Endnotes
1
2 3
4
5
6
7 8 9
The terms Internet and www are sometimes used interchangeably; however, there is a difference. The Internet is a network of networks connected by TCP/IP. Sometimes, the term Internet is used to encompass infrastructure, applications (e‑mail, ftp, Web), and content. The www is just one of many Internet applications, a system of interlinked documents connected with the help of the HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP). Following a policy of technological neutrality, the EU has been using the term ‘electronic com‑ munications’ instead of ‘telecommunications’. This covers, for example, Internet traffic over the electrical grid, which is not part of the telecommunications infrastructure. Power Line Communications (PLC) allow the transmission of Internet data via the electrical grid. Given its deep capillarity, the use of the power grid would make the Internet more accessi‑ ble to many users. For a technical and organisational review of this facility, please consult: Palet J (2003) Addressing the Digital Divide with IPv6‑enabled Broadband Power Line Communica‑ tion, Internet Society, ISOC Member Briefing No. 13. Available at http://www.isoc.org/brief‑ ings/013 [accessed 7 October 2016]. Project Loon was launched by Google with the aim of increasing the broadband coverage and reach out to the most remote areas of the world which do not have any telecom infrastructure. The company is launching numerous balloons to the stratosphere, at about 20 km above ground, each of which act as a floating base station providing a signal to the end‑users. The balloons are connected to each other and to the earth base stations through high‑speed links, provided by partner telecom operators. According to the ITU, Television White Spaces are ‘portions of spectrum left unused by [TV] broadcasting, also referred to as interleaved spectrum’. Since the unused frequencies belong to a part of the spectrum which enables ‘advantageous propagation properties inherent to UHF [TV] spectrum (excellent outdoor and indoor coverage and non line‑of‑sight propagation prop‑ erties)’, as Cristian Gomez of the ITU Radiocommunication Bureau explains, the TVWS are seen as an alternative wide‑range low‑power technology that can serve both for broadband ap‑ plications in rural areas and for machine‑to‑machine (M2M) communications important for the IoT applications. For more information, please consult: ITU (2012) Digital Dividend: In‑ sights for Spectrum Decisions. Available at http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/tech/digital_broadcast‑ ing/Reports/DigitalDividend.pdf [accessed 7 October 2016], and Gomez C (2013) TV White Spaces: Managing spaces or better managing inefficiencies? Available at http://www.itu.int/en/ ITU-D/Conferences/GSR/Documents/GSR_paper_WhiteSpaces_Gomez.pdf [accessed 18 July 2016]. The liberalisation of telecommunications markets of WTO members was formalised in 1998 in the so‑called Basic Telecommunication Agreement (BTA). Following the adoption of the BTA, more than 100 countries began the liberalisation process, characterised by the privatisation of national telecommunications monopolies, the introduction of competition, and the establish‑ ment of national regulatory authorities. The agreement is formally called The Fourth Protocol to the General Agreement on Trade in Services (adopted 30 April 1996 and entered into force 5 February 1998). Available at http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/serv_e/4prote_e.htm [ac‑ cessed 7 October 2016]. ITU (no date) Signatories of the Final Acts – WCIT‑12. Available at http://www.itu.int/osg/wcit12/highlights/signatories.html [accessed 7 October 2016]. For more information about ITU’s Internet‑related activities, consult hhttp://www.itu.int/en/ action/internet/Pages/default.aspx [accessed 7 October 2016]. The Digital Object Architecture – a project initiated by Robert Kahn (one of the inventors of TCP/IP) – aims to associate unique identifiers to each digital object (data and devices). Such identifiers are intended to remain unchanged, irrespective of where the object is located in the networks, who owns it, what technology it is based on, etc. While responsibility for managing 72