Boiling Point 61 by The Modern Agency

Boiling Point /issue 54 / 2008 61 — 2013 £5

A practitioner’s journal on household energy, stoves and Poverty reduction

Theme

Climate Change: Adaptation, Resilience and Energy Security Efficient use of biomass resources for heating and cooking in Tajikistan – p2

A publication of the

Transforming household energy practices to reduce climate risks – p5 Integrating small scale renewable energy into resilient livelihoods – p8 Building climate resilience through community based energy security – p17 plus adapting to use bamboo for charcoal, Low Carbon Development and energy in Africa, and more…

www.hedon.info

Boiling Point is a practitioner’s journal for those working with household energy and stoves. It deals with technical, social, financial and environmental issues and aims to improve the quality of life for poor communities living in the developing world.

Welcome… to the latest edition of Boiling Point. We strive to make the journal as accessible and participative as possible, and welcome any comments or suggestions by email or post. Please see the inside of the back cover page for details on how to contribute papers to future issues. Boiling Point is published by the HEDON Household Energy Network (www.hedon.info).

Editorial team Mohamed Allapitchai (Coordinator) Lizzie Norris Thalia Konaris Miriam Hansen

Advisory team Liz Bates, Kavita Rai, Dick Jones

Contents Theme Editorial: Climate Change: Adaptation, Resilience and Energy Security 1 Enhancing resilience through energy efficiency: Experience from Tajikistan

Transforming household energy practices to reduce climate risks: Charcoal use in Lusaka, Zambia

Integrating renewable energy into resilient livelihoods: Christian Aid’s experience

Kambulakwao Chakanga, Heike Volkmer

Aaron Atteridge

Richard Ewbank

Emerging institutional perspectives: A case study on managing bamboo resources for charcoal production in Nagaland, India 11 Jay Anand, Dr. Appadurai Arivudai Nambi

Building climate resilience through community based energy security 17 Jim Jarvie, David Nicholson

Low Carbon Development and energy access in Africa

Haruna Gujba, Yacob Mulugetta, Jabavu Nkomo, Youba Sokona

Viewpoints Interview with Dan Wolf – International Lifeline Fund 14 Interview with Mayte de Vries – ETC Energy 27

Helpline

Opinions expressed in articles are those of the authors and not necessarily those of HEDON. We do not charge a subscription to Boiling Point, but welcome donations to cover the cost of production and dispatch.

Expert response by Magnus Wolfe Murray – Department for International Development 20

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Website links Look out for the @HEDON link at the end of each article. This easy to use feature links directly to the online version of the article, together with extra weblinks and resources.

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ISSN 0263-3167 (Print) ISSN 1757-0689 (Online) Cover photo: Transplanting seedlings for reforestation in Ayacucho, Peru (Source: GVEP, 2011)

Expert response by Jeremy Stone – Climate change and renewable energy consulant

GIZ News 30

GACC News Latest news from GACC Editor: Sean Bartlett 32

Practical Action News Latest news from Practical Action Editor: Abbie Wells 34

GVEP News Latest news from GVEP Editor: Mayda Bakri 36

Toolkit The interactive Renewable Energy Toolkit 38 Practical Action Consulting

General Feasibility study: Designing, fabricating, and testing an extended surface heat plate accessory to improve biomass cookstove performance Daniel Joseph Zube, Morgan DeFoort

Regulating for clean electricity and heat in poor households: The roles of the South African Developmental State and private sector 43 Peet du Plooy

Development and demonstration of Pongamia (Millettia pinnate) oil based lamp for lighting in rural areas of India Ninga Setty

Call for papers Boiling Point forthcoming themes

Design by Dean Ford Creativity Ltd. +44 (0) 20 7000 1055 www.deanfordcreativity.com

We would like to extend our thanks to our sponsors: GIZ, Practical Action, GACC, and GVEP International for financial support towards this edition. This journal is co-funded by the EC through the project ‘Energy Access for the poor in Sub-Saharan Africa to meet the Millennium Development Goals’.

EDITORIAL

Editorial ISSUE 61

Climate Change: Adaptation, Resilience and Energy Security

It is becoming ever more important that energy programmes are reliable against changes in the climate. Ways of providing people access to energy whilst minimising impact on the environment and natural resources are now considered vital for sustainable development.

his edition of Boiling Point seeks to address some of the challenges in making this provision, and it presents examples of related initiatives being implemented and explored to enhance the adaptive capacity, resilience and energy security for households and communities against climate change. Cooking and heating demands can cause damage to biomass energy supplies and the environment, especially where alternatives are difficult to implement, such as in the cold mountainous regions of Tajikistan. The German organisation Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) outlines efforts to increase efficient use of existing wood resources in this region by incorporating improved cooking and thermal insulation technologies. Research in Zambia by the Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI) reveals the need for prioritising the views of household users of charcoal in order to foster sustainable consumption. Christian Aid demonstrates how smallscale renewable energy programmes can provide resilient livelihood opportunities for communities without access to grid electricity. Highlighted by the M S Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF) is an example of how institutions in India have adapted to stimulate local use of previously wasted bamboo for charcoal. Surveys to support energy programmes conducted by Mercy Corps encourage combining market based approaches with environmental stability to build community resilience against climate change. This edition features the African Climate Policy Centre’s (ACPC’s) proposal on how a Low Carbon pathway can meet Africa’s development goals, which includes improving economic growth and energy access, through measures that mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. One of the challenges in implementing new energy programmes is stimulating a successful market; Lifeline has tackled this

Boiling Point. issue 61 — 2013

issue head on. In our Viewpoints segment, founder Dan Wolf discusses their use of distribution networks to supply fuelefficient cookstoves. Also in Viewpoints, we hear from Mayte de Vries at ETC Energy, a group which works worldwide on human and natural resource management. The author describes their promotion of biogas as a secure source of energy for farmerrun households in Vietnam. The extremes of climatic effects can have disastrous consequences in vulnerable areas. In the Helpline section, Magnus Wolf Murray and Jeremy Stone provide their expert responses on how to make energy programmes more resistant in a flood-prone region; an example is taken of flooding in Bangladesh. In the final theme article, Practical Action presents an extract from their interactive Renewable Energy Toolkit, which supports harnessing the power of renewables to support various household uses of energy. Our regular General section details some emerging research in household energy technologies. Useful findings have been established for stove designers seeking to improve heat transfer to cookstoves, and there is information on the development and adoption of a lantern that uses a plant oil substitute for kerosene lighting in rural India. Boiling Point 61 touches upon the need for a regulatory environment, with an article by Trade and Industrial Policy Strategies (TIPS) comparing policy developments in South Africa to improve energy access. We hope you enjoy this issue and we look forward to hearing your impressions and suggestions at BoilingPoint@HEDON.info Best regards, The Editorial team 1

THEME

Theme

PEER REVIEWED

Enhancing resilience through energy efficiency: Experience from Tajikistan Keywords: Space heating; Indoor air temperature; Biomass fuel use; Thermal insulation; High mountain regions; Tajikistan

Authors Kambulakwao Chakanga Trainee

Heike Volkmer Energy Advisor Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH, “Poverty-oriented Basic Energy Services (HERA)”, Dag-Hammarskjöld-Weg 1-5, 65760 Eschborn, Germany www.giz.de/hera hera@giz.de

In many rural regions of developing countries, households are highly dependent on biomass fuels for basic energy needs such as cooking and heating. In the Autonomous Region Gorno-Badakhshan in Tajikistan, the rural population has only manure and wood from the forests for heating during the long winters. Climate change and the overuse of natural resources exceeds the resilience of many ecosystems, whilst the resilience of households decreases due to inefficient biomass fuel use in an environment with biomass deficit. This article highlights interventions to introduce energy efficient technologies in order to reduce the pressure on natural resources and to improve the livelihood of rural households. The article discusses the impacts, albeit small at present, of such interventions on the resilience of communities living in high mountain ecosystems and cold regions.

Biomass use for space heating

n many rural regions of developing countries, households depend on biomass fuels such as firewood, dung, and agricultural residues for their basic energy needs of cooking and heating. Despite its importance, biomass is often considered ‘dirty’ and ‘backward’ rather than ‘modern’ when addressing energy access issues, and as such, it is often neglected in energy policies and poverty alleviation strategies (Kees, M., Feldmann, L., 2011; World Bank 2012; Owen, M. et al, 2012). In regions with long winters, biomass fuel use for space heating is a question of survival, especially in poorly insulated houses.

Estimations by Hulscher et al. (FAO, 1997) indicate that half a billion people in South and South-East Asia use stoves for space heating. The mortality rate due to respiratory diseases, high blood pressure, and stroke risks increases when room temperatures fall below 20°C (Practical Action, 2010). Households spend a high percentage of their budget and time acquiring fuel for space heating, often coupled with cookstove heat, to keep warm. This weakens the financial assets of households both in terms of money needed to purchase fuel, and time spent gathering biomass, which could be spent on income generation. Biomass grows more slowly in mountainous regions. Excessive demand,

Figure 1: Firewood being carried for cooking and heating in the winter (Source: Heike Volkmer)

combined with other needs - such as for livestock – contributes to deforestation, de-vegetation, soil degradation and desertification. Using biomass for energy reduces the regeneration of ecosystems (e.g. dung, an important nutrient, becomes scarce when burnt for heating). Resilience is defined as ‘the capacity of a system to react to changes and to reorganise while undergoing change’ (Resilience Alliance, 2012). High biomass energy demand decreases both the resilience of households and the capacity of the ecosystem to adapt to climate change. Communities need to become more resilient to growing demand and changes within their own environment.

THEME

Energy insecurity in GornoBadakhshan, Tajikistan Tajikistan has had a permanent energycrisis since 1997 (Hoeck, T. et al, 2007), particularly in mountainous regions with poor infrastructure and limited resources. In Soviet times the fast-growing population of Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region (GBAO)- east Tajikistan, received subsidised fuel and food imports. In the 1970s and 1980s, Tajikistan imported approximately 50,000m³ of fuelwood from the USSR (GIZ, 2010a). After the breakup of the Soviet Union, subsidised diesel, firewood and coal stopped suddenly, forcing people to use local firewood and dried manure for household energy. Poor regulation and management of state owned forestry land resulted in illegal fuelwood collection and uncontrolled grazing of livestock (Kreutzmann et al, 2010). Now, only 2% of Tajikistan´s area is covered with heavily degraded forests (GIZ, 2010a). With winters lasting 5-7 months, and temperatures regularly below -30°C, over 50% of fuel is for space heating. Estimates by German Agro Action in Tajikistan suggest that household consumption in the Baljuan region is around 17 tonnes of manure per year. Private and public buildings have extremely low space heating and cooking technology efficiencies. Heat losses arise through non-insulated roofs and walls, and singleglazed, poorly maintained windows.

Climate Change in Gorno-Badakhshan Throughout Central Asia and Europe, Tajikistan is the most vulnerable to climate change (World Bank, 2009). Studies indicate an average temperature increase of 0.1°C to 1.2°C between 1961 and 1990 (GIZ, 2012), with increases up to 3°C during winter. Conversely, warm winds have led to a 30% increase in the days during which temperatures exceed 40°C. Extreme precipitation and temperature events have become more frequent (GIZ, 2012). The changed patterns cause the melting of glaciers, which leads to higher water runoff. The influences of changed Boiling Point. issue 61 — 2013

weather conditions and extreme weather events strongly affect the livelihoods of households in GBAO, especially those depending on natural resources sensitive to climate change for subsistence.

Enhancing resilience of households and ecosystems The project Sustainable Management of Natural Resources in Gorno-Badakhshan of the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH under the Regional Programme on “Sustainable Use of Natural Resources in Central Asia” commissioned by German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ), addresses the issue of overuse of natural resources and livelihood improvements. Through introducing a Joint Forestry Management approach, the project aims to prevent further degradation and enable rehabilitation of forest resources. The State Forestry Agency hands over longterm leasing contracts to local, formerly illegal forest users, regulating user rights and obligations, and defining harvest, pruning and rehabilitation measures. The contracts define the way forest products are shared between the tenants and State Forestry Agency, and the latter is supported technically and financially to set-up management structures and provide requested services for the tenants. To complement this, the project disseminates energy-efficient products using a market-based approach; thermal insulation for floors, walls, roofs, double-glazed wooden windows, improved cooking and heating stoves and solar water heaters. These products have been developed, tested, and adapted to local conditions. Local craftsmen have been trained to produce and install high-quality energy-efficient technologies. The marketing retailer cooperative Zindagi (founded in 2010) purchases high quality materials, and engages in quality management and product marketing. In 2011, Zindagi produced and sold more than 700 energy efficient products, including 130 fuel-efficient cooking and space heating stoves, reducing individual household fuel consumption for cooking and heating by 30%-50%.

A micro-finance product Warm-Comfort, was developed in close cooperation with the local micro-finance organisation Madina va Hamkoron, facilitating access to finance for local households. Madina va Hamkoron offers technical consultation and provides in-kind loans of up to US$ 500 for thermal insulation. Warm Comfort are offered with a monthly interest of 2.5% (which is considered low compared to most microloans in Tajikistan) and a reimbursement rate of 12 months. Madina va Hamkoron served 400 clients from 2009-12 with the credit line Warm Comfort. One resident of Murgab took a loan of US$ 500 in 2008 to insulate the floor, ceiling and one window of the winter room. After the insulation, he needed 50% less fuel for the winter and in his case the loan paid-off after the second year. Currently, energy-efficient products are used by around 800 households in GBAO; the eye-catching double-glazed wooden windows make the room brighter, and are the most popular product. Data from 2009 and 2010 indicate that households with thermal insulation consume, on average, 30% less heating energy, compared with households without thermal insulation (Wiedemann, C. et al, 2012 and Dmitrieva O., 2010). Households that formerly used over 4000 kg dung and and around 3000 kg firewood per winter season now use an average of 2900 kg and 2000 kg respectively. People use space heating less often in thermallyinsulated households, using the stove only two or three times a day, instead of continuous heating. Despite fuel savings, almost all households reported warmer temperatures after installing insulation. Fuel saving and indoor air temperature are significantly influenced by the user behaviour. Some households reported consuming almost the same amount of fuel through not changing their heating patterns and overheating the room. The impacts of higher indoor air temperatures on health have not yet been measured, and significant impacts on the resilience of households and ecosystems are difficult to measure accurately at small scale. If the majority of households adopt energyefficient technologies and practices, reducing biomass use substantially, positive impact on 3

THEME Figure 2: Woman uses an improved cookstove “Tezpaz” (Tajik for “The fast one”) outside the house (Source: Stefan Salzmann) Figure 3: Carpenters learn and develop how to construct doubleglazed windows and how to integrate this new product into their business (Source: GIZ)

the resiliencies of ecosystems and households can be expected. A decreased demand for firewood contributes to the protection of forests. Where manure is not burnt in stoves, it can be used as fertiliser, improving soil fertility. Using less firewood and manure saves time spent collecting firewood and money spent buying fuel, strengthening other livelihood assets such as purchase of goods, time for employment and education. Health issues caused by cold indoor air temperatures and smoke will be reduced. A marketbased approach offers income-generation opportunities, strengthening economic development in the region.

Strengthening capacities to adapt to changes To support resilience to climate change, more data on the project’s impacts on the ecosystem and the livelihoods of people is needed. Lack of complete data prevents verification of the scale of impacts, or how the project will enhance resilience capacity to adapt to future climate change. Though currently small scale, the activities described contribute to diversification of livelihood assets, and they reduce the pressure on natural resources (GIZ, 2012). The measures tackle existing problems around energy supply and inefficient use of energy resources. Because the population benefits from energy efficient products irrespective of climate change, the initiatives are considers “no regret” measures. The benefits of enhanced energy efficiency vary from case to case in high mountainous regions. Quantifiable impacts of fuel savings on household income in GBAO are outside the capacity of small projects. Within these high, cold communities, it has proved challenging to introduce both the adapted and affordable technologies themselves, and knowledge sharing about their use. In the presented example, knowledge transfer was enabled through long-term personal cooperation, capacity development and an integrated approach. The pillars of this approach are professional education of craftsmen, market-based dissemination and consumer finance, and further efforts are required for expansion. Information 4

exchange between projects and entrepreneurs is essential for technology transfer and adaptation, so further comprehensive impact monitoring is necessary to better understand the links between energy efficient improvements and user behaviour. Greater effort is required to raising awareness on the appropriate use of thermal insulation, and the socio-economic and ecological impacts of inefficient biomass use for heating. Market-based dissemination of energy efficient technologies will have little impact if the supply side of biomass use is neglected, so complementary approaches are necessary in the long-term. As biomass is currently the main energy source for cooking and heating throughout GBAO, its sustainable use as an energy source must be recognised and support initiated to help communities be more resilient to the everchanging climate conditions and resources.

Profile of authors Kambulakwao Chakanga earned her Master’s degree in ‘Postgraduate Programme Renewable Energy (PPRE)’ at the University of Oldenburg. She is doing an internship at GIZ programme HERA during her current PhD in Physics. Heike Volkmer has worked for the GIZ programme HERA since 2011, focussing on biomass and cooking energy. Between 2008-2011, she supported the dissemination of energy efficient technologies, including thermal insulation, improved heating and cookstoves in the high mountainous region of Gorno-Badakhshan, Tajikistan.

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Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowledge the support and information needed for this article provided by the colleagues of the GIZ Regional Programme “Sustainable Use of Natural Resources in Central Asia”. The GIZ Programme “Povertyoriented Basic Energy Services (HERA)” develops and disseminates strategies and concepts for propoor basic energy services. HERA also functions as a knowledge exchange platform between GIZ energy projects and international stakeholders.

References GIZ, 2010b. Micro loans for thermal insulation - A Product Documentation Based on Experience in Tajik GornoBadakhshan Experience on supporting thermal insulation through micro loans in Gorno-Badakhshan in Tajikistan. Energypedia, 2012a. Improved Cooking Portal. Available: https:// energypedia.info/index.php/ Portal:Improved_Cooking. Accessed Jan 2013. Energypedia, 2012b. Heating - Indoor Air Temperature. Available: https:// energypedia.info/index.php/Heating_-_ Indoor_Air_Temperature. Accessed Jan 2013. IEA (2010): Energy Poverty - How to make modern energy access universal? Special early excerpt of the World Energy Outlook 2010 for the UN General Assembly on the Millennium Development Goals. IEA. Paris. http:// www.worldenergyoutlook.org/media/ weowebsite/energydevelopment/ weo2010_poverty.pdf. Accessed Jan 2013. Kees, M., Feldmann, L., 2011. The role of donor organization in promoting energy efficient cook stoves. Energy Policy.

THEME PEER REVIEWED

Transforming household energy practices to reduce climate risks: Charcoal use in Lusaka, Zambia Improved cookstoves; Charcoal; Household energy; Zambia; Adaptation

Author Aaron Atteridge

Research Fellow, Stockholm Environment Institute, Kräftriket 2B, SE106 91, Stockholm, Sweden +46 (0)8 674 7747 aaron.atteridge@sei-international.org

Figure 1: Charcoal production outside Lusaka, Zambia (Source: Aaron Atteridge)

Burning charcoal to service household cooking and heating needs, as is common in urban Lusaka, creates not only direct health and environmental problems but is also closely linked with the ability of communities to adapt to the impacts of climate change. Charcoal production and use directly reduces the availability of mature trees as shade against higher temperatures, which in turn increases surface runoff of precious fresh water resources. Concurrently, climate change is predicted to affect the growth of woodlands that currently supply most of the charcoal, so the fuel itself may become harder to access. Finding ways to reduce charcoal use can therefore reduce the probable impacts of climate change for poor communities. Transforming energy markets for the poor is never easy, as decades of unsuccessful cookstove interventions can attest to. However, by better understanding what households want and need it is possible to identify policy and technical solutions that could change behaviour at scale. These include improved cookstoves that have a greater resemblance to the existing stoves and are locally produced, simple solar water heating devices, and electricity price re-structuring to lower tariffs for the poor.

Introduction

n urban Lusaka, as in many other parts of Africa, charcoal dominates the household energy market. It is the main cooking fuel for most low- and middleincome households, and is also used for water heating and space heating. While rural areas outside Lusaka rely heavily on wood, urban households generally prefer charcoal as it produces less smoke and is easier to transport and handle. Yet charcoal is problematic in many ways. Its production drives deforestation

Boiling Point. issue 61 — 2013

and inefficient burning is linked to health and economic problems. The government of Zambia included in its 1994 National Energy Policy a goal of reducing charcoal production by 400,000 tonnes by 2010 by promoting more efficient production and use of wood fuel and encouraging alternatives. Similar objectives are included in the 2002 and 2006 Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers, while the National Long Term Vision 2030 document describes an ambition to reduce the share of fuel wood to 40% by 2030 and to achieve a ‘productive and well conserved natural resource for sustainable development’.

Concerns about climate change offer new reasons to encourage a shift in biomass use. Zambia’s National Adaptation Plan of Action (NAPA) indicates that extended droughts and an increasing prospect of forest fires threaten the country’s forests, degrading land and soil fertility and directly affecting low-income families that depend on biomass for cooking and lighting (ROZ, 2007). In particular, growth of the Miombo woodlands – a source of fuelwood or charcoal for more than 80% of households in Zambia – will be jeopardised. This means a changing 5

THEME Table 1: Important features of an improved stove from user perspective

Highest priority

Fuel efficiency (including protection from wind)

Primary features (i.e. could play some part in influencing decisions)

Enable cooking indoors (hence, minimal harmful gases) Greater cooking utility, including fast startup and greater temperature control Mobility Contains ash Robust (some dishes such as Shima require forceful cooking) Must accommodate common pot sizes

Secondary features (i.e. would be appreciated though probably not influence purchase/use decisions)

climate may reduce the availability of biomass as a local energy source. Household energy use is itself among the main causes of deforestation, which contributes to rising greenhouse gas emissions and also increases rainfall runoff and reduces freshwater supplies. It also removes mature trees that provide shade cover, an invaluable asset against rising temperatures. Charcoal consumption thus has direct consequences for the ability of communities to deal with a changing climate. As a response, Zambia’s NAPA emphasises action to reduce deforestation and to encourage more sustainable fuel use. It prioritises improving charcoal use efficiency and encourages improved stoves to combat the effects of drought; afforestation and reforestation programs; and improved energy access and security including, promotion of energy efficient stoves.

Why is catalysing change so difficult? There have been a number of initiatives to change energy use patterns in and around Lusaka, typically by introducing improved cookstoves. These include projects supported by the United Nations Environment Programme and by Japanese and German development funds, a stove manual produced by Project Gaia, and a private Clean Development Mechanism project funded by the German company RWE. However, as others have observed (e.g. TSA, 2007), despite 20 years of donorand government-funded efforts to develop improved stoves for Lusaka, none has managed to gain a permanent market share, much less transform the market as a whole. Clean-cookstove proponents often explain this failure as resulting from one or both of two factors: lack of awareness among households of the benefits of switching fuels/stoves, and inability to afford the higher purchase price of a more efficient stove. A previous study notes that none of the improved stoves introduced in Lusaka have been able to recoup production costs and deliver a reasonable return on capital, arguing that users refuse to purchase the stoves at high enough prices and that price is the key factor determining uptake of a 6

Enable charcoal to be added without removing pot Reduce burning risk Enable visual inspection of glowing charcoal (users are accustomed to watching the charcoal as a means of monitoring their cooking)

new charcoal stove (TSA, 2007). However, these assumptions may in fact miss a more fundamental point: that the stoves may meet technical criteria, but fail to meet the social and cultural needs of users; if they did, a viable, sustainable business could emerge and grow without external financial support.

Placing energy users at the centre of the analysis In late 2010, the Stockholm Environment Institute undertook a study to better understand the opportunities for households in Lusaka to change their existing patterns of charcoal use. We examined the drivers of current energy use practices, the capacity of households to change current practices, and – importantly – what particular needs and wants of users might motivate or work against such a change. Household energy use is determined not only by technical and economic features, but also social and cultural factors. For example, existing practices may be linked to valued traditions and provide an important basis for social interaction, or food may be perceived as tasting better when cooked with traditional fuels and stoves than with cleaner alternatives. In order to better understand how tradeoffs are made in decisions about energy use, a total of 15 in-depth interview and observation sessions were held with low- and middle-income households in urban Lusaka (approximately an even divide between these two categories, though it must be noted that making such distinctions on the ground is not always clear). These are in addition to the interviews with other local actors (stove makers, charcoal sellers, charcoal producers). In all cases we interviewed women, though in two households the husband was also present and part of the interview process. We gathered data on the range of emotional, cognitive and physical relations people have to existing practices, as well as information about financial capacities and barriers – including willingness to pay

for a more efficient stove. Interviews were often conducted while people cooked, and were hence supplemented with observations of the cooking process and of the surrounding environment.

Understanding household energy use For interventions to successfully transform charcoal use, they must be framed in terms of the problems that people currently experience and of the key dynamics of household decision-making about cooking and energy use. The preferences and desires expressed by households represent the space, or opportunity, for catalysing a change in current practices. Reduced fuel consumption and health impacts, greater utility, a preference for cooking indoors, and willingness to pay more for a fuel-efficient stove are all significant. In Lusaka, fuel costs are a significant portion of low-income households’ expenditures, and the most pressing problem dictating cooking practices. Although there is a strong cultural attachment to the mbaula stove (Figure 2), it also has many features that users consider undesirable: they consume a lot of charcoal; it is difficult to control temperature during cooking; users often burn their fingers; and when cooking indoors, the smoke causes headaches and the stoves can damage the floor and introduce ash into the home. Of these, however, very few characteristics – essentially only fuel savings – would motivate the purchase of an improved but more expensive stove. Most other shortcomings of the mbaula were willingly accepted as a trade-off for lower fuel costs. Various material constraints can work against change. There are few alternatives in the energy and stove market – no kerosene for cooking, little or no natural gas, no viable solar cooking option. Also, cost is a major issue: low-income households generally have little ability to take financial risks, which reduces the willingness to buy more expensive stoves whose performance is unfamiliar.

THEME Figure 2: Charcoal use in traditional mbaula stoves (Source: Aaron Atteridge)

There are also normative barriers to overcome. The mbaula is a strong cultural device with generally positive connotations amongst users. Despite its clear and acknowledged flaws, it is not perceived as needing change. Further, user perceptions of what are important stove characteristics are based on the traditional mbaula, so there is a need to create space for learning and transformation of this understanding. Some people feel food tastes better on charcoal stoves than when cooked with electricity, even though few have much experience cooking with alternatives. Not all barriers described above are likely to be “game breakers”. For instance, despite the strong cultural traditions attached to the mbaula, more than 90% of the medium-income and even low-income households interviewed have an electrical connection and have already purchased more expensive electrical cooking appliances which were used favourably when tariffs were lower. Now they are hardly used.

Pathways for transforming energy use When we place the people using charcoal on a daily basis at the centre of the picture – not just as recipients of a new technology but as the adjudicators of what makes sense and what doesn’t – we can see at least three clear opportunities to help transform charcoal use in Lusaka. First, there is a market opportunity for a stove that more closely resembles the mbaula, but makes notable improvements. Table 1 summarises key features that our analysis suggests would be most valued by low-income Lusaka households. The typical lifespan of an mbaula stove is only six months to two years, so an improved stove that appealed to buyers could rapidly gain market share. The other key challenge is to make such stoves affordable; most households indicate they have limited cash flow, no access to credit and no mechanism for paying in instalments. A related issue is how and by whom the new stoves are produced. Mbaulas are made by local tinsmiths, who sell them directly. Tinsmiths also commonly reuse old metal Boiling Point. issue 61 — 2013

scraps, which conserves resources and provides another livelihood base, collecting metal. By contrast, all improved cookstoves sold so far in Lusaka came from outside these local supply lines. One possibility, thus, would be to engage local tinsmiths in making a redesigned mbaula. Although the technical improvements would be more modest, the overall net benefits may be higher if this encourages more households to switch. Creating local, neighbourhood-based distribution channels could also help. We encountered several women who conduct business from their homes through informal social networks, for example selling imported shoes. Helping these entrepreneurs to buy and resell improved stoves would create an initial market demand and provide a way for potential buyers to familiarise themselves with the stoves before making a big investment. The women might also be able to set up instalment plans. Second, part of the demand for charcoal and firewood could be reduced by households installing cheap solar water heating devices. Households use at least some of their fuel to heat water for bathing, and solar heaters on the roof or in the yard could more sustainably perform this function. The fact that many households rent and have concerns over theft would likely prevent them from installing expensive permanent units. However, a cheap, “low-tech”, mobile and lightweight solar water heating device could appeal to low-income households. At present there are no such devices in the market. A third possibility for changing household energy use is lowering electricity prices for poorer households. Technical access to electricity in urban Lusaka is quite widespread (even if reliability can be a problem), and almost all households said they would cook more with electricity if it was not significantly more expensive. In fact, many households said they had bought expensive electrical cooking appliances when tariffs were lower, and reduced their usage when tariffs were raised in 2010. Electricity price reform is never a straightforward political proposal. However, if made a priority then possibilities exist for revenue-neutral tariff reform, which means lowering prices for low-income households

yet raising overall tariff income (in line with the objectives of the government and the needs of the electricity utility ZESCO). Although this requires raising tariffs for other users, most of the current electricity subsidies already benefit higher-income groups rather than the poor (Kalumiana, 2004). A further challenge with this option is that, given problems with network reliability in Lusaka, any significant increase in electricity use for cooking would place further strain on the system. This means investment to upgrade capacity and distribution might be needed. Although challenging, as a means of changing behaviour electricity price reform makes sense from the perspectives of energy users.

Impacts on other livelihoods It is important to recognise that household charcoal use is part of a broader social and economic network that provides livelihoods for charcoal producers, transporters and various levels of market sellers. Therefore, any success in reducing charcoal use will have wider consequences. These should be borne in mind when devising strategies, since livelihoods form the economic and social basis for, among other things, adaptation to climate change.

Profile of author Aaron has worked on a range of topics linking energy and climate policy and practice. In addition to the work described in this article, he has also looked at household energy use among low-income households in Northern India, worked with a number of household- and villagelevel renewable energy projects in Thailand, and on state energy planning and environmental and climate policy in Australia.

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THEME PEER REVIEWED

Integrating renewable energy into resilient livelihoods: Christian Aidâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s experience Keywords: small-scale renewable energy; cost-effectiveness, reliability and consumer preference; fossil-fuel subsidies; renewable energy toolkit

Author Richard Ewbank

Climate Advisor, Christian Aid, PO Box 100, London SE1 7RT, United Kingdom. REwbank@christian-aid.org

Figure 1: Solar lanterns for sale in West Bengal, through a project supported by Christian Aid partner Development Research and Communication Service Centre (DRCSC) (Source: Richard Ewbank)

Lack of access to energy is both a major cause of poverty and a major constraint to increasing the resilience of the most vulnerable livelihoods. With central grid connectivity at low levels in India and especially Africa, small-scale renewable energy technologies have the potential to provide much needed power for both household and livelihood use. Christian Aidâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s work on both continents has sought to link with private sector expertise to increase access, especially of those usually bypassed by the market. Impacts include community empowerment, reduced costs of energy, increased returns to local retailers, and better quality of domestic lighting and indoor air. The vast scale of fossil fuel subsidies has been internationally highlighted in both driving up greenhouse gas emissions and failing the poor. These should be urgently redirected to renewable energy development and expansion.

Adding renewables to resilience-building

he starting point for Christian Aidâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s work on energy has been to use emerging renewable energy technologies as a vehicle to build resilience into the livelihoods of the poorest and most vulnerable. The energy poverty of urban as well as often remote, rural communities acts as a major constraint to both adding value to existing economic activities and diversifying into new, more sustainable and resilient ones. Central

grid connectivity may change slowly but with current levels still low in both Africa and India, at 31% and 55% respectively (Cust & Neuhoff 2007), small-scale renewable energy technologies have the potential to provide much needed power, cooking fuels and efficiency. A further benefit is that both the technology and the energy produced are under local management, either at household or community level. This avoids reliance on the often unaffordable charges imposed by large, corporate energy utilities and enables community management

structures, which may already be involved in managing resources such as local wells, to gain experience and expertise in energy management.

An evolving approach Having supported partners in the past to work on various aspects of energy, such as fuel-efficient stove promotion, a more specific renewable energy focus began in 2009 through a three year joint project with the Ashden Awards to sponsor an annual international award. This

THEME Figure 2: Biogas unit construction supported by the Rural Employment Guarantee, through a project supported by Christian Aid partner DRCSC (Source: Richard Ewbank)

has included follow-on activities in the relevant country to extend the technology developed by the award winner. In addition to promoting sustainable solutions to energy provision in developing countries, this partnership with Ashden has enabled two things - firstly for Christian Aid to link with the expertise of an established and highly-regarded organisation in the sector and link with private sector technology developers through the annual award, and secondly to work on ways of using a pro-poor market approach that would not undermine the commercial prospects for small-scale renewable energy. In 2010, Christian Aid sponsored the Ashden Award for solar lighting company d.light in India. This was followed up with a project in Jharkhand State in the east of the country, the state with the lowest village electrification levels nationally (about 31%), to use a revolving fund mechanism to promote the sale of 4,000 S10 or S25 solar lamps in remote rural areas where the main form of lighting is kerosene lamps or candles. The S10 is a small lantern with an LED lightbulb, a replaceable battery and a solar panel on the top surface. The more expensive S25 has a separate solar panel and a mobile phone charger. Repayment rates were based on average monthly expenditure on kerosene, allowing an essentially cost-neutral decision to be made by the participating households. Reviewing the work in 2011 (Ewbank, 2011), lamp owners cited a variety of reasons why a solar lantern has advantages over the alternatives. According to owners’ estimations, the light from an S10 lamp is more-or-less equivalent to two kerosene lamps, giving a saving on fuel purchases of INR 45/month (about US$ 0.8). The lamp pays for itself in just a year. Although about half the owners consulted had some access to mains electricity, this was only available after 9 pm, cost INR 70/month (US$ 1.24) and and was unreliable. So they preferred solar power that they could manage, that was more reliable and cost less. The durability of the lamp was also highlighted by the owners. It could be carried around the house without the worry of spilling fuel, Boiling Point. issue 61 — 2013

causing fires or blowing out in a strong breeze. Some children had prior experience of studying in the evening using solar lights facilitated by Christian Aid’s partner Sona Santhal Samaj Samiti (SSSS). However with solar lanterns, they could now study at home using better quality light. Finally, kerosene lamp emissions sting the eyes, blacken house walls and cause household members to wake up with black marks around their noses from inhaling fumes all night. Owners pointed out how a solar lantern mitigates these risks to health.

Are renewables a cost-effective alternative? Any organisation promoting a renewable technology such as a solar lantern inevitably runs into a set of assertions that highlight the superiority of grid-based energy. From reliability and cost-effectiveness to consumer preference, grid-based energy is deemed to be the better option. At best, users of renewable energy are only filling a gap until they are ultimately connected to the grid. To investigate this issue in more depth, Christian Aid supported the Vasudha Foundation in India to investigate the options for rural energy provision and the relative effectiveness of extending the grid versus using renewable energy technologies. India has seen a massive expansion in energy use since 1985, with an over three and a half times increase in electricity generation by 2009. In 1985, renewables did not feature in official statistics. By 2009, over 4 million biogas plants and 670,000 solar lanterns were in use – a situation facilitated by the emergence of improved renewable energy technology; the many commercial, non-governmental and civil society organisations promoting more sustainable energy solutions; and the formation in 1992 of the Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (MNES), becoming the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) in 2006 (Krishnaswamy 2010). What clearly emerged from the research has been the superior performance of renewables when compared with grid electricity, in terms of cost-effectiveness, reliability and consumer preference. In

the four districts of Bihar and Jharkhand covered by the research “with the average supply working roughly four hours per day, at a current tariff of INR 100/month (US$ 1.80) on a flat rate basis, factoring in that the bulk of the supply is during the night times when there is virtually no usage, the average rate that a rural household is paying is almost on par with what an urban household is currently paying”. Direct analysis found that at any distance over 18 km from the grid, smallscale renewables become the most costeffective way to provide energy, even taking into account the lowest, and subsidised, cost of coal energy generation. The variety of projects cited, from the work of SELCO with microfinance for solar energy to the biogas and solar energy projects of Gram Vikas in Orissa, demonstrated the appropriateness of renewables to community energy needs and pointed out the key elements of success. These include involvement of the community in designing the system, so that technologies can be matched as far as possible to demand; clear user understanding of the limits as well as opportunities of the system; financial involvement in procurement and management by the community from the outset, even if subsidies are available; ensuring maintenance is available and planned for; building in multiple purpose usage options so that energy is available for household and livelihood use; and ensuring the implementation of an effective management model that includes locally-generated resources for repair and replacement in case of communal facilities.

Expanding in Africa As in India, Christian Aid’s support for renewables in Africa has focused on solar energy and also biofuels for local use. In Kenya, Christian Aid has worked with ToughStuff to implement the Business in a Box project. This has so far reached about 3,000 customers through 200 small enterprises selling the ToughStuff solar lantern. When surveyed (ToughStuff & Christian Aid 2011), lantern users reported savings of KSh 6,380 (US$ 74.64) 9

THEME Figure 3: Screenshot from the interactive Renewable Energy Toolkit (Source: Practical Action)

References Cust, J., Neuhoff, K., Singh, A., 2007. Rural Electrification in India: Economic and Institutional aspects of Renewables – EPRG; International Energy Agency, 2010. Electricity Access in 2009 – Africa.

per year in their expenditure on lighting, phone charging and radio listening. Small enterprises reported increased incomes of 40%, with the top third of performers adding KSh 39,000 (US$ 456) to their annual income. Other benefits included more time to read, work or study after dark, an increased sense of security and health benefits from reduced kerosene lamp emissions. With an estimated 359,520 premature child (<5 years old) deaths and 23,212 (>30 years old) female deaths in Africa per year attributable to poor indoor air quality, the health benefits of reduced indoor emissions are significant (Rehfuess 2006). The experience of linking with the Ashden Awards and partners in India and Africa led to the development with Practical Action of a renewable energy toolkit (Practical Action & Christian Aid 2011) to support planning of further renewable energy work. This was expanded into an interactive Renewable Energy Toolkit – the iRET – when Oxfam joined the group (see Figure 3 and article on page 38) (Practical Action 2012).

Removing subsidies from fossil fuels, investing in renewable energy However, while both these give valued technical guidance, a major upscaling of resources is needed globally so that renewable energy, and particularly smallscale community-managed renewable energy, can make the sort of leap that mobile phones have made over land lines in many countries. A key part of this will involve reducing and ultimately eliminating the substantial subsidies of US$ 409 billion currently received by the oil, coal and gas industry annually and reallocating them to renewable energy 10

development. As the International Energy Agency highlights (IEA 2011), these subsidies are “an extremely inefficient means of assisting the poor: only 8% of the US$ 409 billion spent on fossil-fuel subsidies in 2010 went to the poorest 20% of the population”. In particular, Christian Aid proposes the establishment of a ‘leapfrog fund’ from global mitigation finance to support Africa towards a low carbon economy – that is “achieving total access to modern energy services in subSaharan Africa would require investments of about US$ 20 billion. Quantifying the cost of low-carbon development in the region is more difficult, but could equate to about US$ 30 billion per year until 2030. African countries need to put in place strategies, regulation and capacity building to stimulate low-carbon development and to attract private sector investment, innovation and markets. Based on its energy needs, along with the requirement to reduce greenhouse gases emissions, the Green Climate Fund should include a dedicated window for this purpose. This should be a leapfrog fund for low-carbon energy access” (Doig & Adow 2011). Even the higher estimate of US$ 30 billion amounts to only 7% of fossil fuel subsidies.

Doig, A., and Adow, M., 2011. Low Carbon Africa - Christian Aid. See http://www.christianaid.org.uk/ resources/policy/climate/low-carbonafrica.aspx for report and six country case studies. Ewbank, R., 2011. Climate Change Review of India Partners (internal review of climate change adaptation work) – Christian Aid. International Energy Agency, 2011. World Energy Outlook (analysis of fossil-fuel subsidies Krishnaswamy, S., 2010. Shifting of Goal Posts- A Report on Rural Electrification - Vasudha Foundation. Practical Action, 2012. Interactive Renewable Energy Toolkit. See http:// practicalaction.org/iret Practical Action and Christian Aid, 2011. Renewable Energy to Reduce Poverty - Adaptation Toolkit 4: Planning decentralised renewable energy projects. Rehfuess, E., 2006. Fuel for Life: Household Energy and Health. World Health Organisation ToughStuff and Christian Aid, 2011. Business in a Box Programme Evaluation (internal evaluation).

Profile of author Richard has worked in rural development and climate change for over 24 years, initially focusing on rural development in SubSaharan Africa, including agriculture, microfinance, programme management, monitoring and evaluation. This involved five years in Malawi, one year in Zimbabwe and two years in Kenya. Since joining Christian Aid as Climate Advisor in 2008, this work has expanded to cover Central America, Central and South Asia.

www.hedon.info/UMXB * Read article online and comment

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THEME PEER REVIEWED

Emerging institutional perspectives: A case study on managing bamboo resources for charcoal production in Nagaland, India Keywords: Institutional adaptation; Flowering bamboo; Charcoal making; Livelihoods; Small scale enterprises, Carbon emission reduction

Authors Jay Anand

Research Consultant

Dr. Appadurai Arivudai Nambi Director

Climate Change Programme M S Swaminathan Research Foundation, III Cross Street, Taramani institutional Area, Chennai- 600113 Tamil Nadu, India

Figure 1: Bamboo transportation (Souce: Jay Anand)

Institutions play a critical role in managing natural resources. With increased awareness of the impacts of climate change, it is becoming important for institutions to be open and flexible to address emerging environmental issues. This article examines the use of plant genetic resources, especially bamboo, in Nagaland (north-east India), and how institutions have optimised its use through promoting the use of sub quality (flowering) bamboo for charcoal making. Approaches adopted by both state and local level institutions help to sustain local livelihoods by generating income from this otherwise wasted resources and they reduce carbon emissions by using the bamboo charcoal at both household and industrial level.

Introduction

he state of Nagaland in North-eastern India has diverse tribal cultures and languages. It comprises flat ground and undulating hills, rolling grasslands, cascading waterfalls, and has rich flora and fauna. This picturesque scenario is contrasted by widespread poverty, a high unemployment rate (13.8%) compared to other Indian states and low energy access (~240 kWh/year) (MoP, 2012). In response, the Nagaland Bamboo Development Agency (NBDA), an autonomous body registered as a society under the Government of Nagaland, has attempted to promote entrepreneurial development using bamboo as a resource to improve the livelihoods of the local people.

Boiling Point. issue 61 â&#x20AC;&#x201D; 2013

Study area Nagaland is primarily an agrarian state, where more than 80% of the population is dependent on agriculture and forest products. An appropriate study area was selected to understand the thriving nature of the charcoal enterprises, use of technologies and the impacts of government-supported schemes. Mokukchung and Dimapur were two of the main study sites selected among six project sites to assess the role of institutions in shaping the locally driven charcoal enterprises. The majority of the projects were initiated in areas where the bamboo was flowering. This was essentially to convert the bamboo (which dies back after flowering)

to make charcoal for future use and to minimise an otherwise wasted natural resource, thereby providing additional income for the community with their full participation.

History of bamboo charcoal in Nagaland Bamboo charcoal is traditionally used in Nagaland as a substitute for tree charcoal or mineral coal and is in demand during winter for warming houses, poultry farms, and for barbeques during community and farming festivals. Prior to the start of NBDA, bamboo charcoal was not regarded as a livelihood option. Nagaland has been encouraged to adopt bamboo charcoal 11

THEME

manufacture as a rural enterprise in six districts. Knowing that, at the household level, there was virtually no local market demand for bamboo charcoal, NBDA stepped in to promote charcoal enterprise, based on four premises: — Creation of a market for charcoal; supporting local livelihoods and engaging rural youth — The short rotation and fast growing nature of bamboo compared to other tree species — Calorific value as a fuel, and its value in industrial application for water purification — The notion of replicating a cheap and straightforward technology

Climate vulnerability and impact on bamboo flowering The climate of Nagaland ranges from sub-tropical to temperate with an annual rainfall of 2,500mm and temperature ranging from 4 – 35 degrees Celsius. Ravindranath et al (2011) have used water availability, the rate of water evaporation, and the frequency and intensity of droughts and floods as indicators to build a climate scenario model for the near future (2030-2050). Looking at the future, the rise in temperature (1.6 – 1.7 degrees Celsius increase) in 2030-2050 (INCCA report, 2010) and decrease in rainfall (10 – 20% than normal) may impact the growth of the bamboo plants and its physiology, which may also lead to early flowering. Early flowering of bamboo has been noticed in the study area and there could be a chance that the life cycle of certain perennials may be shortened due to warming. This model suggests that the Mokukchung district would be highly vulnerable and the vulnerability for the district of Kohima will remain moderate.

Institutional Actions According to the local community, when the bamboo flowers, it leads to the subsequent death of the bamboo. This was regarded as an impending natural disaster as bamboo that has flowered was not considered useful because it lacked 12

quality. However, there is a possibility to convert this resource to charcoal, which can be used for energy, and marketed to improve local livelihoods. It is difficult to assign an exact economic value, since bamboo growing supports various sectors, which include agriculture, crafts, construction and industry. A recent study suggests that the existence of bamboo that has flowered has resulted in a loss of approximately US$ 2.04 million in Nagaland state (North East State Forest Department report, 2009). In view of this NBDA initiated a plan to convert biomass into energy at one level and at the same time promote bamboo plantation on a massive scale, mostly in areas where the bamboo had flowered, to help regenerate about 14142 hectares of bamboo forests, over a period of five years (2007–2012). During this time, approximately, 0.31 million tonnes of biomass has been regenerated and about 0.17 tonnes of CO2/year has been sequestered by these measures. Institutions and associated stakeholders play a role in improving local livelihoods by enhancing the value of bamboo through charcoal and briquette making, electricity generation, agroforestry, food and the associated activities like local enterprise development (see @HEDON for a framework diagram depicting this). With the assistance of the National Mission on Bamboo Application (NMBA), the NBDA has set up approximately 47 bamboo charcoal kilns, each with a capacity to produce 2000 kg per cycle (operational time of five days). NBDA set up two gasifier based (128 kWe + 35 kWe) power plants and reinstated both when they failed, but lack of expertise and availability of mechanical parts has resulted in them becoming non-functional. Though NBDA activities are well received within the community, they have limitations including inadequate human resources, lack of financial resources, timely project execution, project reach and access. NBDA has adopted a simple technology, known as the Indian Kiln (a design developed by NMBA), replacing the old traditional pit kiln method, shown in Figures 2 and 3 respectively. Village Bamboo Development Committees (VBDC) established in six districts produced 23.5

tonnes of coal in each cycle, which generated revenue of approximately US$ 20,000 per annum. Locations for kilns were chosen in consultation with community support in three to four surrounding villages, and the VBDC helps in efficient use of bamboo resources. Altogether this programme is helping around 142 - 250 persons (i.e. three – ten persons/kiln). Indirectly, nearly twice as many people are working in the supply and distribution chain system for bamboo charcoal. NBDA has been instrumental in securing best quantity prices for the community through appropriate support mechanisms, such as demand based collection point, training, incentives, and by facilitating local franchise for entrepreneurs. The agency is also actively focusing on existing bamboo resources, flowering areas and sorting of high and low cost bamboo species to help villagers access and utilise it in a sustainable manner. So far, 148 persons covering 28 villages have been trained and more than 60% of them are now charcoal entrepreneurs.

Institutional strategies in building community based charcoal enterprises NBDA was established in 2004 to provide data to inform the State Bamboo Policy and to take action to mitigate youth migration and improve livelihood opportunities in bamboo flowering areas of Nagaland. The entire NBDA approaches have attempted to analyse the role of local institutions in facilitating capacity building, technological knowhow and research (Table 1). A scale of high to low is used to assess the role of institutions and the effectiveness of specific strategies by interviewing tribal youth groups, stakeholders and entrepreneurs in the two main survey villages.

Conclusions NBDA initiatives clearly demonstrate how a strategic institutional approach can transform and revive community oriented activities to improve quality of life and at the same time provide useful lessons to policy makers, particularly in reducing natural disaster related impacts. The

THEME Figure 2: Logical framework to understand the role of institutions in managing sustainable use of bamboo resources. (Source: Jay Anand) Figure 3: Traditional technology in bamboo charcoal making (Source: Jay Anand) Table 1: Institutional Adaptation Matrix (Source: Jay Anand)

agency has adopted a simple but effective technology and supportive packages like incentives, soft loans, training and technical guidance to revitalise the community based charcoal industry and thereby enhanced the livelihoods of local communities. From the study, it may be concluded that low cost bamboo and flowered bamboo, which is otherwise considered as

a waste has a promising future in the given context in terms of bringing prosperity to the local communities. However, this needs sustained support, innovative means of reorganising institutions that are sensitive to local needs and above all creation of awareness at all levels. This would help ensure ecological and economic security at the local level.

References Human Development Index of Nagaland, 2005, study carried out by UNDP, www.indiastat.com Accessed 15 September 2012 Indian Network for Climate Change Assessment (INCCA) Report no. 2, 2010, Climate change and India: A 4X4 Sectoral and Regional Analysis for 2030s, published by Ministry of Environment & Forests (MoEF), http://moef.nic.in/downloads/ public-information/fin-rpt-incca.pdf Accessed 14 September 2012

Adaptation strategy

Summary

Uptake

Provide support role for partnerships in facilitating charcoal making as providing an adaptation option

Institutional partnerships are crucial to local adaptation practices. NBDA plays a critical role in pooling resources, providing better prices, creating market linkage and working closely with VBDC and thereby creating sustainable access to energy.

High

Enhance local institutional capacities

NBDA has provided access to information and technology that would contribute to the local livelihoods, particularly to the tribal youth improving their entrepreneurial capacities. It also provides access to finance for associated activities related to charcoal making.

High

Ministry of Power (MoP) India, 2012. Annual per capita power consumption in the Nagaland for 2009-10, http://pib.nic.in/newsite/ erelease.aspx?relid=84206 Accessed 21 November 2012

Renewed efforts to understand the vulnerabilities related to post flowering phase of bamboos

Soon after the flowering season, the government has introduced various plans/schemes to improve local livelihoods. The schemes and plans should be based on a need assessment to identify the vulnerabilities of different tribal groups.

Medium

National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO) India, sample study showing unemployment rate between 1991 and 2001, www.indiastat.com Accessed 14 September 2012

Improved institutional coordination

In addition to providing support for technology intervention, NBDA focused on the demand aspects at local level and worked closely with VBDC to design projects especially for the flowering area of Nagaland and provided necessary training to maximise the resource use.

Medium

Focus on territorial development strategies taking both vulnerabilities and capacities into account

It is evident that the demand for bamboo charcoal/natural charcoal is limited at local level (household, eateries and small enterprises etc.) due to LPG cylinder accessibility and socioeconomic acceptance to replace charcoal with easily and abundantly available fuel wood in Nagaland. Relevant institutions should make linkages with neighbouring state industries to create a market. NBDA has links with other state agencies (tribal welfare, forest and renewable energy departments) to execute their plans in the tribal areas. The multiple linkages with external agencies coupled with local adaptation measures helped ensure adequate demand and supply which had a positive impact on the project.

High

Timely and adequate investments are critical to enhance various capacities available within the institution (NBDA). Incorporation of risk awareness/monitoring strategies and a focus on social learning elements in the programme area have enormous significance to be successful in the long term.

Low

Focus on institutional development

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Ramanayake, S. M. S. D., 2006, Flowering in bamboo: an enigma! Cey. J. Sci. (Bio. Sci.) 35 (2):95-105, Ravindranath, N.H., Rao, S., Sharma, N., Nair, M., Gopalakrishnan, R., Rao, S. A., Malaviya, S., Tiwari, R., Sagadevan, A., Munsi, M., Krishna, N., Bala, G., 2011, Climate Change Vulnerability Profiles for north east of India, Current Science, Vol. 101, No. 3, 10 August 2011

www.hedon.info/FNXB * Full list of references * Diagram showing the role of institutions in managing bamboo resources * Profile of authors and acknowledgments Meet us @HEDON 13

VIEWPOINTS

Viewpoints Interview with Dan Wolf – International Lifeline Fund In this Viewpoints feature we had a talk with Dan Wolf, Founder and Executive Director of the humanitarian organisation, International Lifeline Fund (Lifeline). He tells us how their fuel-efficient stove and briquetting products are enabling people across Africa and in Haiti to adapt to depleting forest resources while reducing carbon emissions.

Tell us a little bit about yourself and the International Lifeline Fund Professionally, I am an attorney. My background includes pro bono refugee and human rights work with over 20 years of practice. During my career, I took on class action work and spearheaded a lawsuit against the government of Iraq for taking American citizens hostage during the first Gulf war, for which I recovered a very large award. I took the proceeds and started two foundations; one of them became the International Lifeline Fund (Lifeline) and the other the George Wolf Memorial Trust, named after my father. The focus of the Lifeline was going to be humanitarian and sustainable development work that would have the highest impact for the least cost in the developing world. One of my earlier missions was to Darfur. That is where I became acquainted with the problem of open fire cooking and its relationship to deforestation and all the problems associated with using wood as a fuel source for cooking. And so, that became the first Lifeline initiative. What is the role of the environment and natural resources in your operations? Our fuel programme - fuel efficient stoves and to a certain extent briquettingis an environmental focused program. In fact when I became initially involved in this, especially in Darfur with stove programmes, gender security for women who are exposed to rape and other forms 14

of violence was the main impetus for the international community. Of course, that was an issue for us as well, but to me the motivating force was the incredible devastation of the environment that I saw when I first came to Darfur. We had driven from one remote camp to another and during the course of doing that, we would go through an area that was completely semi-desert. Then, after 10 miles of driving, we would come to an area that was like an oasis: beautiful, lush and green. My interpreter, who was a schoolteacher in his late fifties, said that when he was a kid, the whole area used to look like this. I then came to know about the role of wood use for cooking and how that has contributed to deforestation. Obviously, if we’re going to make a dent in deforestation, we can’t talk about thousands or tens of thousands or even hundreds of thousands of stoves. We have to talk about tens of millions or hundreds of millions of stoves. So I became very focused on the commercialisation ideas, where we would need a product that is as in demand as the cell-phone. Strangely enough the cell-phone has made its way into even remote African villages where people live on one or two dollars a day. If people can buy a cell-phone, which is very difficult for them to afford, they ought to be able to buy stoves and if we can get the price down and get the right product in, we will hopefully have a revolutionary type impact in the way that people cook.

What are the energy challenges that the communities you work with have to face and how are they worsened by the impacts of deforestation? The main issue is getting fuel for cooking. We’re talking about people living in remote environments and the only thing people use a lot of energy for is cooking. The problem is particularly worse in an environment like Darfur where you have a large number of people concentrated into a confined area. Pretty soon, what forests or trees are in that area are gone and people have to walk several miles just to get wood, and that creates a huge livelihood and security problem because they risk rape and other forms of violence when going out to collect fuel; and sometimes families will sell their food ration. Those are the kinds of issues that people face and then to a lesser extent, these problems will also exist in non-refugee environment, but in a refugee setting it’s extremely dire. For people who are cooking with charcoal, the big issue they face from a dayto-day perspective is getting the money to buy charcoal. In Port-au-Prince, Haiti for example, the average family will spend about 40% of its income on charcoal; these are families living on only a couple of dollars a day. If we can reduce the use of charcoal by say 50% we can immediately increase income savings by 20%. In Uganda, those numbers translate to more like a 10% increase in income savings but that’s huge if you can do that at the very lowest income rungs of society. If you can increase incomes by that amount, you’re improving livelihoods significantly at the very core.

VIEWPOINTS Figure 1: “Bosses” which is what the production team members are called in Haiti, building Lifeline’s fuel saving “Recho Plop Plop” stoves (Source: Deborah Terry)

How do your fuel-efficient stoves help adapt and build resilience to the changing environment? I can pretty much quantify that for you because we had applied for carbon financing in Uganda and very recently obtained it from the UN Executive Board. The verifiers/auditors had a look at our stoves and found that each charcoal stove reduces CO2 emissions by 3.6 tonnes. Our goal is to increase from our current production of 15,000 stoves a year to 50,000. If you do the math, 50,000 times 3.6 tonnes is 180,000 tonnes of carbon emissions reduced. One of the unique features of our stoves is that they’re all manufactured locally with local parts and labour, so they can be easily repaired through our local repair system. Our stoves are extremely durable, both in their make up and ability to be repaired, having a lifespan of at least three years. So the fuel-efficient cookstoves get savings year after year on carbon impact and each charcoal-burning stove also saves about 20 trees a year. For the woodburning stoves, the savings are about one tonne of carbon saved per cookstove and about 5 medium sized trees saved. How are your stoves developed and distributed to communities? There are many general challenges involved, but you’ve put your finger on what is perhaps the most difficult of them. We focus on two distribution methods with respect to our commercialisation programme. We establish vendor networks, predominately female vendors, strategically located in various neighbourhoods and we support that network through a concerted marketing campaign. That is one mechanism. To reach further and wider, we also tap into existing distribution networks with other organisations, particularly organisations that market and distribute environmental based products. We work with independent organisations that buy large orders of stoves and take on the responsibility of distribution. We also have one or two locations from which we do direct sales, but generally that is not something we do. Boiling Point. issue 61 — 2013

We try and involve those in refugee camps in the production so they have some ownership in their stoves through training and so forth. For the most part, we can’t sell stoves in a camp, as the residents are not in a circumstance to buy them and are used to receiving them for free. It is very hard to sell wood-burning stoves, particularly if people aren’t buying wood, they wouldn’t spend the US$ 8 or US$ 10 it takes to buy stoves. The main markets are for charcoal, which are urban and semi-urban towns in the areas we operate. These areas include, in Uganda mainly the North but the stoves we manufacture in the North are also sold in the Eastern part of the country. We have recently established a production facility in Kampala so we’re going to be targeting the low-income neighbourhoods there. In Haiti, we’re concentrating on Port-au-Prince and the surrounding suburban areas. Are your stoves sold at commercial or subsidised rates to these markets? If we took into account the inputs in terms of direct labour and materials and add on to that advertising costs, operational expenses, overhead and so forth, we couldn’t possibly sell stoves at a price that would cover those costs. So we do subsidise the stoves and take a loss on each one but that loss will be more than offset by carbon finance. For example, in Uganda we’re able to make stoves very cheap; excluding the overhead

and advertising, direct inputs into each small stove per unit is about US$ 6.50 - 7. We can sell them to the vendors for that price and they sell them to the consumers for maybe US$ 8. In Haiti, it’s more challenging, as you can’t really make stoves for less than US$ 10, so even direct costs are not counterbalanced by the price. How do these stoves get to those in refugee camps? Here, it is a different model. What we try and do in these situations, in Uganda and Darfur for instance, is establish a training system and bring the refugees to our training centre. They make their own clay stoves. In the Dadaab camps in Kenya, we have local staff making the stoves but individual beneficiaries don’t do that – they’re taught how to use and maintain them properly – as it’s not realistic for them to make their own given the kind of costs, materials and labour involved. So the stoves are made with the assistance of Lifeline, but the actual producers are the refugees that we engage with and are compensated. Of your charcoal and wood burning fuel-efficient stoves, which is your main product? The commercial stoves are principally ones that use charcoal and in refugee settings they are primarily woodstoves, although in Haiti we did provide charcoal stoves in some instances. 15

VIEWPOINTS Figure 2: Young woman holding Lifeline’s fuel saving Okelo Kuc stove in Uganda (Souce: Deborah Terry)

What’s the reason for this difference? Refugees in camps where we have operated generally cook with wood because charcoal is extremely expensive. From an environmental perspective, I also would prefer the use of wood to charcoal. However, if we’re going to be actually selling stoves, the markets that are available are people who are purchasing charcoal, so we concentrate on charcoal stoves for commercial markets. The reason we prefer to sell woodburning stoves is because the amount of wood needed to create charcoal is a lot. For every four parts wood, you get essentially one part charcoal. So a lot of damage is done just in the process of making charcoal. Therefore, I would rather they used wood but the reality is, if someone lives in an urban area, they’re going to cook with charcoal. Are your energy products branded? It’s something that we’re in the process of doing. In Uganda, the beneficiary population came up with a name for our stove by themselves. They call it the ‘Okelo Kuc’, which means ‘Bringer of Peace’ in Luo. We may have to change the name for other parts of Uganda, but that is what it is called in the North. It has become a very widely known name; in fact, people use Okelo Kuc as a synonym for fuel efficient stoves here. If you ask someone, ‘do you have Okelo Kuc’, they may show you a different stove model, and if you said ‘that’s not the Okelo Kuc’, they would insist that it was. It’s great to have a name like Kleenex or Xerox that is associated with your product. But you also have to do even greater branding and advertising efforts so that people can understand that there is a one and only original ‘Okelo Kuc’ and we’ve engaged in that process. We’ve also registered the name and trademarked it in Uganda. 16

Is there any particular reason that they came up with that name? Yes, it’s because the beneficiaries felt that the stove brings peace to the home. For example, it retains heat so that if a woman is cooking and completing dinner for the family at 6 o’clock, and the husband comes home at 8 or 830, he can have a warm meal. I think that’s one of the factors, but basically they thought it brought peace and serenity to the home. Not something I would have thought of originally but that’s what they named it and we think it’s endearing! Tell us a bit about your briquetting programme? In Haiti, we work with the organisation Prakti Design, an India-based company that manufactures stoves. As part of a programme with the World Food Programme, in the schools that they sponsor, we distribute a Prakti-made institutional stove that is fired with paper waste briquettes. The paper is collected from the streets and from businesses. Basically what you do is take the paper waste, combine it with sawdust and compress it to come up with a briquette that burns well in stoves. There are many benefits of using paper briquettes. Firstly, it gives a 100% saving on wood or charcoal. Secondly, it is less costly. Thirdly, for the cook, it is a much safer and more comfortable way of cooking. If you go into any of these kitchens where they are cooking with charcoal, the smoke is pretty oppressive. Is there a role for the private sector to help with granting access to energy for the poor? Oh absolutely! If the private sector were willing to take the risks and make the long term investments that are required, and to spend the time and energy necessary in these countries to help grow these energy

markets and to tap into the already present demand, then Lifeline wouldn’t really be needed. Ultimately, I think the market is too risky, too uncertain, too long term a proposition and also too foreign really to most manufacturers, as it is targeted at people making one to five dollars a day. Is there a message you would like to give energy practitioners out there? It’s extremely important to pay attention to what is ultimately, after all, going to be your customer base. So if you’re going to create a product, you may think that it’s what they need and it meets all of their particular desires and that it’s workable. But you don’t really know until you’ve actually gone out there and spoken to the people that you’re trying to benefit and given them every opportunity to have as much input into the product as possible. Ultimately, it’s something that they’re going to have to be satisfied with. You’re not going to be able to tell them what to do – you’ve got to listen to them. Also if we’re going to be able to really make the kind of headway that we need to make and to conquer these development challenges in improving energy access, we have to be willing to be creative and to take risk and stomach failure. It’s going to take quasi-revolutionary type interventions to really win this battle.

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THEME PEER REVIEWED

Building climate resilience through community based energy security Keywords: Energy security; Resilience; Communities; Lighting; Heating

Authors Jim Jarvie

Senior Climate and Environment Advisor jkjarvie@int.mercycorps.org

David Nicholson

Director: Climate Change, Environment and Natural Resource Management dnicholson@dc.mercrycorps.org Mercy Corps 47 SW Ankeny St., Portland OR 97204, USA Tel: +1 503 896 5000 www.mercycorps.org

Figure 1: Stove production in Uganda (Source: Jim Jarvie)

This paper discusses the findings of energy surveys developed by Mercy Corps and how their results have been implemented through a series of programmes targeted across six countries. The portfolio of programmes addresses the need for community-based energy security and climate resilience building within remote communities and encourages the global uptake of holistic and long term perspectives on energy security. Combining the themes of climate change, economic development and environmental stability, this paper outlines the leverage points, identified by Mercy Corps, that could provide the most effective and efficient points for intervention.

limate change is generally discussed from either an adaptation or mitigation perspective. Adaptation addresses coping with impacts of climate change, while mitigation focuses on dealing with root causes. Most of the global discussion on energy falls into the mitigation category, reflecting global scaled energy related carbon emissions and efforts to lower these. Less discussion focuses on critical energy needs at community levels. Similarly, energy security is regularly used to describe the relationship between national security and long-term availability of resources to provide power to a country. This ignores the work of community-focused organisations that see it in terms of household energy security.

Boiling Point. issue 61 â&#x20AC;&#x201D; 2013

Mercy Corps works on the premise that energy security can also be applied at community and household levels, particularly to people mired in poverty. It considers that access to clean, efficient and affordable sources of energy is central to alleviating poverty, strengthening economies, protecting ecosystems and gaining equity. More than 1.5 billion people worldwide have no access to electricity, and 2.6 billion rely on traditional biomass for cooking. For the poorest this means relying on options such as wood, charcoal and kerosene for cooking, heating and lighting (IEA 2002, UNDP 2011). Based on Mercy Corpsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; energy poverty surveys (available on request), in countries such as Haiti, slum dwellers can spend as much as 40% of their weekly income on energy. Lowering these costs through the introduction of renewable

or energy-efficient technologies can result in substantial household savings as well as opportunities for income generation and education. These technologies include solar lanterns (that are increasing in quality, while becoming more competitively priced), and affordable fuel-efficient stoves.

Common links between countries Energy programmes in countries as diverse as Haiti, Indonesia, Myanmar, Somalia, Uganda and Timor Leste by Mercy Corps uncovered common links between these countries in terms of how people are exposed to climate hazards (see Box 1).

THEME

Box 1: Three factors that describe how people living in poverty are exposed to climate hazards: • Sensitivity to risks or hazards - This in general is higher among poor and marginalised communities. For example, in flood plains, poorer communities may inhabit sub-standard housing that is more easily damaged by flooding than those of better off residents. • Exposure to risk – As an example of how this varies in flood-prone areas, poorer communities may reside in lower elevation areas that suffer flooding more regularly than better off communities on higher, less exposed land. • Capacity to respond - This is limited among the poor, who generally do not have resources to adapt to risk as effectively as people able to afford better infrastructure and other options to recover from risk and disaster.

Examples of Links These links are most clearly demonstrated where energy security decreases as environmental degradation increases. For example, where communities effectively deforest or otherwise degrade the environment they depend upon to collect firewood or produce charcoal for domestic use and sale. In Timor Leste, 95% of rural and peri-urban households use weeds, burned on relatively inefficient threestone open fires. In Somalia the charcoal trade continues to take a devastating environmental toll, which in turn adds to the security and governance challenges faced by the country. In Haiti, over 80% of the population relies on wood or charcoal for fuel and the country now has only 2% forest cover (Haggerty 1989 (updated 2006)). During emergencies when camps are set up, such environmental degradation can be even more concentrated. In Democratic Republic of Congo for example, an estimated one million people fled to camps in 2009 to escape conflict. Mercy Corps estimated that firewood needs for six months per camp, out of a total four camps, would be greater than 230,000 tonnes of wood, equivalent to over 4,500 ha of forest. The high concentration of people means wood cannot be harvested sustainably, or be replanted in sustainable agroforestry systems because of a lack of access to unclaimed land, leading to the complete destruction of nearby forest ecosystems. The impacts of environmental degradation include degraded soils lowering agricultural productivity, increased risk of landslide and scrub fire, and silted watercourses. These are serious and likely to be exacerbated further by climate change (IPCC 2012).

Action on climate change adaptation Mercy Corps suggests that climate adaptation is a strategic approach that can be implemented through tactical disaster risk reduction activities. This would contribute to resilience to climate change, which includes economic wellbeing for communities and the reduction of environmental hazards. 18

Providing households with access to clean, affordable, and effective methods of cooking and lighting reduces risks associated with flammable liquid fuels and provides opportunities for education and income generation. Additional benefits include being able to charge mobile phones from solar lanterns, giving families access to medical and veterinary advice from distant sources. These all improve resilience at household level.

A framework for energy poverty alleviation The first step Mercy Corps took when designing energy poverty programmes was to undertake comprehensive household energy poverty surveys and market analysis in those countries. The surveys were designed to gather information on use of energy for cooking, lighting and mobile phone charging. Particularly important is an estimate of the proportion of cost and time invested in obtaining energy resources. This includes collection of data on income level, savings, and access to finance to help gauge market potential. This information determines the economic benefits of investing in clean energy products, which can be an important driver in household decisions. Mercy Corps conducted 11 surveys in six countries (Haiti, Uganda, Myanmar, Indonesia, Timor Leste and Somalia) and the energy programmes put in place have shown positive climate resilience outcomes (see Table 1 and @HEDON). Based on evidence from these programmes, Mercy Corps is developing a framework for energy poverty alleviation that can be applied to a wide range of programmes intended to build household, community and environmental resilience. The challenge of alleviating energy poverty is approached through a market-focused tactic and by involving the communities in their work, so that the systems developed would provide long-term solutions. Robust market systems offer access to appropriate energy technologies through effective commercial approaches, thereby enabling the development community to reduce the vulnerability of poor people to climatic changes and increase their capacity to adapt.

Survey results and recommendations Although the dynamics around energy access vary between countries and regions, evidence so far indicates a key consistency. Each of the energy poverty surveys conducted quantified that disproportionate levels of household resources are being used to acquire energy sources that are ineffective, inefficient, and often have a negative impact on health, the environment or energy security. Results have shown households in some locations spending over 40% of total household income to purchase charcoal for cooking, kerosene for lighting, and for access to phone charging stations. This investment, combined with the additional burden of time invested in walking to access these fuels and services, creates very inefficient use of household resources that could be deployed more productively. Mercy Corps’ market analysis approach takes a broad look across existing energy markets, identifying the major supply chain actors for energy products or services and mapping existing distribution chains. Interviews with market actors help identify the major barriers in the supply chain as well as in the wider system of business support services and functions necessary for sustained market development. Looking at the relevant market systems and identifying the key factors impeding market development allows programme teams to locate leverage points that could provide the most effective and efficient points for intervention. Examples include engaging existing local importers of energy products to access markets away from urban centres where they may have traditionally conducted business, providing start-up funding for transport for stove makers in remote areas and providing planting stock and advice on agroforestry and intercropping to farmers interested in developing fuel stocks. A key guiding principle applied to all these programmes, as per the survey is consistent product quality. Whether looking at locally manufactured or assembled products, or those that need to be imported, testing and certifying quality and

THEME Figure 2: Stove entrepreneurs in their shop, Laputta Delta, Myanmar (Source: Jim Jarvie) Figure 3: Tofu production in Jakarta, Indonesia, which depends on locally sourced firewood (Source: Jim Jarvie) Table 1: Extract from ‘Outcomes of Mercy Corps’ Energy Programmes’

Country

Problem

Energy intervention

Climate Resilience Outcome

Haiti

Over 80% of Haiti’s population relies on wood or charcoal (or a combination of both) for cooking fuel. The toll on Haiti’s forests has been devastating, with an estimated 2% of natural forest remaining.

Raising the efficiency of charcoal / wood kilns from 10% to 35%.

Promoting protection of agricultural landscapes contributing to food security; reducing household expenditure on fuel by > 40%

Creating two stove production centres that will manufacture fuel-efficient stoves that have been tested for optimal performance and cultural acceptance among local target groups. Planting 268,000 trees. Promoting alternative livelihoods for charcoal producers.

Uganda

98% of households in the Acholi region of Uganda rely on wood or charcoal for cooking, causing a rapid depletion of forest resources. An estimated 40% of household income is spent on cooking and lighting fuel.

Myanmar

100% of households in the Delta region rely on firewood, largely from mangroves for cooking fuel.

Development of supply chains for solar products and Ugandan made fuel-efficient stoves (Figure 1), following a successful Mercy Corps pilot project demonstrating demand. Work with local distributors and community groups to provide education on benefits and ensure products match needs. Support for enabling environment including financial services, marketing and awareness building, and business services. Development of a local fuel-efficient stove industry through creation of stove production hubs (Figure 2).

Increased capacity of community based organisations to react to challenges and manage and coordinate programmes.

Planting of 100,000 trees.

8,000 locally made fuel-efficient stoves sold to vulnerable housholds, reducing fuel use by 40%.

Cyclone Nargis in 2008 destroyed large areas of mangroves, further increasing pressure on an ecosystem vital to the local economy and food security.

performance, particularly for fuel-efficient stoves, is vital to ensure value for money and to achieve long-term impacts. It is important that these market-based activities do not happen in isolation. To reinforce the links between energy access and climate resilience, programmes are integrated with general environmental conservation or natural resource management activities. This link is clearest when related to fuelwood where programmes can clearly address demand and supply simultaneously. Establishing a link between communitybased energy security and climate resilience helps removes unconnected thinking around these areas of development programmes. It establishes a more holistic and long-term perspective toward building resilience, taking into account aspects of climate change, economic development and environmental stability. Boiling Point. issue 61 — 2013

Reducing demand for wood, reducing pressure on household resources, and increasing livelihoods and entrepreneurial opportunity.

References

Acknowledgements

Haggerty, R. A., 1989 (updated 2006)). Haiti. A country study. Washington DC, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress

The authors acknowledge funding support from the Barr Foundation, EC, and USAID for the projects described in this article, and also to communities and field teams implementing the projects from which the described lessons were drawn.

IEA, 2002. World energy outlook. Paris, International Energy Agency IPCC, 2012. Managing the risks of extreme events and disasters to advance climate change adaptation. A special report of Working Groups I and II of the Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change. Cambridge, UK, and New York, NY, USA, IPCC UNDP, 2011. Human Development Report 2011. Sustainability and equity: A better future for all. New York, UNDP

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THEME HELPLINE

Helpline

Expert response by Magnus Wolfe Murray – Department for International Development The Boiling Point Helpline presents a household energy dilemma or query of interest to our readers, with advice from international experts. A NGO would like to set up operations in Phulchari, an agrarian sub-district of Northern Bangladesh, to provide access to lighting and cooking energy products for rural households. Due to their location near the low-lying basin of the Brahmaputra River, the villages are prone to flash floods, which cause erosion and property damage.

Author Magnus Wolfe Murray

Resilient Community Design Consultant, Department for International Development (DFID) - Humanitarian Unit, Islamabad, Pakistan. (+92) 3468556345 magnuswm@gmail.com

Climate change has recently become a dominant cross-cutting theme across all programmes of the organisation. They would like some advice on how household energy initiatives should be adapted to take climate change into account. How have other organisations achieved this? What projects could be introduced to build resilience and energy security against such frequent and unpredictable climatic changes?

would like to express my gratitude for the opportunity to share ideas and experiences related to energy systems that could be robust and resilient to climate extremes. For over two years I have been working in Sindh, Southern Pakistan, supporting the reconstruction of homes and water and sanitation systems in areas devastated by serious flooding. These extreme weather events have affected the lives of over 20 million people. I have also been struck by how little access people have to reliable and affordable energy services; this fact alone compromises recovery and contributes to poor health and continued economic hardship. Based on experiences learned here, there are technological options that could be introduced for cooking and lighting in flood struck areas. As a basic criteria, these technological options should: — Be more affordable than the current options — Be robust and able to withstand extreme climate events — Offer “additional benefits” to the community — Be easy to maintain

Lighting A reliance on conventional lighting methods such as kerosene lamps and candles often 20

incurs significant monthly expenditure for many households. This expenditure could be used instead for initial investment into an alternative and reusable energy system, assuming a low interest loan could be available. Considerable evidence exists relating to the health and economic benefits of small-scale renewable energy systems, but appropriate options need to be explored. The benefits of solar lighting products were identified in Pakistan in 2010 when people displaced from floods living in temporary settlements explained how dangerous it was to venture out at night. Accidents, animal attacks and genderbased violence are a reality for many in displaced communities, which further builds the case for providing affordable lighting as a matter of priority. Since the flooding 100,000 solar lights have been provided here by the UK’s Department for International Development (DFID) funding. A range of solar lighting products has been distributed: ToughStuff, by the organisation ‘ToughStuff’, costing around US$ 15 (ToughStuff, 2012) and Mandarin by the organisation ‘Illumination’ for half that price (Illumination, 2012). These systems are designed to be robust, durable and provide more light and are also less expensive than kerosene lanterns or candles. The Illumination model uses rechargeable batteries that can be found in

markets worldwide, so after a couple of years when the first batteries store less charge they can be easily replaced. Toughstuff comes with a cable that can be used to charge basic mobile phones – which can justify its cost. Both units can be easily stored away during a flood or storm. This range of products provides clients a choice depending on what they can afford. They could save a family at least US$ 50 annually, a considerable sum that is comparable to one month of earnings for a poor family. From a carbon saving perspective, Illumination uses a standard formula of 0.163 tonnes of CO2 saved per year assuming kerosene lamps are being offset, which in Pakistan is equal to around 16,000 tonnes. While this may be too small to generate income from the global “carbon market”, it can be good to capture these environmental achievements for use in your reports or publicity materials. An alternative solution, a ‘Gravitylight device’ is being designed by Martin Riddiford and Jim Reeves, British engineers, who worked with solar lights in Africa but found there were some disadvantages, such as limited sunshine days and battery disposal options. Raising crowd-sourced funding through the ‘Indiegogo’ website they have created a low cost household lighting system – which they believe could cost less than US$ 5 per unit. The technology, still in

HELPLINE THEME

the design stage and as yet untested at scale, uses the force of gravity combined with some simple gearing to produce light. Such a product could address some of the potential downsides to solar lighting systems. It could be worth keeping an eye on this initiative; perhaps even participating in the initial trial. Many in the energy and climate sector are aware of larger scale solar photovoltaic (PV) programmes in developing countries. These PV systems include more complex – and expensive – components such as PV panels, batteries, charge controllers and in some cases invertors to power most electrical appliances. However, these systems are expensive, often beyond the means of poor families – especially for up front investment. Bangladesh stands out well in dealing with access to credit for this initial downpayment. The ‘Grameem Bank’, well known for its pioneering work, provides credit to poor people and in 1995, Grameen Shakti was set up to promote renewable energy in rural areas. One of the most impressive achievements of this initiative has been its focus on training women in rural areas to install, sell and maintain the systems. The success is phenomenal – over half a million solar systems were installed by 2010, with plans to reach five million systems by 2015. Field managers guarantee a complete service from installation to customer care and training (Shakti, 2012). With this kind of capacity and support in country, they could be your first port of call for helping your target communities to access reliable energy.

Cooking systems I would again advise that you calculate the economic, social and environmental impact of existing fuels. In Pakistan, people use a combination of sticks and dried animal dung as cooking fuel. Given the population density, locally available wood and biomass has become increasingly scarce – in some areas beyond the capacity for natural regeneration. As a result, some communities are now buying cooking fuel from local markets. This added cost further drives people into energy poverty. From a health Boiling Point. issue 61 — 2013

perspective the fires are particularly harmful – known to cause upper respiratory and eye diseases (Duncan, G., et al., 2008). If this is at all similar to communities you work with in Phulchari, then there is every incentive to introduce alternative cooking arrangements. There has been enormous development in efficient cook stoves by a number of institutes and companies worldwide. These have been summarised and promoted by organisations such as HEDON, Practical Action, GIZ and SNV amongst others. Numerous designs and systems that have been proven to work are discussed in detail by these organisations and I would recommend you access these resources to see which model would best fit the culture of your target communities. I would also like to focus on biogas as an alternative to cooking fuels. Biogas can be captured if organic matter is sent to an oxygen-free (anaerobic) chamber to digest. The resulting gas can be used to cook (just like butane or propane), or even to replace gasoline to run generators or cars. Small scale biogas systems have been built across Asia in poor rural communities for many years and there are millions of biogas plants now operational in China, India, Bangladesh, Pakistan and Nepal. Most of them function with animal manure as the main feedstock. The bulk of biogas infrastructure is located beneath the ground, making it durable to many natural disasters, apart from perhaps a major earthquake. In the event of flooding, the system can be cleaned out and restarted once the flooding has subsided. Another benefit of biogas system is that a nutrient-rich fertiliser is also produced as a bi-product, which can be used to promote local vegetable gardens, or to help create fertile soil for tree nurseries and later community forestry. It would also be relatively simple to construct a biogas plant connected with community latrine blocks, with piped inputs for animal manure and waste vegetables added to connect with these sewage pipes, to feed directly to the biogas plant. A company called Loowatt has been active in promoting the human sewage to biogas concept, with support from various donors and investors (LooWatt, 2012). The message is clear: human waste contains far too much energy

to waste. Plus, a critical benefit of biogas digesters is their capacity to treat the raw sewage, killing the harmful pathogens that can cause water-borne diseases and groundwater contamination. The technology to convert sewage into useful energy is very simple and existing small-scale biogas systems around the world are living proof of its efficacy. Moreover, it offers extremely good economics and energy security for people in any community, rich or poor. Good luck with your work. I would be glad to share my experiences further.

References Fullerton D.G., Bruce, N., Gordon, S., 2008. Indoor air pollution from biomass fuel smoke is a major health concern in the developing world. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/ articles/PMC2568866/ Accessed 23 Dec 2012 HEDON, 2007. Technologies that really work: Boiling Point - issue 53, London Illumination, 2012. http://www.illuminationsolar.com/ Accessed 21 Dec 2012 LooWatt, 2012. http://www.loowatt.com/system/ Accessed 21 Dec 2012 Shakti, 2012. Grameen Shakti, http://www.gshakti.org/ Accessed 22 Dec 2012 Toughstuff, 2012. http://www.toughstuffonline.com/ pages/toughstuff-solar-panel Accessed 23 Dec 2012 WHO, 2005. Situation Analysis of Household Energy Use and Indoor Air Pollution in Pakistan. WHO. Aga Khan University, Karachi

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THEME HELPLINE

Expert response by Jeremy Stone – Climate change and renewable energy consulant

ntegrating climate change into the planning and implementation for energy systems projects is key to addressing issues such as the climate proofing and adaptive capacity of energy systems. By addressing potential and experienced climate change in the planning process, one can ensure that only the most appropriate technologies will be implemented. Renewable energy sources in particular have huge potential to support households and communities to increase their resilience to climate change by developing their adaptive capacities. An example of this approach has been demonstrated in Nepal where the Alternative Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC) and Netherlands Development Organisation (SNV) in consultation with experts in the field have designed a districtlevel, multisector approach to renewable energy planning, that is anticipatory and reactive to climate issues. The District Climate Change and Energy Plans (DCEPs) have been piloted in three districts in Nepal. The approach and guidelines have been endorsed by The Ministry of Environment Science and Technology and will be prepared for all districts across the country as part of the National Rural and Renewable Energy Programme (NRREP). The approach has been tested at a number of local level demonstration sites where adaptation intervention plans have been developed. These have identified energy adaptation opportunities contributing to livelihoods and climate preparedness activities (Environmental Resource Institute, 2012). While these plans have focused on district level planning, the tools and approach are applicable to any scale. You might consider undertaking these steps, outlined on the basis of the DCEP approach (Figure 1), and utilising many of the tools and templates presented in the DCEP guidelines (Ministry of Environment, 2011) (see @HEDON). For example, you should use any available climate data and models to identify the potential of climate change in Phulchari. This would include highest recorded flood events and average floods,

from hydrological data if available or from community experience if not. The climate proofing analysis can look at technical fixes that address anticipated climate change; such as building cookstoves on platforms and ensuring all electrical components for solar PV are sealed and made waterproof. Climate change can be extremely unpredictable, which is why climateproofing of energy systems needs to be addressed by component and energy system manufacturers. The systems themselves must be made more durable to extreme weather, including through water resistance and water proofing of components or development of mobile systems that can be moved or stored in the event of extreme weather. While there is currently little evidence of manufacturers directly addressing climate change in the production process, Helio International has developed a methodology and a series of indicators to measure the resilience of energy systems to identify climateproofing options (Williamson et al, 2009). The adaptation potential of energy systems can be very diverse and related to many different sectors. Efforts have been made in Nepal to ensure that DCEP’s are linked to national adaptation planning processes including the National and Local Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPA/LAPA). This can support national and local institutions to identify additional energy requirements of adaptation interventions. Energy systems can in themselves contribute to increasing people’s resilience to climate change in a variety of ways including: — Diversifying livelihoods and increasing income: Economic development is key to enabling adaptive capacity but should not be a ‘business as usual approach’ (World Bank, 2010). Simple income generating activities enabled through end uses from energy sources can contribute to increased income, which automatically increases people’s ability to adapt. Examples of income generating activities can be utilising electrification from micro-

Author Jeremy Stone

Climate Change and Renewable Energy Consultant. Kaji Niwas, Jhamsikhel, Kathmandu, Nepal. (+977) 9849035288 Jez_stone@hotmail.com

hydro power for agro-processing or from solar power for mobile charging and light for increasing work hours for small businesses or shops. By diversifying livelihoods people are less reliant on one income source, which could potentially be vulnerable to climate and socio-economic changes. Traditional farmers who engage in an additional income generating activity (such as one made available through energy systems) will be less vulnerable if agricultural production is affected by climate change. These planning process, including a cost benefit analysis on all interventions, should help to identify appropriate adaptation interventions and additional energy requirements for targeted localities. — Provision of energy requirements for adaptation interventions: Energy systems can supply power for vital systems including water pumping (drinking and irrigation), food processing and food and medicine storage systems.

HELPLINE THEME

Outline energy needs of the location

Figure 1: Recommended Assessment Steps for Action

Carry out resource and technology assessments Carry out assessments of climate change and socio economic status of the location and decipher vulnerability Assess vulnerability of communities and the energy technologies proposed for the location Undertake climate proofing analysis of identified or constructed technologies Identify adaptation potential of energy systems Identify where climate change will exacerbate socio-economic conditions Assess institutional arrangements and governance to identify capacity and relationships between stakeholders Identify roles and responsibilities of different stakeholders to implement and manage the project

Boiling Point. issue 61 — 2013

— Knowledge, information sharing and early warning systems: Renewable energy can be utilised to provide energy for community radio or information centres vital to keeping people informed about climate change and adaptation opportunities and for updating communities after extreme events. Additionally, renewable energy can provide power for early warning systems for floods or other climate induced disasters and hazards. — Indirect adaptation benefits can also accrue through reduction of forest and biomass use from fuelefficient or renewable energy cooking technologies. Intact forest structures can add protection from floods and landslides and provide other ecosystem services. As climate change adaptation interventions are very site specific and will depend on the climate and socio-economic conditions in the proposed area, it is not possible to give explicit recommendations about climate proofing technologies or adaptation interventions for Phulchari. However, providing the communities with early warning systems for floods and creating mobile or movable energy systems would increase the preparedness of the community for potential flood events. Bangladesh already has extremely good experience of designing effective community based adaptation programmes. Examples include Practical Action’s programme based in Bangladesh, which has carried out an assessment of climate vulnerability for communities in vulnerable coastal areas (Practical Action, 2011). FAO has also initiated its Community Based Adaptation in Action programme, which addresses sustainable livelihoods in the agricultural sector (FAO, 2008). You should study these and many other examples for possible options of adaptation approaches in Phulchari. As highlighted by a World Bank study on the economics of climate change, projects and planners should be cautious about creating incentives for developments in locations exposed to severe weather risks (World Bank, 2010). It would be better to focus and encourage project activities

in areas less exposed to severe weather. However, if the target groups cannot be moved then the NGO can utilise many of the tools described and take lessons from other community adaptation projects in Bangladesh. It would then be possible to implement a climate resilient household energy project in the proposed location.

References Ahmed, A., 2008. Assessment of Vulnerability to climate change and adaptation options for coastal people of Bangladesh. Practical Action: http://practicalaction.org/ assessment-of-vulnerability-toclimate-change-and-adaptationoptions-for-the-coastal-people-ofbangladesh. Accessed Jan 2013 Baas, S. and Ramasamy, S., 2008. A case study from Bangladesh: Project Summary Report (Phase I). Improved Adaptive Capacity to Climate Change for Sustainable Livelihoods in the Agriculture Sector. FAO and UNDAE: http://www.fao. org/ docrep/010/i0481e/i0481e00. htm Accessed Jan 2013 Ministry of Environment Nepal, 2011. DCEP Guidelines: http:// www.preventionweb.net/english/ professional/publications/v. php?id=20883. Accessed Jan 2013 Stone, J., 2011. Climate and Carbon Unit: Climate sensitising Nepal’s renewable energy sector. AEPC, SNV, DFID: http://www.snvworld. org/en/sectors/renewable-energy/ publications/carbon-and-climateunit-climate-sensitising-nepalsrenewable Accessed Jan 2013

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THEME PEER REVIEWED

Low Carbon Development and energy access in Africa Keywords: Low Carbon Development; Energy access; Climate change; Modern energy; Renewable energy; Climate resilience

The developmental challenges facing Africa require significant improvements in key socio-economic and human development indicators, for which access to adequate, reliable and secure modern energy services is a major pre-requisite. However, meeting development goals and expansion of modern energy services need not follow conventional patterns of development; where increased economic growth and development are associated by increased GHG emissions. Low Carbon Development offers Africa a new pathway to achieving its development goals. There are ample opportunities and strategies available to Africa to maintain and improve economic growth without ‘locking-in’ carbon intensive technologies and practices. The vast potential and variety of renewable energy resources in the continent provide opportunities for developing a sustainable energy system providing cleaner and secure modern energy services. Africa must address the barriers to low carbon development alongside modern energy access in the continent.

Author Haruna Gujba

Introduction

and over 80% of energy consumption in many countries (IEA 2011b). Africa has huge potential and a variety of sources to develop modern energy systems providing services for basic human needs, productive applications and economic development. It is critical that the development of these systems considers a low carbon development pathway that offers the opportunity for Africa to pursue its development goals; a climate-resilient and low carbon trajectory.

frica’s main priority remains that of advancing its development agenda; making significant improvements in key socio-economic and human development indicators; poverty reduction, food security, access to modern energy and healthcare services, infrastructure and industrial development, and sustained economic growth. Conventional development models often focus on increased economic growth without considering the environmental consequences, with increased growth often accompanied by increased energy use and consequent Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions. Although energy intensity is declining globally (EIA 2011), population and economic growth are rising (Blodgett and Parker 2010). Fossil fuels, the main provider, account for over 80% of total world energy demand (IEA 2010) and are the main source of energyrelated GHG emissions. The IEA (2011a) estimates that the burning of fossil fuels accounted for ~68% of the global GHG emissions in 2010, and agriculture and

forestry sectors accounted for 11% and 10% respectively during this period. GHG emissions from these three sectors are one of the main contributors to climate change, the impacts of which are causing and exacerbating devastating effects on the economies of least developed countries including those of Sub-Saharan Africa. Several key areas/sectors will remain highly exposed to the impacts of climate change including agriculture and food security, water supply, healthcare, energy and regional security, biodiversity, etc (Boko et al. 2007; Conway 2009; DFID 2004; World Bank 2009). Despite this, the latest financial outlook for Africa is very promising. The International Monetary Fund (IMF 2012) indicates that the continent’s GDP will grow faster than almost anywhere else in the world, projected to nudge close to 6% in 2013. To promote these upward trends and maximise benefits, expansion of adequate modern energy services is urgently required. The electrification rate in sub-Saharan Africa is 31% (14% in rural areas), with traditional biomass accounting for 70%-85% of primary energy supply

Research Fellow, +251 11544 3356, HGujba@uneca.org

Yacob Mulugetta

Senior Energy and Climate Specialist, +251 11544 5414, YMulugetta@uneca.org

Jabavu Nkomo

Senior Economist, +251 11544 5358, JNkomo@uneca.org

Youba Sokona

Advisor, +251 92022 1331, YSokona@uneca.org African Climate Policy Centre (ACPC), United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA), P.O.Box 3001, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, www.uneca.org/acpc

Low Carbon Development in Africa In Africa, almost half the population is living on less than US$ 1.25 per day as at 2008 (UNDP 2010). There is a need to develop adaptive capacity and a robust infrastructure to counter the impacts of climate change. Although Africa accounts for less than 4% of the global GHG emissions (World Bank 2009), this development agenda need not follow the conventional pathways that achieve economic growth at the expense of growth in GHG emissions as witnessed

THEME Figure 1: Types of low carbon development (adapted from Mulugetta and Urban 2010; IDS 2009)

Low Carbon Lifestyle or Green Lifestyle

Approach: Behavioural, technological and sectoral changes

Approach: Technological and sectoral changes

Consumptionist

Productionist

Approach: Behavioural, technological and sectoral changes

Coexistence with Nature

in countries such as China and India; at least, not as a long-term strategy. A Low Carbon Development (LCD) pathway offers Africa an alternative development route. Skea and Nishioka (2008) define LCD as ‘actions which include making a contribution towards stabilising levels of GHG gases at a level that will avoid dangerous climate change, through deep cuts in global emissions, demonstrate high level of energy efficiency and use low-carbon energy sources’. Adaptation is increasingly recognised as an important issue in LCD, integrating climate-resilient principles and practices into development (Mulugetta and Urban 2010). This is particularly true where strengthening adaptive capacity to the impacts of climate change is crucial in sustaining economic and human development. LCD should involve integrating climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies into development activities. Figure 1 shows the different dimensions of LCD: Low Carbon Lifestyle, Low Carbon Growth, Coexistence with Nature and Equilibrium Economy (Mulugetta and Urban 2010; Urban 2010; IDS 2009). Low Carbon Lifestyle or Green Lifestyle focuses on decoupling carbon emissions from economic growth, relying on consumers to make behavioural changes that stimulate consumption and adoption of climate-friendly products and lifestyles. Low Carbon Growth or Green Economy focuses on decoupling carbon emissions from economic growth, relying on the production side of the economy to deliver products and services that will lower carbon emissions. Coexistence with Nature involves combining technological and behavioural changes to provide the basic needs for social development while removing the focus from economic growth, leading to a low emission and low growth economy. In Equilibrium Economy, the focus is on producing goods and services to provide the basic needs for social development rather than focussing on economic growth. It could be argued that low-income countries including Sub-Sahara African countries fall into this category. An LCD pathway in Africa will deliver several benefits in addition to increased Boiling Point. issue 61 — 2013

economic growth with reduced GHG emissions and improved climate-resilience, with greater energy security through the diversification of the energy mix, and increased agricultural productivity and water supply through improved adaptive capacities to weather-related events amongst others (DFID 2009; Funder et al. 2009; IDS 2009). An LCD pathway offers Africa the opportunity to ‘tap’ into global climate funds as well as building its own technical capacity; joining the ‘new development’ race as a competitive player. Thus for Africa, LCD can be about the opportunities and benefits that could be derived from LCD in meeting its developmental challenges. LCD policy measures should therefore target the specific economic and social development needs of the country at local, regional and national levels, at the same time addressing climate change. Strategies could differ between countries or regions depending on income groups and resources (Urban 2010). LCD strategies should take a cross-sector integrated approach that encompasses other important sectors such as agriculture, transport, land use and forestry sectors. Table 1 shows some examples of sectoral approaches to a low carbon future. However, there is urgent need to address challenges that could hinder or discourage low carbon development in Africa, including policy and institutional barriers, and economic and financial constraints. Thus measures such as institutional strengthening, capacity building, enabling market development, finance sourcing and technical co-operation and training amongst others, will be needed to achieve low carbon development in Africa.

Low Carbon Energy Access in Africa Low levels of supply, conversion and consumption of modern energy services have serious consequences on the development prospects, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa (Brew-Hammond 2010; Sokona et al. 2012). Energy consumption per capita in the continent is only 0.67 tonnes of oil equivalent; about

Low Carbon Growth or Green Economy

Approach: Technological and sectoral changes

Low Carbon Development Pathway for Africa

High Growth

Equilibrium Economy

Low Growth

11 and 5 times less than that of the US and EU respectively (IEA 2011b). This is compounded by low levels of energy supply; total primary energy supply is ~ 5% of the world’s total, with about half coming from traditional biomass, mostly used for cooking (IEA 2011b). Increased access to electricity is regarded as fundamental in the transition to modern energy services. This requires the challenges of low generation capacity, poor levels of efficiency, high costs of electricity generation, and unstable and unreliable electricity supply to be addressed (Sokona et al. 2012). This will precipitate an energy transition that will massively accelerate the expansion and provision of modern energy services, in turn contributing to meeting development goals and growth targets. Choice of a clean energy pathway offers the possibility of expanding modern energy services with consideration for carbon constraint issues; shaping energy policy and financing into the future. Integration of renewable energy into the mix will be imperative to achieving sustainable energy access and energy security. The vast amount and variety of renewable energy resources in the continent can provide several benefits in addition to mitigating or avoiding GHGs emissions. First, the availability at local level and modularity of renewable energy systems (especially small-scale) offer cost-effective options to provide offgrid energy supplies to isolated and remote communities. Second, the high volatility and increasing prices of fossil fuels, mean that a shift to other energy sources is necessary for energy security. Currently, over 80% of the electricity generated in the continent is from fossil fuels (IEA 2011b). Third, the enormous costs required to extend the grid to scattered and remote settlements makes a localised, renewable energy model competitive under certain conditions. A low carbon energy pathway offers Africa the opportunity to develop the energy sector at local level, creating more employment in the green supply chain. Current trends and the massive need for expansion suggest that fossil fuels will need to play a role. Thus, ‘cleaner’ fossil fuel technologies such as Combined Cycle Gas Turbine (CCGT) have 25

THEME Table 1: Examples of low-emission and climate-resilient strategies

a place in a low carbon future for Africa, at least in the short- and medium-term. Developing these sustainable energy pathways requires a more in-depth understanding of the current energy infrastructure and supply in terms of technical, environmental, economic and social dimensions. A clear strategy will be required to overcome existing institutional, political, financial, and technical barriers to modern energy access and expansion in Africa (Sokona et al. 2012; Gujba et al. 2012).

Conclusions Africa needs an alternative development pathway to address the social, economic and environmental challenges facing the continent in an increasingly carbonconstrained world. Although the continent accounts for the least amount of GHG emissions compared to the rest of the world, it is the most vulnerable region to the impacts of climate change. Africa has the opportunity to meets its development aspirations in a low carbon trajectory while building climate-resilient economies across the continent. This pathway offers the opportunity to develop and expand access to clean and secure modern energy services. There is an urgent need to address the many challenges that could hinder or discourage both low carbon development and modern energy access in Africa including policy and institutional barriers, and economic and financial constraints.

Sector

Low-emission and climate-resilient strategies

Energy

Use of renewable energy (e.g. wind, solar, biomass, hydro, tidal etc), use of ‘cleaner’ fossil fuels (e.g. use of gas instead of coal), use of improved fossil fuel technologies (e.g. Carbon Capture and Storage, Combined Cycle Gas Turbine coal gasification, etc), improving energy efficiency, ending gas flaring, improving energy access, etc.

Transport

Use of low emission vehicles, use of cleaner fuels (bio-ethanol, CNG, hybrid, hydrogen, etc), improving road infrastructure, promotion of public transport (e.g. buses), phasing out twostroke engines, use of smaller cars, etc.

Agriculture

Climate-resilient crops, improved cultivation practices, organic farming, less use of inorganic fertilisers, use of traditional farming knowledge, solar drying, protection for aquaculture, water management, etc.

Land use change and Forestry

Land management, reforestation, reduced deforestation, agroforestry management, REDD, etc.

Households

Use of energy-efficient appliances, using cleaner technologies for cooking (e.g. solar cookers, LPG stoves, improved wood stoves, etc), solar lighting, re-use and recycling of materials, etc.

Industry

Improved energy and resource efficiency, energy conservation, use of Combined Heat and Power systems, fuels substitution, materials substitution, recycling, etc.

References Blodgett, J., Parker, L., 2010. Greenhouse Gas Emission Drivers: Population, Economic Development and Growth, and Energy Use. Congressional Research Service: Report for Congress. Available at: www.cnie.org/NLE/ CRSreports/10Apr/RL33970.pdf Gujba, H., Thorne, S., Mulugetta, Y., Rai, K., Sokona, Y., 2012. Financing Low Carbon Energy Access in Africa. Energy Policy. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.enpol2012.03.071 Institute for Development Studies (IDS), 2009. After 2015: Pro-Poor Low Carbon Development. IDS in focus policy briefing 9.4. Available at: www.ids.ac.uk Mulugetta, Y., Urban, F., 2010. Deliberating on low carbon development. Energy policy 38 (12) 7546-7549. Skea, J., Nishioka, S., 2008. Policies and Practices for a LowCarbon Society. Climate Policy, 8, Supplement Modelling Long-Term Scenarios for Low-Carbon Societies: 5–16 Sokona, Y., Mulugetta, Y., Gujba, H., 2012. Widening Energy Access in Africa: Towards Energy Transitions. Energy Policy. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.enpol2012.03.040 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), 2010. Poverty Reduction and the MDGs. Available at: http://www.undp.org/africa/ poverty.shtml Urban, F., 2010. The MDGs and Beyond: Can Low Carbon

Development be Pro-poor? IDS Bulletin Volume 41 Number 1. World Bank, 2009. Making Development Climate Resilient: A World Bank Strategy for SubSaharan Africa. Sustainable Development Department. Report No. 46947-AFR, Africa Region.

Profile of authors Haruna Gujba (PhD) is a Research Fellow at the ACPC, UNECA, working on Energy and low carbon development issues in Africa. Yacob Mulugetta (PhD) is a Senior Energy and Climate Change Specialist at the ACPC, UNECA, working on Energy and low carbon development issues in Africa. Jabavu Nkomo (PhD) is a Senior Economist at the ACPC, UNECA, working on Economics of Adaptation in Africa. Youba Sokona (PhD) is currently an Advisor to the ACPC, UNECA. Dr. Sokona was the former Co-ordinator of the Centre. He also serves as a Co-Chair of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Working Group III.

www.hedon.info/CNXB * Read full article and comment * Full list of references Meet us @HEDON

VIEWPOINTS

Interview with Mayte de Vries – ETC Energy In this Viewpoints feature, we caught up with Mayte de Vries who tells us how ETC Energy and its partners have been developing and promoting biogas projects for market prices in rural Vietnam with local masons and farmers to increase energy security.

Tell us about yourself and ETC Energy My name is Mayte de Vries and I’ve been working for the Dutch organisation ETC Energy for three years. I started working in Vietnam where I did a traineeship on business development services and how to support energy businesses and markets. ETC Energy’s Enabling Access to Sustainable Energy (EASE) was a programme that was active in eight countries – Bolivia in Latin America; Senegal and Mali in West Africa; Uganda and Tanzania in East Africa; and Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam in South East Asia. This was a four year programme funded by the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs where we tried to develop energy access markets for the poor. About six years ago under EASE, we worked with the Research Center for Energy and Environment (RCEE) in Vietnam, an NGO working with energy and energy efficiency. Subsequently, we wanted to widen our activities with biogas in Vietnam and started working with The Center for Rural Communities Research and Development (CCRD) and the Vietnam Gardening Association (VACVINA), focussing on energy access in rural areas of Vietnam. Can you describe the energy background in rural Vietnam? Vietnam is a socialist country where there are a lot of programmes supported by the government. Some of these are delivered by what are called Associations, which operate at national, regional, Boiling Point. issue 61 — 2013

provincial, district or communal level. One of these is the Vietnam Gardening Association VACVINA, whose concept is of an integrated farm management system comprising of three elements: the garden, the fishpond and the animal husbandry activities. Belonging to VACVINA, CCRD implements its targets such as the promotion of livestock and biogas technology as part an environmentally friendly solution for treatment of solid waste. Initially as part of EASE, we started two biogas projects with CCRD in Thanh Hoa and Nghe An, two of the largest provinces in North Central Vietnam where it was quite successful. In 2006-2010, we supported the establishment of 40 biogas micro-entrepreneurs at commune level with 20 digesters each. After the capacity building of micro-entrepreneurs on technical and marketing skills, they continued as autonomous suppliers to sell biogas plants at full market prices. With an average record of 250-300 plants annually per province, more than 1500 biogas units were sold in Thanh Hoa and more than 1000 units in Nghe An. ETC Energy’s current project is funded under the Energy and Environment Partnership (EEP) in the Mekong Delta, which is from the Finnish government. We are trying to replicate this biogas project in the South of Vietnam which is an area where CCRD had not very been active before.

Can you describe the biogas technology? In Vietnam, there are the SNV KT1 and KT2 Fixed Dome models, which are made from bricks and have the round top. The biogas produced will be stored inside, on the top part of the digestion tank. This has pipes connecting to the kitchens and then to the cookstoves. There is also another model, the Polyethylene (PE) tube biodigester, which consists of a digestion tube (having two PE material layers) placed half-underground where the animal dung will be treated. The produced biogas will be collected and stored in a system of gas reservoirs placed under the roof of pigsty. Both models have their advantages and disadvantages; a particular problem is with the formation of hardened scum that can reduce biogas output during operation in the absence of annual cleaning and overhaul. What CCRD did is adapt the two models into one new system called “VACVINA Hybrid Technology Biodigester with Automatic Scum Control” also known as VACVINA Advanced Biodigester. The tank collecting all the animal waste is made from bricks and is shaped as a square dome, which is easy to construct. It also has an outlet and plastic bag, which is the reservoir for the gas before it comes to the cookstove in the kitchen (Figure 1). The remaining slurry, which can be used for fertilising land, comes out through a different outlet. The VACVINA Advanced Biodigester system is low-maintenance and well adapted to the local context. The underground flat-top design integrates 27

VIEWPOINTS Figure 1: A lady in Vinh Long, Mekong Delta, using biogas to cook the family dinner (Source: CCRD)

both the pigsty and as well as latrine, while providing a concrete floor on which the animal shelters are built. This reduces land requirements to a minimum, as available space is a major hurdle for many households. Its hybrid nature with plastic bag reservoir helps keep the cost down and innovative design prevents the accumulation of the hardened scum layer, thus maintaining gas output (see @HEDON for a graphic representation).

for the pigs and people living in the area. No flies, no smell, and people can also add their toilet to the biogas system (Figure 3). In Vietnam especially, people tend to have their toilet over ponds. I’ve seen it myself a few months ago where the toilet is placed over the fish pond! When the toilet is integrated with the biogas digester, the rivers and ponds become much cleaner, as well as the hygiene of the environment in general.

How big is the digester? Its a household system that can be used if you have at least five or six pigs or two to three cows, which usually produces enough gas for household cooking. In Vietnam, most farmers have pigsties around their house. Depending on their income, usually they have at least five or six pigs; others 20, 30 or 50, depending on their business. So for them its quite easy because the pigsty is right beside the house and so you can build the biogas digester by the pigsty and the gas does not have to go very far (Figure 2).

And you also said that there’s an effective waste management system with the slurry being used for fertiliser? Yes, that’s right. That’s also another great part. The slurry that comes out of the biogas system when mixed with water is a very good organic fertiliser. People can use it for their home gardens and rice fields. There are more nutrients when you use slurry than chemical fertiliser and it is natural, which also makes it better for the environment. Moreover, CCRD has successfully designed a bio-fertiliser product process at household scale by recycling agricultural by-products (rice straw, rice husk, bean plants after the harvest, water hyacinth) and slurry from biodigester that can help farmers to reduce chemical fertilisers and practice sustainable agriculture. This model obtained First prize on “Vietnam Innovation Day-2005” organised by the World Bank and Vietnam Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment.

What role does biogas play in providing local communities and the environment to build resilience to climate change? People in rural areas usually have to go out to gather firewood when they use the iron three-pod wood-burning stove. The resulting indoor air pollution and consequential respiratory effects have a very negative impact on their health. The positive aspects of biogas is that the cooking is clean, none of these health issues exist and people have more time to spend on other things than on gathering wood for cooking. Plus, a household biogas digester can mitigate an average of 5 tonnes of CO2 equivalent per year. Another added value is that the pigsty and its surrounding area are much cleaner. Usually, if you don’t have biogas, the manure from the pigs just remains in the pigsty for some time before people do something with it. So there’s a lot of smell, flies and generally unhygienic conditions. Since the manure goes down into the tank immediately with our biogas system, it gives a much cleaner environment both 28

Tell us about the training involved for the communities in taking up the biodigesters? We work with local masons by training them in the projects with the technical aspects of building a biogas digester. This takes around 14 days and its not only practice but also theory involving exams as well. After that, they have two to three days marketing training on how to promote the biogas digester, including its advantages and how they can sell the stoves (Figure 4). Then they start by selling the technology to households in the area. We support these masons in convincing farmers to start buying the digesters, because biogas is not always so well

known. We work with VACVINA who help the masons in promotion of the biogas digester. We use their network in the gardening association, as most of the farmers are members of VACVINA, to disseminate information about biogas. We have different activities for them, such as one stop information shops in each commune located in the VACVINA office where people can come and obtain information about biogas and how we work, where it is provided, how much it costs, what are the building materials etc. We also have radio talks through VACVINA to promote the system. After they buy the biogas digester, we have the Seeing is Believing promotional schemes where in each commune that the project is active, the first two systems are installed as demonstration models - in Vietnam, people won’t buy technologies before they see that it actually works. The next six systems the mason sells have a 40% Early Bird discount. After that, they sell them for the full price with a small profit for the mason. Can the biogas programme be grown to be sustainable? Yes, our demonstration models and promotional activities with masons support them to get the first sales going. After that, we step out of the project and they have the skills and knowledge to continue selling the biogas digesters in the area. Most of them continue with the programme and they are quite successful with making a living out of selling these biogas systems. Since October 2011 EEP Mekong has supported the promotion of 331 units in total, which is a good figure considering the challenges experienced during the first year, including needing to stop for a few months during the rainy seasons and pigs being affected by the ‘blue ear’ disease. Can biogas provide energy security for the communities? In Vietnam, locals will keep having pigs because they are the most important animals and all aspects of the pig can be used, such as for meat for example. As long as they have animals,

VIEWPOINTS

Figure 2: The CCRD director explaining how the just installed biogas digester works and how to maintain it (Source: CCRD) Figure 3: Construction of latrine on top of the biodigester (Source: CCRD) Figure 4: Participants at EEP supported technical and market training in Vinh Long, Mekong Delta

they always will have manure and thus biogas, and so they will be able to cook using it. Depending on how many pigs, they can also use biogas for heating or electricity. The biodigester can always remain and it won’t affect the environment in any way because the slurry is used and therefore there is no waste material from the biogas technology as such. Also, compared to say LPG, which is generally preferred and for which the market is growing, the source of biogas is sustainable. How much does the system cost? It depends on the size of the biogas digester. You can make it as big as needed it to be and depending on how many pigs you have, the basic system costs about 200-250 Euros. That is including the stove and all the building materials, including digester tank gas pipe, valves, inlet and outlet pipes, biogas stoves and gas indicator. There is a five-year guarantee on it and all the materials last for at least that long except for the plastic bag, which might be the one element that needs replacing once every five years. But if built correctly, it lasts longer. Boiling Point. issue 61 — 2013

Is there a place for biogas in Africa? I think that the main impetus in Vietnam and most of Asia is that communities here have their pigs or other animals close to the house, whereas in say Western Africa, there are more pastures and cows grazing in wider areas. I would say that it is a challenge to translate it to Africa, but I do know that biogas is happening in some parts. Is there anything else you would like to add? Even though a biogas system costs 200-250 Euros, which can be quite a lot for a farmer in Vietnam, good cooperation with the local bank has been very important for the households to be able to access a loan. This is especially true in the areas in Vietnam where we’ve been able to successfully link up with the local bank, the ‘Vietnam Bank for Social Policies’. It provides loans for low interest rates (2% per year and the credit is for 48 months) and is focussed on water sanitation and environment protection, especially for farmers and others that don’t have too much money. It works well because it immediately increases the sales of the biogas system.

The other thing that is different with our biogas programme with CCRD is that we try to sell the technology for real market prices to make sure that we are not distorting the private sector market with subsidies on the biogas. We’ve seen that our programme works really well because people do not stop buying after the Early Bird discount but continue to do so and for the full market price. So I think that’s also one of our strengths.

www.hedon.info/TNXB * A graphic representation of how the VACVINA Advanced Biodigester works * Author’s latest contact details Meet us @HEDON 29

GIZ NEWS

News GIZ spoke at second anniversary of Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves The Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves (GACC) celebrated its second anniversary on September 24th, 2012 in New York City. The Alliance took this opportunity to announce new commitments and present its second year report Enabling Markets Worldwide. In addition to major commitments by bodies including the Swedish government, the German government will increase its support to the Alliance by one million euros, mainly to support the development of innovative technological and marketing approaches, and to enable capacity building for stove testing centres. The Alliance’s anniversary event featured a panel discussion with experts from different sectors, namely investment, project implementation, manufacturing, research, humanitarian and gender. For GIZ, Anne Ingwe from Energising Development (EnDev) in Kenya spoke about opportunities and challenges for the Kenyan cookstove sector. Her contributions were highly appreciated by the audience and the GACC Secretariat. In conjunction with the additional financial contribution from the German government to support efforts by GACC to reach 100 million households with clean cooking technologies by 2020, GIZ is closely cooperating with the Alliance on a technical level – particularly on the international standardisation of technologies, related testing procedures, market development and monitoring.

European network of implementing agencies to agree to Common Code of Best Practice The network of European implementing agencies (Ashden Awards, BSH, Energia, GERES, GIZ, GVEP, HEDON, Practical Action, SNV) has prepared a joint Code of Best Practice, which is mainly aiming at feeding European implementing experience and knowledge into the GACC and its working processes. The Code features six guiding principles: ‘Ensuring environmental sustainability through fuel savings and reduction of air pollution’, ‘Meeting the user needs’, ‘Deploying smart financing to enable sustainable market structures’, ‘Don’t re-invent the wheel’, ‘Building an evidence base with monitoring and validation to enhance learning’ and ‘Adhering to international standards and agreements’. GIZ HERA fed experiences and lessons from the GIZ stove projects from all over the world into the development of this guidance document.

Editor Monika Rammelt GIZ HERA, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH, Postfach 5180, 65726 Eschborn, Germany monika.rammelt@giz.de

Launch of West African Clean Cooking Alliance at ECOWAS High Level Energy Forum During the High Level Energy Forum of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) in Accra, Ghana in late October 2012, government representatives, high ranking ECOWAS diplomats and donor organisations launched five initiatives to substantiate the region’s goal for Sustainable Energy for All. Among these was the West African Clean Cooking Alliance (WACCA). The preparations for the launch under the leadership of the ECOWAS Regional Centre for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency (ECREEE) were strongly supported by GIZ, Energia, GERES, the Austrian Energy Agency and others. The event, which comprised of a two hour workshop for stakeholders in the clean cooking sector as well as the official 15 minute launch during a panel session, was marked by a catchy video produced by the German journalist Jörn Breiholz and left all parties involved strongly motivated to push the topic of clean cooking in the West African Region. A first regional WACCA forum will take place in April 2013 in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. To view this video and for more information on the event in Ghana, please visit @HEDON.

GIZ HERA to convene Energy for All Partnership Working Group on Improved Solid Biomass Cookstoves The Energy for All (E4All) Partnership was launched in June 2009 at the Asia Clean Energy Forum. Sponsored by the Asian Development Bank (ADB). The Partnership aims to provide access to energy to 100 million people in Asia and the Pacific region by 2015. The Partnership is designed as a network platform for cooperation, knowledge and experience exchange, bringing together key stakeholders from businesses, financial institutions, governments, and non-governmental organisations. Besides different working groups on lighting and electricity, three working groups on heating and cooking were formed. The working groups offer a platform for discussions on policy advocacy, knowledge and information sharing, networking, up-scaling options for replicable business models and financing mechanisms. GIZ HERA has been approached by the E4All Partnership to convene the working group on improved solid biomass stoves. GIZ HERA´s engagement within the working group focusses on the facilitation of knowledge and experience exchange, information input, and networking. A meeting of the working group took place at the Clean Cooking Forum in Cambodia in March 2013. For further information please access @HEDON or contact hera@giz.de.

GIZ NEWS

Experts exchange at GIZ: Business Models for the Dissemination of Solar Lanterns

New publications

Together with the International Finance Corporation (IFC) who is administering the Lighting Africa Initiative and the newly founded Global Off-Grid Lighting Association (GOGLA), GIZ HERA invited experts for an exchange on the growing market for picoPV products such as solar lanterns and task lights in September 2012. After an introduction to the latest developments of Lighting Africa and its new sister programme Lighting Asia by Rodd Eddy of IFC, a fruitful discussion on business model development for solar lanterns unfolded, which was inspired by the short introduction to GOGLA by Wolfgang Gregor, Secretary General of the newly found association. Wolfgang formerly worked for Osram in various management positions, among them the Osram Solar Lighting Project around Lake Victoria. The meeting showed that we are at the beginning of developing best practices for the dissemination of picoPVs.

GIZ HERA Cooking Energy Compendium: A practical guidebook for project implementers With this compendium, GIZ HERA – Poverty oriented Basic Energy Services presents a comprehensive guidebook for both practitioners and project planners in the clean cooking sector. It aims to foster large-scale dissemination of energy efficient cooking and baking technologies. Although there is already a lot of literature and information in books, within organisations and on web pages, this publication addresses the need for a compendium drawing together these broader issues on cooking energy. The compendium can be accessed @ HEDON.

Improving kitchen ventilation New presentations in English and French about improving kitchen ventilation are now available in the GIZ Energy Cooking Compendium. For more information, please see: Kitchen Ventilation to reduce air pollution levels from cookstove smoke @HEDON.

Heating and Indoor Air Temperature

Figure 1: An improved combined cooking-heating-baking stove developed in Gorno-Badakhshan, Tajikistan (Source: HERA Cooking Energy Compendium/Heike Volkmer)

www.hedon.info/PNXB * WACCA video and forum * E4ALL Working Group meeting * Access publications

Human beings require a certain level of ambient air temperature in order to remain healthy. The mortality rate due to respiratory diseases, high blood pressure, and stroke risks increases when room temperatures fall below 20°C. In high altitude regions, indoor air temperatures cannot be maintained on the required level without specific interventions. In the South American Andes, the mountainous regions of Central Asia (Pamir, Himalaya, Alai, Tienshan) and the Atlas mountains in Morocco, heating is often a question of survival. The HERA Cooking Energy Compendium now offers a chapter on Space Heating with information on housing conditions (e.g. construction, thermal insulation), space heating devices (e.g. traditional heating stove, improved heating stoves, multipurpose stoves, heat exchanger) and user behaviour (e.g. fuel processing, use of oven, ventilation habits) (see Figure 1). Despite the importance and relevance of indoor air temperature, the issue has so far not received the necessary attention in the realm of development cooperation. Notwithstanding the widespread knowledge on thermal insulation as well as efficient and clean heating devices, experience and knowledge on appropriate solutions for developing countries are still in their infancy. We request readers to feel free to further develop the chapter with your experience and additional information and feel encouraged to bring this topic to a larger audience via @HEDON.

Meet us @HEDON Boiling Point. issue issue61 61— —2013 2013

GACC NEWS

News

Editor Sean Bartlett UN Foundation, 1800 Massachusetts Avenue, NW, 4th Floor, Washington, DC 20036, USA info@cleancookstoves.org

Figure 1: Household air pollution escapes through the roof of this home in Guatemala (Source: Nigel Bruce)

Inefficient cookstoves and open fires are a major source of greenhouse gases and account for over 20 percent of global black carbon emissions. Recent studies show that of all the presently available black carbon mitigation measures, widescale adoption of clean and efficient cookstoves would yield the greatest health co-benefits. Addressing the inefficiencies in current cookstove models and the use of solid fuel would also reduce carbon dioxide and methane emissions, land degradation and deforestation, and cut time spent collecting fuel often in dangerous conditions, a major social and economic burden on women and children. Since the last Boiling Point edition, the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves has embarked on a number of initiatives to ramp up its climate and environmental work. When U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton launched the Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC) in February 2012, she cited the importance of clean cookstoves and fuels in the global fight to mitigate harmful gases associated with climate change. Since then, the Alliance has been accepted as a non-governmental member of the CCAC. The significant synergies that exist between its goals and objectives and those of CCAC will be instrumental in developing policies and programs to reduce emissions of black carbon and short-lived forcers from cookstoves and fuels, and enhance penetration of clean cooking solutions in developing countries. Earlier this year, the Alliance issued its second Request for Proposals (RFP): Multiscale Geospatial Mapping of NonRenewable Fuel Harvesting for Biomass Fuels. The main objective of this RFP is to develop geospatial estimates of the fraction of non-renewable biomass (fNRB) at national and subnational levels for Sub-Saharan Africa, Asia and Latin America. Such an undertaking would enable clean cookstove and fuel programs to incorporate environmental concerns – including sustainability of fuelwood and potential carbon offsets – into their planning processes. After a number of submissions and a peer-review process, the Alliance selected Professor Robert Bailis of the Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies and Dr. Omar Masera of Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM) 32

to lead a project to develop spatially explicit global datasets of woodfuel demand, supply potential, woodshed analyses and estimates of fNRB; to conduct analyses in “high risk” countries; and to develop a publicly available web-based tool that Alliance partners and other stakeholders can use to assess fNRB in a variety of contexts. This RFP is part of the Alliance’s overall Research Platform, which includes the commissioning, convening, integrating of research, as well as fostering partnerships to expand funding. Over the next few years, Alliance environmental research priorities will include a focus on activities to inform clean cookstove designs and standards development, enable robust estimates of the greenhouse gas mitigation and other co-benefits from clean cookstoves and fuels programs, and, together with improved methodologies for carbon offset projects, facilitate the development of carbon markets to enable widespread adoption of clean cooking solutions. In 2013, the Alliance will host a series of expert webinars on environmental topics, such as renewability, short lived climate forcers, black carbon, and best practices in estimating carbon savings. Please check the Alliance’s events page for details or email climate@cleancookstoves.org to be added to the webinar email list. The achievement of the Alliance’s ‘100 by 20’ goal would be a clear indication of humans taking tangible steps to adapt their behavior relative to the climate and the environment. Clean cookstoves and fuels are therefore integral parts of worldwide efforts to reduce man-made climate change and protect the environment for future generations to come.

GACC NEWS

Global Burden of Disease 2010 Study: Household Air Pollution Leads to 4 Million Deaths Annually The entire clean cooking sector learned a shocking fact in December: household air pollution from cooking with solid fuels kills four million people annually – double the previously known estimate. That was the news from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 published in The Lancet on December 13 (access @HEDON). The study finds that as a result of burning solid fuel for cooking, 3.5 million deaths are directly associated with household air pollution (HAP) each year. In addition, another 500,000 deaths from outdoor air pollution are caused by cooking, with a large share of outdoor pollution in regions like Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa originating from household solid fuel use. Millions more are sickened from lung cancer and disease, child lower respiratory infections, cardiovascular disease, and cataracts associated with HAP. The results demonstrate the continued impact of HAP on child survival and lifeexpectancy, and underscore the link between HAP and noncommunicable diseases. The HAP findings add increased urgency to the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves’ mission to save and improve lives through the creation of a market for clean, safe, efficient, and affordable household cooking solutions. ‘The Alliance will accelerate its work to increase the accessibility, affordability, and eventual adoption of clean cookstoves and fuels at scale, informed by rigorous in-country collaboration with our partners and consultation with users and consumers,’ said Alliance executive director Radha Muthiah. Dr. Kirk R. Smith, professor of global environmental health at the University of California, Berkeley, and co-author of The Lancet article, told the Alliance, ‘One of the most alarming findings is that smoke from cooking fires was found to be the largest environmental threat to health in the world today.’ Dr. Smith also provided the sector with an analysis of the HAP findings from the study, available on the Alliance website (see @HEDON). The burden of disease from dozens of leading public health risk factors, including high blood pressure, tobacco, alcohol use, and nutritional factors, were also updated in the study. The study represents the work of 486 co-authors from 50 countries, an effort led by the University of Washington’s Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation and funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. An expert panel discussed the HAP findings and the work of the Alliance and its partners at the National Press Club in Washington, DC, on Monday, December 17. Video and audio are available on the Alliance’s YouTube page (available @HEDON). Boiling Point. issue 61 — 2013

Join the Alliance at the

Bonn International Cooking Energy Forum Progress towards the ‘100 million by 2020’ goal in Bonn, Germany June 26-28, 2013

www.cleancookstoves.org

Figure 2: An expert panel gathered at the National Press Club in Washington, DC, on Monday December 17, 2012, to discuss the HAP findings of the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. From left to right are: Dr. Kirk R. Smith, University of California, Berkeley; Dr. Kalpana Balakrishnan, Sri Ramachandra University, Chennai, India; Thomas J. Bollyky, Council on Foreign Relations; Dr. Lynn Goldman, The George Washington University; and Dr. Sumi Mehta, Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves. (Source: Nathan Mitchell).

www.hedon.info/MNXB * More on the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 * Alliance’s Youtube page Meet us @HEDON 33

PRACTICAL ACTION NEWS

News

Editor Abbie Wells Practical Action, The Schumacher Centre, Bourton on Dunsmore, Rugby, Warwickshire, UK, CV23 9QZ abbie.wells@practicalaction.org.uk

Practical Action leads project tackling energy access for the poor to meet the Millennium Development Goals in Sub-Saharan Africa Energy access in sub-Saharan Africa needs more attention Globally, one in five people have no access to electricity and two in five cook using solid biomass and inefficient technologies. The International Energy Authority (IEA) estimates that if present policies remain unchanged, more than one billion people will remain without access to electricity by 2030. Access to modern energy sources and technologies is the key to social development as well as to economic growth; yet in SubSaharan Africa, nine out of ten people cook with solid biomass using inefficient and smoky cook stoves and seven out of ten people have no access to electricity. The UNDP, World Bank, EEC and other development agencies recognise that access to sustainable modern energy services is critical to achievement of the MDGs. The United Nations, along with other important development organisations, has launched a world campaign on Universal Energy Access. The UN declared 2012 the year of ‘Sustainable Energy for All’ and has set a target of Universal Access by 2030 – a target which has been endorsed by the European Commission. During the last decade the number of people without energy access has been reduced by around 300 million. This reduction has mainly been due to the large investments in electricity access made by the largest emerging economies (China, India, Brazil and South Africa). In Sub-Saharan Africa, the number of people without electricity has recently increased by 39 million, from 547 million in 2005 to 586 million in 2009.

‘Energy Access for the poor in Sub-Saharan Africa to meet the Millennium Development Goals’ This project is funded by EuropeAid (External Actions of the European Community-Contract: DCI-NSAD/2009/201-885), which seeks to raise public and political support across the EU for improved EU aid to energy access in this region. Practical Action and three European Union (EU) organisations, the Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI) in Sweden, Polytechnic University of Cataluña (UPC) in Spain, and the NGO EDUCON in the Czech Republic have been implementing a three year awareness raising and advocacy project. The overall objective of the project is to contribute to the achievement of the MDGs in marginalised rural and urban areas in Sub-Saharan Africa, through improved energy access at local level. The project specifically focusses on energy poverty and its impacts on development and wellbeing. It has been implemented across Europe with an emphasis on four partner countries (United Kingdom, Sweden, Spain and Czech Republic). Through targeted activities, the project has sought to reach three key European audiences: general public, civil society and policy 34

and decision-makers, with a view to developing the awareness and political will to ensure that energy access for the poor, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa, is given greater priority.

Project achievements to date — Several high level workshops have been held in Brussels and in the four partner countries, with the participation and assistance of policy makers, leaders of the international development sector and key politicians, including the EU Development Commissioner, Director-General of UNIDO, and prominent MEPs. — The project partners have organised guided fact finding visits for MEPs to Sub-Saharan Africa. — The project partners lobbied to secure an Own Initiative Report on energy access; “European Parliament resolution on EU development cooperation in support of the objective of universal energy access by 2030”. The report became a European Parliament resolution – effectively committing Parliamentarians to future support energy access for development. — Project partners, Practical Action and SEI led on the creation, circulation and delivery of the Civil Society Call: Energy for All. This advocacy tool was created with a dual purpose. Firstly, to provide a policy position for Europe on Energy for All in Sub-Saharan Africa, and, as a result, to demonstrate civil society appetite for engagement with the issue of energy access. Secondly, to create a short, shared, strategic statement directed at key European decisionmakers. Within two weeks of it being launched, the Civil Society Call generated over 70 signatories. — A range of policy and practice materials on energy access have been produced, and disseminated through various networks. — Practical Action as leader of the project has engaged strongly with the UN’s Sustainable Energy for All Initiative and is now the European communications partner for the initiative. As a result, Practical Action has been able to help shape and deliver messages, materials and activities within the European sphere. To find about more about this project or to register your interest in working together to raise the profile of energy access please contact Teo Sanchez at: teo.sanchez@practicalaction.org.uk

PRACTICAL ACTION NEWS

Practical Action launches innovative digital tool to combat poverty Practical Action has partnered with Bosch and Siemens Home Appliances Group (BSH) to help tackle poverty. In developing countries around the world 3 billion people still cook on open fires and the smoke that these produce in people’s homes kills more people each year than malaria. To combat this, Practical Action and BSH have developed an online tool which enables development professionals to design a bespoke smoke hood which removes over 80% of the toxic smoke produced by cooking. With the coalition placing a new priority on the role of private sector in development at the end of last year, this is a welcome development and the tool is already changing the lives of people living in poverty in South East Asia. Sam Shiroff, director, corporate responsibility department, BSH explains: ‘Stimulating economic growth is one of the surest ways of reducing poverty in developing countries and businesses in the UK have a huge role to play. By partnering with Practical Action we can help people living on the front line of poverty to change their lives and move our business into new markets at the same time.’ Margaret Gardner, director of charity partner Practical Action said: ‘The outputs of Practical Action’s partnership with BSH are already clear to see and as a charity we are keen to work with the private sector if it can make a difference to the lives of the people we work with. The introduction of the smoke hoods tool will dramatically reduce the number of people that die from smoke inhalation in developing countries and change their lives for the better.’ For more information about how Practical Action works with the private sector or to check out the tool and design your own smoke hood visit @HEDON. Boiling Point. issue issue61 61— —2013 2013

Figure 1: Cooking on an improved stove is better for health and uses less fuel (Source: Practical Action//Teo Sanchez) Figure 2: Access to energy enables people to generate an income from activities such as charging mobile phones (Source: Practical Action/Karen Robinson) Figure 3: Doing homework with lamp (Source: Practical Action)

www.hedon.infoXMXB * Link for more information about how Practical Action works with the private sector * Tool to design your own smoke hood Meet us @HEDON

GVEP INTERNATIONAL NEWS

News The Climate Innovation Centre will boost climate technology entrepreneurs in Kenya Last September the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s first Climate Innovation Centre (CIC) opened its doors in Nairobi. It is part of a global network of CICs envisioned and developed by infoDev through its Climate Technology Program (CTP). The CICs aim to accelerate the development, deployment and transfer of locally developed climate technologies. GVEP is part of the consortium selected by the World Bank to set up and run the Kenya CIC. This initiative provides business incubation services and early stage capital to renewable energy and climate adaptation businesses. It offers an integrated set of services, activities and programmes to boost green businesses in the region. Its aim is to accelerate solutions to climate change that are owned and developed locally. In addition to reducing greenhouse gas emissions and improving climate resiliency, the Kenya CIC will boost business in high-growth sectors such as renewable energy, agriculture, clean water and energy efficiency. The CIC will be seeded by a contribution of US$ 4.5 million over four years. It is supported by the World Bank in partnership with Danida and UKAid. It was developed in close consultation with Kenyan partners to ensure its local relevance and long-term sustainability. It is hosted by the Strathmore Business School in collaboration with PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC), the Kenya Industrial Research and Development Institute (KIRDI) and GVEP. The Kenya CIC is expected to support around 70 sustainable climate technology enterprises over four years. It is also set out to create 4,600 direct and over 24,000 indirect jobs within ten years. The centre offers a wide range of advisory services including oneon-one mentoring, seminars and business and technical training programmes. The centre also provides financing, business advisory services, policies that support innovative entrepreneurship, and access to facilities such as technology design, prototype testing and manufacturing and research institutes.

Figure 1: Ben Good, CEO of GVEP, gives some sound bites to the Reuters team for the Africa Journal weekly TV programme at the launch of the CIC in Nairobi (Source: GVEP) Figure 2: Andrew Kingori from Africa Bio Products, a CIC supported business, holds up a sample of the ethanol gel he is distributing in Kenya for use with ethanol cookstoves (Source: CIC) Figure 3: Solar phone charging supported by Developing Energy Enterprises Project (DEEP) (Source: GVEP)

Editor Mayda Bakri GVEP International, Head office, Fifth Floor Totara Park House, 34-36 Grays Inn Road, London WC1X 8HR, UK mayda.bakri@gvepinternational.org

GVEP INTERNATIONAL NEWS

Linking businesses GVEP’s Developing Energy Enterprises Project (DEEP) has a pool of over 900 micro-enterprises across East Africa with technologies ranging from improved cookstoves and solar installation and phone charging, to briquettes and biogas. To ensure these businesses keep on growing, GVEP offers training and advice on various business skills: growth, business plan reviews, market development activities, technology and financial linkages. Most recent to this offering to strengthen the skillset of these entrepreneurs is the formal introduction of business linkages. The case for linking businesses was clear: opportunities are present within the value chains and across geographic locations. ‘The aim of promoting business linkages is threefold,’ explains Daniel Macharia, Programme Manager for GVEP’s DEEP programme. ‘These linkages are to create enhanced sustainability, offer a learning platform and offer entrepreneurs greater choice in product sourcing.’ Each GVEP supported entrepreneur in Uganda, Tanzania and Kenya has an assigned Regional Business Mentor who serves as their primary point of contact with the organisation. It is the mentors who assess the entrepreneur’s needs and propose possible business linkages. These are then further assessed by the GVEP Business Development Services team. In Tanzania, Mpanduji Mhanda resides in Isesa, a village that has no electricity grid access. Mpanduji has been operating a solar phone charging business since 2008 which has been serving the community. He has since diversified into a small barber shop and beauty salon, both of which use solar energy to operate. ‘Using a diesel generator to operate the business was expensive and noisy,’ Mpanduji recalls, noting the two litres of diesel he needed to operate the generator each day would cost him TZS 3,000 (US$ 1.8). Now he is able to operate his enterprise using clean energy. Mpanduji’s business was recently linked to Zara Solar, a GVEP partner dealing in solar products, enabling him to buy solar lanterns at wholesale prices. Three of the brands he has so far bought from Zara include: One Child, One Light, a small lantern at TZS 14,000 (US$ 8.7) which he sells at TZS 17,000 (US$ 10.6); Thrive Accendo Mini Light at TZS 31,000 (US$ 19.3) which he sells at TZS 35,000 (US$ 21.8); and the more advanced Solaland Powa Pack at TZS 85,000 (US$ 53) which he sells at TSZ 100,000 (US$ 62.5). ‘I have confidence in the quality of products that come from Zara and I can offer a warranty,’ states Mpanduji. Through the various business linkages that occur within the DEEP programme, entrepreneurs can seize the opportunities that abound to learn from one another, improve on the quality of their products and gain access to new suppliers and customers. In the first three quarters of 2012, entrepreneurs within DEEP have generated sales of just over US$ 3 million. Daniel adds, ‘If you are a producer and you know another entrepreneur is depending on you to provide them with stock, you are challenged to keep working hard and maintain the integrity of your business.’ Boiling Point. issue 61 — 2013

Studies The solar off-grid lighting market in Rwanda Approximately 85% of the population remains without access to the electricity grid in Rwanda. This study (available @ HEDON) analyses the country’s off-grid lighting market. It offers useful insight into a sector that remains largely untapped. Awareness is still very low but Rwanda has a high potential despite challenges in affordability. Indeed, its high population density, reformed and business-friendly regulatory environment and economic and political stability have attracted a number of companies from the region to establish a presence in Kigali. Despite ambitious government electrification programmes, more than one million households will still likely require offgrid electricity by 2020. However, solar product sales amongst all distributors are still very low. The assessment aims to provide further understanding into the structure of the solar market, product suppliers and dealers in rural areas, promotional strategies currently employed by companies and the challenges encountered as businesses seek to increase sales.

The improved cookstove sector in East Africa This report (available @HEDON) analyses and documents GVEP’s experience working with improved cookstove businesses in East Africa through its DEEP programme. It provides an overview of the cookstove markets in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda. The study also describes how DEEP has supported cookstove enterprises in the region and shares the lessons learnt over the past five years. Cookstoves are the dominant technology within the DEEP programme, making up 43% of the supported businesses. The report examines results from stove testing done on cookstoves produced under DEEP. It concludes by presenting a strategy for GVEP to take its cookstove work forward in the future.

www.hedon.info/NNXB * More about the Kenya Climate Innovation Centre * Download the study on Rwanda’s off-grid lighting market * Download the study on improved cookstoves in East Africa Meet us @HEDON

TOOLKIT

Toolkit

Author Practical Action Consulting The Schumacher Centre, Bourton on Dunsmore, Rugby, Warwickshire CV23 9QZ, UK consulting@practicalaction.org.uk

The interactive Renewable Energy Toolkit The climate is changing rapidly, and we no longer have the luxury of saying ‘if it happens’ but rather we need to look at how we can slow down the rate of climate change, adapt to the changes which are happening, and still improve access to energy for people living in poverty. The interactive Renewable Energy Toolkit (iRET) has been produced by Practical Action Consulting for Oxfam and Christian Aid to assist them in building the skills of their staff and partners to deliver energy access projects for poverty reduction worldwide. By providing the skills and information to organisations seeking to improve energy provision for poor people, this toolkit supports the developmental aim of improved energy access, mitigating the impacts of climate change, and it provides the information need to use fuels efficiently, and to harness renewables effectively.

he iRET is comprised of four sections which contain information and advice for organisations running projects relating to energy.

Energising Development This section focuses on energy services and tackles the different ways in which people actually use energy. It looks at the importance of energy for poor people’s lives and livelihoods and aims to describe what life is like without access to modern energy. It focuses on examining the impact of energy deprivation on six key services and highlights the transformational effects made possible when energy becomes available.

Energy in Action The information in this section gives examples of various renewable energy sources and highlights some of the technologies that can convert these energy sources into a form that can be used. Each chapter introduces a new resource and some of the common technologies associated with it. It also gives an insight into the potential development impacts of their use in addition to providing links to valuable external resources. 38

Design to Deliver The way in which all project should be carried out follows a sequence that is often referred to as a project cycle. Design to Deliver provides details on a project cycle, from identification through to evaluation, and provides practical guidelines and tools for delivering energy access projects. This section also includes information outlining some of the critical factors and considerations that need to be made to ensure the success of energy projects.

Money Matters Money Matters tackles the ways that NGOs and energy enterprises can get finance to fund their projects and programmes. It discusses some of the types and sources of project funding available and their advantages and disadvantages. This section also provides examples of how some NGOs have developed innovative operational modules to deliver their projects and services. It also provides an insight into end user finance which discusses the way that NGOs can make their outputs accessible to consumers of energy projects and services.

The iRET toolkit focuses on alternative sources of energy and discusses the benefits of relying on cleaner technologies such as solar, wind and water to provide the most sustainable and resilient technologies for communities. It gives an insight into the most important energy services and the different ways in which people use energy such as for lighting, cooking, space heating and for generating an income and how these services can each contribute to reaching the Millennium Development Goals. The toolkit is produced using CD ROM software so it can easily be accessed for people in some developing countries with little or no access to the internet. It features: — films from Practical Action and the Ashden Awards for Sustainable Energy showing successful renewable energy enterprises and programmes from around the world; — audio clips that introduce and discuss; — key resources from Practical Action and other organisations embedded as pdfs that are available at the click of your mouse; — web links to essential sites on the internet.

TOOLKIT Figure 1: Renewable energy pathway - from resource to development

Energy in Action The iRET focuses on small and medium sized technologies that are accessible, affordable and useful for people living in poverty. The information in the ‘Energy in Action’ section is organised according to renewable energy resource categories. Each energy resource chapter will introduce you to the common technologies for that resource, the various uses of the different technologies, the potential development impacts of their use and links to valuable external resources. The three energy supply forms (electricity, mechanical power and household fuels) that are essential to meet people’s basic and productive needs are included. People need access to a range of energy sources, and energy technologies, to satisfy their energy service needs. Table 1 shows the suitability of different renewable energy technologies to meeting the various energy service needs. The technologies are grouped by source; biomass, solar, water, wind, human and liquid fuel. The energy services are grouped by their most common energy supply form, be it modern fuels, electricity or mechanical power.

Table 1: Suitability of RETs to the energy services Figure 2: Micro hydro in Kenya (Source: Practical Action Consulting)

www.hedon.info/UNXB * Links to browse the iRET online or download it Meet us @HEDON Boiling Point. issue 61 — 2013

GENERAL

General

PEER REVIEWED

Feasibility study: Designing, fabricating, and testing an extended surface heat plate accessory to improve biomass cookstove performance Keywords: Biomass cookstove design; Heat Transfer Efficiency; Contact Resistance; Thermal Capacitance; Thermal Mass; Surface Area

This research establishes useful guidelines for stove designers seeking to improve Heat Transfer Efficiency (HTE), which is defined as the percentage of heat from the fire that gets transferred to the substance being cooked. It investigates the feasibility of an extended surface heat plate accessory as a low cost alternative to a finned pot used on cookstoves in developing countries. The objective of the heat plate is to improve HTE, which must be understood by examining the three governing principles of operation for such a device: Contact Resistance, Thermal Capacitance, and Surface Area. A theoretical performance model is developed and used to evaluate different heat plate designs. A realistic contact resistance value is then quantified and used in the model to determine the best manufacturing process for prototype development. A working prototype heat plate is fabricated, tested, and evaluated based on established test protocol and performance metrics. Test results validate the model and show improved HTE during the low power simmer phase of the water boil test, resulting in reduced fuel usage.

Authors Daniel Joseph Zube

Introduction

pot and the top surface of the plate reduces heat conduction. Thermal capacitance of the plate causes it to absorb heat from the fire during start-up phases of the stove instead of transferring it to the pot. Competing against these two principles is increased Surface Area, which boosts heat transfer. The relative influence these principles have on heat transfer decides whether a heat plate will improve or deteriorate cookstove performance.

eat transfer efficiency (HTE) improvements are commonly made to biomass cookstoves to enhance their performance, where HTE is defined as the percentage of heat from the fire that gets transferred to the substance being cooked. The easiest way to improve HTE is to increase the cooking Surface Area exposed to the hot combustion gases. One way to accomplish this is to attach several extended surfaces, or fins, to a flat plate, thus creating a â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;heat plateâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, an alternative to a finned pot. Finned pots have 40

been proven to improve HTE but people in the developing world often cannot afford to purchase one. By using a heat plate, the idea is to affordably boost HTE while continuing to use an existing pot. The feasibility of this is investigated here in terms of manufacturability and performance.

Heat Plate Theory of Operation Three physical principles govern heat plate performance: Contact resistance, Thermal Capacitance, and Surface area. Contact resistance between the bottom surface of the

Mechanical Test Engineer, Coolerado Corporation 439 South York Street; Denver, CO 80209; USA danielzube@gmail.com

Morgan DeFoort Co-Director, Colorado State Universityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Engines and Energy Conversion Laboratory 430 N. College Ave.; Fort Collins, CO 80524 Morgan.DeFoort@colostate.edu Figure 1: An Illustrative schematic representing contact resistance Figure 2: 3D image of potential heat plate design (left) with bottom and side views (right).

Contact Resistance Thermal contact resistance exists between two surfaces because the apparent contact

GENERAL Figure 3: Heat plate die cast replicate prototype (Source: Daniel Zube)

area is much larger than the actual contact area, as illustrated in Figure 1. Voids between the peaks of contact area act as microscopic layers of insulation as they are filled with air. These voids greatly affect the thermal conductivity between the two surfaces, since conductivity of air is 1,000 times less than metal (e.g. steel). Five factors determine the overall thermal contact resistance between two surfaces: thermal conductivity, surface roughness, contact pressure, microhardness and surface cleanliness. If either of the two surfaces is rough, then more voids exist and contact resistance increases. If the microhardness of either of the materials is low, then the voids can be compressed so long as the contact pressure is high enough to do so, thus reducing contact resistance. Of course if a surface is dirty, then it forms an insulative layer between the contact areas. In the realm of biomass cookstoves, contact resistances have the potential to be very high due to high surface roughness, low contact pressure (~1.2 kPa), and very dirty surfaces in used pots. The most relevant data available to approximate contact resistance at such low contact pressures fall between 0.011 – 0.347 m2K/W (Bahrami, et al., 2005). This relatively large range of theoretical values provides an incentive to experimentally measure the contact resistance specific to this application.

Thermal Capacitance Thermal capacitance, or thermal mass, is directly proportional to the amount of internal energy absorbed by an object while it undergoes a temperature change: Thermal Capacitance = m x CP where m is the Mass of the plate material and CP is Specific Heat. Thermal capacitance represents the ability of an object to resist a change in temperature. For a heat plate, low thermal capacitance equates to less time absorbing thermal energy from the fire and more time conducting energy to the pot. This is most important for improving time to boil (TTB) during start-up when the plate must undergo a large temperature change. Both specific heat and mass of the plate Boiling Point. issue 61 — 2013

material should be considered along with other constraints when designing the heat plate. Reducing mass to lower thermal capacitance must be balanced by the added mass of the fins to increase surface area. Therefore, the most optimally designed heat plate will maximise surface area-tomass ratio, while satisfying geometrical manufacturing constraints.

Surface Area To maximise surface area-to-mass ratio, the fin side profile (figure 2) must be very thin, allowing a larger quantity of fins to be placed on the plate. Besides increasing the quantity of fins, the surface area of the fin array can be improved by increasing either the length (L) or the width (W) of each individual fin. The width should theoretically be elongated as much as possible until the temperature of the gas equals the temperature of the fin. For this design configuration, the width is constrained by the outer diameter of the plate (determined by pot diameter) and the circular gap in the centre (based on manufacturing guidelines for a casting). The length of the fin reaches an optimal value once the increased surface area is overcome by the increased conductive resistance, due to an elongated conduction path. Assuming equal Conductive Resistance (Rconductive), fins with smaller Thickness (t) hence lower Cross-sectional Area (Af) have a smaller optimal design Length (L) than thicker fins (larger L), where Rconductive = L/kAf, Af = t x w and k is the thermal conductivity of the plate material.

Theoretical Performance Model The theoretical performance model predicts the influence of a heat plate on TTB based on inputs including plate and pot diameter, contact resistance, plate material, fin profile geometry and fin quantity (see @HEDON for detailed calculations). This model is validated by calculating a theoretically optimal fin length (Razelos, 2003) of 54 mm, which is compared to the model-based fin length value determined

through a TTB correlation (see @HEDON) of 62mm. These results validate the model, meaning it can be used to determine the influence of plate material on TTB, relative to the range of theoretical contact resistance values obtained from literature (Bahrami et., al 2005). The plot (available @HEDON) illustrates the small effect that plate material (i.e. thermal conductivity has on TTB, meaning that a more reliable experimental value for contact resistance is critical in justifying prototype fabrication.

Contact Resistance Experimentation An extended version of this section is available @HEDON, providing details about the set-up and procedures involved. Test results yield contact resistance values of 0.0123 – 0.0185 m2 K/W. When plugged into the theoretical performance model, these values generate estimated TTB values that justify prototype fabrication.

Fabrication

Sand casting ductile iron provides the lowest cost method to manufacture a heat plate at high volumes but exhibits inferior performance due to a relatively large minimum wall thickness. In contrast, die or investment casting methods are more costly, but lower TTB values are predicted due to smaller minimum wall thicknesses, and hence larger quantities of thinner fins (DeGarmo, et al., 2003). Owing to the latter’s properties, the objective of this prototype is to closely replicate the dimensions of a die cast heat plate. To achieve this, a total of 44 fins are cut from 16 gauge low carbon steel sheet, along with an 8.5 inch diameter plate cut from 7 gauge sheet. The fins are welded to the plate, heat treated, bead blasted, and resurfaced. The final prototype increases exposed surface area by five times and has a mass of over 2.3 kilograms (see images in Figure 3).

Testing The performance of this heat plate is tested according to the Emissions and Performance Test Protocol (EPTP) established from 41

GENERAL Test Configuration

Fuel (g)

Thermal Efficiency (%)

Combustion Efficiency (%)

Heat Transfer Efficiency (%)

TTB (min)

CO (g)

Table 1: Summary of results for Water Boil Test with and without heat plate.

Cold Start/Hot Start Phase Averages Pot w/ Heat Plate Pot Only (no plate)

363

27.7

90.0 (1)

30.7

27.7

19.1

332

29.0

96.0

30.2

27.5

8.0

45-minute Simmer Phase @ 90°C Pot w/ Heat Plate

231

42.3

98.0 (2)

43.2

7.0

Pot Only (no plate)

337

29.0

98.0

29.6

8.0

1. Estimated value based upon increased CO emissions along with data obtained from literature (Edwards, et al., 2003). 2. Estimated value based upon relative comparison of CO emissions of “Pot Only” test during Simmer phase.

previous research at Colorado State University’s Engines and Energy Conversion Laboratory (EECL) (L’Orange, et al., 2011). For the purposes of this test, the procedure is identical to the well known Water Boil Test (WBT) (Bailis, et al., 2007). The plate and pot are placed on an Envirofit G3300 cookstove. The stove is burned as specified by EPTP and WBT standards and performance metrics are quantified for both the cold start/hot start (CS/HS) and simmer phases of the test. The same test is repeated three or more times for each configuration: pot with heat plate and for pot only (Table 1). During the CS/HS phase, heat transfer gains achieved by the heat plate are nearly balanced by losses associated with thermal capacitance and contact resistance. The heat plate hardly changes average TTB as predicted, resulting in nearly an equivalent amount of heat being transferred to the water as in the ’pot only‘ case. The simmer phase is where the benefits of using the heat plate become clear through increased HTE and reduced fuel usage. Smoke emitted from the stove is more prominent using the heat plate during the CS/HS phase of the test. This is likely attributed to the quenching of gases and/ or flames during start-up as they impinge upon the relatively cool plate surface above the combustion zone, resulting in higher CO production as shown. This phenomenon is reduced during the simmer phase. If the test was conducted on a stove designed to allow for more complete combustion prior to impinging upon the heat plate, then CO emissions during the CS/HS phase may not be as elevated.

Discussions and Conclusion Heat transfer efficiency in this application is defined by the percentage of heat generated from the fire which is transferred to the water. When the heat plate is used, more heat is drawn away from the fire and is either absorbed by the thermal capacitance of the plate material or transferred toward 42

the water through conduction. The degree to which each of these occur depends upon the test phase in question. During the CS/HS phase of the test, additional heat from the fire is both absorbed by the plate material and also transferred toward the water. Since the plate absorbs a significant amount of thermal energy, the amount of heat transferred to the water is compromised. The heat transfer gains from the increased surface area of the plate are balanced by thermal capacitance and contact resistance. This explains why the HTE remains nearly unchanged when a heat plate is used during the CS/HS phase of the test. Eventually, the plate reaches thermal equilibrium during the simmer phase when its surface temperature nearly matches that of the combustion gases. At this point, thermal capacitance is neglected, allowing only contact resistance to compete against the increased surface area. Since the gains associated with increased surface area exceed the losses associated with contact resistance, more heat is transferred to the water by using a heat plate. This phenomenon is reflected in the data shown in Table 1, where HTE improved from 29.6% (pot only) to 43.2% (pot w/ plate), leading to a 31% reduction in fuel usage. In evaluating overall feasibility of a heat plate, it is important to consider that contact resistances in the field may be higher than those measured in the laboratory. Also, the most economically feasible manufacturing method, sand casting, would be limited by the wall thickness of each fin, leading to less surface area than the heat plate evaluated in this study. Additionally, the heat transfer benefits offered by the heat plate should account for the drawbacks associated with increased CO emissions existing during start-up. This study shows that in certain applications, a heat plate accessory can be used as an effective tool to improve HTE of a biomass cookstove. The heat plate offers the greatest HTE gains during the low-power simmer phase of cooking, with neutral heat transfer performance

during start-up. Commercialisation of such a product could be a challenge, given the manufacturing constraints in many developing countries. However, refining the design and targeting a niche market such as low power biomass cooking could make it worthwhile. More research focusing on improved manufacturing methods and assessing a realistic market demand for such a device would be very helpful in bringing this concept to the next level.

References: Bahrami, M., Yovanovich, M. M. & Culham, R. J., 2005. Thermal Contact Resistance at Low Contact Pressure: Effect of Elastic Deformation. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, Volume 48, pp. 3284-3293. Edwards, R. D., Smith, K. R., Zhang, J. & Ma, Y., 2003. Models to Predict Emissions of Health-damaging Pollutants and Global Warming Contributions of Residential Fuel/ Stove Combinations in China. Chemosphere, Volume 50, pp. 201215. L’Orange, C., DeFoort, M. & Willson, B., 2011. Influence of Testing Parameters on Biomass Stove Performance and Development of an Improved Testing Protocol. Energy for Sustainable Development, 27 November, doi:10.1016/j. esd.2011.10.008.

www.hedon.info/RMXB * Profile of authors & acknowledgements * Detailed Contact Resistance calculations and experiment * Full list of references Meet us @HEDON

GENERAL PEER REVIEWED

Regulating for clean electricity and heat in poor households: The roles of the South African Developmental State and private sector Keywords: Household energy access; Electricity; Heat; Cooking; Subsidy; Policy

Author Peet du Plooy Programme Manager, Sustainable Growth, Trade and Industrial Policy Strategies (TIPS), 227 Lange St, Nieuw Muckleneuk, Pretoria, 0108, South Africa, +27 12 433 9340, www.tips.org.za peet@tips.org.za Figure 1: Subsidised low-income house with a solar water heater (Source: Nelson Mandela Bay Metropolitan Municipality)

There is a clear role for a Developmental State – where the State plays a leading, rather than purely facilitating, role in economic development - to drive access to modern energy throughout the economy; particularly for poor households. While the technological solutions are well understood, implementing them requires a policy and regulatory environment that encourages investment in these technologies by households, governments and the private sector at large. The author considers recent policy developments in South Africa which on one hand subsidise universal access to clean energy and on the other create a regulatory environment for private supply of clean energy. A relative comparison of the areas in which policy has shown strong results compared to areas where delivery has lagged, demonstrates how concentrated and large-scale initiatives have met with greater success than smaller-scale and household-level interventions. Tackling this failure to address small-scale but high impact opportunities is a key challenge for the country’s evolving energy policy and institutional environment.

he technological solutions for providing access to clean energy are well understood, but implementing them at scale and within the context of widespread poverty requires a policy and regulatory environment that encourages investment in these technologies by households, governments and the private sector at large. This is demonstrated in the context of recent policy developments in South Africa which on one hand subsidise universal access to clean energy and on the other creates a regulatory environment for private supply of clean energy.

Boiling Point. issue 61 — 2013

The regulatory challenge The costs of providing clean energy and other infrastructure to Africa are high (Brixiova et al, 2011), but the cost of their absence is even higher. As well as the negative effect that a lack of reliable energy access has on production, commerce, investment and public services, it also has severe cost implications for households; such as health costs, like those from indoor air pollution, and opportunity costs when fetching fuel and water takes hours out of a day.

There is a clear case for a Developmental State to, on the basis of its public benefit, subsidise access to clean energy in general and access to electricity in particular. The idea of a Developmental State (as opposed to strict free-market economics), is an economic development approach based on recent policies in East and Southeast-Asia, where the State plays an active role in steering the economy, rather than simply facilitating and safeguarding economic activity. This approach is, in part, a response to the various failures within markets that can – and should – be remedied by the State. Where there is a public benefit 43

GENERAL Table 1: South Africa: Eskom’s residential electricity tariffs (in ZAR c/kWh, EUR 1 = ZAR 12) (Source: National Energy Regulator of South Africa, 2010)

to a certain action, but not sufficient private benefit (or profit) for the private sector to provide this on its own, the State can address this market failure through measures like subsidies. Conversely, where there is public harm to actions, the State can implement a tax on that action to recuperate its public cost.

South African policy solutions South Africa has demonstrated a number of policies for providing clean energy to the poor. Particularly, the country has learnt from experiences elsewhere, and has implemented subsidies that work – ones that successfully create markets and end up in the hands of the people that really need them: — Electrification: A massive roll-out by the publicly-owned electricity utility, Eskom, raised the share of households with access to electricity from 50.9% in 1994 to 72% in 2004 (Noah, 2012), earning it the title of ‘2001 Utility of the Year’. Since 2004 access has risen only marginally to 75.8% by 2010/11 (D Eskom PME, 2011). The programme, however, has not been without challenges. In particular, illegal connections and non-payment are common, while pre-paid metering has led to protests. In addition, the relatively low capacity of connections and high cost of electricity compared to coal or wood-fuel has forced some households to revert to these less efficient and more polluting forms of fuel for energy-intensive applications like cooking or heating; — Free basic electricity: The national energy regulator prescribes a stepped tariff (see Table 1) which provides indigent households with the first 50kWh of electricity per month for free and charges a stepped tariff thereafter. Estimates by civil society (Adam, 2010) put the basic level of consumption at between 100kWh and 200kWh, suggesting the potential to extend the protection granted to the poorest of the poor by effectively cross-subsidising basic use from higher tariffs on luxury or excess use; 44

Monthly consumption level

2010/11

2011/12

c/kWh

% increase

Block 1 (up to 50kWh)

54.70

(10.59)

Block 2 (51-350kWh)

58.48

(5.20)

Block 3 (351-600kWh)

76.35

Block 4 (>600kWh)

83.74

Average residential tariff

60.60

% increase

c/kWh

57.65

5.40

60.83

5.50

66.16

13.23

75.09

13.50

21.95

96.05

25.80

120.93

25.90

35.82

105.35

25.80

132.63

25.90

— Solar water heating: In addition to an efficient water heating subsidy programme (covering both solar heaters and heat pumps) for richer households, government institutions like the Industrial Development Corporation (a development finance institution) have installed tens of thousands of basic solar water heaters on the roofs of low-cost houses country-wide. The national target is for a million solar water heaters to be installed by 2014, but by March 2012, two years into the programme started in 2010, only 160,000 units had been installed (SESSA, 2012). These heaters have a payback period of around eight years and would have been unaffordable for most households without the subsidy (Mail & Guardian, 2012); — Procurement of large-scale renewable electricity: In 2011 South Africa launched the Independent Power Producer Procurement Programme which would provide 20-year contracts for the supply of 3,725MW of renewable energy to the national grid by 2016. Of this 100MW would come from smallscale projects, which may include gridconnected communities. What makes the scheme innovative is that it uses a competitive bidding process where, in order to qualify, the bid price may not exceed a fixed, technology-specific price ceiling and should also meet minimum project readiness and developmental criteria. From the group of qualifying bidders, bids (up to the maximum available capacity to be procured) are selected competitively through a scoring system based on a combination of the competitiveness of the bid price (70% of the overall score) and its contribution to economic development objectives including local employment and manufacturing (30% of the overall score). This approach mitigates the risk of over- or under-paying for renewable energy. Mitigating the risk of developers underbidding requires that the price ceilings be set at commercially viable levels. The maximum tariffs range from EUR45/MWh for landfill gas-to-energy to EUR193/MWh for solar PV (Table 2).

c/kWh

2012/13

68.83

% increase

78.62

In addition to directly providing or subsidising clean energy access, governments can introduce an appropriate policy, legal and regulatory environment which facilitates private sector investment in clean energy. These policies benefit households more indirectly by ensuring, for example, more reliable access to lowcarbon and renewable electricity. While South Africa has been innovative at incentivising large-scale renewable energy investment, initiatives at the household level have been less comprehensive and successful: — Home efficiency improvements: While the nearly 3 million homes built as part of the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) public housing scheme initially had no ceilings, thermal efficiency requirements have been implemented since 2005, which include a requirement for ceilings. However, many of these homes still suffer extreme temperatures as a result of the absence of this basic form of insulation (Energy Ramblings, 2012). Additionally, new building regulations (SANS204 or SANS10400-AX) require new buildings to generate at least 50% of their hot water from sources other than electric geysers (Isover, 2012). — Solar Home System concessions: Since 1999, South Africa’s government has supported a small number of concessions for installing ‘solar home systems’ in rural areas without access to the grid. These consist of a combination of solar photovoltaic panels with battery backup for small loads like lights and telecommunication equipment and an (optional) solar water heater. The programme has not yet reached a size relative to the need and has not been reviewed officially since inception. Among the challenges for the programme were the collaboration between Eskom and the local municipalities who were responsible for distributing payments to concessionaires and often lacked sufficient implementation capacity. Further problems included road infrastructure challenges and a lapse in the maintenance of systems due to the

GENERAL Technology

Volume procured in 2011 bid call

Tariff ceiling [EUR/MWh]

2009 indicative price (not implemented) [EUR/MWh]

Landfill gas

25MW

Small Hydro

75MW

Biomass

12.5MW

Biogas

12.5MW

Wind (>1MW, onshore)

1 850MW

104

Concentrating Solar (Thermal) Tower

200MW (all CSP)

117

193

Table 2: South Africa’s 2011 feed-in tariff price ceilings by technology (in order of increasing cost) at EUR 1 = ZAR 12 (Source: DOE, 2011)

(with 6 hours storage)

84%

Concentrating Solar (Thermal) Trough (with 6 hours storage)

153

262

Concetrating Solar (Thermal) Trough (no storage)

162

174

193

328

Solar PV (groundmounted)

1 450MW

Small projects

100MW

failure of some of the concessionaire companies (Wlokas, 2010). — Clean stoves: While significant research has gone into clean cookstoves, cooking fuels and cooking methods, these have not yet been rolled out widely in South Africa (Financial Mail, 2005). The country could learn from the experiences of other countries in the continent like Ghana and Uganda in rolling out clean cookstoves using innovative enterprise models that work with the informal sector and provide start-up finance or operating space for small-scale retailers of clean stoves and other energy solutions, like solar lights or battery recharging services (Energy Access, 2012).

Recommendations The climate and developmental agendas agree on the need for developing nation households and governments to gain access to sufficient, affordable and reliable clean energy. This can be achieved through consistent and appropriate government interventions in the early stages of what is effectively a new industrial or technological evolution. Essential policy interventions include reflecting the social value and cost of various energy options in fiscal policy, including subsidies, and creating a favourable environment for private investment in green infrastructure. While actual delivery performance has been unequal, this premise has been broadly accepted by the South African government. It is noteworthy that while large-scale interventions such as electrification or utility-scale renewable energy procurement have been successful, smaller, more distributed and householdBoiling Point. issue 61 — 2013

level interventions (ceilings or clean cook stoves as well as household scale renewable energy options like solar PV roofs) still lag behind. This is highlighted by evidence provided in the above listed policy interventions. While monopolies are natural within networked industries like electricity – and electricity transmission in particular – in South Africa, greater levels of private sector participation has become a necessity owing to the constraints to Eskom’s balance sheet. In addition, from a community perspective, the provision of electricity has traditionally been seen as a function of the State rather than the private sector. However, it has been shown in the telecommunications sector that private sector mobile phone companies have succeeded in providing nearuniversal access to telecommunications based on technology leap-frogging, which the partly State-owned fixed-line telecommunications operator, Telkom, had failed to do. Thus a mixed model using innovative payment options, like ‘pre-paid’ or a ‘utility model’, and technologies (fixed line and mobile) can be complementary in filling the access gap. The smaller scale of household-level actions to improve access to modern energy services represents a much lower ‘demand density’ than the multi-megawatt projects supported by a multi-billion rand renewable energy roll-out. Therefore it requires additional effort, particularly when this roll-out had to be facilitated by rural municipalities with significantly lower implementation capacity and income than the well-established national utility. Yet the socio-economic benefit of first-time access to modern energy is

arguably far greater than for these large projects, which, while critical for the country’s energy and climate security, simply ‘green’ the supply of electricity to existing users. Finding ways – business models, policies and institutions – to comprehensively address energy access at the household level for all South Africans constitutes a priority for a Developmental State and its continually evolving energy policy and action. This policy can be actioned through a combination of fitfor-purpose funding models for different forms of energy demand and supply, in order to supplement - and ultimately replace - increasingly expensive large-scale coal-based power stations.

References Deloitte, 2012, Carbon Tax and Energy, Budget 2012 Commentary. [online] Available at: http://www.deloitte.com/view/en_ZA/ za/services/taxservices/theannualbu dget/170314b16e6a5310VgnVCM30 00001c56f00aRCRD.htm Accessed 12 November 2012 Fofana I., Chitiga M., Mabugu R., 2009, Oil prices and the South African economy: A macro– meso–micro analysis. University of Pretoria, [online] Available at: http:// repository.up.ac.za/bitstream/ handle/2263/13820/Fofana_ Oil(2009).pdf?sequence=1 Accessed 12 November 2012 Ittman H., 2010. Total Costs of Logistics in South Africa Need to be Reduced, p.4., Sciencescope September 2010, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Available at: http://www.csir. co.za/publications/pdfs/2.2_SS_ BE_transport&logistics_chap1.pdf Accessed 12 November 2012

www.hedon.info/JNXB * Read full article and comment * Full list of references * Profile of author Meet us @HEDON

GENERAL PEER REVIEWED

Development and demonstration of Pongamia (Millettia pinnate) oil based lamp for lighting in rural areas of India Keywords: Biofuel; Lamp; Lantern; Lighting; Pongamia; Kerosene

Authors Ninga Setty

Field Coordinator, The Energy and Resources institute (TERI), 4th Main, 2nd Cross, Domlur IInd stage, Bangalore -560 071 hhnsetty@teri.res.in

Figure 1: Locally fabricated can lamps (Source: Ninga Setty) Figure 2: Wall Lamp (Source: Ninga Setty)

In rural areas of India, kerosene continues to be one of the most important fuels for lighting purposes, used by about 100 million households. Kerosene is expensive to buy outside the subsidised market and has been shown to produce indoor air pollution. This paper explores Pongamia (Milletia pinnate) biofuel, which can be easily available in rural areas, as an alternative. At present, none of the existing lamps are functionally suitable for using bio-oil as fuel. This paper details the performance of kerosene with different blends of Pongamia oil and how to modify an existing lamp to make it suitable to fully use Pongamia oil as fuel.

Background:

n rural areas of India, where 74 million households do not have access to electricity, kerosene continues to be the most widely used fuel for lighting purposes. Even those households that are electrified still depend on kerosene because of frequent power cuts. About 80% of rural households (80 million) use kerosene lamps for primary lighting and 20% (about 20 million) use them as a standby device. It is estimated that the total consumption of kerosene in India during 2000/01 was about 10.5 million tonnes, of which 60% (6.3 million tonnes) was used in rural areas and most of it for lighting (R C Pal et al, 2004). Use of kerosene lamps, however, has been shown to produce high levels of 46

smoke and increase indoor air pollution (Schare & Smith, 1995). Pongamia (Milletia pinnate), known as Karanj in Northern India and Honge in Karnataka, is one of the most widely available trees in South India especially Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. In 2010-11 the seeds cost INR 10 to 12 (US$ 0.18 to 0.22) per kg in retail shops and the market yard at Tumkur, Karnataka. The oil costs about INR 35 to 45 (US$ 0.64 to 0.82) per litre at retail prices in this region. Pongamia oil is costlier when compared to kerosene when the latter is purchased from the public distribution system as it is subsidised, but in the open market, kerosene costs INR 45 to 50 (US$ 0.82 to 0.91) per litre. Moreover, Pongamia oil has the advantage

of being a natural fuel extracted from a renewable source. Properties of Pongamia plant oil are generally near to kerosene, but one of the known problems of its use as fuel is its higher density (0.939 g/cm3 compared to 0.806 g/cm3 for kerosene at 15°C) (Srinivas et al, 2005). Due to the higher density of the plant oil, it will not be drawn up in the wick as quickly compared to kerosene. It also does not evaporate easily, and burns directly on the surface of the wick. The current use of this oil is in traditional temporary ‘Diya’ lamps, the leather industry and in soap making. The objective of the project was to develop an appropriate lamp to make use of Pongamia oil. The specific activities thus were:

GENERAL

Figure 3: Lantern (Source: Ninga Setty)

Parameters

Can lamp

Wall lamp

Lantern

Distance between tank to wick tip

50 mm

60 mm

Type of wick used

Loose wick

Tightly woven wick (commercially available)

Size of wick

Circle - Diameter 6 mm

Square - 10 mm width x 2 mm thick

Air hole size (mm)

Fuel tank capacity (ml)

375

170

500

Air gap between glass holder and oil tank

Holes in two rows with in-between distance of 8 mm

Type of lamps

100% kerosene

Can lamp

90% Kerosene

75% Kerosene

25.8

19.16

Wall lamp

17.5

13.3

11.66

Lantern

22.5

17.41

Fuel consumption (ml)

Table 1: Specifications of existing lamps Table 2: Performance of existing lamps with different blends of Pongamia and kerosene (Ninga Setty et al, 2008)

100% Pongamia

Light Intensity (lux) Can lamp

4-8

2-6

2-5

Wall lamp

4-5

3-5

2-4

Lantern

3-4

2-3

CO emissions (ppm) Can lamp

— Performance study using Pongamia oil with different blends of kerosene in existing lamps — Modification of the selected lamp to suit the use of 100% Pongamia oil — Performance testing of Pongamia oil based lamp in the field

Literature review A literature survey was conducted to find out the efforts in developing lamps that can make use of bio-oils. In North West Zimbabwe at Lake Kariba, a Binga lamp making use of Jatropha oil was developed (Beerens et al, 2010). Experiments have been carried out by a few institutions in India for engines (Srinivas, et al, 2005), but there have been very limited attempts to use bio-oils for lighting in India and other places.

Testing of existing lamps with blend oil Three types of commonly used lamps in villages were identified for the study. They are (i) can lamp (locally fabricated) (ii) wall lamp and (iii) lantern. The specifications of these existing lamps are given in Table 1 and their photos in Figures 1-3. Boiling Point. issue 61 — 2013

11.58

Nil

7.8

4.69

Wall lamp

10.4

Nil

7.73

4.76

Lantern

8.66

Nil

5.73

3.53

Methodology for testing The methodology for testing consisted of (i) duration of operation by use of a stopwatch, (ii) fuel consumption using measuring jars and sensitive weighing scale, (iii) light intensity using lux meter and (iv) Carbon Monoxide (CO) emissions using digital CO monitoring device. Four types of blends were finalised based on volumetric basis to conduct performance tests of commonly used kerosene lamps. They were selected based on pre-testing the lamps with different blends, such as 90%, 75%, 50%, and 25%. The following were finally used: — 100% kerosene (as control) — 10% Pongamia – 90% kerosene blend — 25% Pongamia – 75% kerosene blend — 100% Pongamia oil. The experiment was carried out for a minimum duration of three hours, since the average usage of lamps in nonelectrified houses of the village was determined to be three hours in the evening. Three trials were carried out on each different blend. The method used to measure light intensity was the Bureau of Energy Efficiency procedure (Devaki Energy Consultancy Pvt.Ltd, 2006), adopted only for light intensity measurments (detailed methodology available online @HEDON).

Performance of existing lanterns and lamps with different blends Table 2 shows the performance test conducted on available lamps. The fuel consumption reduced with an increase in blend percentage with slight reduction in light intensity but it should be noted that there is also a reduction in CO emission.

Development of Pongamia based lantern The can and wall lamps were not selected for modification for using Pongamia oil as they emitted higher smoke. Various modifications in the existing lantern were carried out to accommodate Pongamia oil as much as possible. Finally the following modifications were carried out to make it ignite with pure Pongamia oil. — Distance between the oil surface in the tank and wick tip was reduced to 6 mm — A loosely woven wick, similar to the one in the can lamp, was used instead of the square wick to increase the percolation of Pongamia oil — Diameter of wick was increased to 10 mm to get higher intensity of light — Air gap of 10 mm was used between oil tank and glass holder through aerations 47

GENERAL Type of lamp

Intensity of light (Lux)

Duration of run (Hour)

Specific fuel consumption (ml/ hour)

Suspended particulate matter (ppm)

Carbon Monoxide (ppm)

Traditional lantern with 100% kerosene

14.6

22.5

0.48

0.022

Modified lanterns with 100% Pongamia oil

21.6

0.353

0.0128

Parameters

Pongamia oil based lantern

Kerosene oil based lantern

Sample size (no,)

Table 3: Performance of Pongamia oil based lantern

Average lantern use by beneficiaries (minutes)

278

143

Average fuel consumption per hour (ml)

18.52

27.69

Table 4: Performance of Pongamia oil based lantern in households

Average intensity of light (lux)

5.23

7.56

Carbon Monoxide (ppm)

Nil

5.67

Figure 4: Pongamia oil lantern developed by TERI under this project (Source: TERI)

— Oil tank was divided into two parts by dividing it at the cap and base which were assembled through threading. Both were connected with threads in it. The capacity of the tank was 500 ml. A screw and nut mechanism was used for wick lifting. This was assembled with a hollow screw and stainless steel hollow cylinder. Rotary motion of the hollow screw results in relative motion to the hollow cylinder which in turn result in up and down movement of the wick. So when the screw is raised the hollow cylinder moves up, which results in more light intensity and vice-versa. Figure 4 shows the Pongamia oil lantern developed by TERI.

Performance of the Pongamia oil based lanterns With these modifications, it was possible to make the lantern run on 100% Pongamia oil. The lantern was lit for six hours without disturbance. The performance of the Pongamia oil based lantern is given in Table 3. The soot formation was less in comparison with conventional lanterns and CO and particulate emissions were also lower, with the light intensity being comparable to conventional lanterns.

Fabrication of lanterns: Some local lamp manufacturers were identified at Bangalore and trained to do the required modifications to run the lanterns on Pongamia oil. They have tied up with five dealers for the distribution and marketing of the lantern. The cost of the Pongamia oil based lantern is INR 250 (US$ 4.60), which is comparable to existing kerosene lanterns prices of INR 200 to 250 (US$ 3.68 – 4.60) depending on make and quality.

Field testing

References

Field testing was carried out in ten unelectrified households in D Palya and Sagenahalli villages of Gowribidanur taluk in Chikkabalapura district with the help of ’Outreach’, a voluntary organisation. The ten lanterns were fabricated by lamp manufacturers in Bangalore and tested at the TERI lab for quality parameters such as leak-proof and ignition. All the lanterns were distributed to the selected beneficiaries and they were trained to use them, including for ignition and cleaning. These lanterns were used continuously for more than three months. The field performance of the lanterns is given in Table 4. The feedback from the users about the Pongamia lanterns compared to existing kerosene lanterns was (i) less smoke (ii) less fuel consumption (iii) better light distribution and steady flame (iv) no accumulation of soot on the glass of the lantern or on the walls of the households.

Devaki Energy Consultancy Pvt.Ltd 2006. ‘BEE Code-Lighting’ Energy Manager Training book, for Bureau of Energy Efficiency and Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency. PP 8-13.

Conclusions Pongamia oil cannot be used directly as fuel in existing kerosene lamps, because of its high density. The existing lanterns were modified by TERI to run on 100% Pongamia oil continuously without disturbance. The soot formation was less compared to conventional lanterns and CO emissions were also lower. The cost of purchase of the Pongamia lantern from local manufacturers is about INR 250 (US$ 4.60), which is comparable to a kerosene lantern in the market. The feedback received from users was positive and makes a case for using the modified lantern. The product may be further improved in terms of light intensity prior to large scale dissemination. Development of linkages with further lamp producers could lead to increased manufacturing and marketing of Pongamia lanterns.

Elert, G. (Editor), 2010. Density of Cooking Oil. Available: http:// hypertextbook.com/facts/2000/ IngaDorfman.shtml Accessed Sep 2012. Rajvanshi, K., 2003. R&D Strategy for lighting and cooking energy for rural household, A journal of Current Science, Vol 185, Number 4, PP 2-6. Schare, S. and Smith, K., 1995. Particulate Emission rates of simple kerosene lamps. Energy for sustainable development, Vol II, No.2:33-35 Srinivas, S N., Nagaraju, Y., Ninga Setty, H H., Vinyak Kulakarni, B., Sanjay Mande, P., 2005. Performance and economics of bio oil use as engine fuel, proceeding of ICORE international Conference at Hyderabad pp 478-485.

www.hedon.info/QNXB * Detailed light intensity methodology * Full list of references * Profile of author and acknowledgements Meet us @HEDON

CALL FOR PAPERS

Call for papers Boiling Point forthcoming topics: — Access to Finance: Subsidies, Investment and Carbon Funding — Energy Service Delivery Models — Household Energy Policy — Lighting Boiling Point is peer reviewed and published quarterly. We are inviting readers to submit articles, papers and news on a rolling basis at any time. So if you feel that you have something to contribute to the wider household energy community on any theme, including the above four, then please read the information below and send us your experiences – HEDON would love to hear from you! Boiling Point looks for articles which are written in English, preferably using clear and plain language, and which can be used by other people in their own work. Do not be deterred, however, if you are not used to writing – it is the information that is important – we will review articles, edit them and return them for your approval prior to being published.

Theme articles Each edition of the journal typically contains 4 to 6 full length theme articles which can include research papers and programme reports that are relevant to the theme topic. We encourage you to submit articles on your work on any of the abovementioned themes at any time of the year. Each edition also contains a related Toolkit. If you are interested in contributing to these, then please contact us on the email address at the end of this page.

Viewpoints If you feel you or someone from your organisation should be interviewed on your work in facilitating access to energy for households in developing countries, please contact us. All interviews will be published on the HEDON website and the best will be selected for publication in the Viewpoints section of Boiling Point.

General articles We welcome submission of general articles at any time, which can cover any topic. Examples include project/programme updates, technical papers, book/report reviews, and conference and workshop Boiling Point. issue issue61 61— —2013 2013

reports. Please note: technology based articles should be focused on the real life application of proven technologies.

Helpline Would you like advice from experts on an aspect of your work in household energy? Contact us with your questions and we will strive to direct you to those who can help. Questions we feel are relevant to a wider audience are selected for publication in the Helpline section of Boiling Point. In the past, these have included dilemmas regarding marketing, emergency relief and enterprise development.

Sponsor Boiling Point reaches over 11,000 readers globally, making it an ideal forum to get information about your project activities out to the worldwide community of practitioners and to showcase your work to potential collaborators and funders. Sponsoring Boiling Point gives your organisation a range of profile benefits; from space in the journal to communicate news, events, logos and website links; to receiving several printed copies to distribute to your colleagues. For more information, visit www.hedon.info/EYQB or send us an email.

Front cover photo competition HEDON is offering you another fantastic opportunity to get your best image onto the front cover of Boiling Point. We are looking for a full colour photograph for the front cover that illustrates the future themes of Boiling Point. The photo must

be: of good quality format and suitable for high resolution colour printing (minimum resolution of 300 dpi and a high quality file type i.e. not .bmp); sent to us in its original format (not pasted into an MS Word file); credited to the correct person, with a caption if appropriate; owned by the person/organisation entering the competition; and preferably with a central focal point, bold composition and rich colours. The editor’s decision is final and the selected photo will win absolutely nothing, apart from the admiration of thousands of subscribers and of course our thanks.

Guidelines and submission dates We are accepting articles and front cover photo competition submissions for the issue on ‘Access to Finance: Subsidies, Investment and Carbon Funding’, until Friday 10 May, 2013 (visit www.hedon. info/PGEP). Articles can be submitted digitally in a commonly used word processing format using the ‘Article Template’, with the ‘Instructions’ document for guidelines. Articles should be around 2,000 words in length. Illustrations, such as drawings, photographs, graphs and bar charts that are essential, and all references should follow the given guidelines. Articles should also include a 100-200 word summary, a 50 word profile for each author and up to ten keywords that you feel best describe your article. Files can be emailed to the editor at the below listed address. Final selection is based on article quality, originality and relevance. Thank you for your cooperation, and please do not hesitate to contact us for any clarification. Regards, The Boiling Point Team

Email: boilingpoint@hedon.info 49

What the HEDON Household Energy Network offers:

A practitioner’s journal on household energy, stoves and Poverty reduction

The HEDON Household Energy Network is dedicated to improving social, economic and environmental conditions in less developed countries, through promotion of local, national, regional and international initiatives in the household energy sector. The HEDON Household Energy Network is established in the UK as a charitable limited company registered with the UK Charity Commission. It is managed by five Trustee Directors – Andrew Barnett (The Policy Practice); Dr. Grant BallardTremeer (Eco Ltd); Dr. Stephen Bates (Independent); Dick Jones (Independent); and Dr. Kavita Rai (IRENA) – and is

Boiling Point www.HEDON.info/ Boiling Point

coordinated by a team of dedicated volunteers. The network itself is comprised of thousands of active members with diverse backgrounds: practitioners, policymakers, academics, business owners and non-governmental organisations, based across the world. We exchange experiences, learn from one another and create new knowledge.

Our Vision

Our Mission

A world where everyone has access to clean and sustainable energy; in fairness, respecting the environment and combating climate change.

To inform and empower practitioners in order to unlock barriers to household energy access by: addressing knowledge gaps, facilitating partnerships and fostering information sharing.

• 61 issues over the past 31 years • Free online access and subscription to receive printed journal • Opportunity to showcase your organisation’s activities and logo as a sponsor to thousands of readers

An interactive web platform offering: • A global community of registered members www.hedon.info/ Community

Our Patrons

• The latest news, events and funding opportunities sent to members via a monthly e-mail newsletter www.hedon.info/news

HEDON Household Energy Network has the good will and support of two patrons: Archbishop Desmond Tutu of South Africa, and Professor Kirk R. Smith, Professor of Global Environmental Health, at the University of California, Berkeley, USA. “As a patron, I believe that HEDON, in its work to address energy and climate improves lives for people living in poverty. I am a supporter of their work and would recommend others to support their endeavours further” Archbishop Desmond Tutu

• Discussion forums www.hedon.info/SIGs • Regional Interest Group meetings www.hedon.info/RIGs

“HEDON is the oldest international network of organisations promoting clean and efficient household energy sources for improving health and welfare. I have been involved since its inception in the 1980s and it has provided both intellectual support and inspiration in my work to understand the health and climate implications of household combustion” Professor Kirk Smith

• Comprehensive databases on cookstoves and biodigesters www.hedon.info/ Databases

A publication of the

To join us go to www.HEDON.info/register HEDON Household Energy Network is registered with the UK Charity Commission, charity number 1141286 www.hedon.info