Train of Thought - Edition 4

THOUGHT TRAINOF

E D I T O R S ' N O T E

Welcome to the Lent 2023 edition of 'Train of Thought', the magazine written and edited by Academic Scholars. This year, the theme we have chosen is Footprints, our aim being to showcase anything that has left an impact and legacy in history, from individuals to inventions The articles shed light on a range of topics which are prevalent in the current news, from carbon footprints to the heavily debated role and significance of the British Monarchy. Each article hones in on an area of personal interest for the author, making them all notably engaging reads, due to the profound depth in which each topic has been treated

We would like to take this opportunity to thank all the Academic Scholars who contributed articles to this edition The topics raise some fascinating questions and ideas which are perhaps not discussed frequently enough and are certainly worth reading

Yours truly, The Editors,

Tacita, Jocelyn, Camilla, Alice and Sophie

TheInventionof thePlane

Isabella Gharagozlou

For hundreds of years, humans have dreamt of the ability to fly. Leonardo da Vinci drew flying machines; Chanute, Lilienthal, Sir George Cayley, and Langley also speculated around the idea. Before the Wright brothers invented the aeroplane, other inventors had attempted to make bird-like contraptions to be used as aircrafts, such as hot air balloons, kites, and gliders. However, nothing can be deemed as significant as when the Wright brothers invented the plane, changing the course of history.

The first aeroplane was invented by Wilbur and Orville Wright, and it was first tested on 17 December 1903.

Before the Wrights had even thought about flying, they had a shop that made and repaired bicycles, which was helpful to them in the long-term as it helped them apply their knowledge to construct a plane.

Bicycles need to be lightweight and streamlined to reach the maximum speed yet remain sturdy at the same time. The best materials for this were

wood and metal, as well as the knowledge of how to work with them in order to realise these characteristics. These enabled them to grasp concepts on the workings of aeroplanes. 1899 was the year when the Wright brothers began to speculate about the possibility of building a plane. This was when Wilbur asked the Smithsonian Institution for information regarding aeronautics. In the same year, they also started their experiments regarding aircraft, basing their work around that of Leonardo da Vinci, Chanute, Lilienthal, and many others.

Over the years, the brothers worked on many gliders of different sorts and most of the first ones did not have engines. When they eventually came to invent the first glider with an engine in 1903, it was a biplane nicknamed Flyer I. Powered by a 12-horsepower gasoline engine, it was flown at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina for 12 seconds on 17 December 1903, and during which time it travelled 36.5 metres (120 feet).

Only five people witnessed this flight, and a picture of it was captured— the first-ever powered, piloted flight throughout the course of history. Despite it being a huge breakthrough which was mentioned in newspapers, it did not receive much public attention.

Three years later, the Wright brothers invented three-axis control, which is what enables the pilot to keep an equilibrium whilst steering the plane. Today, this method still applies to the functioning of all planes, and without it, planes would not be the same.

On 30 July 1909, the US government bought its first plane – a biplane made by the Wright brothers, which was sold for $25,000 with a bonus of $5000 as its speed was able to exceed 40mph. An airport was created in College Park, Maryland so that the Wright brothers could teach Army officers how to fly with this very plane.

In 1911, the Wright brothers’ Vin Fiz plane crossed the US, being the first plane in history to do so. Throughout the course of the flight which took 84 days, it

stopped 70 times. As a result of the plane having crashed so many times, upon its arrival at California, barely any of its original building materials remained intact.

In 1912, the first armed flight in the world was designed by the Wright brothers— an aeroplane armed with a machine gun which was flown at the College Park airport.

Ever since the many contributions made by the Wright brothers, the improvement of aeroplanes has been continued by various inventors. In the 1930s, Frank Whittle and Hans von Ohain invented the jet engine, leading to the creation of jets. In other words, aeroplanes powered by jet engines, which flew both faster and at higher altitudes than those by the Wrights. A significant mark was left on the world by the Wright brothers and their invention of the plane— a legacy which has never ceased to facilitate human activities that would have otherwise been impossible.

Jocelyn Yue

Nostalgia

How taking a step back in time influences the future

Nostalgia is defined as ‘an affectionate feeling you have for the past’, a feeling which could be associated with both positive and negative emotions as one steps back in time. Research suggests that certain events, like personal milestones, can invoke personal nostalgia. Thinking about your past comes hand in hand with a feeling of familiarity—you know perfectly well what happens in your memories. Nostalgia in this case acts as “an emotional cushion for dealing with change.” (Gerber, 2019) When the future seems uncertain, looking back to a time that has already passed offers stability. Similarly, stress can bring about the desire to return to a time when life was simple and carefree, when our greatest worry was racing to the swings at break time; hence lies the appeal of rewatching shows from our childhood. That warm fuzzy feeling inside you is sparked not so much by the adventures of Barbie and her sisters, but by the personal memories associated with the show.

During the 17th to 19th centuries, nostalgia was viewed as a psychological disease caused by “an afflicted imagination” (Anspach, 1934) and was especially prevalent in soldiers deployed overseas who longed for their homes. Classic symptoms included melancholy and loss of appetite. Treatments, on the other hand, were much more outrageous: shaming, bullying and even

burying soldiers alive were all feasible options.

Fortunately for us, more recently, researchers at Southampton University have concluded that nostalgia drives empathy and social connectedness, as well as strengthening a person’s identity by acting as the “perfect internal politician, connecting the past with the present, pointing optimistically to the future” (Sedikides, 2014). If one free round trip down memory lane is all it takes to temporarily alleviate present feelings of loneliness and insecurity, who could refuse? On the cusp of a finally post-pandemic world, facing a technological revolution, and simultaneously being bombarded by news of conflict and our worsening climate, the future seems frankly bleak and frightening to even consider. It is no wonder we desperately cling to the past for comfort and escape, but most importantly: hope.

Nostalgia plays a huge role in contemporary pop culture with the recent re-emergence of vintage trends; fashion pieces like flared jeans and leg warmers returning into the spotlight after decades stashed in the depths of our parents’ wardrobes. In this context, our fashion decisions (some better than others…) are not so much influenced by the personal nostalgia described earlier. Rather, the era that inspires the way you dress tends not to be one you have actually lived through.

By dressing in vintage clothing, you are not remembering a time from your own past but stepping into a collective culture-wide memory. Our perception of time differs from those of past generations as it is altered by technology that delivers nostalgia on demand. We are reminded of images from the past which enables us to easily visualize life in a different era, each of us imagining this memory from seeing constant reproductions of a time period. In its essence, fashion is a form of selfexpression. So, by dressing in clothes from a different time period, one can stand out in the crowd and display one's feelings of joy or desire to escape: a literal interpretation of wearing your heart on your sleeve. Nonetheless, a less impressive explanation is that most people, as dictated by human nature, simply follow what others do and retro style has already worked its way into popular culture as the newest trend. The ever-growing market for pre-loved clothing also signifies a healthy shift in people’s attitudes toward consuming fashion. Instead of immediately buying a brand-new piece of clothing, many consumers will first scour the internet and thrift stores for a vintage option. Most vintage pieces were made of more durable materials and designed to last longer.

In contrast, modern manufacturers opt for cheaper materials in favour of cutting production costs, which results in low-quality clothing. Although we are a way off from halting the fast fashion industry, the benefits of shopping retro should not be entirely discounted as it is environmentally friendly and costeffective in the long run. The somewhat paradoxical idea of looking to the old as

inspiration for innovation is not a new one. Silhouettes from the early 19th century are continuously an important point of reference for high-end brands like Vivienne Westwood and Gucci. But even as far back as the 19th century, designers were already nostalgic for “a preindustrial past” and their designs “incorporated elements from the 16th century” (Regan, 2017). The nostalgia loop now typically comes in cycles of 20 years, just long enough for a generation of young people to grow up, gain liquid assets, and experience a life-changing event. Clothing that can evoke powerful feelings and emotions naturally attracts more consumers which is a business strategy used to sell more clothing. As they bring companies a high income, nostalgia is one of the most used methods of advertising. In 2017, Urban Outfitters re-released the Juicy tracksuits and heavily appealed to consumers’ nostalgia as a marketing strategy. Marketers have expertly honed in on our purely human longing for comfort and have fashioned these emotions into a tool to sell more products.

To further this point, we can examine examples in another industry designed for consumer consumption. It is no mere coincidence that the top grossing films in 2021 and 2022 are respectively Spider-Man: No Way Home and Top Gun: Maverick. The latest movie in the SpiderMan franchise featured not one, but three incarnations of the same familiar character, resonating with a wide audience who have loved Spider-Man since they were children. The movie successfully used nostalgia to captivate viewers and continue the storyline without inhibiting the possible future of

the franchise from developing. The sequel to the original Top Gun, released in 1986, brought everyone back to their childhood - watching those flight shots that are hair-raising to this day and featuring familiar characters that we are emotionally invested in. Both movies owe their whopping successes to their use of our emotional ties to the past. Nostalgia might be perceived as an emotion incompatible with our innovation-driven society, but it is clear that the past is interwoven with our present. With so many references to the past embedded in society, a displaced time traveller would have no difficulty slipping by unnoticed in our current time. Finally, unless you have a Tardis stashed in the back of your closet, curling up to watch another episode of Friends nostalgically is the closest thing humanity currently has to time travel.

REFERENCES

ANSPACH, C. K., 1934. MEDICAL DISSERTATION ON NOSTALGIA BY JOHANNES HOFER, 1688. BULLETIN OF THE INSTITUTE OF THE HISTORY OF MEDICINE, AUGUST, VOLUME 2, P. 381.

GERBER, D., 2019. RETRO ANALYSIS: THE SCIENCE OF NOSTALGIA [INTERVIEW] (30 SEPTEMBER 2019).

REGAN, J., 2017. DECODING FASHION'S NOSTALGIA ADDICTION [INTERVIEW] 2017.

SEDIKIDES, C., 2014. LOOK BACK IN JOY: THE POWER OF NOSTALGIA [INTERVIEW] (NOVEMBER 2014).

Vocaloid Music

By Sio I (Melinda) Leong

Vocaloid, is the official definition, which refers to a voice synthesizer software developed by Yamaha To put it simply, it is a software that can ‘sing like a human’, and the term ‘voice synthesizer’ refers to the way it works. The software consists of two parts: a voice bank which contains a huge number of samples of a real person (the voice provider) singing separate syllables in a constant tone, and the editor, which is where the user will input the lyrics and set their pitch, can choose to adjust some parameters which will change the tone of the voice, if necessary. Finally, the corresponding voice samples are chosen from the voice bank by an algorithm and stitched together, which is why it’s called a synthesizer, then software can sing. But you may be wondering – what’s the point of this technology and why would anyone want to listen to a software sing? Interestingly, although the editor is presented just like any other software user interface, the voice banks, each sampled from a different voice provider are given their own character designs. So, in practice, it feels more like fictional characters are singing through the editor instead of just a software singing, which makes more entertaining and is partly why it gained popularity and eventually attracted many people to write songs using Vocaloid. These are the character designs of some of the most famous Vocaloid singers:

Hatsune Miku (Japan)

Luo Tianyi (China)

I was surprised that Vocaloid was the first ‘footprint’ to come to my mind, because if you asked me what is so special about it, or what kind of footprint it was, I would not have been able to give a specific answer. I hope that throughout this article, I will have an opportunity to reflect on what my experiences with Vocaloid in the past few years have truly meant to me, as well as introducing you to this fascinating technology and the really cool community behind it. I came across Vocaloid music in 2019 and the slightly electrical voices in it immediately took my attention; it was not like anything I had heard before and this sense of unfamiliarity is probably one of the main features that has attracted me since then. Eagerly wanting to find out more about it, whether it was the way this technology worked or the other cultural aspects, I soon came to discover that most people who write songs using Vocaloid singers will upload their finished work onto Niconico or Bilibili, the Japanese and Chinese versions of YouTube, and on these platforms they are commonly referred to as ‘producers’ by their fans, perhaps as a title of respect. Two years later, I started a channel on Bilibili to share the music I had created using Vocaloid and this was a very memorable turning point for me, as it meant that I was no longer just appreciating other producers’ work from a distance but coming closer to the centre of the community and having a more immersive experience, which I really enjoy. The way that I could be a figure completely separate to who I am in real life, almost anonymously attracting attention and appreciation purely through the music I created was a really exciting, new, and satisfying experience. In particular, I was invited to collaborate

with other producers last summer and we wrote a song as a present for one of my favourite producers’ birthday, I realised how unbelievable it was that Vocaloid can bring so many people together, who otherwise would never have known each other. I will forever be glad that I have been a part of this community Of course, even before I became a producer, I loved listening to other producers’ songs and seeing how they explore a wide range of topics, some of which really motivated me while studying, and some felt deeply touching. This has always reminded me of the reason why I wanted to become a producer in the first place – because I admired their ability to write songs that are so relatable, even delivered through the software’s slightly unnatural voice, the audience understands what the producer was trying to express. As another one of my favourite producers would say, "there’s a moment when the mechanical heartbeat resonates with a soul of flesh", and it’s something I find incredible. Finally, I would like to share with you some lyrics from my favourite Vocaloid song. It starts with the main character asking herself, "Am I a planet that will disappoint the stargazers too, am I destined to fall into the devour of gravity?" At the end, she answers herself: "Before I lose all my strength, before I’m destroyed, before I become crazy, I would still like to show you the coordinates of the paradise". It has remained my favourite song for many reasons, but I also believe the last sentence is a perfect answer to the question, ‘What is so special about Vocaloid?’ I have been inspired by the producers I love I hope one day, my Vocaloid music will be able to inspire others too. My producer name is aq ueous (remember to include underscore) on Bilibili and YouTube!

Footprints On The Moon: the Story of the Space Race

In 1961, John F Kennedy addressed Congress and spoke directly to NASA. It is said that his words were what inspired the ultimate American dream of space exploration: "I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieve the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the moon and returning him safely back to earth."

At the time the Space Race was already in full swing and USSR and USA began to compete with increased fervour with a common aim.

This aim was to achieve one of the greatest explorative feats ever know, whilst simultaneously proving their country’s superiority.

After World War II, a new conflict rose to the fore, famously referred to as ‘The Cold War.’ Rooted in stark ideological differences, the conflict brought the world to the brink of a nuclear battle, reaching the pinnacle of political tensions with the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1972. The Cold War was different to what is considered typical warfare, this was due to the fact that no direct, physical fighting between the two powers ever took place. Only indirect conflict occurred, through proxy wars such as the Korean War from 1950-53 and parts of the Vietnam War. Instead of direct, physical fighting, a nuclear arms race dominated decades of political tension following WWII. This was ultimately instigated by a mutual desire to compete and prove that each superpower was inferior to the other.

CHARLOTTE BENSON

Propaganda was central to this and espionage was rifethe desire to get to the moon first was not simply to exhibit technological prowess but to also to demonstrate the whole nations greatness. Neither country would admit to defeat.

In 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik, the world’s first artificial satellite and the first man-made object to be put in the Earth’s orbit. A year later the president in office at the time, Dwight Eisenhower, officially established the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).

In 1961, the USSR’s Yuri Gagarin, became the first person to orbit the Earth, putting NASA on the backfoot of space exploration and invoking considerable damage on the American image within the Cold War. However, within a mere few months, astronaut Alan Shepard became the first American in space. Now, the race was on to get the first man on the moon.

On 16 July 1969, with the whole world watching, the United States launched Apollo 11 with the objective of placing the first human footprints on the moon. The legendary mission was a success and the astronaut, Neil Armstrong became the

first person ever to step on the moon, closely followed by his crewmate, Buzz Aldrin. These are both household names, however many do not know that there was a third crewmember, Michael Collins. Without him, the landing or return home would not have been possible - his job was to remain in lunar orbit, then when the Eagle launched away from the moon, he had seconds to get into the right position and dock with the top of the Eagle. Collins spent 21 and a half hours alone in the command module preparing for one of the most important parts of the mission, getting them back home.

Not only had the United States succeeded in putting a man on the moon, but the following year NASA yet again proved its ingenuity by saving three astronauts after an accident in space. The long standing superstition that 13 is an unlucky number is by no means helped by the infamous line from 1970, when NASA launched Apollo 13: "Houston, we have a problem…" The words that no one wanted to hear during the third manned mission since Armstrong and Aldrin set foot on the moon. On the third day, about 50 hours after lift-off, astronauts Jack Swigert, Fred Haise and James Lovell felt a vibration, this was the explosion of tank No. 2, which caused tank No. 1 to fail as well. Thirteen minutes after the explosion, Lovell looked out of a window and saw oxygen rapidly escaping from the two tanks. The original mission was immediately abandoned and they focused on getting everyone back to Earth. The mathematicians saved the day by devising a plan where they could take advantage of the moon’s gravity, to sling shot round it and return to Earth.

This theory was met with deliberation due to concerns that the shuttle was not built for that particular use, the theory was put into action and met with relief. All three astronauts returned safely back to Earth and later, the cause of the explosion was found and fixed to ensure future accidents were prevented.

"The Eagle has landed." The whole world watched from the safety of Earth as Neil Armstrong took " one small step for man and one giant leap for mankind." To this day, the footprint he placed on the moon remains- no wind can blow it away. It physically signifies one of the most momentous milestones in human exploration and one of most critical periods of political conflict in modern history. The uproar from all over the world could be heard, even the scientists stepped away from their monitors for the

first time in hours and celebrated their great achievement. Although the Russians were the first to put a person into space, it was concluded that America had won the Space Race

In 1969, President Kennedy’s wish came true and even though he wasn’t there to see it, we are sure he would have been glad.

THE HISTORY OF THE SPACE RACE

PHILLIPA DRYSDALE

On 20 July 1969, Neil Armstrong stepped out of the Apollo 11 spacecraft and planted the American flag on the surface of the moon. This is arguably one of the most pivotal moments in history; marking the beginning of further space exploration and the end of the infamous Cold War Space Race. The Space Race took place in a period where governments worldwide were recovering from the economic fragility caused by World War II, which ended in 1945. By 1948, the Cold War was in full flow, the main parties (the Soviet Union and America) supported by their respective allies, battled in a fierce competition to prove superiority in every sense. The conflict stemmed initially from deep ideological rifts and separation. Leaders such as Stalin and President Truman saw communism and capitalism as inextricably different and could not settle the differences. By the mid-1950s, the two superpowers' views were mutually rooted in hostility and antipathy for one another. The Cold War was well underway and the struggle for global, ideological power was increasing at an alarming rate. An arms race, the increasing threat of nuclear war and espionage set the scene perfectly for the creation of NASA, which was the American company standing for:

National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

On 4 October 1957, the world-renowned satellite, ‘Sputnik,’ was sent into space by the Soviet Union. America promptly responded to this; the launch of Sputnik was not merely a feat of outstanding technical engineering but had drastically enhanced the USSR’s position within the race to gain a technological edge over one another - this was critical to their position in the Cold War. NASA was consequently created the following yearthe same year that the US launched its first ever satellite, Explorer 1, on 31 January 1958. NASA was closely followed by the creation of two military and RAF run space programs that focused solely on exploiting the military uses of space. Tension only increased the year after, when the USSR launched Luna 2, the first ever probe to hit the moon. Two years later, in 1961, Yuri Gagarin became the first man in space. This major landmark was achieved by the Soviet Union and the first American in space, Alan Shepard, followed a month later. By 1962 NASA's project Apollo was in place. Over the next couple of years, NASA's budget was increased by nearly 500% and both sides launched multiple successful and unsuccessful orbiting missions, probes and satellites.

The leader of the Soviet Union Space Program experienced an untimely death in 1966, in the height of the Space Race. However, Apollo likewise suffered a setback in 1967 when three astronauts were killed after their spacecraft caught fire in a launch simulation. In 1968, NASA launched Apollo 8, the first manned mission to orbit the moon and in the following July 1969, Apollo 11 was launched. 1969 indeed marked a critical moment in space exploration and technological advancements. Equally as significant Neil Armstrong’s legendary words, "One small step for man and one giant leap for mankind," marked the end of the Cold War Space Race. However, arguably the competition between the two superpowers to gain the technical edge over one another, will never culminate. They will always strive for further goals, technology will continue to develop and each country will doubtlessly pursue more ambitious missions in space exploration. Recently, NASA launched the spacecraft, Orion, as part of the Artemis programme, which is a spacecraft designed to be able to carry humans. It has successfully reached 430,000km away from Earth, which is the furthest any spacecraft designed to hold humans has ever ventured.

Its first launch was successful in December 2014 and is now in space completing the next stage of its testing: orbiting the moon. Now, other current superpowers have joined the competition. The Artemis programme is the next step in NASA's plan to put us one step further in this perpetual and fascinating competition. It will, without a doubt, reach unimaginable heights, both literally and symbolically, in the years to come.

NATUREVSNURTURE

KatieBeeson

At a first glance it appears the patriarchy is a universal trend – a ‘natural’ and essential part of our society. Yet, is the patriarchy an inevitable part of our social fabric or a recent historical phenomenon? This is a vast and hugely debated topic which covers many different fields of study, but for the sake of keeping the argument concise, this article with focus on a particular area of personal interest. In a literal sense, the word 'patriarchy' derives from Greek: ‘the father is the beginning,’ as opposed to 'matriarchy', meaning 'beginning, origin, uterus.’ These are key definitions for a thematic thread that this article will follow. The core of it will feature claims regarding the relationship between historical understanding of conception and social hierarchy, along with what we can learn about our social structure from this today. There is a theory which grew in popularity, initially in feminist circles in the 1970s and 80s, of a matriarchal prehistory. The argument follows along the lines of: ‘before patriarchy grasped the globe in its bloody talons,’ [1] woman’s divine spirituality and

her seemingly mythical ability to independently create life, earned her power and respect within a community. According to some, it seems likely that early human populations did not know that intercourse led to offspring- they only developed an awareness of this later, largely through the observation of breeding animals and the rise of agriculture [2] . Thus, their argument that reproduction was believed to be independent to woman does not seem unreasonable. In the first chapters of her book, ‘The Women's History of the World’, Rosalind Miles, amongst others, empowers woman sexually, placing an exaggerated position on men in this society as ‘the expendable consort, the sacrificial king, the disposable drone.’ Miles emphasises that 'woman was everything; he was nothing’, [3] as it is woman who are the true creator of life and the man’s role is comparatively unimportant. This argument for the events of history is compelling for many reasons.

Cynthia Eller, amongst others, articulates her intrigue with ‘the idea of female rule or female "centeredness" in society […as] a reversal that had a sweet taste of power and revenge’. [4] However, at the turn of the century, popular opinion shifted. Eller herself acknowledged fatal flaws in the latter half of her book, carefully clipping every thread from which this matriarchal myth is woven. The argument of an exaggerated matriarchal pre-history, which saw women as the incarnation of a ‘Great Goddess’ and men as little more than an afterthought, is based on assumptions and generalisations with little evidence.

These claims can also be supported by currently existing matriarchal societies around the world such as: the Minangkabau in Indonesia or the indigenous Bribri people in Costa Rica. [6] These societies have women at the centre of their communities and often practice matrilocality – although the men of these communities are not deemed worthless to the degree that Miles or Eller defined in their matriarchy. However, these examples amongst many others present a question: if female subordination was universal and wired into our fundamental makeup as humans, these societies and cultures would surely cease to exist? It is important that we are conscious of the wider world - we are often absorbed into a Eurocentric understanding of culture and society. Thus, in turn, we forget that international and universal diversity provides perspective - in this case the existence of these indigenous, often tribal communities, could confirm the theory that early human tribes may

have too developed into a female centred structure.

The argument continues along the lines that: once science evolved and man realised his part in the reproductive process, they placed importance upon themselves as the ‘creators’ and the world saw a slow but universal rise of patriarchy. In more modern history, looking at the development ideas of conception could also help to explain the power imbalance and whether the rise in patriarchy was truly inevitable. In 17th century England, two theories of conception were wildly popularised. The first of which belonged to Aristotle and had been widely accepted for about 2000 years This theory stated that the woman provided the ‘matter’ for the child, through her menstrual blood, while the male’s semen gave that ‘matter’ form. The 1600s saw immense progress in our understanding of conception with the discovery of the female egg - although it would take another 150 years of confusion to understand what this discovery meant - no one had yet seen a human egg, and would not do so until 1827. Thinking was still dominated by the notion that only one of the two parental components provided the matter of which new life was made, often this was in favour of the sperm.

[7] This being true, the rise of patriarchy being due to cultural and misogynistic misinterpretations of biology instead of due to some innate inevitability continues to be supported. n conclusion, both genders fundamentally have had important roles in society and the history of humanity.

However, to argue that universal female subordination is innate based on historical, often misogynistic misconceptions of human biology, appears disingenuous. While there are countless other factors to consider, in agreement with most modern sociobiologists, it seems male dominance is not inevitable and perhaps that it is the interpretation of the value of biology, that determines the place of the genders in society.

Thus, a more egalitarian society is entirely plausible if one changes what

they view as important. Significant progress has been made in the last century to work towards greater gender equality After thousands of years of unjust oppression, perhaps with removal of many cultural misunderstandings and a change in the value of women’s contributions to society, I certainly believe that there is hope and we can further re-mould our society for the better

References

[1] Natalie Angier: Goddess Theory (2000)

[2] M Cobb: An Amazing 10 Years: The Discovery of Egg and Sperm in the 17th Century (2012)

[3] Rosalind Miles: The Women's History of the World (1988)

[4] Cynthia Eller: The Myth of Matriarchal Prehistory (2000)

[5] Yuval Noah Harari Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind (2011)

[6] Sheena Joseph: Women Lead Here: 8 Matriarchal Societies Around The World (2019)

[7] M Cobb: An Amazing 10 Years: The Discovery of Egg and Sperm in the 17th Century (2012)

INGVAR KAMPRAD

Tanitoluwa Akeju

Footprints. The word ‘footprints’ could mean many things; and I interpret it as what mark one engraves in the world; what legacy one has or has left behind; and what it takes to create that. Hence, I decided to write about someone who created an empire in the world of furniture retail back in 1943, one that has henceforth never ceased to positively impact the world: Ingvar Kamprad, the founder of IKEA

In the early 21st century, IKEA is the world’s largest furniture retailer. The company is internationally renowned for manufacturing high-quality products at surprisingly low prices, with sustainability standing as one of its principal objectives. Not only did these techniques and principles make the Swedish brand the top furniture retailer on the planet, but they have catapulted it among the most successful brands in the world. Kamprad was born on 30 March 1926 in Pjätteryd, Sweden. Business had piqued his interest since the age of 5, and as a young boy, Kamprad would sell matches to neighbours on his bicycle. Eventually, he discovered that he could buy matches in bulk at exceedingly low prices from Stockholm, and sell them cheaply while still earning good profits. This was made possible by his aunt, whom on a visit to Stockholm, helped him purchase 100 boxes of matches for 0.88 SEK each. He then sold these matches for a profit of 0.01 to 0.05 SEK per piece. Kamprad also sold Christmas cards, fish he caught himself and berries he collected. He reinvested his profits and expanded to seeds, Christmas decorations and items of stationery

In 1943, at the mere age of 17, Kamprad registered IKEA. The acronym contains his initials, Ingvar Kamprad, and of Elmtaryd and Agunnaryd, where he grew up. Permission was required for him to start a business. He obtained a document from his father, but still lacked the signature of his main guardian. Therefore, he got on his bicycle and sought him in Bankaboda, near Agunnaryd. After some persuasion, the signature was secured. His signature is what instigated the start of his billion-dollar empire. IKEA was originally a mail order company without stores It then began to sell everything ranging from pens, wallets and picture frames, to watches, jewellery and nylon stockings. As the business grew, Kamprad started distributing catalogues. In 1948, IKEA introduced inexpensive furniture, and as a result of its immense success, the company narrowed down to

only offering home furnishings in 1951. Two years later he opened a showroom in Almhult, Sweden. However, the extraordinarily low prices of these products infuriated his competitors, who thus resorted to pressurising Swedish suppliers into boycotting the company. Kamprad responded by having IKEA design its own merchandise and forming contracts with foreign businesses for materials.

In 1956, Kamprad introduced IKEA’s original flat-boxed furniture, designed to be assembled at home, which marked the company’s breakthrough. These new items diminished shipping and labour costs drastically and enabled customers to easily transport newly-purchased products back to their homes. The compact size of the packaged merchandise also meant that items could be stocked at a sales location instead of in a separate warehouse, and consequently, the first IKEA retail outlet opened in 1958. This was followed by the launch of chain stores, initially in several countries in Western Europe, which then spread to other regions. Over the next 50 years, nearly 300 IKEA stores were opened around the world. The vibrantly distinctive stores — each one characterised by an iconic blue and yellow roof, typically had over 80,000 items in stock and even featured children’s play areas and restaurants.

In 2000, IKEA launched its online shop, expanding the company rapidly. By 2003 its popularity led its catalogue to have the world’s largest annual print run; and by 2009 it was being issued in over two dozen languages. IKEA’s phenomenal success made Kamprad one of the richest men in the world of the early 21st century. In his autobiography, ‘Historien om IKEA’, which translates into ‘The IKEA Story’, Kamprad conveys the challenges he faced in building his company. Kamprad was awarded numerous medals, orders, and honours. This includes the H.M. The King’s Medal, the Royal Order of Vasa and a gold medal from the Swedish Academy of Engineering.

In 2010, Kamprad was granted a Lifetime Achievement Award by the Swedish Chamber of Commerce, presented to him at the 50th anniversary celebrations of the Swedish Chamber of Commerce in the Netherlands. Sequentially, his portrait wassubmitted to the National Portrait Collection as an Honorary Portrait. The collection, housed at Grips Holm Castle, is the world’s oldest national portrait collection, with over 4600 portraits from the late 16th century to the present.

On 27 January 2018, following a brief yet insurmountable wave of pneumonia, Ingvar Kamprad died in repose at his home in Småland, Sweden, at the grand age of 91.

In 2020, IKEA ranked seventh on a global scale of the most valuable retailer brands, valued at nearly $19 billion. Having 446 operating stores in 52 countries in 2022, a stark increase is evidenced in comparison to 2013, during which IKEA only had 345 stores worldwide. Moreover, since 2015, IKEA’s food sales have grown by an estimate of a remarkable 8% per annum! It is hard to believe that all of this was kindled and ignited by a young boy’s relentless drive and determination to succeed.

Ju-Eun Park

I argue that the British constitutional monarchy should not cease to exist as they are a figurehead representation of the United Kingdom. To me, the meaning of existence is the constant presence of something or someone within our life. The monarchy has existed for centuries and terminating the monarchy now would be a brazen step.

I have reason to believe this because for centuries the monarchy has played a significant role within society. Although they are ‘royal’ and can be seen as ‘untouchable’- they have the largest platform one could have to advocate important issues and break stigmas to the public. There would be no better way to raise attention for a particular cause than for a popular member of the royal family to be an ambassador.

This is because royals frequently appear on the news and in the tabloids and, speaking as a member of the public, you cannot help but become interested in them because of the different lifestyles they inhabit compared to the rest of the world This leads us to become infatuated with their lives, hence also the organisations they support. Abolishing the monarchy would in turn be terminating the support for certain charities and their main funds, coming from the monarchy, would also stop

Furthermore, the constitutional monarchy has a wealth of influence and boosts the idea of national unity. The name ‘United Kingdom’ consists of kingdoms brought together by the British Royal Family. The 21st century royals hold a reputation that they live moral and respectful lives and therefore the public perception is that they must be moral and respectful themselves. When a person is seen as moral and respectful, a person’s views and actions should be moral and respectful as well. Likewise, the 21st century monarchy has always held a standard to be proper ladies and gentlemen, so everything they do is regarded as apposite. The actions the 21st century monarchs will take after events are an example of what the UK symbolises or represents to foreigners in other countries, and therefore their actions are regarded as the ultimate example that people should follow. All countries have that image or view that springs into one’s mind when they think of that particular country. When people think of the UK, they think of the monarchy and its dynasty. They immediately associate the countries within the UK with the morals and characteristics that the monarchy embody. The British constitutional monarchy represents the definition of sophistication and affluent. This projects a view to the world that the United Kingdom is rich and affluent. Hence why the monarchy holds such

an influence, not just in the making of the United Kingdom but its image.

On the other hand, some argue that the British monarchs impose bad influences on societal values and the democratic system. A reason for this argument is shown in the behaviour of certain monarchs throughout historythe unjust exploitation they created through their power, through hierarchical systems such as the Feudal System; detaining the democratic values being established in society. Some argue it is unfair how much attention and money the British monarchy gather simply from their existence alone. They argue the attention of the public is drawn to futile matters such as the lives of the royal members as opposed to the prevalent issues in the world. Others are not against the monarchy’s existence but rather, they believe the monarchy no longer fits in with the modern world we live in today and their traditional values and beliefs do not align with the action that is required of the people in modern society.

In conclusion, I argue that the British constitutional monarchy holds many valuable benefits to society and although a monarchy can never be perfect, the British constitutional monarchy has aided in important events throughout history and will continue to do so with good influence.

OliviaFane

Carbon Footprint

The term carbon footprint is often a very misunderstood and misused term. Of course, it is metaphorical so open for interpretation, but many people are led to believe that your carbon footprint is the amount of carbon released into the atmosphere by an individual person. What people do not realise, is that there is a very important key word that has been left out of this term: Dioxide. In this constantly changing modern day world, most governments, individuals, and organisations have pinned the problem of climate change and increasing global temperatures on one simple element, known to us as carbon. However, carbon is actually the basis to over ten million compounds on earth and is often considered the backbone to many organisms. Carbon compounds occur naturally in great abundance, and it is in fact not carbon that we should be placing the blame on.

Carbon dioxide has existed for 4.5 billion years, and there has been no evidence of climate change until the arrival of modern homo sapiens 160,000 years ago. Since then, the simultaneous equation involving the natural world and its relationship with humans has been unbalanced. This is one of the most obvious examples of the disruption that humans have caused to the earth during their existence. Plants and animals have coexisted for over 100 million years, as plants absorb the carbon dioxide that humans exhale and humans breathe in the Oxygen that diffuses out of plants.

This relationship was maintained for an extremely long time until homo sapiens started to advance in their ways, first the Iron Age, then the Stone Age and eventually through to the Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions. The coexistence of these organisms has shown that carbon and carbon dioxide are just as necessary and essential as oxygen for the survival of each species in order to continue.

Our past actions have resulted in us having to take immediate control over the situation we are currently in.

The fact is humans dislike what they cannot understand, and the huge incomprehensibility of climate change has led to governments procrastinating with whatever excuse they can find instead of fixing this problem. One of the main factors adding to climate change are the amounts of greenhouse gases we release into the atmosphere. In order to provide heat and running water for a large number of homes, it is necessary to have a sufficient supply of electricity produced from the combustion of fossil fuels. However, over the years this energy supply has started to be over generated in order to keep up with the constantly increasing demands of these resources. An obvious example of this is in South Africa, where load shedding has been put into place, scheduled at specific times; this is where the electricity supply is cut in certain areas because of the incapability of the government to supply the community with sufficient electricity. Demands are increasing, and yet the world's ability to provide for these demands is lessening exponentially. Carbon dioxide is being pumped into the atmosphere as a result of human overpopulation and the increasing demand for consumer goods. The point is that any sort of greenhouse has been around for billions of years and are needed for the survival of everything on this planet. Without them heat would escape from the atmosphere easily and the average surface temperature would be around -20 degrees Celsius.

Jonas Salk

On 12 April 1955, people across the US celebrated and rejoiced. It was the day one of the first succeeding polio vaccines was publicly announced safe and effective after careful monitoring of the test results. The man behind all this?

Jonas Stalk. Born 28 October 1914, Stalk grew up in New York, and attended the City College of New York as well as the New York University School of Medicine. In 1947, he accepted a professorship in the School of Medicine at the University of Pittsburgh, where he started a project trying to determine the number of different types of polioviruses, before then dedicating himself to developing a polio vaccine for the following seven years, during a time when there were more outbreaks than ever before in the US. The vaccine he was developing, contrary to how most scientists were working, rather than using a dangerous live vaccine, Stalk decided to try using weakened types of strains of polio viruses, much like Albert Sabin who was also developing an oral vaccine. After a series of tests, his vaccine finally came into use in 1955, and by the 21st century, cases of polio were down by 99% worldwide in less than two decades, with just two cases of wild poliovirus recorded last year. Overnight, he became a hero and received much fame and attention for the vaccine. However, this was where a problem arose. Despite all the awards and opportunities he would receive, Stalk was resentful of his newly found status as a celebrity and saw it as an invasion of privacy due to his many admirers. He was also rather disliked among the scientific community, with his methods being seen as improper, and scientists

HISTORY'S FORGOTTEN LEGACIES

Gabrielle Yue

mockingly attached his name to the vaccine in case of failure when administered, rumours also started spreading about the dangers of the vaccine. Despite his success, Dr Stalk was never properly honoured for his discovery, having been denied entry into the National Academy of Science, of which Albert Sabin was a member, who later called Dr Stalk’s vaccine “kitchen work”. Wishing to continue further work on biology and society, he established the Salk Institute for Biological Studies in San Diego later on and even there he was disrespected before being used as a figurehead. He deserved better, would one not have thought?

Mary Beatrice Davidson Kenner

Nowadays, sanitary products for periods are available largely worldwide in many different innovative forms, including tampons, menstrual cups, period pants and pads. Certainly, that was not always case. In the 1920s, pads at the time didn’t have the adhesive that they do now, and menstruation was considered taboo. Women were advised to stay at home, and many created their own products using rags or clothes and commercial products were only ever used if required to leave the house. Then, in came Mary Kenner. Kenner was born on 17 May 1912, into a family of inventors, such as her grandfather who invented a tricolour light for signalling in trains or her father who patented a travel-sized clothing presser. Due to this interest within her family, she started inventing at a young age, such as the attempt she made to create a self-oiling hinge for doors at the age of 6. In the 1950s, after having dropped out from Howard University around 1933, due to gender and racial discrimination, she became a florist and continued to invent in her free time. The idea came in the 1920s, when she first created the sanitary belt, but at the time she couldn’t afford a patent. Over time, she continuously improved it, and 3 years later, she filed another patent for a “sanitary belt with a moisture proof pocket”. The whole idea of the belt was to prevent menstrual blood from leaking onto clothing, a very common occurrence at the time, and the improved version made it even more unlikely for the blood to leak out. In fact, the Sonn-Nap-Pack Company heard of her invention in 1957, and were interested in producing it, yet when they

learnt she was African American, the interest was dropped She described the situation in an interview saying, “One day I was contacted by a company that expressed an interest in marketing my idea. I was so jubilant…I saw houses, cars and everything about to come my way, […] Sorry to say, when they found out I was black, their interest dropped” Later on, she also created other inventions, such as an improved version of a toilet paper holder, as well as an attachment for a walker that she created for her sister Mildred who had multiple sclerosis, that could be used to carry things around. Yet, by the 1970s, beltless pads were invented and as tampons grew more popular, women stopped using sanitary belts. Nonetheless, the sanitary belt was the precursor to the adhesive pads and led to the evolution of the ever-adapting menstrual products women use all over the world, leading her to be regarded as the forgotten inventor who revolutionised menstrual products. Her other inventions, also having evolved over time, with versions of them still remaining in use Despite her not having received any awards or formal recognition for her work, she still holds the record for the greatest number of patents, five, granted to an African American woman by the US government.

Claudette Colvin

Many of you have probably heard of Rosa Parks, and her role in the Montgomery Bus Boycott, when she refused to move from her seat to let a white passenger sit down, she defied segregation laws, and was honoured "the first lady of civil rights" and "the mother of the freedom movement" by the US government. Yet, did you know that nine months before that incident, the exact same thing happened to a different girl, Claudette Colvin. On 2 March 1955, Claudette and her friends were let out of school early after having finished their classes, and they decided to take the bus back. During that time, white people sat at the front and African American people sat at the back. Bus drivers had the power to assign seats and so if more white passengers got on the bus, he would ask for the seats of the African American people. And so, the problem arose, as the driver wanted her and her friends to move to the back and stand so the white passenger can sit. Claudette agreed later on if that had been an elderly person, she would have had no trouble with moving, however it was a young white woman. Three of the students had gotten up reluctantly, but she refused to move, stating that it was her constitutional right to remain sitting as she had paid her fare, remembering all the famous figures that she was taught at school, such as Harriet Tubman. The driver kept going, but then stopped at a junction where a police car was waiting, and the policemen forcefully took her off the bus and handcuffed her when she grew more defiant. However, instead of being taken to a juvenile detention centre, she was

taken to an adult jail and had to be bailed out by her mother. On the car ride there, she said that the police officers who took her to the station made sexual comments on her body, and she was terrified of being sexually assaulted as it was common at the time, especially as one of the police officers sat in the back with her. She remembered how afraid she felt when she heard the lock to the cell click, and how alone she felt there.

Despite her being the first person to be arrested, whilst her story only made a few local papers, when it happened to Rosa Parks, that story was known all over the world. She knew Rosa Parks personally, as she was approached by her during the aftermath of her arrest, and the two became close for a while.

When Rosa became the face of the bus boycott later, at the time she was pleased that the adults in her community were taking a stand against the segregation they experience.

However, when thinking about it now, it gives a different feeling, she realised that the NAACP wanted a different person who would be more likeable, someone who was more presentableRosa. In comparison to her, Rosa had lighter skin and Claudette had knotty hair, and it did not help that she got pregnant soon after the incident. She recalled her mother telling her to stay silent about it, and Rosa Parks stated that if reporters got a hold of this story, they would have had a field day and the Bowder vs Gayle case, in which Claudette was one out of the four plaintiffs, would have been dropped. Later, she moved to New York, yet never told anyone of what happened, as people simply did not care much. Due to her silence, she is now one of the most under recognised figures of civil rights and deserves much more recognition. If it wasn’t for her and the four other plaintiffs, Aurelia Browder, Susie McDonald, and Mary Louise Smith, there may not have been a Rosa Parks, a Martin Luther King, or a Thurgood Marshall. Yet she isn’t the only who has been forgotten by the history books, due to the face the NAACP was trying to broadcast, with male leaders making up the overwhelming majority of leaders in the South.

How many more stories have been forgotten? How many cries against the unjust of the system have been unseen?

Lara Hallas

DIGITAL FOOTPRINT DIGITAL FOOTPRINT DIGITAL FOOTPRINT

The typical definition of a footprint is ‘an impression of a foot on a surface.’ But as we advance in technology and mechanics, many different types of footprints are being discovered. And not the type that you can physically see, but the type that is an impression of how you live in the environment around you.

A digital footprint is something that most people have nowadays. But what is a digital footprint? By definition, it is ‘the information about a particular person that exists on the internet as a result of their online activity.’ But that is not the entirety of it. A digital footprint is not limited to the internet and it can be described in many ways. However, there is not really one definition that can sum it up in one sentence. It is almost crucial for us to leave a presence online otherwise the only thing that can record it is probably a diary.

There are so many aspects to a digital footprint, like your online presence on social media, the websites you visit, the information you look up or even the emails and text messages you send. Digital footprints are made up of: the passive, which is the information you do not intend to leave behind; the active, which is the information that you share knowingly; the personally identifiable, which is the information that is linked to the users real name; the anonymous, which is the data that conceals your IP address; the user input, which is the data in a result to what you have searched for before; and finally, the sensor data, which is generated due to the sensors online.

Just how big can your footprint get? It might be shocking, but the average person posts more than 10,000 post in their lifetime. On the other hand, if you are a modern person, you will take around 10,000 photos, post 11,000 social media posts, and use 100 email addresses on average.

There are many positive aspects to a digital footprint: it helps identify scams, saves information, and learns what you might like to buy, watch, listen to etc. It helps identify cybercriminals, hackers and trackers and tracks your online behaviour. However, they can also have some negatives, for example your personal information can be making money without your knowledge or consent, unwanted advertisements can pop up frequently and if you make a mistake online unwillingly it will be recorded forever, even if you delete it.

Finally, if you want to stay safe online, and be able to preserve your digital footprint here are some tips: always think about the long run before posting something online, use privacy settings on social networks, keep personal information private and protect the privacy of you and your friends.

DNA FOOTPRINTING

AliceBoyle

DNA footprinting is defined in the Merriam-Webster medical dictionary as the ‘identification of the binding sites between a specific DNA and a protein. This is done by subjecting a complex of the DNA and protein to chemical digestion and comparing the resulting fragments with those obtained by digestion of the same DNA which does not have some of its cleavage sites protected by binding with the protein’.

A protein often interacts with DNA in order to initiate or regulate a biological function, as they are involved in many cellular processes. Scientists can use DNA footprinting to determine the exact location at which the protein binds to the DNA sequence. This is useful for investigating specific DNA-protein interactions, such as identifying functional genes. The technique was first discovered in 1978, when David Galas and Albert Schmitz were studying the binding specificity of the lac repressor protein. The lac repressor protein binds to a sequence of DNA in a bacterium and inhibits the expression of genes coding for proteins involved in the metabolism of lactose.

Through their work, Galas and Schmitz were able to determine the exact location of the binding site and the technique has later been applied to many other situations. They also established that the accuracy of DNA footprinting was increased when performed in vitro with a purified and small segment of DNA.

When a protein has bound to a sequence of nitrogenous bases in the DNA molecule, that specific sequence is then protected from fragmentation. The enzyme deoxyribonuclease (DNase) cuts the unprotected regions of the double stranded molecule into fragments. This can be displayed on an autoradiographwhich is a photograph of an object produced by radiation from radioactive material in the object. Gaps are shown in the pattern where the protein has protected the DNA sequence from being cleaved, i.e. it has been split into fragments.

To determine where the protein-binding sites are, a purified fragment of DNA first has to be radiolabelled at one end with a 32P nucleotide. This usually occurs at the 5’ end of the sequence, which is where the fifth carbon atom on the deoxyribose sugar in the DNA nucleotide is exposed. This radiolabelling allows for the autoradiogram to detect the fragmentation of the DNA sequence and the ‘footprints’ are therefore displayed in the autoradiograph. Nuclear proteins are then added to the radiolabelled DNA. These proteins will bind to the DNA sequence at specific binding sites, such as transcription factors binding at the start of the sequence of nitrogenous bases composing a gene. The proteins will protect those specific regions from being cleaved by DNase. A control experiment is also set up in which no nuclear proteins are added, so that the autoradiogram can be compared to that

of the pattern produced from the mixture containing nuclear proteins. The enzyme DNase is a cleaving agent, meaning that it is able to modify the sequence of DNA by cutting it into fragments. When added to the mixture of DNA and nuclear proteins, the DNase cuts the double stranded molecule at various sites. However, it is not able to cleave the DNA sequence where the nuclear proteins are bound because the proteins prevent cleavage at these locations. The fragments of DNA are then subjected to electrophoresis gel which displays the fragments after an electric current has been applied. When displayed on an autoradiograph, the fragments containing protein-binding sites are shown as gaps in the sequence which are known as footprints. This can then be used to understand which sequence of nitrogenous bases the protein has bound to. This technique is commonly used to identify the binding sites of transcription factors. Transcription factors are proteins that control the rate of transcription from DNA to mRNA during protein synthesis. They often bind to the DNA at sequences known as promoter regions, which are located at the start of the gene where transcription starts They are then able to cause the repression or stimulation of gene transcription and can therefore altar the phenotype which is the expressed characteristic determined by the alleles of the gene.

FOOTPRINTS

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Sio I (Melinda) Leong / Charlotte Benson / Phillipa Drysdale / Katie Beeson / Tanitoluwa Akeju / Lara Hallas / Isabella Gharagozlou / Gabrielle Yue / Ju-Eun Park / Olivia Fane / Jocelyn Yue / Alice Boyle

LIST OF EDITORS

Tacita Rhys Williams / Camilla Hale / Jocelyn Yue / Alice Boyle / Sophie Li

Many thanks to the contributors for their articles, and Mme Reichardt, Mrs Lister and the Marketing Department for their support