Getting from A to B - Experiments in Spatial Orientation Systems by Deny Todorova

Getting from A to B Designing Tools for Alternative Wayfinding Methods

Denitsa Todorova Master Thesis University of the Arts Bremen & University of Bremen Digital Media, Master Programme

Master thesis created as part of the Master Programme Digital Media at University of the Arts Bremen and the University of Bremen

First supervisor: Prof. Peter von Maydell, University of the Arts Bremen Second supervisor: Prof. Dennis Paul, University of the Arts Bremen

Submitted in August 2017 by Denitsa Todorova Immatriculation number: 32102 E-mail: deny.todorova@gmail.com

There are many navigation systems that help you get from A to B as quickly as possible. And then forget it. But what if a system helps you learn your environment faster, so that you do not always need to use additional orientation resources? This Master Thesis is an experiment creating different concepts for alternative wayfinding systems, helping people gain faster precise knowledge of their surroundings. This work consists of two parts: research and experiments. The research was focused on wayfinding behaviour, creating maps, existing navigation systems and devices, possible ways of interaction. Based on this, in the second part, several concepts were suggested, developed as prototypes, tested and improved. Even though the report is devided into two parts, this was an iterative process, so the both parts have been developed in the same time. The end result of this master thesis is a concept and a prototype based on these research and experiments.

Contents Part 1: Research .....................................................................................................................................6 Wayfinding behavior .......................................................................................................................7 Information processing ..............................................................................................................8 Cognitive maps ..............................................................................................................................8 Wayfinding tasks vs. wayfinding means ..............................................................................9 Elements of the wayfinding process and definition of terms ......................................9 New environment ..................................................................................................................... 12 Phases and levels of knowing a place ................................................................................ 13 Cognitive limitations .................................................................................................................... 14 Creating maps ................................................................................................................................. 15 The basics of making maps .................................................................................................... 15 Maps with special functions .................................................................................................. 16 Why do people move and what do they need? ................................................................... 17 Bremen ............................................................................................................................................... 18 What does someone new in Bremen need? .................................................................... 18 Statistics about the transportation ways in Bremen ................................................... 19 Applications, devices and interactions .................................................................................. 20 Navigation systems .................................................................................................................. 20 Augmented reality applications........................................................................................... 22 Navigation and orientation devices ................................................................................ 23 Interactions ................................................................................................................................. 26 Orienteering & geocaching ........................................................................................................ 27 Orienteering ................................................................................................................................ 27 Geocaching .................................................................................................................................. 28

Part 2: Prototypes & experiments ............................................................................................... 30 Experiments ......................................................................................................................................... 31 Task 01: Route description ............................................................................................................. 32 Task 02: Cognitive map.................................................................................................................... 34 Concepts ................................................................................................................................................ 35 The “Navigator”................................................................................................................................... 35 The “Challenges”................................................................................................................................. 36 The “Compass” .................................................................................................................................... 37 Prototypes ............................................................................................................................................ 39 Video ....................................................................................................................................................... 42 Testing the prototypes ..................................................................................................................... 43 Purpose .................................................................................................................................................. 43 Schedule & location........................................................................................................................... 43 Sessions .................................................................................................................................................. 43 Equipment ............................................................................................................................................. 43 Participants .......................................................................................................................................... 43 Scenarios ............................................................................................................................................... 44 Metrics ................................................................................................................................................... 44 Roles ........................................................................................................................................................ 44 Testing .................................................................................................................................................... 45 Results .................................................................................................................................................... 45 Final concept ........................................................................................................................................ 46 Future ideas .......................................................................................................................................... 48 References ............................................................................................................................................ 51 Additional scanned materials ........................................................................................................ 54

Part 1: Research

Wayfinding behavior

The first question of my research is: how do we understand where we are? Gathering more information about wayfinding behaviour, cognitive maps, environment learning and information processing is the base of my future prototypes.

Information processing How do we process the cognitive information, gathered through navigation or wayfinding activities? In the first chapter of his book Wayfinding Behavior. Cognitive Mapping and Other Spatial Processes. Reginald Golledge describes the following steps of processing environmental information (Golledge R. G., 1999, p. I):

Based on this theory, the first prototypes would mosty improve the first phase, acquiring information. In a new unknown area, the focus of the user can be guided to important landmarks specific for the certain area. Furthermore, additional information could be provided later, either visuals or other descriptions in order to improve the coding and storing the new information.

Acquire Code Store Decode Use

Cognitive maps Tolman(1948) mentions for the first time the term cognitive map. Used in many sciences nowadays, cognitive maps are the spatial representation that a person builds while learning a new environment. It is known that in Western cultures space in cognitive maps is represented in Euclidean metric with points, lines, areas, and surfaces (Golledge R. G., 1999, p. 7). While experiencing a new environment, only some parts of it get included in the cognitive representation. This is why it is important to focus the attention of the people on the most important places in a new environment so that they recognize and learn as early as possible the most important landmarks in an area. (Golledge R. G., 1999).

Another important note would be that there may be difference between the internal representation of objects and their real position or distance and this might lead to certain distortions in a cognitive map (Baird, 1982). In a later chapter, this is also proved with experiments with people asked to draw their own maps of Bremen. This proves that an important aim of the prototype would be to improve the sense of direction and distance (Golledge R. , 1999, S. 11), so that the users could build preciser cognitive maps. Additionally, Euclidean metric (points, lines, areas and surfaces) could be used for creating the spatial representations.

Wayfinding tasks vs. wayfinding means Another important point is the difference between wayfinding tasks and wayfinding means. Tasks: traveling to a previously known destination, exploration with the purpose of returning home, and traveling to a novel destination

The home point can be a useful landmark during free exploration of an area, this is why it will be included as a permanent landmark in addition to the other landmarks that appear temporary on the screen (Golledge R. G., 1978, p. 11, 22).

Means: oriented search, following a continuously marked trail, piloting (between landmarks), habitual locomotion, path integration, and reference to a cognitive map

Elements of the wayfinding process and definition of terms The basic wayfinding terms defined by Reginald Golledge (Golledge R. G., 1999, p. 6) that are also going to be used in this documentation: Wayfinding

Legibility

Path or a route between an origin and a destination.

The ease with which a route can become known.

Route

Networked configurations

Trace of sensimotor actions through an environment.

Representing paths or routes as one-dimensional linked segments or being integrated with other paths.

Travel plan

Navigation

An activity that defines the sequence of segments and turn angles that comprise the path to be followed.

1. To steer or direct a ship or aircraft; 2. Deliberately walk or make oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s way through some space.

Pathfinding or wayfinding Selecting paths from a network.

Conclusion

The connection between the single points is important, so it could be included in some way in the prototypes.

they cannot be noticed easily while walking around them or not being visible from far away.

Paths or routes can be represented as one dimensional segments.

The turn angles are also important points; this is why they could also be stored as personal landmarks.

Showing the entire path network and the current position, so that an individual route could be planned.

Improving the legibility of a route: this could happen by pointing at important landmarks in the app, even if

For successful travel The process of selecting paths from a network is called pathfinding or wayfinding (Bovy, 1990). The following steps for pathfinding are known:

The process in a new unknown environment follows those steps: Step one: Search and exploration

Step one: Identify origin and destination Step two: Use of landmarks Step two: Determine turn angles Step three: Identify segment lengths and directions of movement Step four: Recognize on route and distant landmarks Step five: Embed the route to be taken in some larger reference fram

Step three: Spatial updating of oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s location Step four: Recognition of segment length and sequencing Step five: Identification of a frame of reference Step six: Mental trigonometry (triangulation, dead reckoning, and the like)

New environment There are several strategies for learning a new or unexperienced environment (Golledge R. G., 1999, p. 8):

1. Active search and exploration according to specific rules or heuristics.

2. A priori familiarization with secondary information sources about the environment (such as maps, sketches, written or verbal descriptions, and virtual realities).

3. Experience of the environment using controlled navigation practices, including exploration using path integration to maintain knowledge of a home base, exploration and retrace methods, exploration by boundary following, sequenced neighborhood search, and so on.

Learning strategies It is accepted that there are two most common (Golledge R. G., 1999, p. 9) ways of learning an environment:

Route-based knowledge: Experiencing a new environment through a travel process guided by sets of procedural rules.

Survey (or layout or configurational) knowledge: Learning the layout either from an overlooking vantage point or via some symbolic, analog, or iconic modeling (e.g. maps or photographs).

Phases and levels of knowing a place

It is known that there are two phases of learning a new place (Golledge R. G., 1993): 1st phase: Getting to know routes and landmarks, this one does not last very long.

1st level: Knowing certain landmarks, but not knowing the exact connection between them or certain routes. 2nd level: Already knowing certain routes and connections between the landmarks.

2nd phase: Getting precise with the right distance and direction between the certain routes or landmarks, this phase continues much longer.

3rd level: Learning the connection between certain routes or clusters that have already been visited.

Siegel and White (1975) describe several levels of getting to know a new place. This is why the ideas for the navigation system are going to be adapted for those levels:

The aim of the prototypes is going to be to help the users move to the next phase or level and this is why it is always going to show one step ahead of the current level of the user.

Based on this theory on the different stages of using the system a landmark icon could mean a traditional landmark(e.g. a building) and later also a nearby important road or a nearby cluster of landmarks.

Cognitive Limitations

The Capacity of Visual Short-Term Memory is Set Both by Visual Information Load and by Number of Objects (Alvarez, 2004)

According to the research of Antti Oulasvirta, et. Al (Anti Oulasvirta, 2005), when creating projects for mobility, fragmentation of attention should be taken into account. Mobility causes cognitive depletion as attention resources get relocated to social goals, situated acts, claiming personal space and other different temporal tensions. Strategies to compensate for resource depletion are calibrating, time sampling or not switching tasks before finalization. Previous research also points that “mobile devices reduce our physical and attentional capabilities” (Kristoffersen, 1999) as the users “need to safely navigate through the environment” (Lumsden, 2003). When creating a visual interface for the prototype, it was important to find out how many visual objects

can be followed in the same time. According to G.A. Alvarez and P. Cavanagh (2004), we have “a fixed capacity of the visual short-term memory of about four objects”. The physical limitations of a visual interface might be not always being able to look at the screen, so another alternative feedback would be provided (audio or haptic). Conclusion for this prototype: The number of information icons will be limited to four. If there are additional objects, they will be displayed in a subtle manner, so that they do not distract the users from the main points. Additional haptic or audio feedback may be provided to extend the information.

Creating maps

In order to create an effective visual interface, gathering information about how traditional maps are being created, was an important base.

The basics of making maps In their book Krygier and Wood describe in a few chapters the basics of creating maps (Making Maps. A Visual Guide to Map Design for GIS., 2011). The topics include adapting the map for the right target group, considering which data is relevant, what tools could be used, geographic framework, generalization, symbolization, colors and much more. Here will be mentioned several parts that could be useful for this project.

Design for experts or novices (and give them the needed information)(page 21). This would be taken into account not for the base map of the city, but for the additional information layer of the navigation system, proving again that the different stages of learning should be taken into account (page 12).

Careful use of colors for distinguishing information. Using color hue is recommended for showing qualitative data and color value for quantitative data (page 180, 181). Following these guidelines the different types of landmarks in the prototype can be shown with a different color hue and the distance from each landmark could be shown with a different color value. Using graduated symbols (page 190) is another technique for visualizing data value. As the distance from a landmark is a key feature of the prototype, in addition to using color hue, the icons representing the different types of landmarks could also be scaled proportionally to the distance.

Maps with special functions In order to create a useful interactive map, it was useful to find out what other special types of maps have been created. This is the famous map of the London Subway, created by Harry Beck. According to his research, people remember better routes that are simplified to 90 and 45 degree angles. This type of maps is widely spread in many cities and countries nowadays, so it is not only easier to understand this abstraction, but the people are already used to reading such kind of maps. (TED, 2017) he suggests that maps could be distorted in order to show quantitative information about serious social topics. He presents several examples with data about population density, population in each country, areas where food is being grown and more.

Figure 1 A map of the London Underground map designed by Harry Beck and published in 1933. This map was the template used by other tubes and undergrounds around the world for the designs of their own maps (2017)

Figure 3 One of the maps presented by Danny Dorling (Map courtesy of Benjamin Hennig, 2017)

The idea of using distortion to represent an additional abstract layer could also be used in the prototype. For example representing distance with a series of circles around the map of the compass version can be used.

Figure 2 Full greater Dublin area: Rapid Network Map from a map created by Aris Venetikidis, based on Harry Beckâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s principle (Dublin Transport Map, 2017). Another interesting perspective on maps comes from Danny Dorling, a social geographer. In his talk Maps that show us who we are (not just where we are)

Why do people move and what do they need?

A cognitive representation of a city does not consist only of landmarks such as buildings or tourist attractions. Sometimes those are personal important places or other assotiations to a place that are very individual. In order to find out what else could be an important landmark, looking for reasons why people move and what do they usually need in a new place could help. The reasons why people move to several European countries and cities with population above 500 000 were compared. This might be very important in order to know what kind of information might be useful for the navigation system, as a cognitive map of a place does not only consist of routes and landmarks, but also of personal landmarks that very much depend on the reasons for moving. According to several studies about different cities and countries, people need social networks, institutional channels and knowledge about language and culture (Vorwiebe, 2014).

Figure 5 First residence permits issued by reasons, EU28, 2008

Furthermore, statistics about big European cities show that the top reasons for long-term moving are: work-related, formal study, accompanying or joining family members, or other.

Figure 6 Reasons for migration to Berlin (Vorwiebe, 2014)

Figure 4 Long-Term International Migration estimates of immigration to the UK, by main reason for migration (www.ons.gov.uk, 2017)

According to a study from Vorwiebe, R. (2014) the top reasons for Europeans from Italy, France, the United Kingdom, and Poland to move to Berlin between 1980 and 2002 have been on the first place social, after that cultural and then economic. Result: This proves again that every person has specific personal needs in a city in addition to knowing routes and landmarks. A focus on cultural institutions,

personal landmarks (connected with friends or relatives) or work-related landmarks would also be an important part of the personal cognitive map of a user.

Conclusion: Apart from showing routes and tourist attractions, important landmarks could be: ď&#x201A;ˇ social networks: pointing to places where friends or relatives live, meeting places for certain communities; ď&#x201A;ˇ knowledge about language and culture: depending on the level of knowledge of the user, adequate information might be provided: additional information about certain places, providing more details about the local culture, adding local stories to certain places, providing local special words connected to some places; ď&#x201A;ˇ institutional channels: depending on the time spent in the new place and the purpose of the moving different institutions can be suggested here.

Bremen

In order to start my tests and create realistic prototypes, I decided to narrow down my scope and choose one exact city for my test purposes. I am going to make my experiments in Bremen, Germany as this also used to be an unknown city for me and it provides wonderful opportunities to find interesting landmarks and routes in its beautiful city center and surroundings.

What does someone new in Bremen need? Looking for what would someone new in Bremen need, the official website of the State of Bremen (bremen.de) is a wonderful starting resource. There the information is divided in four parts starting from general information about the city (description of the city and its population, culture, parks), the next big topic is looking for accommodation, followed by many organisatiory details after accomodation is found (finding electricity, gas, water suppliers, internet/phone supplier, radio contract, opening a new bank account, health and other insurances, abonaments, garbage collection, parking place). The

last point is what would be necessary after the moving: chnging your address, Kfz, finding a kindergarden or a school for your children, (Kindergeld), getting to know the universities and getting financing for students, informing the (Finanzamt) So, conclusion about Bremen: people riding bikes and walking throught the city, landmarks divided in several stages (before and after finding accommodation, having children in kindergarden or school, information about universities).

Statistics about the transportation ways in Bremen As a beginning of the research about Bremen, it is important to find out which transportation ways are most popular. On the first place is using private transport with 40,4%, followed by bike transport, 24,8% and walking by foot 20,7% (Dresden, 2008).

would be required. This is why I am going to focus on the two next widespread means of transport: by bike and by foot. They also have their own specific requirements, but providing more information while traveling is not as dangerous and free exploration is easier and not restricted to only driving along certain roads.

For my project, I am not going to focus on the first group, as creating a navigation system for private transport like cars has specific limitations and the purpose of this project is to create a system that improves learning, so extra cognitive resources

In no other city in Germany with more then 500 000 habitants do the people travel by bike as much as in Bremen. In Europe Bremen takes the 3rd place of the bike cities. 68% of the streets in Bremen also have bike lanes. This is the biggest percentage in Germany.

Figure 7 Riding a bike is the fastest way to travel in many situations (www.umweltbundesamt.de, 2017)

Conclusion: It is popular to travel around Bremen by bike or to walk by foot. Riding a bike in many cases could even be more effective than driving a car. This is why the prototypes for this project will be created with focus on city exploration by bike or by foot.

Applications, devices and interactions

Navigation systems The first orientation systems I will start with are the classic driving navigation systems. Their aim is to navigate the users as quickly and effortlessly from A to B and do not focus on making them remember that. According to Stiftung Warentest (navicheck.net, 2016) the functions of a good navigation system are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Ease of use and montage Good menu structures Option to save travel destinations Points of interest Simple map updates Included software Preinstalled maps Eventually lifelong map updates (free) Charging the device on PC (or through a power plug) Voice control (with increased security while driving) Other additional features

The current top navigation systems for October 2016 according to Stiftung Warentest are:

Tom Tom Start 25M1

Driving voice assistant Parking assistant Warning of speed cameras Map displayed in 2D/3D Selection of points of interest After charging immediately ready to use Free map updates

Garmin nĂźvi 2595LMT2

Voice control Bluetooth Free map updates 3D traffic function TMC (traffic jams)

There are other navigation systems in the list with features like calculating the time of arrival according to the time of the day, traffic split screens, traffic information, 3D view of crossroads, saving often visited destinations, offline usage. The conclusion from this part is that the focus of those systems is providing information in a safe nondistracting for driverâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s way.

Becker Ready 50EU20LMU3

Lifelong map updates Parking assistant Exit assistant TMC Lane assistant in 3D

There are also additional features directly connected to the driving and not to the navigation like a parking assistant, lane assistant and warning of speed cameras. The features that might provide useful information for my project are the different types of cards (2D/3D), the points of interest and the voice control (as an alternative interaction).

Other navigation systems In addition to the classic navigation systems that provide information how to get fastest from A to B, at Yahoo! Labs in Barcelona, Daniele Quercia and his colleagues imagine new ways to use online maps to improve our lives (ted.com, 2017). The researchers at Yahhoo found out how to pick routes that are most

1 (Image from Amazon.de, 2017)

beautiful, quiet, interesting or connected with other emotions. This is another interesting possible aim of a navigation system. My project should be about providing the needed information so that a road is easily remembered and maybe using positive emotions combined with learning might be a good field to experiment.

2 (Image from techjailbreak.com,

3 (Image from testsieger.de,

2017)

Augmented reality applications

AR GPS drive/walk navigaiton4

Augmented Reality Navigation5

Wikitude Navigation6

Its description on Google Play: “This application is using smartphone's GPS and camera to implement an augmented reality-powered car navigation system.It is easier and safer than the traditional navigation system for driver. The driver is guided directly by virtual path of the camera preview video,that is intuitive and easy to understand. While using this system , the driver do not need to map the path and the road.The driver can watch the realtime camera preview navigation screen to get driving condition without impacting driving safety.”

Its description on Google Play: Find your way in the city by using augmented reality. Just follow the arrow to reach your destination. Augmented Reality Navigation is provided "as is", without warranty of any kind, express or implied. In no event shall the authors, holders of copyright or exploitation rights, be liable for any claim, damages, or other liability, arising in connection with Augmented Reality Navigation and its use.

Its description by Wikitude: "Wikitude Navigation was a proof of concept project with the world’s first pedestrian and car navigation system that integrates an augmented reality display and eliminates the need for a map. First released in 2010, and originally titled “Drive,” Wikitude Navigation has won multiple awards, and been hailed as a “revolutionary step forward” in the navigation and guidance field."

https://play.google.com/store/a pps/details?id=com.w.argps&hl= en

https://play.google.com/store/a pps/details?id=at.joanneum.arn av&hl=en

http://www.wikitude.com/show case/wikitude-navigation/

Navigation and orientation devices

Figure 8 Smart conducting fabrics, developed by Google and Levi´s.

Project Jacquard7 According to its description on the website of the project: “Project Jacquard makes it possible to weave touch and gesture interactivity into any textile using standard, industrial looms.” One example project is a cooperation with Levi’s for an interactive jacket for urban bike commuters. The functions it has are: 

   

Figure 9 The feelSpace Navigation Belt

The feelSpace Navigation Belt8 The feelSpace Navigation Belt is based on 10 years of research in the University of Osnabrück. It is developed for bikers, for globetrotters, for people with special needs.

Giving audio directions (set aim, estimated time of arrival, “Continue on 4th St.”, “Make a left on Channel St.”) Nearby places Bike mode Music (now playing info, changing the track) Incoming call (accept, dismiss)

Figure 10 The feelSpace Navigation Belt The features of the feelSpace Navigation Belt are:

7 https://atap.google.com/jacquard/ 8

http://www.feelspace.de/navibelt/

   

Compass mode (pointing magnetic north) Beeline mode (turn-by-turn directions) Tell your destination and start following the instructions Audio input of the end point

Bluetooth connection to a mobile app

Blubel10

WM2M: Navigation Hat9 Developed in the Design Research Lab at the Berlin University of the Arts as a test case for an open source software helping designers and users work with electronic textiles.

Attached as a bell (and working also as a bell) 12 points Turn by turn directions (green blinking light) Destination direction (blue light) Learns from the community which are the safest routes (every time a Blurbel is rung it indicates an alert point) Working with a mobile app (there you type in your destination) Sound to alert you for upcoming turns (so that your eyes are on the road most of the time)

BeeLine11

a navigation app as an example for an open source software for smart textiles a built-in compass 8 vibration motors

9 http://www.design-research-

lab.org/projects/navigationhat/

https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/1411369083/ beeline-smart-navigation-for-bicycles-madesimple?ref=discovery

https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/372524908/b lubel-the-cycling-navigator-powered-bycommunity?ref=discovery

HAIZE13

BeeLine is an orientation device for bikes with the following features: -

Device attached at a bike Showing direction and distance Connected with a mobile app Add intermediate points using the app (like going through a certain bridge) The device can be removed from the bike and attached to a keyholder

Smart Halo12 The last navigation device for bikes on the list is Haize: Smart Halo is another navigation device for bikes with the following features: -

turn-by-turn navigation, 90/45 degrees compass pointing your destination extra safety functions, turn on or off, find your bike

Attached to the bike or on a strap on your handwrist Two navigation modes: compass and turnby-turn Connected to an app (choose destination or mode) The central LED blinks faster when you are closer to your destination The amount of outer LEDs shows the distance and direction of the next turn At a turn only one outer LED is on and the center LED flashes white

Conclusion: The navigation and orientation devices are using light, audio or haptic output. Most of them are connected to a smartphone application, so that a destination point can be set. Several of them have two modes: turn-by-turn navigation or free exploration. Showing distance and direction is an important feature for most of them and it can be represented in many different ways.

12 https://www.smarthalo.bike/de/#navigation

a-compass-reinvented-navigation-for-urbancy?ref=discovery

https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/onomo/haize-

Interactions

Part of those navigation experiments is to find the best way for interaction. This is why first I had to make a list of as many as possible ways of interaction and decide which of them would be most useful for communicating the main aims of my orientation system: direction, distance, different types of landmarks. In their book (Designing Connected Products, UX for the consumer Internet of Things) Claire Rowland, Elizabeth Goodman, Martin Charlier, Ann Light, and Alfred Lui suggest a list of possible input and output interactions:

The types of interaction that could work well for this project: Physical controls – because they can be used even without looking at them; Light output – showing a particular state; for glanceable output and no complex information; Screen – for showing complex information; also keeping the project flexible (easier updating new versions); Audio output – for urgent/time critical alerts (used carefully so that it does not become annoying); Voice output – give information using speech; avoid touch interactions (especially useful while riding a bike, only not good in noisy environments); Gesture control – instead of looking and touching a small certain button, useful in a hurry (risk of false positive input detection); Tangible interfaces – good for learning (to keep the learning experience tactile); Vibration – when it is noisy or sound would disturb (but it requires body contact);

Orienteering & geocaching

Orienteering Orienteering is a sport using a map and a compass to get as quickly from a starting point to a final point passing through a series of control points. According to the International Orienteering Federation (IOF) there are four orienteering disciplines: foot, mountain bike, ski and trail orienteering, but there are much more like canoe orienteering, radio orienteering, etc. The terrain is usually unfamiliar and it can be urban or non-urban. As a base for my project, I studied the signs used for orienteering maps focusing on foot urban orienteering. For non-urban orienteering, the maps are showing dangerous areas, out of bounds, down fall, slow, difficult running, passable or impassable areas, boulder clusters and footpaths. A city orienteering map has some specific differentces: it has symbols like showing areas with forbidden access (private land, flowerbeds), planted areas â&#x20AC;&#x201C; out of bounds, temporary construction â&#x20AC;&#x201C; out of bounds, walls, passable and impassable fences and railings, canal or river forbidden to cross, tramways and roads, steps, tunnels, buildings with pass-through or canopy, trees of different size and prominence and rocky ground. Some of those markers are important for orientation purpose and some of them are important for the speed of running, so only some of those landmarks would be considered for my project

as prominent buildings, trees, gardens, crossing important streets and showing areas or routes that cannot be passed (as this is an exploration system, so the users should know where they can walk through following the pointed direction). Also, an important technique while using an orienteering map is constantly pointing with oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s thumb to the last/current/end position. This is not going to be necessary in the application, the current position is going to be constantly shown.

Figure 11 A map of Nottingham city centre and the park from the Nottinghamshire Orienteering Club, 201014 The start, end and control point signs on an orienteering map look the same for any type or orienteering. As an area in my project is going to consist of a start point, end point and landmarks along the way, I am going to try using the standard orienteering symbols for the prototypes. Specific for the city orienteering is that a map is showing areas of buildings that can be passed through (for example stairs or other shortcuts) and also areas that are not allowed to be crossed are marked. This is not

important for this project as those marks are important for quick moving as a part of a competition and the focus of my navigation system is not how fast a user would move from point A to point B. Important points in urban orienteering are the corners of the buildings as those are the points where turning decisions should be made. This is why an idea for my project is to provide adequate information at corners of building or to use the corners as landmarks at turning points.

14 http://noc-uk.org/gadget/kartat/21.jpg

The ISOM 2000 map symbols are those used for normal orienteering maps generally at 1:10,000 or 1:15,000.

The symbols that I am using for the prototype are adapted from the orienteering maps. A triangle for a start point, two circles for an end point, circle for a landmark (which in orienteering is a control point) and additionally a square showing constantly the “home” point which according to another study is important for keeping sense of direction when walking through an unfamiliar area.

Conclusion: Types of landmarks that could be included for city orientation in addition to buildings could be: nature elements like prominent trees or gardens, important crossroads, important turning points. Additionally, as free exploration is encouraged, the map could provide information about impassable areas or building one can pass through.

Geocaching Some people describe geocaching as the 21 century orienteering. Played by more than 3 million people around the world, this is a location based game, where each player, called geocacher, has the coordinates of a hidden aim and using a GPS device has to find it and record the finding on the website geocaching.com. Geocaching can also be used for education purposes for different student ages and school subjects to improve skills like creativity, orientation, information fluency and much more (Lo, Burt, 2010). Let’s observe the geocaching application in detail. As a base map, it is using Open Street Maps with the standard types of maps like street view, satellite view, etc. The additional special symbols used for the game are the icons showing treasures. There are

different types of icons for different types of treasures, for example easy to find treasures with their direct coordinates, riddles the solution of which are coordintates to treasures, descriptions of the position instead of giving direct coordinates, etc. The basic version of the application provides the type of treasure with direct coordinates with level of difficulty below 1,5. When clicked it shows the distance from the user’s current position and points with a straight line to the direction. There is also additional information about the difficulty, terrain, size. There is also constantly on the screen a button for showing the current position. This might not be a feature of the game mechanic, but it might be useful as an idea for my navigation experiments.

Figure 12 A screenshot from the Android version of the Geocaching Application15 A useful idea from the Geocaching application could be using a line pointing directly from the current position to the selected treasure point. In a similar way, distance and direction to a landmark could be shown in the project. In order not to be too distracting, as the idea is to show more than one landmark at a time, a direct line and the distance will be revealed after an additional interaction (for example, tap).

15 https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.groundspeak.geocaching.intro&hl=en

Part 2: Prototypes & Experiments

Experiments

Before creating concepts and building prototypes, the theory about orientation and navigation had to be proved with several experiments. This also additionally provided useful information about the test case in Bremen.

Task 01: Route description

The first task was to give directions between two places in Bremen. Those directions were transcribed and then visualized with a series of simplified images/instructions. -

From Osterdeich to the bus depot

It is in Neu Wahr. You have to take tram 4 to Bürgermeister Spitta Allee, then 21 to Heinrich Heerstraße, after that tram 1 to Kurt Huber Straße and the depot is right there.

From Osterdeich to the statue of Roland

From Osterdeich you have to walk just straight, then turn to the right and walk until you reach Domsheide. When you are standing at the tram stop you will see the Roland statue on your right.

From Osterdeich to Domsheide

20m north, then a turn to the west, walk by foot 800m or around 12 minutes, after that a turn to the right (to the north), walk around 250m and you will be at the tram stops in front of Domsheide.

From Osterdeich to Kirchweg

20-30m to the north, 800m(12 mins) walk to Domsheide, then take tram 4, direction south (Arsten), travelling time: around 12 minutes. Take off at tram stop Kirchweg/Werdersee. From the tram stop you have to walk straight along Kirchweg around 8 minutes or 700m. It is a white building, there is a pub on the ground floor.

From Horn Lehe to Weserpark

From the bus station at Horn you have to take bus 33 or 34 (direction Osterholzer Landstraße) and then tram 1. Or take bus 21 to Polizeipräsidium and then tram 1. Or take tram 4 to Kirchbachstraße and then tram 1.

From Osterdeich to Viertel

From Osterdeich you go up and to the left. You go up the stairs and walk along any of the streets in direction to the Viertel. They all lead to the main street there.

From Horn Lehe to the German courses

Go with line 4, get off at Metzerstrаße or St. Joseph Stift. There are two parallel streets, you have to go to the back street. This means from Metzerstrаße you have to go to the right and from St. Joseph Stift you have to go to the left.

The participants used several orientation methods, either by defining directions (left/right or north/south/east/west) or by describing landmarks (like stairs, buildings, bus stops). The distance was described in time, meters or just until a certain landmark was reached. As the landmarks and the sense of distance and direction seem to be important in those descriptions, I made a second experiment in order to see how precise the participants orientate themselves and which landmarks in Bremen they find most important.

Task 02: Cognitive map

The participants were asked to draw on paper the places they visit most often in Bremen and to connect them with lines representing the routes between them. They were also asked to use bigger symbols for the most often visited places and smaller for the more rarely visited ones. I called this task a â&#x20AC;&#x153;cognitive mapâ&#x20AC;? task, as this is the visualized space representation of the participants. Even though it is important to keep in mind that a cognitive map is an abstract representation and cannot be completely accurately visualized, the insights gathered from those experiments are still very useful for the future development of the prototypes.

Results: -

The distance between some areas is stretched or shrunk. Certain groups or places are positioned right to each other. There is sometimes a shift of only one place or a shift of an entire group together. The most often visited places according to the participants are the Train Station, University of Bremen, Weser, Rhododendron Park, Viertel, the City Library, the places where they work, the homes of their friends and their homes. These landmarks are going to be used for the further test concepts.

Concepts

The “Navigator” The “Navigator” should provide a simple set of instructions for getting from A to B with additionally focusing the attention on landmarks that have been crossed or passed by. The symbols from orienteering are used for start and end points. The landmarks are represented with circles like the control points in orienteering and in dditiona they have different sizes depending on the importance to the user. The remaining part of the route is marked with a dashed line, so that the progress can be tracked. Crossroads are shown, so that it is known after crossing how many streets a turn should be done. There are two variations how a route can be represented. The first idea is based on the principle of simplifying route angles to 90 and 45 degrees. The second idea shows all the instructions on a horizontal line. Each of the both representations has its advantages and disadvantages. Visualizing the turn angles helps to remember where relative in space a point is. Showing the entire route as a straight line provides a clear set of instructions that consists of routes, points, crossings, turning points. The drawback of those concepts is that they do not build a precise realistic feeling of where a landmark is or in which direction it exactly is.

Here are two examples how those two ideas might look like in a real situation. This is the route from University of Bremen to a Café in the city center of Bremen. Images are attached to each landmark to add a series of “vistas” to the instructions.

The â&#x20AC;&#x153;Challengesâ&#x20AC;? Solving tasks requires active interaction, which could improve remembering important landmarks faster or defining more precisely distance or directions. Adding a schedule about frequently repeating certain questions helps learning in long term. Furthermore completing given tasks adds joy to using the system which could motivate the people to use it more often.

Those are a few examples for tasks that could be given. The focus is getting more precise with direction, distance and recognizing vistas.

The main drawback of these two ideas is that they depend very much on image material, which many times does not work very successful. A landmark could be approached from a different angle than the shown, it can also look different by day or night or in different times of the year or sometimes it could just be difficult or impossible to provide images for certain places.

The “Compass” The third idea is the “Compass”. Instead of showing North or South it can point to personal important landmarks. It is proved that being constantly pointed to one certain place helps learn better where one’s position is while free exploring an unknown area. Another study proves that the home position can be a useful orientation point in such situations. Additionally, crossing or passing by important landmarks can also improve learning a new environment faster. Positioned on a circle those landmarks can show direction, distance or importance.

In order to see how this concept would look like in a real situation, several places around Bremen were taken as test points. Two often visited places in the city center – the train station and the cathedral and one “home” point at the place of one of the student dormitories in the city.

Figure 13 A map of Bremen with a few example landmarks connected.

Version 01: Four landmarks on a circle showing the direction of each place. The different size of the icons shows each landmarksâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; frequency of visiting. Below can be seen a map (which is a part copied from the map above, Figure 13) and the lines that define where the icons should be. The distance is not visualized and could additionally be revealed on tap.

Version 02: Visuializing the distance. Here several circles are used to represent how far away a landmark is.

An additional concept showing images together with the icons would also provide useful visual material which could fasten the learning process.

*All the images used for those prototypes are taken from Google Maps

Prototypes

After creating the concepts, it was time to start building interactive prototypes. First, I tried using Unfolding (Unfolding Maps, 2017), a library for Processing for creating interactive maps and geovisuializations. After that I tried using Google Maps, and the final solution was Open Street Maps, as they were the most flexible option. For the compass prototype an open source project from Chris Haynes for a HTML5 Compass App (HTML5 Compass App, 2017) is used as a base. The most important features that had to be included in each of those prototypes were: showing distance and direction. Four icons that are describing the four basic landmarks: start point, end point, landmark, home. The map has to be able to rotate and point to the real direction.

Start point

Finish point

Landmark

Home

At the moment, the four points are hard coded and are pointing to: -

University of the Arts as a start point Robinso Crusoe Museum as an end point Domsheide as a nearby landmark University of Bremen and the nearby dormitory as a home point

There were three different prototypes that were built based on those ideas:

Prototype 01: Showing direction A map that is not rotating, but it is always showing the direction to the four landmarks. It was used for exploration of the entire route and for planning which way should be taken in the right direction. Drawbacks: not rotating in the walking direction. https://github.com/deny-todorova/GoogleMapsRadar

Prototype 02: Showing distance, direction and rotating on a map The next prototype solves the problem with not knowing the userâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s current position and it also rotates towards the walking direction. It is more difficult for the people using a static map to find their right direction, this is why a map turning to the walking direction improves a lot the feeling where the users are. In addition, it also scales the icons of the landmarks depending on the distance to them, the bigger the icons, the closer a user is to the landmark. Drawbacks: always centering to the current position, not possible to scroll further away from it. Link to the prototype: omit66.github.io/MapRadar/OSM.html

Prototype 03: Showing distance, direction and rotating on a circle Another way to show the direction from the userâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s current position to a landmark is using a circular compass with a map in the background that can also rotate in the moving direction. Distance is shown by the size of the landmarksâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;icons or by positioning the icons on several circles around the map representing different distance. A drawback of this prototype is that it is still static and representing directions for certain points from the test route instead of live generating new maps and distances. The pages of the prototype should also be refreshed with the device pointing to the north so that the compass points to the right directions. Link to the prototype: github.com/deny-todorova/compass. The code is based on the open source project Compass by Chris Haynes: lamplightdev.github.io/compass/ . For this prototype a series of svg images was created for every turning point on the way between Domsheide and the Robinson Crusoe House. Each of them was put on a separate compass page and they were all linked to this map:

Figure 14 For each of the points on the map as an svg image with the four landmarks pointing to the right directions, was created.

Figure 15 This is the starting map, from here each of the points leads to a different compass, pointing to the right directions. https://deny-todorova.github.io/compass_map/ The first version of the compass: one circle and icons with different sizes proportional to the distance from the current position: https://denytodorova.github.io/compass_05_robinson/ After the results of a few user tests, a new representation of distance was introduced, a set of circles around the map: https://denytodorova.github.io/compass_03_baumwollboerse/ Later, a third version was created with an icon marking the current position.

Video In order to see how all of the separate features and ideas would work together, a video was created. It is showing a person at different places in the city center of Bremen, moving from one point to another (Domsheide, Rolandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s statue, Robinson Crusoe House, Teerhof Bridge, Schnoor). This way it can be shown how the map could look like at different points of the city and how the information changes while moving. In the video all of the separately tested features are included together and the feedback gathered from the user tests is also considered.

A video demo for moving from point A to point B In order to see how much the icons would be noticeable and how their position might change while walking, a demo video was created showing the changes of the landmarksâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; position while walking from Domsheide to the Robinson Crusoe House in Bremen.

By swiping through the timeline, the users could adjust the speed of the video to their walking speed: https://vimeo.com/232893416

Testing the Prototypes

Purpose See if showing direction and distance in addition to a map helps the people develop a better sense of the space around them. See which one of the two types of prototypes works better (a map on the entire screen or a circular “compass” representation of the map). There is an additional map that cannot be rotated, but can be moved, see if this also helps planning a route. See if distance is better represented with a different size of the icons or with severel circles that represent the distance.

Schedule & Location “A combination of field (in-situ) evaluation methods with traditional lab testing are recommended in order to cover different phases in the user centered design and development process.” (Mihalic et al., 2008)

could also be tested: interruptions, movement and multi-tasking.

Sessions Welcome and pre-test questionnaire: 10 minutes Task scenario: 40 minutes Post-test questionnaire: 10 minutes Each session took around an hour. One or two people were doing the task in the same time. Several methods for qualitative analysis were used: thinking aloud, wizard of Oz, co-discovery.

Equipment The test was conducted using a Samsung Galaxy S5 phone, the prototypes are running in a browser and internet and GPS connection were needed. It was also possible to test the prototypes on the participants’ devices, if they agreed to do that.

In the case of this project laboratory testing was done before developing the prototypes. It consisted of meeting the participants and asking them about the way they give directions and how familiar they are with the city they had moved to.

Participants

Field testing was done with the prototypes, so that the users could walk outside and try completing a real task using the prototypes. This way other influences

The prototypes were tested with 5-6 people. Those were people that are not from Bremen and have lived in the city for a different amount of time: between 5 months to 3 years. They had moved for different reasons to Bremen and all of them belonged to the

top reasons for moving: studies, work, joining family members. They travel most often by bike or walk by foot and are not familiar with the area where the tests will be conducted. They all know where the main landmarks from the prototype are: University of Bremen, University of the Arts, Domsheide.

Scenarios The test situation was: “Imagine that you are going from University of the Arts and want to get to the Robinson Crusoe Haus in the city center. You live near the University of Bremen. At the moment you are already in the middle of your way, standing at Domsheide. The prototype is going to show the direction and distance to those “personal landmarks”: start point, end point, home, one more nearby landmark.

Metrics Subjective Metrics Background questionnaire Age Occupation Time spent in Bremen Do you know where the Robinson Crusoe Hause is? Which navigation applications have you used before? A small task: Define in which direction you think are: the University of Bremen, University of the Arts?

Would you like to test the prototypes on your own device or on the provided test device? After the task is completed Which of the two maps was more useful? (It was explained that there is a full screen map and a circular “compass” map.) Did you also find any use of the third map? (The map that could be moved, but not rotated.) Do you think that showing the distance helped you complete the task? Did you understand the representations of distance in this prototype and did you find them useful? Which of the both representations did you find more useful? (Different scale on the icons or positioning the icons on a set of circles surrounding the map) Do you think those landmarks were useful or you would use other ones? (Start point, end point, home, nearest landmark) Overall ease, satisfaction and likelihood to use/recommend.

Quantitative Metrics Successful completion rates Error rates Time on task

Roles I was in the role of the facilitator, observer and notetaker during the test. The screen of the testing device was not captured, instead notes and photos were taken during the completion of the task.

Testing Before starting the tests the most suitable testing methods had to be chosen. Following the guidelines from Dr.-Ing. Dennis Krannich from his presentations during the cource in Digital Experience Design in University of Bremen (the descriptions of the methods are taken from those presentations), the best methods for testing this project were:

Thinking-Aloud

Question-Asking Protocol

The users were asked to verbalise their actions and thoughts while using the prototypes.

As the thinking aloud method does not feel very natural sometimes I was asking additional questions about the prototypes to start a conversation about them.

Co-Discovery Method

Wizard-of-Oz Method

Some of the tests were done with two people so that they could try to use the system together, talk about it and help each other understand it.

The places of the landmarks were hard coded and the sizes of the landmarks in the compass version as well. The compass version also had images for each place that were created in advanced and not generated live.

Results General findings from the user tests: -

All of the participants managed to find the final point, they needed between 15 and 40 minutes to complete the task. The compass version was found to be more useful than the full screen version. Showing distance with a set of circles was found more useful than scaling the icons proportionally to the distance (that was almost not noticed at all).

The current position should be shown, it should rotate towards the walking direction, it should show how the end point and other landmarks look like. Several participants suggested that using images would help (or at least images for the end point, and for the changing landmarks).

Additional findings: -

After the tests:

During the tests, which were conducted outside in a real situation, it was proved again: It is not very comfortable to use a smartphone application when walking outside, due to different weather conditions like rain or sunshine and also not always having free hands to hold the device all the time.

Limitations: -

Improving the prototypes: o Now all of the compass screens (for each point) are updated with the set of circles showing distance. o The circles and icons showing the distance were made more prominent. o An icon showing where the users are, was added.

Plans for the next test:

Different applications were developed to test separate features, so the entire product with all the features together could not be tested. Much of the information was hard coded instead of live generated for each user (the landmark and home point were predefined).

o o

The same navigation, but adding haptic or audio feedback. Make quantitative tests to what extent focusing userâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s attention on distance, direction and certain landmarks improves their spatial understanding.

Final concept

The basic interaction: compass pointing at landmarks. The interaction should feel natural, as if walking with someone that reminds you the final direction, points to you important landmarks on your way, so that you remember what you passed by and always being able to tell you in which direction your home is. The basic background of the compass will be a standard map showing streets and buildings. It would be able to scale it up and down, move around it and also return to the current position in the middle.

The constant landmarks will be four and they will be represented with abstract shapes and different color hues. A triangle will be showing the start point, a double circle the final point, a circle for the nearest landmark and a square for the home point. The nearest landmark would change depending on the current position and on tap additional information about is could be shown.

The important landmarks when walking in a city are buildings, gardens or prominent plants, people, institutions, cultural information, crossroads, turning points, areas.

In addition, the free exploration could be improved if passable and unpassable areas could be distinguished.

Presenting distance is important to help build precise cognitive maps and this abstract concept could be presented with a set of circles.

Scaling the icons proportionally to the real distance from the landmarks. There should only be a defined minimum and maximum, so that they are well visible and do not cover too much of the screen. The minimum recommended icon size would be 5mm x 5 mm and the maximum would be 10mm x 10mm (the average adult finger pad size, in case later additional functionality is added to the nearest landmarks). The size is defined in milimiters and not in pixels as pixels or points can very depending on the screen density of the used device.

Furthermore, on additional interaction (eg. on a tap) additional information about the distance and direction could be revealed. This will be a straight line between the current position and the landmark and the distance displayed as a number besides the line.

It is important to take into consideration the different levels of knowing a place and providing the users with suitable information for their level of knowledge. Pointing at separate important landmarks based on popularity would be the starting point. After that personal landmarks should be added and on the next levels distance to roads and connections and to entire areas.

Future ideas

One problem of most of the navigation systems nowadays is that they mostly provide visual information. As they are used in dynamic situations many times regularly looking at a screen could become a distraction and it could lead to accidents or slowing down while moving. Many of these negative effects and statistics were shown at the entrance presentation of Johannes Schöning, a professor at the University of Bremen at his presentation “It’s time to stop staring at your phone’s mobile Map: The Importance of HCI Perspectives for Next-generation Navigation Devices”. This is why several other types of feedback were supposed.

Haptic navigation One example for a haptic feedback are the Human Interface Guidelines for watchOS16 According to them a combination of sound and vibration with a different frequency can be used to provide different kinds of feedback. Here are some screenshots taken from their website.

16 https://developer.apple.com/watchos/human-interface-guidelines/interactions/

Another very useful paper about haptic feedback By Karon E. MacLean https://web.stanford.edu/class/me327/readings/1MacLean08-RHFE-Design.pdf mentions haptic icons. It tells about different kinds of haptic icons or visual icons and systems encoding visual icons as sound or vibration. This is something that could be a good replacement of the landmark icons on the screen or it can be used to give additional information. Another question is how to create learnable icons. In order to achieve this, two important questions have

to be considered: perceptually discernable stimuli should be created and the people’s preferences and abilities for organizing them should be well understood. All of those questions would be a good field for further experiments. One possible way for developing for haptic output would be using a Haptic Enabling Kit for Wearables17. Karen Kaushansky wrote another useful article with guidelines for designing with Audio Feedback: https://www.smashingmagazine.com/2012/ 09/guidelines-for-designing-with-audio/

Sound navigation Sound feedback can be another alternative to visualizing the entire information on a screen or it could provide additional information to the one on the screen. Short non-verbal sounds or “earcons” could signal on turning towards a certain landmark subtly differentiating which one of the four types it is and changing depending on the distance from it. Maybe in some special cases (like on changing the nearest landmark) a verbal prompt could be used, but that should be carefully picked when this would be less intrusive. Blattner et al provides a detailed introduction to designing “earcons” and a very interesting comparison between “earcons” and icons (Meera M. Blattner, 1989). In order to design the best

sound assotiations and to create “earcons” that are easy to be remembered pitch, timbre, loudness, duration and direction should be considered (Gärdenfors, 2001). Karen Kaushansky points the importance of designing in context (Kaushansky, 2012). The audio feedback could adapt to the experience of the user with the system; it can be determined if the user is driving or walking with GPS so that adequate information is provided; it can be tracked how far away from the screen a user is and provide audio feedback at the right time. “The most important consideration when designing with audio is to ensure that it enhances the experience and does not interfere or distract” (Kaushansky, 2012).

17 https://www.immersion.com/products-services/touchsense-haptic-enabling-kit-for-wearables-oems/

Additional useful links about working with haptic and audio feedback About integrating audio files: https://www.w3schools.com/html/html5_audio.asp About integrating vibration to the prototype: https://www.sitepoint.com/use-html5-vibration-api/ One example for haptic feedback are the Human Interface Guidelines for watchOS https://developer.apple.com/watchos/human-interface-guidelines/interactions/ A Haptic Feedback Kit https://www.immersion.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/TSkit-WearableOEMs_9feb16v1.pdf Guidelines for designing with Audio Feedback https://www.smashingmagazine.com/2012/09/guidelines-fordesigning-with-audio/

Conclusion: Additional interactions for future versions would be: sound or vibration. The direction, distance and types of landmarks could be communicated with different sound or vibration â&#x20AC;&#x153;iconsâ&#x20AC;?. Involving more senses would provide richer learning experience and a better interaction with the system.

References A map of the London Underground map designed by Harry Beck and published in 1933. This map was the template used by other tubes and undergrounds around the world for the designs of their own maps. (2017). Taken from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Beck_Map_1933.jpg Alvarez, G. A. (2004). The Capacity of Visual Short-Term Memory is Set Both by Visual Information Load and by Number of Objects. Psychological Science(15), 106-111. Anti Oulasvirta, V. R. (2005). Interaction in 4-Second Bursts: The Fragmented Nature of Attentional Resources in Mobile HCI. Helsinki Institute for Information Technology, Helsinky University of Technology, Nokia Research Center. Helsinky, Finland: CHI. Baird, W. &. (1982). Impossible Cognitive Spaces. Geographical Analysis. Bovy, P. &. (1990). Route Choice: Wayfinding in Transport Networks. Dordrecht. Kluwer Academic. Claire Rowland, E. G. (2015). Designing Connected Products, UX for the consumer Internet of Things. O'Reliy Media, Inc. Dresden, T. U. (2008). Transport and infrastructure planning, mobility in the cities – SrV . Dublin Transport Map. (2017). http://www.vision-for-dublin.com/Vision-for-Dublin/DUBLIN_TRANSPORT_MAP.html Gärdenfors, D. (2001). Auditory Interfaces. A Design Platform. Taken from http://www.jld.se/dsounds/auditoryinterfaces.pdf Golledge, R. G. (1978). Representing, Interpreting and Using Cognized Environments. Pepers and Proceedings of the Regional Science Association, 41, 169-204. Golledge, R. G. (1993). Integrating Route Knowledge in an Unfamiliar Neighbourhood: Along and Accross Route Experiments. Journal of Environment Psychology, 13(4), 293-307. Golledge, R. G. (1999). Wayfinding Behavior, Cognitive Mapping and Other Spatial Processes. Baltimore and London: The John Hopkins University Press. HTML5 Compass App. (August 2017 r.). https://github.com/lamplightdev/compass Image from Amazon.de. (2017). https://www.google.de/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKE wjJodeCy-HVAhUSZVAKHRhuA3sQjhwIBQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.de%2FTomTomNavigationsger%25C3%25A4t-Lifetime-Fahrspurassistent-ParkassistentSchwarz%2Fdp%2FB00BEBPV30&psig=AFQjCNE_zB5lbVemlpBRp9eG0q7y9hEYw&ust=1503173280524157 Image from techjailbreak.com. (2017). https://www.google.de/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKE wi5nLq4y-HVAhXIJVAKHbQMA-wQjhwIBQ&url=http%3A%2F%2Ftechjailbreak.com%2Fgarmin-nuvi2595lmt-best-gps-on-the-market-reviewspecs%2F&psig=AFQjCNHebmlajwX4phLjivJljRev4EYBdA&ust=1503173388782805 Image from testsieger.de. (2017). https://www.google.de/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKE wjA8-rZyHVAhVBaVAKHQKsBkcQjhwIBQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.testsieger.de%2Ftestberichte%2Fbecker

-ready-50-eu-20lmu.html&psig=AFQjCNGDpUwfr96CSo_eAr9GTKZY3yw6hg&ust=1503173472406173 John Krygier, D. W. (2011). Making Maps. A Visual Guide to Map Design for GIS. New York: The Guilford Press. Kaushansky, K. (2012). Guidelines For Designing With Audio . Smashing Magazine. Retrieved from https://www.smashingmagazine.com/2012/09/guidelines-for-designing-with-audio/ Kristoffersen, S. a. (1999). Making place to make it work: Empirical exploration of HCI for mobile CSCW. . New York: In Proc. GROUP'99, ACM Press. Lo, Burt (2010). GPS and Geocaching in Education. International Society for Technology in Education. Eugene, Oregon. Washington DC. Lumsden, J. a. (2003). A paradigm shift: Alternative interaction techniques for use with mobile & wearable devices. In Proc. CASCON'03. Map courtesy of Benjamin Hennig. (2017). http://ideas.ted.com/7-thrillingly-new-perspectives-on-the-world-and-how-we-live-today/ Meera M. Blattner, D. A. (1989). Earcons and Icons: Their Structure and Common Design Principles. HumanComputer Interaction, 4, стр. 11-44. Извлечено от http://www.daimi.au.dk/~dsound/DigitalAudio.dir/Papers/Earcons_and_Icons.pdf Mihalic, e. a. (2008). Usability Evaluation Methods for Mobile Applications. Rowland, C., Goodman, E., Charlier, M., Light, A. & Lui, A. . (2015). Designing Connected Products. UX for the Consumer Internet of Things. USA, Sebastopol, CA: O’Reily Media, Inc. Siegel, A. a. (1975). The Development of Spatial Representation of Large-scale Environments. In Rese (H.) (ed.). Advances in Child Development and Behavior, 9-55. ted.com. (2017). https://www.ted.com/talks/danny_dorling_maps_that_show_us_who_we_are_not_just_where_we_are#t201751 ted.com. (2017). https://www.ted.com/talks/daniele_quercia_happy_maps Tolman, E. C. (1948). Cognitive maps in rats and men. Psychological review. Tolman, E. C. (1948). Cognitive Maps in Rats and Men. Psychological Review. Unfolding Maps. (August 2017 r.). http://unfoldingmaps.org/ Vorwiebe, R. (2014). Why do Europeans Migrate to Berlin? Social-Structural Differences for Italian, British, French and Polish Nationals in the Period between 1980 and 2002. International Migration, 52, 209-230. www.bauumwelt.bremen.de. (2017). http://www.bauumwelt.bremen.de/verkehr/radverkehr-14567 www.ons.gov.uk. (2017). https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/internationalmigration /bulletins/migrationstatisticsquarterlyreport/february2016 www.umweltbundesamt.de. (2017). http://www.umweltbundesamt.de/umwelttipps-fuer-den-alltag/garten-freizeit/fahrrad-radeln#textpart-2

www.ziv-zweirad.de. (2017). http://www.ziv-zweirad.de/fileadmin/redakteure/Downloads/PDFs/radverkehr-in-zahlen.pdf

ADDITIONAL SCANNED MATERIALS

Cognitive maps

Pre- and post-test questions from the user test

Concept sketches & research mindmaps

Many thanks to everyone that helped me create this project. Prof. Peter von Maydell and Prof. Dennis Paul for providing useful insights throught the entire work of the project. Aneta Yotova, Zdravko Zapryanov, Ivana Staneva for helping me create the video. Timo StĂźber for helping me develop the prototypes. All of the participants that shared their time and ideas during the experiments and the tests.