, they included an exhaustive list of drinks containing caffeine, and made sure to include how many of each size was consumed daily by those that completed the survey. The values found from this study was a point of interest, as it is an outlier compared to the other studies, which found average consumption was around 150-300 mg/day. This could indicate this study was either reflective of increasing caffeine consumption among college students, that this particular group of students indulged in caffeine-containing beverage consumption more, or that the study design and methods well-executed transparently gathering caffeine consumption data among college students.

In a cross-sectional study by Al-turki et al.

(2016) utilized a 26-question self-administered questionnaire distributed to 550 medical students (275 male and 275 female). The objective of their study was to estimate the daily amount of caffeine consumption among medical students due to medical students utilizing it more than other students to overcome the stress they face due to studying. The researchers found that 97.5% of medical students they surveyed were consuming caffeine while only 2.5% were not. They also found that low intake of caffeine users represented the majority (49.3%), with moderate (28%) and high VOL. 85, NO. 1

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(22.7%) caffeine intake users not far behind. The researchers of this study concluded a very high percentage of caffeine consumers among medical students; however, the use was still on the safe side.

Hidiroglu et al. (2013) researched caffeine consumption from medical students but looked at energy drink consumption. The objective of their study was to determine the frequency and pattern of energy drink consumption among medical students, their knowledge of its effects and side effects, and to see its relationship with alcohol and cigarette use.

From their results, they found that the mean age of the 390 students in the study was 20.98±1.96 years (range: 16-27). They determined that 32.6% had consumed energy drinks at least once and 18.8% more than once. The researchers conclude that consumption of energy drinks among medical students was common and casual.

Literature indicates that caffeine consumption continues to rise. While this trend grows, the caffeine consumption levels are remaining safe. The manner in which it is consumed varies somewhat; however, the research supports that coffee, tea, and soda remain the popular choices. Further investigation should be done to gather more information on the consumption of caffeine in specific age demographics.

Awareness, Perceived Beliefs, and Reasons of Caffeine Consumption A variety of reasons for use of caffeine have been reported in literature, such as surgeons utilizing caffeine to reduce fatigue, athletes using caffeine to enhance physical performance, and adolescents reported they use caffeine for more energy (Mahoney et al., 2019). In a meta-analyses study conducted by Coso et al. (2020), researchers found that 89.2% of those who consumed caffeine had reasons that were related to the use of this beverage to modify one or more health outcomes.

There are many reasons college students are including caffeine within their diet, but most commonly, it is assumed that it is due to increasing focus and awareness, minimizing effect of drowsiness to feel more awake, or to improve mood. Several studies looked at college students to determine what reasons they were including caffeine in their diet and what their perceived FALL 2021

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beliefs and effectiveness of caffeine were. Mahoney et al. (2019) found that students had multiple reasons for consuming caffeine, including to feel awake (79%), enjoy the taste (68%), the social aspects of consumptions (39%), improve concentration (31%), increase physical activity (27%), improve mood (18%), and alleviate stress (9%). McIlvain et al. (2011) found that the reported reasons college students were consuming caffeine was that they believed it would keep them awake (76.0%), help them wake up in the morning (59.3%), and help them concentrate (27.7%).

In an honors thesis paper by Olsen (2013), two focus group interviews and a survey were administered to conduct research on University of New Hampshire campus. She found that the reasons students were consuming caffeine included staying awake, getting good grades, being able to focus, and being better able to socialize. From another study that utilized focus groups and survey administration in order to analyze caffeine intake patterns among college students, researchers Malinauskas et al.

(2007) wanted to determine how energy drinks, targeted to the 18 to 35 year old consumer, made an impact. They found that the majority of users consumed energy drinks for insufficient sleep (67%), to increase energy (65%), and to drink alcohol while partying (54%). They concluded from their research that using energy drinks is a popular practice among college students for a variety of situations, but future research should identify if college students recognize the amounts of caffeine present in the wide variety of caffeine-containing products that they are consuming, the amounts of caffeine that they are consuming in various situations, and the physical side effects associated with caffeine consumption.

There are common themes within the research.

The most apparent is the perceptions that are associated with consuming caffeine. These reasons are centered on needing energy, help focusing, and improving ones mood. It is recommended that more research continue to study the perceptions of caffeine use in a variety of age demographics.

Conclusion The review of literature indicates caffeine consumption is rising. Multiple studies support the VOL. 85, NO. 1

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prime source of caffeine is coffee. This appears to be especially true for traditional college-aged populations. As the research continues to support a growing trend of caffeine consumption, the need for continued studies grows. Although caffeine consumption among young adults remains relatively safe, misinformed perceptions of health benefits will likely result in increased caffeine use. One thing that the present data lack is how increased caffeine consumption may be related to poor dietary intake and choices among consumers. This specific observation requires a more in depth look in future research.

References Al-turki, Y., Alenazy, B., Algadheeb, A., Alanazi, M., Almarzouqi, A., Alanazi, A., Alanazi, A., & Alanazi, M. (2016). Caffeine habits among medical students in King Saud University.

International Journal of Science and Research, 5(2), 754-764. doi:10.21275/v5i2.nov161264 Armstrong, L. E. (2002). Caffeine, body fluidelectrolyte balance, and exercise performance.

International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 12(2), 189-206. doi:10.1123/ijsnem.12.2.189 Branum, A. M., Rossen, L. M., & Schoendorf, K. C. (2014). Trends in caffeine intake among US children and adolescents. Pediatrics, 133(3), 386-393. doi:10.1542/peds.2013-2877 Coso, J. D., Salinero, J. J., & Lara, B. (2020).

Effects of caffeine and coffee on human functioning. Nutrients, 12(1), 125. doi:10.3390/nu12010125 De Sanctis, V., Soliman, N., Soliman, A. T., Elsedfy, H., Di Maio, S., El Kholy, M., & Fiscina, B. (2017). Caffeinated energy drink consumption among adolescents and potential health consequences associated with their use: a significant public health hazard. Acta biomedica: Atenei Parmensis, 88(2), 222-231. https://doi.org/10.23750/abm.v88i2.6664 Hidiroglu, S., Tanriover, O., Unaldi, S., Sulun, S., & Karavus, M. (2013). A survey of energydrink consumption among medical students.

Journal of Pakistan Medical Association, 63(7), 842-845.

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Malinauskas, B. M., Aeby, V. G., Overton, R. F., Carpenter-Aeby, T., & Barber-Heidal, K. (2007). A survey of energy drink consumption patterns among college students. Nutrition Journal, 6(1), 35. doi:10.1186/1475-2891-6-35 Mahoney, C. R., Giles, G. E., Marriott, B. P., Judelson, D. A., Glickman, E. L., Geiselman, P. J., & Lieberman, H. R. (2019). Intake of caffeine from all sources and reasons for use by college students. Clinical Nutrition (Edinburgh, Scotland), 38(2), 668-675. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2018.04.004 Mcilvain, G., Noland, M., & Bickel, R. (2011).

Caffeine consumption patterns and beliefs of college freshmen. American Journal of Health Education, 42(4), 235-244. doi:10.1080/19325037.2011.10599193 Olsen, N. L. (2013). Caffeine consumption habits and perceptions among University of New Hampshire students [Unpublished senior honors thesis]. University of New Hampshire. https://scholars.unh.edu/honors/103 Tran, N., Barraj, L., Bi, X., & Jack, M. (2016).

Trends and patterns of caffeine consumption among US teenagers and young adults, NHANES 2003–2012. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 94, 227-242. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2016.06.007

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INVITED PAPER YOUR FINAL ANSWER: SO, YOU STILL WANT TO BE A COACH? Brad Strand North Dakota State University and Former President of the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance (currently SHAPE America) In the U.S., approximately 8 million students participate annually in high school athletics (National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS), 2019). The quality of a participant’s experience is largely dependent on the environment created by the coach (Gilbert et al., 2004), as coaches are responsible for developing athletes’ mental, physical, technical, and tactical abilities; and in addition to all of these responsibilities, they are expected to win (Beeker, 2009).

A major concern in contemporary youth and high school level athletics is that too many coaches rely on their past athletic experiences as a form of coaching education (Martens, 1990). This, in spite of the fact that overwhelming evidence validates the benefits of formal coaching education (National Association for Sport and Physical Education [NASPE], 2008). Consequently, a coaching education program is essential for sport coaches to address and improve their coaching weaknesses and to positively impact the lives and sport experiences of youth (Campbell et al., 2005; Werthner et al., 2006).

Coach education usually refers to opportunities that are available through structured formal learning, resulting in certificates and degrees (McCade, 2020), that typically takes place in a college or university setting (Coombs et al., 1974).

Coach development refers to the wider opportunities for learning that are available through a more informal learning environment; for example, self-directed study, coaching practice, professional development credits, conferences, workshops, and reflection (International Council for Coaching Excellence, 2013; Vargas-Tonsing, 2007).

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The National Standards for Sport Coaches, first published by NASPE in 1995, revised in 2006, and recently updated provides best practice and research-based standards for coaching education (SHAPE America, 2020). The National Standards for Sport Coaches are based around seven domains: 1) Set Vision, Goals, and Standards for Sport Program; 2) Engage in and Support Ethical Practices; 3) Build Relationships; 4) Develop a Safe Environment; 5) Create a Positive and Inclusive Sport Environment; 6) Conduct Practices and Prepare for Competition; and 7) Strive for Continuous Improvement and includes a total of 42 standards. The National Committee for Accreditation of Coaching Education (NCACE) began accrediting coaching programs within the U.S. in 2000. Currently, only 20 coach education and development programs have attained comprehensive accreditation, 12 of which are college and university programs (NCACE, 2017).

In past years, coaches in K-12 settings were often required to have earned a physical education major, a physical education minor, or a coaching minor in order to serve as a coach. However, with the shortage of school coaches there is a need for volunteer coaches or what some have labeled “street coaches” (Woods, 2016). As such, states and school districts have changed their requirements and what is now minimally required in many settings is first aid/CPR training, concussion training, and a coaching certificate typically earned through NFHS or the American Sport Education Program (ASEP) (Woods, 2016).

Within coaching, both the experience of the coach and his or her encounters with experienced coaches are fundamental to the shaping of the coach and his or her coaching practices. Influencing such experiences would affect the acquisition and development of coaches’ knowledge. In fact, the coaching literature has argued that coach education should incorporate sources of experience other than simply the coaching manual (Lyle, 2007). GanoOverway (2020) suggested that coach educators and coach education programs develop more contextualized learning or practical experiences, known as learner-centered teaching. This is accomplished by using scenarios, case studies, microteaching, problem-based learning, coach observation, and field experiences. In each of these FALL 2021

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activities the coach candidate is encouraged to apply and practice content learned, think critically and make choices about how to solve problems, try out strategies in practice, and reflect upon their success. Further, it could be argued that more structured mentoring programs are a valuable part of coach development (Bloom et al., 1998). Bowers and Eberhart (1988) suggested that mentoring is not only beneficial to the developing coach, but also to the master coaches who, as mentors, are able to expand and diversify their own learning experiences when working with apprentices.

Previously, Strand et al. (2016) described the health and physical education (HEPE) teacher preparation program at North Dakota State University (NDSU). Within their paper, they described the many and varied real-world applications imbedded within the program and academic courses; one such aspect being coaching education. The remainder of this paper will describe that coaching education experience.

Coaching Education Students at NDSU are afforded two coaching courses. The first course, HNES 211 Successful Coaching, is a one-credit course typically held over one weekend (Friday and Saturday) and based on the NFHS certificate curriculum. At the conclusion of the course students complete the NFHS certificate exam which provides certification to coach in states across the U.S. This course is open to all university students and is required for all physical education teacher candidates. The second course, HNES 336 Methods of Coaching, is a threecredit course available only to physical education teacher candidates and is required after they have completed HNES 211.

Students within the HEPE program at NDSU advance through the program as a cohort. During fall semester of their third year, all students in the cohort enroll in HNES 336 Methods of Coaching, HNES 367 Principals of Conditioning, and HNES 301 Motor Learning and Performance. Packaging these three courses during the same semester allows the instructor of HNES 336 to forgo the teaching of motor learning, physiology, and conditioning principles and to rather build upon and reinforce concepts and principles presented in those two VOL. 85, NO. 1

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courses. That, along with the completion of HNES 211, allows the instructor of HNES 336 to go much deeper into various aspects of coaching.

Class Structure and Activities At the beginning of HNES 336, the instructor has students imagine they all work as coaches in the same school district (students typically come up with name for their school). Students also imagine that the instructor is the activities director (AD) of the school and oversees the coaches. Each student decides which sport he or she is coaching and is expected to play that role throughout the semester.

The textbook used in the course approaches coaching from the perspective of four seasons: preseason, in-season, end-of-season, and off-season (Gilbert, 2017). For each of the chapters within a season students work through a several worksheets, videos, case studies, and articles that involve interpreting and applying what has been read in the textbook and discussed in class sessions. It is beyond the scope of this paper to describe all that occurs during each season, but a brief example from each season is described below.

Preseason As a department, and as a coach of their respective sport, students had to determine department and team values, policies, vision, etc.

This process certainly takes time as each student has his or her own values that they bring to the department meetings (class sessions). In addition, the AD (instructor) has his values that he wants imprinted throughout the athletics department (students). Over time, students come to understand the process and at the end of these meetings (class sessions) a product is developed, i.e., department vision, team vision, policies, guiding principles, etc.

At the end of this process each coach (student) writes one word to describe his or her program on a puzzle piece that the instructor has painted white.

The AD (instructor) puts the puzzle pieces together, frames the puzzle, and titles it “This is Us.” Another activity is to decide on individual team values for the season. This activity is conducted to give students an example of something they might do with their athletes when determining and establishing team values. For class purposes, each student identifies 10 values from a list of about 30 FALL 2021

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values. This is then pared down to five values and collected by the instructor. The top collective values are then identified (e.g., leadership, ethics, responsibility, compassion, advancement, respect) and shared with the class. Together the students identify an acronym that includes the first letter of each identified value. In this example students created the acronym CLEAR2. As this acronym was further discussed in class, it was determined that “clear” means something one can see through or transparent. Using that definition of clear and the squared symbol, it was determined that as a coach and team we would be doubly open and transparent in communication and actions.

Next, each student acting as an athlete, writes an action statement of what the various values mean or look like in action. The student descriptions and action statements of the values were gathered and formatted into an image. This image was framed and provided to each student. Late in the semester one of the students was asked what he had done with his framed copy. Since he was a football player with National Football League (NFL) potential my thought was that he had probably forgotten all about it. He responded that he had it hanging in his locker.

Throughout the remainder of the semester students continued to act as the coach of their specific sport and the instructor as the AD. This is done to move students from thinking as athletes and force them into thinking as coaches and members of an athletics department in a school setting.

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End-of-Season At the end of a season a coach has to conduct a final team evaluation, plan a team banquet, deliver a farewell speech, and inventory equipment, among many other things. One activity that coaches often do with their team is to have a last practice ritual. In this course, coaches (students) had to list and describe different rituals that he or she might consider using during the final practice. One student (Dannika) listed the following as rituals she might use: 1) senior night: have seniors come up with a drill to have the whole team, including coaches, do; 2) alumni speech: have some alumni come in and speak to the team about their time as an athlete as the school; and 3) memories: have each senior recall a favorite memory on the court. There are any number of final rituals that may be considered.

Another activity is to identify what team and individual recognitions will be awarded during a team banquet. Since character development and the teaching of values is such an important aspect of coaching, we, as an athletic department, decide that we will give awards based on the values identified during the preseason activity when we developed CLEAR2. As such, we create a compassion award, an ethics award, etc. The award might have a different name but the individual who receives the award will have displayed aspects of the action statements.

Off-Season

In-Season An important aspect of preparing a team is knowing how to motivate the athletes and when to use various motivational strategies. One of the inseason activities coaches in this course was to identify inspirational quotes to use in practice or games. In addition, they had to identify when best to use that quote. Here is what one student (Matt) listed as a quote: “I don’t count my sit-ups. I only start counting once it starts to hurting” by Muhammed Ali. The student indicated this quote might be best used when athletes are doing a repetitive technical activity as it will encourage players to work harder than normal.

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The off-season is a time for a coach to rest, renew, and better him or herself as a coach. During this time, some coaches visit other coaches and watch practices, some read or join a book club, and some study their coaching gaps. Two assignments to help students understand how to improvement as a coach during the off-season are to identify coaches they would like to learn from and books they would like to read.

In the assignment in which students are supposed to identify coaches they would like to learn from, each first had to identify a coach and then draft a letter to that coach. Here is a copy of one the student letters:

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Dear Coach Popovich, my name is Bill (not real name). I am a junior at North Dakota State University, and majoring in Physical Education and Health Education. I’ve been a fan of yours for as long as I can remember, and I have a passion for coaching basketball and hope to do so at a very high level in the future. I have been working with the NDSU men’s basketball team for about a year and have also coached high school a few summers back. I understand that you have a very long season and are extremely busy at the moment, however, would it be possible for me to come out to San Antonio (on my own dime of course), and observe one or two of your practices? I appreciate you taking your time to read this message. Have a blessed day and a great week. Sincerely.

In the second example, students had to create a list of books they would like to read during the offseason and identify a couple of other people who might be interested in joining a book club. Chris P. listed his books as The Mamba Mentality, Beyond Basketball, and The Power of Being Yourself and his book study mates as Erik and Jack.

Value Added Certificates Within HNES 336, students are offered additional certificate options. First aid and CPR training are required for all students and is completed in two evening sessions with a Red Cross certified first aid/CPR instructor. Students are also required to complete five free-of-charge certificate trainings offered through the NFHS. The five required training sessions are: 1) Concussion in Sports; 2) Sports Nutrition; 3) Appearance and Performance Enhancing Drugs and Substances; 4) Bullying, Hazing and Inappropriate Behaviors; and 5) Heat Illness Prevention. Other suggested trainings, but not required for this course are, Sportsmanship, Engaging Effectively with Parents, Social Media, Sudden Cardiac Arrest, Coaching Unified Sports, and NCAA Eligibility. Students are encouraged to complete the additional trainings as it better prepares them to be a coach and it is something they can list on their resume that other students seeking initial coaching positions likely may not have.

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Mentor Coaching Experience As mentioned earlier in this paper, GanoOverway (2020) suggested that coach educators and coach education programs include more practical experiences, coach observations, and field experiences so students can try out strategies in practice and reflect upon their success. In line with this thinking, students in HNES 336 were required to spend 10 hours during the semester with a mentor junior or senior high school coach. Students must complete a minimum of five visits to the site and can earn no more than 2 hours per visit, even if they spend 3 or more hours at the site. It was suggested that students visit with the mentor coach outside of his or her coaching duties, attend practices/games, and observe pregame and halftime rituals, among other coaching endeavors. Students were encouraged to talk to their mentor coach and learn as much as they can about coaching. All students in the course had been high school athletes and had experienced coaching from the perspective of an athlete. Granted, some of the students in the course had parents who had been high school or college coaches, and they better understood the profession of coaching than other students. This mentor coaching experience was designed to help students better understand the coaching side of athletics.

The overall purpose of this experience was to provide transition from the in-class course curriculum to an actual in-school coaching setting. Through this experience students will test the practical application of the theories and principles of coaching as discussed in class, in a setting under the mentorship of an experienced professional. This experience had six main objectives: 1) to provide students an opportunity to integrate theory and practice in their professional education; 2) to encourage the exchange of contemporary thinking and insights between the student and mentor coach; 3) to provide students an opportunity to promote and broaden their philosophy and understanding of the coaching profession; 4) to help students gain an understanding and appreciation of the role, duties, and responsibilities of a coach in a professional setting; 5) to provide students with experiences that will enable them to develop sound human relations; FALL 2021

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and 6) to strengthen relationships between community schools and the university.

Early in the course students were encouraged to make contact with an area junior or senior high school coach. After making contact with a coach, each student was required to complete the logistics and demographics form that includes the mentor coach’s name, school, and contact information.

Each also provided a description of the school and the team being observed. After every site visit, students completed visit reports that detail tasks, jobs, assignments, and experiences they witnessed.

In addition, they were to describe their thoughts about what they observed during the visit.

Throughout the experience students were to interview their mentor coaches. This could be done in one sitting or bit by bit throughout the experience. Interview questions were provided, but students were told there are certainly many other questions that will be discussed between them and their mentor coaches as they watch practices and observe the coaches in action.

The concluding part of the experience is a reflection paper. This paper is an opportunity for students to summarize what they observed, experienced, and learned during the experiences.

Students were instructed to begin the paper with a list of ten important takeaways that have impacted their thinking about coaching and the coaching profession. At the end of the semester, all take-away responses were compiled into one document and shared with all students. Although every student has his or her own experience, many of the take-away comments were similar in nature (i.e., the need for communication, the amount of work that goes into coaching, and the need to be organized).

Second, students were asked to list some of the specific strengths, weaknesses, and/or questionable activities they observed at practices, games, or during mentor visits. Here is how one student (Taylor) described the strengths he observed, His strengths include being able to motivate the athletes, very vocal and passionate about being a coach, and the ability to sit back and let the other coaches take the lead every once is while.”

Here is how another student (Cam) described a weakness he observed, “I think that fixing mistakes is simple, get more players in the game VOL. 85, NO. 1

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and make practices shorter than three hours and a workout. I noticed that during games he really only subbed in and out three of four guys. I think that it is important to get everybody in at least once in the game. I also think an hour workout before practice and then a three-hour practice is overkill.

Students then had to describe how they would address the weakness or questionable activities if they were to become a coach in this setting. An example of one student’s response is shown below.

Although many students mentioned that they agree with a coach’s action in handling a situation, they almost always offered alternative options.

Something questionable I observed was during a game Coach allowed the girls on the bench to have a jumbo bag of candy. This bag of candy was passed up and down the bench and some athletes on the court playing were also involved in the candy sharing. There was an athlete on the court playing that was watching the candy bag and yelled to the bench, “hey you should save me some of the nerds, the pink ones.” If I was coaching, I would not allow candy on the bench. I would want the girls sitting on the bench to have jobs such as tracking statistics or keeping book. This will keep the athletes on the bench focused, involved with the game and give them a sense of purpose on the team. It will also help eliminate distractions for the girls on the court. (Amanda) Third, students had to describe situations they observed or experienced and write them as case studies. An example of one student’s response is shown below. These case studies were then used by the instructor in future classes to emphasize points and to present real life challenges that a coach may face.

I witnessed a situation about an injured player that I thought was unnecessary. Coach really does care about his players a lot, but I could see that he plays favorites. I was able to notice it first through hearing about the coach calling a player at home, at night to apologize for the players ACL tear and to continue on about how FALL 2021

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much he’ll be missed. It’s a nice sentiment, but there were two other injured players on the team at that time and I hadn’t heard either of them talk about coach doing the same for them. Of course, it’s my speculation that he hadn’t called the other players for the same reason but even if he had, I would still think it’s unnecessary, almost inappropriate.

Still speaking of showing favoritism, I think it’s natural for a coach to lean toward the seniors and more motivated athletes for aid in leadership of the team. However, when a coach shows up for practice, he needs to have a plan for it to run smoothly, so that he’s not distracting the athletes from practice. Now, there’s one player on the team that will be playing for Coach in the 20-21 season. That said, what I observed was a coach that showed up without a plan and consistently leaned on this one player hoping that he might have drills to run for the entire team. I think this wouldn’t look great to the other players if a coach was constantly visiting and leaning to just one player every practice.

I believe that having players that you may unconsciously favor is inevitable as a coach.

The players that always do their best to work hard, and the naturally gifted are difficult to not favor but a good coach can’t let that show.

Otherwise, it may discourage other players on the team (Branden).

Finally, students had to explain if and why/why not they still wanted to be coaches after completing the class and coaching experiences. They also had to write how the experience changed their thinking about coaching, athletes, the coaching profession, parental involvement, school culture, building a team, values, winning vs. losing, etc. Another brief example of one student’s response is shown below: Yes, I do still want to coach. Having already been involved with coaching a high school I already had decided that I want to coach more, and I would like to coach higher level athletes. I like to try make an impact in people’s lives. I love when I explain something new to an athlete VOL. 85, NO. 1

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and you can see it start to make sense to them about how what I am saying is implemented into the sport, and how it will benefit them to learn how to perform the skill. Watching Coach helped me learn to look at coaching through a different lens.

Teaching skills and training athletes is not all that is required of a coach. You need to be able to recognize when and why things are going wrong, how you can fix them, and then how you can get the team to move on emotionally from it. It’s also became very clear that no two athletes are the same. The strategy they use will be different, their work ethic will be different, and their skill sets will be different, which makes it crucial for me as a coach to be able to recognize how each athlete can perform their best, and train them according to that information.

I believe that a school’s culture plays a huge roll in how a team works. If the school has not had previous success in athletics, then the students will all think that it’s just the way it is, and won’t put their best foot forward because if you already think you’re going to lose then what’s the point? As a coach it’s important to teach the athletes how to have a winning mentality. They need to know that the past is the past, and that other schools win because they put in more effort during season, and after the season.

Installing a good work ethic into each individual player is crucial as it will make them want to get better in the off season as well because they will believe they can win.

I believe that building a team in high school is incredibly difficult because as a coach you are so limited. The biggest obstacle for a high school coach is not being able to recruit kids.

You are strictly limited to the athletes at your school and sometimes the athletes you have aren’t very good. And as a coach there’s only so much you can do to get the athletes ready to compete. Another huge limiting factor are practice restrictions. A team can only practice for so long and only so many days out of the week. This makes it crucial to use every second FALL 2021

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you have with them as productively as you see possible and often times it’s just not enough.

(Logan)

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who the speakers are will excite them so they will want to attend the next year’s conference.

Conclusion

Almost every student responded that they want to continue as a coach. One student said, “This has been a great experience. Being part of this experience just makes me realize more than ever the reasons behind my coaching desires” (Daejha).

Another said, “After my coaching experience, I very much do still want to be a coach. This experience has only increased my desire. This experience has also changed how I look at the coaching profession by how much work is really put in to be successful” (Michael).

Coaching Development At the conclusion of this coaching course, students were afforded the opportunity to continue their coaching development by registering for independent study or field experience credits. At this point, each student could earn the NFHS coaching certificate and first aid/CPR certificate and complete concussion training so they that each could legally coach in middle and high school settings. Some students chose to continue with further coaching in the schools while others opted to simply study their preferred sports in more detail.

One student worked on drills and skills for hockey; another student put together a coaching manual of her materials. Another did work regarding sport psychology. Some students did not necessarily do any further study for credits, but they moved on to serving as a volunteer or paid assistant coach in area schools.

High School Coaches Conference Every year, state coaching associations hold their annual conferences or seasonal workshops.

One more step on the road to becoming a professional coach is to attend those events.

Knowing that college students have limited resources, the students in this course received a copy of the previous year’s conference schedule and were asked to identify the sessions they would attend if they were there. It is hoped that seeing the schedule, reading the session titles, and learning VOL. 85, NO. 1

According to Woods (2016), about 180 colleges and university across the U.S. offer a coaching major or minor that typically requires about 6-8 courses. Cushion et al. (2003) argued that in its current form, coaching education often fails to inform and influence practice. Many of the courses in a typical coaching education curriculum are offered strictly on-campus and if sport-specific coaching classes are offered, they are taught by college coaches working at that institution.

Although the college coaches might be very successful coaches, many of them have never served as youth or high school coaches and lack experiences in those settings which they can share with students. The college colleges might be excellent with the teaching of the so-called “x’s and o’s,” but they have never, for example, had to cut athletes and cannot share best practice in that regard.

Cushion et al. (2003) further suggested there is a need to put students in settings that include the practical experience of coaching with an appropriate supportive mentor. They said that coach education programs should include supervised field experiences throughout the experience to enable coaches to consider differences, make mistakes, reflect, and learn from them, and try again. This experience in HNES 336 addresses that suggestion.

The model described in this paper has proven to be successful for students in coaching education in a number of ways. First, students have opportunities to experience coaching from a coaching perspective rather than that of an athlete. Second, students can take what has been discussed in a classroom setting and learn how that applies in real-world settings.

They can ask their mentor coaches about things they have discussed in class and, in some cases, get perspective others than that of the course instructor.

Third, at the conclusion of the experience, some students made relationships with area coaches that led to part-time or volunteer jobs for the next semester. Fourth, some students, after completing the experiences have indicated they do not desire to become coaches. In those cases, it is certainly better FALL 2021

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to learn earlier, rather than later, that coaching is not something one wants to pursue. Fifth, some students, after these experiences, want to go back to the schools in which they observed and complete student teaching there. Again, positive relationships have been formed in a very short period of time.

Finally, to be honest, when students are first told of this required experience, not many are excited about it as their free time is limited, and some of the students are collegiate athletes. One of the reasons why this experience is limited to only 10 total hours is to accommodate the issue of available time.

Obviously more hours would be better, but time is a factor. Another accommodation made for time is that students only had to make five visits during the semester to obtain those 10 hours. Student-athletes who are in-season during the semester almost always need additional accommodations made for them. Further, every semester at least one student in the class is already serving as a coach for a youth sport team. In those cases, they are asked to observe another coach in a different setting.

A benefit to NDSU’s teacher preparation program is that we continue to form relationships with teachers and coaches in the surrounding community. These relationships enable school teachers and university professors to share common concerns, discuss current trends and practices, and work as partners in the preparation of teacher/coach candidates. For example, one mentor said this about the experience: Working with Sam (not real name) was a wonderful experience. He very quickly interacted with the athletes and developed a connection with them in a short time. The questions he asked me forced me to think about what I do and why I do the things I do. After coaching for a number of years I often do the same things over and over and don’t think about “why” too often. Sam was very reliable and actually put in more than his required 10 hours.

In fact, he showed up one weekend to help with a tournament when he didn’t have to. In some ways, Sam taught me as much as I taught him. I hope I get the chance to work with another coaching candidate in the future.

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Based on feedback from both students and the mentor coaches, this is a very successful example of a university-community partnership that continues to grow.

References Beeker, A. J. (2009). It’s not what they do, it’s how they do it: Athlete experiences of great coaching. International Journal of Sports Science and Coaching, 4, 93-119.

Bloom, G. A., Durand-Bush, N., Schinke, R., & Salamela, J. (1998). The importance of mentoring in the development of coaches and athletes. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 29, 267-281.

Bowers, G. R., & Eberhart, N. A. (1988). Mentors and the entry level program. Theory into Practice, 27, 226-230.

Campbell, T., & Sullivan, P. (2005). The effect of a standardized coaching education program on the efficacy of novice coaches. AVANTE, 11(1), 3845.

Coombs, P. H., & Ahmed, M. (1974). Attaching rural poverty: How nonformal education can help. International Council for Education Development. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/656 871468326130937/pdf/multi-page.pdf Cushion, C. J., Armour, H. M., & Jones, R. L. (2003). Coach education and continuing professional development: Experience and learning to coach. Quest, 55, 215-230.

Gano-Overway, L. (2020). Reflection on accreditation and endorsement of coach education and development programs. In K. Dieffenback, & M. Thompson (Eds.), Coach Education Essentials: Your Guide to Developing Sport Coaches (pp. 331-329).

Human Kinetics.

Gilbert, W. (2017). Coaching better every season: A year-round system for athlete development and program success. Human Kinetics.

Gilbert, W. D., & Trudel, P. (2004). Analysis of coaching science research published from 19702001. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 75, 388-399.

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International Council for Coaching Excellence.

(2013). International sport coaching framework.

Human Kinetics.

Lyle, J. (2007). Modelling the complexity of the coaching process: A commentary. International Journal of Sports Science and Coaching, 2, 407409.

Martens, R. (1990). Successful coaching. Human Kinetics.

McCade, S. (2020). Current models of coach education, training, and certification. In K. Dieffenback, & M. Thompson (Eds.), Coach Education Essentials: Your Guide to Developing Sport Coaches (pp. 187-206).

Human Kinetics.

National Association for Sport and Physical Education. (2008). National coaching report.

National Association for Sport and Physical Education.

National Committee for the Accreditation of Coaching Education. (2017). Guidelines for the accreditation of coaching education and instructions for the preparation of folios. https://www.qualitycoachingeducation.org/accre ditation National Federation of State High School Associations. (2019, September 5).

Participation in high school sports registers first decline in 30 years. https://www.nfhs.org/articles/participation-inhigh-school-sports-registers-first-decline-in-30years/ SHAPE America. (2020). Quality coaches, quality sports: National standards for sport coaches (3rd ed.). SHAPE America.

Strand, B., Linker, J., Deutsch, J., Hahne, K., & Douglas, M. M. (2016). Health and physical education teacher-preparation implementation of clinical practices: Integrating academic content to real-world application. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 87(4), 46-52.

Werthner, P., & Trudel, P. (2006). A new theoretical perspective for understanding how coaches learn to coach. Sport Psychologist, 20, 198-212.

Woods, R. B. (2016). Social issues in sport (3rd ed.). Human Kinetics.

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Vargas-Tonsing, T. (2007). Coaches' preferences for continuing coaching education. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching, 2(1), 2535.

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DEPARTMENT OF KINESIOLOGY, SPORT & LEISURE STUDIES (KSLS) COLLEGE OF EDUCATIONAL AND GRADUATE STUDIES

Undergraduate Programs B.S., Kinesiology degree with Concentrations in: x Health Promotion x Pedagogy x Sport Management B. S., Leisure Studies degree with Concentrations in: x General Recreation x Therapeutic Recreation Graduate Program M.S., Sports Administration (SPA) For More Information Contact: Department of Kinesiology, Sport Leisure Studies GSU Box 4244, Fredrick C. Hobdy Assembly Center – Suite 148 Grambling, LA 71245 Tel: (318) 274-2294 - Fax: (318) 274-3346 – www.gram.edu

A Constituent Member of the University of Louisiana System, Accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools An Equal Opportunity Employer and Educator, Facilities Accessible to the Disabled

The Nicholls State University Human Performance Education program provides aspiring candidates seeking employment within the K-12 school system as Health & Physical Educators or aspiring Sports & Conditioning Coaches great opportunities and experiences to prepare them for their life’s work. The Human Performance Education program’s courses play a huge roles in the curriculum that emphasizes Personal and Community Health, Personal Fitness, Sports Conditioning, Coaching, Sports and Health Psychological as well as Motor Learning, Kinesiology, and Exercise Physiology. Additionally, there are many opportunities to interact with school aged students while teaching and gaining valuable field experience through HPE methods courses, our partnership with Max Chapter School within Nicholls’ campus, and the online course offerings in Adaptive Physical Education. Nicholls’ HPED program Bachelor of Science degree gives you a “TRUE” foundation in order for you to begin your future as a Health & Physical Educator.

College of Education Department of Teacher Education Human Performance Education Program Program Chair: Dr. Dennis Guillot 132 Polk Hall Phone: 985.448.4296 E-mail: dennis.guillot@nicholls.edu The Department of Allied Health Sciences is an interdisciplinary group of educational programs offering opportunities for entry-level undergraduate education to prepare students for advanced educational and clinical practice options as health care professionals. The department uses innovative on-campus and online components to achieve its mission of preparing professionals for today’s health care market. Allied health refers to occupations that support, aid, and increase the efficiency of primary care clinical specialists. Health Sciences concentrations include: Pre-Professional, Pre-Athletic Training, Communicative Disorders, and Nutrition and Food Services. We invite you to become a member of our allied health family at Nicholls State University where you will learn, live, and become primed to be a leader in health care!

College of Nursing and Allied Health Department of Allied Health Sciences Program Chair: Dr. Jennifer Plaisance 108 Gouaux Hall Phone: 985.493.2611 Email: jennifer.plaisance@nicholls.edu

Come to Southeastern for graduate school!

Department of Kinesiology and Health Studies Master of Science in Health and Kinesiology x x x x

Hammond campus within driving distance of New Orleans and Baton Rouge Several concentrations from which to choose; tailor graduate study to your interests and goals All coursework is offered in the evenings Graduate assistantships are available

Concentrations Exercise Science: Advanced study in exercise science focusing on exercise physiology, motor behavior, and sport & exercise psychology.

Health Studies: Develop skills and competencies in both theory and practice as a health educator, and for the Certified Health Education Specialist (CHES) Exam.

Health Promotion & Exercise Science: Combines health education skills and competencies with graduate study of exercise physiology and fitness testing.

Kinesiology: Involves focused study in selected disciplines. Students choose emphasis areas from adapted physical education, exercise physiology, motor behavior, sport management, and sport & exercise psychology.

Phone: 985-549-2129

http://www.selu.edu/khs

email: khs@selu.edu

Master of Science Degree with two concentration areas: Exercise and Sport Science and Health Promotion, Recreation and Sport Management The Master of Science Degree in Kinesiology is intended to prepare researchers and practitioners to develop, administer, and implement broadbased programs. Both thesis and non-thesis tracks are available.

Assistantship, fellowship, and scholarship opportunities are available!

For more information about the Kinesiology graduate program: Website: kinesiology.louisiana.edu Email: kinesiology@louisiana.edu Phone: 337-482-6615

For more information about the grad school and financial aid: Website: gradschool.louisiana.edu Email: gradschool@louisiana.edu Phone: 337-482-6965

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LAHPERD AWARDS’ CRITERIA For more information, contact the Executive Director, Awards Committee Chairperson, or specific award chairpersons identified.

Honor Award The candidate’s contribution should have been made within the field of health education, physical education, recreation and dance.

2. The candidate should have rendered at least five years of meritorious service to the health education, physical education, recreation, or dance education professions in the state.

3. The candidate shall be one of high moral character whose contributions have most fully expressed the spirit of service which this award represents.

4. The candidate should have made a contribution to LAHPERD. 5. Any LAHPERD member who resides within the state may nominate a candidate by submitting the name and vita to the nomination chairperson.

6. To be considered for the current year, all nominations must be in the hands of the chairperson by August 1.

7. The committee member who sponsors a candidate shall be responsible for forwarding five copies of a complete, accurate biographical sketch to the chairperson.

8. The biographical sketch shall be topically organized, legible, and current.

9. To be considered for the current year, all biographical sketches must be submitted to the chairperson by August 1.

10. Insofar as possible, candidates shall not be advised that they are being considered for the award.

11. Submit nominations to Yvonne Calvin at calviny@gram.edu.

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Outstanding University/College Senior Major Award The candidate shall be a full-time student of the university/college from which the nomination is made.

The candidate shall have attended the nominating university a minimum of two years.

The candidate shall be a member of LAHPERD at the time of the nomination.

The candidate shall have an overall grade point average of 3.0 or greater.

Any university/college faculty member in health, physical education, recreation, or dance, or a supervising teacher may nominate a candidate by sending the name and a biographical sketch to the chairperson. The supporting information should include date, grade point average, honors and awards, membership(s) in professional organization(s), and a statement from the nominator as to why the student is worthy of the award.

6. All nominations must be submitted to the chairperson by August 1.

7. The person sponsoring the candidate shall be responsible for submitting a copy of a complete, accurate biographical sketch to the chairperson.

8. The biographical sketch shall be topically organized, legible, and current.

9. To be considered for the current year, all biographical sketches must be submitted to the chairperson by August 1.

10. Submit nominations to Yvonne Calvin at calviny@gram.edu.

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Service Award Any LAHPERD member who resides in the state may nominate a candidate who is worthy of consideration. Supporting information should include name, address, specific contribution/service to LAHPERD, and a statement from the nominator giving other information considered pertinent to the selection of a recipient for the Service Award.

Any individual who meets the criteria outlined for each of the awards may apply personally for the award or be nominated by a colleague.

A state winner is not eligible for the same award again until after four years.

Former district and national winners of the award are not eligible to participate in the same category for an award.

Submit nominations by May 20 to the Executive Director or Awards Committee Chair.

Submit nominees and information for special awards to: Sonia Tinsley at tinsley@lacollege.edu.

Secondary Physical Education Teacher of the Year Award For the purposes of this award, a secondary physical education teacher is defined as an individual who has major responsibility for teaching physical education in grades 7-12.

The candidate must be a current secondary physical education teacher with a minimum of three years’ experience.

The candidate must be a person who: a. Serves as a positive role model, epitomizing personal health and fitness, enjoyment of activity, sportsmanship, and sensitivity to the needs of students. b. Utilizes various teaching methodologies and plans innovative learning experiences. c. Conducts a balanced and sequential curriculum. d. Assumes responsibility for his/her professional growth. e. Evidences professional commitment through membership and involvement in local, state, and national physical education organizations.

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Elementary School Physical Education Teacher of the Year Award For the purposes of this award, an elementary physical education teacher is defined as an individual who has major responsibility for teaching physical education in grades K-6.

The candidate must be a current elementary physical education teacher with a minimum of six years’ experience.

The candidate must be a person who: a. Serves as a positive role model, epitomizing personal health and fitness, enjoyment of activity, sportsmanship, and sensitivity to the needs of students. b. Utilizes various teaching methodologies and plans innovative learning experiences. c. Conducts a balanced and sequential curriculum that reflects and understanding of child growth and development. d. Assumes responsibility for his/her professional growth. e. Evidences commitment to the education profession by having served on state/regional/national committees and/or having presented workshops of programs at these levels.

Current members of the COPEC Executive Committee are not eligible.

Health Educator of the Year Award For the purposes of this award, a school health educator is an individual who has major responsibility for teaching health education in grades K-12 or in a college/university setting.

The candidate must have a minimum of three years teaching experience.

In addition, the candidate must be a person who: a. Serves as a positive role model, epitomizing personal health and fitness, enjoyment of activity, sportsmanship, and sensitivity to the needs of students. b. Utilizes various teaching methodologies and plans innovative learning experiences. c. Presents a balanced and sequential curriculum based on the developmental, social, and psychological needs of the students. d. Assumes responsibility for his/her professional growth. e. Evidences commitment through membership and involvement in local, state, and national health organizations.

Dance Educator of the Year Award For the purposes of this award, a dance educator is defined as an individual who has major responsibility for teaching dance at any level including grades K-12 and/or in a college/university setting.

The candidate must have a minimum of three years teaching experience.

In addition, the candidate must be a person who: a. Serves as a positive role model, epitomizing personal health and fitness, enjoyment of activity, sportsmanship, and sensitivity to the needs of students. b. Teaches creatively and produces creative work by utilizing various methodologies causing innovative problem-solving learning experiences. c. Presents a balanced and sequential curriculum based on the developmental, social, and psychological needs of the students. d. Assumes responsibility for his/her professional growth. e. Evidences commitment through membership and involvement in local, state, and national dance organizations.

Recreation Professional of the Year Award For the purposes of this award, a recreation professional is defined as an individual who has major responsibility for teaching recreation pre-professionals/professionals or conducting recreation programming and/or administration in an educational, public, or private recreation setting.

In addition, the candidate must be a person who: a. Serves as a positive role model, epitomizing the values and desired outcomes of recreation. b. Demonstrates enthusiasm for the recreation professional and his/her role in it. c. Shows interest in and sensitivity to the needs of students, clients, and fellow professionals. d. Utilizes various methodologies and implements creative, innovative, safe, and effective courses/recreations programs based on: - the developmental, social, and psychological needs of students and clients; and - the philosophies, purposes, needs, and resources of the sponsoring institution. e. Assumes responsibility for his/her professional growth and evidences professional commitment through membership and involvement in local, state, and national recreation organizations.

Taylor Dodson Young Professional Award Candidates should be less than 40 years of age.

Candidates’ contributions should have been made within the fields of physical education, health education, recreation, research, and dance, or to the profession through such allied field as science, education, or community service.

Candidates should have rendered at least five years of meritorious service to the physical education, health education, recreation, or dance professions in the Southern District.

Candidates should have been members in good standing of AAHPERD for at least the five consecutive years prior to receiving the award.

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Candidates for the award should have gained prominence in some of the following: a. Excellence in teaching b. Outstanding administrative achievement c. Leadership in professional associations, including state and national d. Contributions to professional literature e. Outstanding community service Deceased members or those who have moved out of the district should not receive the award nor should the award be given because a person holds a particular job.

Scholar Award Criteria for selection of the Scholar shall include, but not be limited to the following: a. The individual selected should have scholarly presentations. b. The individual should be an active scholar in his/her discipline. c. The individual selected must be a LAHPERD member. d. The individual selected should be capable of communication to groups in the various disciplines.

Gillentine Award Candidates must be adapted physical education teachers, where the majority of their teaching duties are in adapted physical education, in Louisiana and current LAHPERD members.

The following criteria are considered: a. Teaching performance b. Innovative abilities c. Involvement with local and state organizations d. Volunteer community work e. Research and scholarly activities specific to adapted physical education

GUIDELINES FOR SUBMITTING MANUSCRIPTS Electronic Submissions Only (Revised Fall 2021) All manuscript submissions must adhere to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.) style. See https://apastyle.apa.org/ for updated style resources.

The Journal of the Louisiana Association for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance is published electronically twice a year, usually the fall and spring, by the Louisiana Association for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance. Articles should be emailed to the editor, Dr. Dan Denson ddenson@mcneese.edu. Articles should be submitted by January 15 to be considered for the spring issue and by August 15 for the fall issue. Current LAHPERD members have priority for publication space.

1. The Manuscript Manuscripts should follow the form and style of the current edition of Publications Manual of the American Psychological Association and must be double-spaced, 12-point Times New Roman font with standard margins. All authors’ names, titles, and institutions should be listed on the cover sheet. Prepare the manuscript in Microsoft Word format and attach author’s statement (see Author’s Statement below). All correspondence should be addressed to the lead author unless otherwise specified. Limit manuscripts to 12 pages or about 4,800 words.

2. Tables and Illustrations All tables and figures must be titled. Tables may be embedded in the text at the appropriate place or on separate pages. Use tables for reporting extensive statistical information. Data in tables should not be duplicated or extensively discussed in the text. Blank columns in tables are not permitted. Artwork (graphics, photos, etc.) should be of high resolution to ensure that pixilation or blur is avoided. Please attach artwork as a separate file.

3. Citations and References The manuscript must include static text throughout, especially on citations and references.

If a plug-in like Mendeley or MyBib is used to create citations and references, the author must convert all text generated by the plug-in to static text. Manuscripts with dynamic text that is either not editable or that would require the editor to perform excessive reformatting will be returned.

4. Author’s Statement The author(s) must provide a statement certifying that the article has not been published or concurrently submitted for publication elsewhere.

5. Refereed Papers Only position papers and research manuscripts that meet submission criteria will be considered for blind external review. Each paper will be submitted to three members of the LAHPERD Journal editorial board. Papers are reviewed for content and clarity. Specifically, each paper will be gleaned for 1) identification of the problem and purpose of the study, 2) description of methodology including statistical procedures used, 3) reporting of findings, 4) consistency of conclusions and findings, and 5) quality and appropriateness of references. Lead authors will be notified of the status of the manuscript. Papers may be accepted as is, accepted with minor revisions, conditionally accepted pending revisions, or rejected. Only papers that make a contribution to the profession will be accepted for publication.

6. Documentation References should be listed at the end of the article and should be arranged in alphabetical order.

Each reference cited in the article must be listed and only those cited should be included in the reference page. Follow the form and style for citing and listing references in the current edition of the Publications Manual of the American Psychological Association 7. Announcements Any announcements and last minute news items must be submitted electronically prior to layout of the journal. Contributors are advised to use Microsoft Word, 12-point Times New Roman font format for all attachments.

Avoid first person sentence structure. Be sure to title attachment for inclusion in the LAHPERD Journal.

8. Non-Refereed Papers Program development essays, teaching methods, and related papers are welcome. Authors are encouraged to submit photographs, diagrams and tables as necessary with these papers. These papers will be reviewed by the in-house editorial staff, which consists of the managing editor and the copy editor. Some revisions may be necessary.

The editorial staff reserves the right to edit these papers when necessary to maximize available space.

9. Abstracts All completed abstracts accepted for presentation at the fall LAHPERD conference will be published in the spring issue of the LAHPERD Journal. Incomplete abstracts will be returned to the author(s) to be completed. Complete abstracts should contain: 1) problem statement, 2) purpose of the study, 3) methods, 4) major findings, and 5) conclusions.

Limit abstract to 500 words.

10. Advertisements The LAHPERD Journal has free available space for advertising of select university programs*. All advertisements should be submitted as high resolution files (see 2. Tables and Illustrations above). Professional product and service vendors are invited to advertise. Rates for vendors are: $100 per issue for full page; $60 per issue for 1/2 page; and $30 per issue for 1/ 4 page. All ads are subject to review and rejection by the editors and/or the Executive Board of LAHPERD.

LAHPERD MINI-GRANT APPLICATION FORM 1.

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Print these directions.

Type your Application.

Be sure to answer all the questions.

Mail completed form by May 1st each year to: Christina Courtney, Mini-Grant Coordinator University Laboratory School 45 Dalrymple Dr. Baton Rouge, LA 70803 Page One Project Title: Signature of Applicant: Signature of Principal and/or Supervisor Applicant’s Name: Applicant’s Position/Title School Name: School Address: School System/Parish: Work Phone: Work FAX: Work email: Home Phone: Home email: Page Two General Project Summary (1 or 2 paragraphs) Specifics: 1.

What is the main idea of this project?

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Why do you think there is a special need for this project?

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Give a time schedule of events 4.

Approximately how many students will be affected by this project?

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How will you describe whether your objectives have been achieved and whether your project is successful?

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Attach 1-3 lesson plans you could use within this project.

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Detail your budget request. Include specific information such as kinds of materials and equipment needed, sources of supply and costs, or travel/lodging information.

Budget example: ITEM Alpha Fit Conference Registration Fee

Total

SUPPLIER/SOURCE U.S. Games SDAHPERD

AMOUNT BUDGETED $375.00 $150.00

$525.00