An Introduction to Indian History The Indus valley civilization saw its genesis in the holy land now known as India around 2500 BC. The people inhabiting the Indus River valley were thought to be Dravidians, whose descendants later migrated to the south of India. The deterioration of this civilization that developed a culture based on commerce and sustained by agricultural trade can be attributed to ecological changes. The second millennium BC was witness to the migration of the bucolic Aryan tribes from the North West frontier into the sub continent. These tribes gradually merged with their antecedent cultures to give birth to a new milieu. The Aryan tribes soon started penetrating the east, flourishing along the Ganga and Yamuna Rivers. By 500 BC, the whole of northern India was a civilized land where people had knowledge of iron implements and worked as labor, voluntarily or otherwise. The early political map of India comprised of copious independent states with fluid boundaries, with increasing population and abundance of wealth fueling disputes over these boundaries. Unified under the famous Gupta Dynasty, the north of India touched the skies as far as administration and the Hindu religion were concerned. Little wonder then, that it is considered to be India’s golden age. By 600 BC, approximately sixteen dynasties ruled the north Indian plains spanning the modern day Afghanistan to Bangladesh. Some of the most powerful of them were the dynasties ruling the kingdoms of Magadha, Kosla, Kuru and Gandhara. Known to be the land of epics and legends, two of the world’s greatest epics find their birth in Indian settings - the Ramayana, depicting the exploits of lord Ram, and the Mahabharta detailing the war between Kauravas and Pandavas, both descendants of King Bharat. Ramayana traces lord Ram’s journey from exile to the rescue of his wife Sita from the demonic clutches of Ravana with the help of his simian companions. Singing the virtues of Dharma(duty), the Gita, one of the most priced scriptures in Indian Mythology, is the advice given by Shri Krishna to the grief laden Arjun, who is terrified at the thought of killing his kin, on the battle ground. Mahatma Gandhi revived these virtues again, breathing new life in them, during India’s freedom struggle against British Colonialism. An ardent believer in communal harmony, he dreamt of a land where all religions would be the threads to form a rich social fabric.
History The neutrality of this section is disputed. Please see the discussion on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved. (February 2011) Main articles: History of India and History of the Republic of India Stone Age rock shelters with paintings at the Bhimbetka rock shelters in Madhya Pradeshare the earliest known traces of human life in India. The first known permanent settlements appeared about 8,500 years ago and gradually developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation,
[21]
dating back to
3400 BCE in western India. It was followed by the Vedic period, which laid the foundations of Hinduism and other cultural aspects of early Indian society, and ended in the 500s BCE. From around 550 BCE, many independent kingdoms and republics known as the Mahajanapadas were established across the country.
[22]
In the third century BCE, Maurya Empiregradually united the Indian sub-continent underChandragupta Maurya, his son Bindusara and grandson Ashoka the Great.[23] From the third century CE, the Gupta dynasty oversaw the period referred to as ancient "India's Golden Age".[24][25] Empires in southern India included those of theChalukyas, the Cholas and the Vijayanagara Empire. Science, technology, engineering, art, logic,language, literature, mathematics, astronomy, religion and philosop hy flourished under the patronage of these kings. Following invasions from Central Asia between the 10th and 12th centuries, much of northern India came under the rule of the Delhi Sultanate and later the Mughal Empire. Under the rule of Akbar the Great, India enjoyed much cultural and economic progress as well as religious harmony.[26][27]Mughal emperors gradually expanded their empires to cover large parts of the subcontinent. However, in northeastern India, the dominant power was the Ahom kingdom of Assam, among the few kingdoms to have resisted Mughal subjugation. Due to Mughal persecution, the Sikhsdeveloped a martial tradition and established the Sikh Empire which stood until the Anglo-Sikh wars in the mid-19th century.
[28]
The first major threat to Mughal imperial power came from aHindu Rajput king Maha Rana
Pratap of Mewar in the 16th century and later from a Hindu state known as the Maratha confederacy, [29]
that ruled much of India in the mid-18th century.
From the 16th century, European powers such as Portugal, the Netherlands, France, and Great Britain established trading posts and later took advantage of internal conflicts to establish colonies. By 1856, [30]
most of India had come under the control of the British East India Company.
A year later, a
nationwide insurrection of rebelling military units and kingdoms, known as India's First War of Independence or the Sepoy Mutiny, seriously challenged the Company's control but eventually failed. As a result of the instability, India was brought under the direct rule of the British Crown. In the 20th century, a nationwide struggle for independence was launched by the Indian National Congress and other political organisations.[31] A large part of the movement for independence was led
by Mahatma Gandhi and the Indian National Congress, which led millions of people in several national campaigns of non-violent civil disobedience.
[32]
On 15 August 1947, India gained independence from British rule, but at the same time the Muslimmajority areas were partitioned to form a separate state of Pakistan.[33] On 26 January 1950, India became a republic and a new constitution came into effect.
[34]
Since independence, India has faced challenges from religious violence, casteism, naxalism,terrorism and regional separatist insurgencies, especially in Jammu and Kashmir and Northeast India. Since the 1990s terrorist attacks have affected many Indian cities. India has unresolved territorial disputes with the People's Republic of China, which, in 1962, escalated into the Sino-Indian War, and with Pakistan, which resulted in wars in 1947, 1965, 1971 and 1999. India is a founding member of the United Nations (as British India) and the Non-Aligned Movement. [35]
India is a state armed with nuclear weapons; having conducted its first nuclear test in 1974, by another five tests in 1998.
[35]
[36]
Beginning 1991, significant economic reforms
followed
have transformed [37]
India into one of the fastest-growing economies in the world, increasing its global clout.
Geography Main article: Geography of India See also: Geology of India
Topographic map of India.
India, the major portion of the Indian subcontinent, lies atop the Indian tectonic plate, a minor plate [38]
within the Indo-Australian Plate.
India's defining geological processes commenced seventy-five
million years ago, when the Indian subcontinent, then part of the southern supercontinentGondwana, began a northeastwards drift—lasting fifty million years—across the then unformed Indian Ocean.
[38]
The subcontinent's subsequent collision with the Eurasian Plate and subductionunder it,
gave rise to the Himalayas, the planet's highest mountains, which now abut India in thenorth and the north-east.
[38]
In the former seabed immediately south of the emerging Himalayas, plate movement
created a vast trough, which, having gradually been filled with river-borne sediment,[39] now forms [40]
the Indo-Gangetic Plain. the Thar Desert.
To the west of this plain, and cut off from it by the Aravalli Range, lies
[41]
The original Indian plate now survives as peninsular India, the oldest and geologically most stable part of India, and extends as far north as the Satpura and Vindhya ranges in central India. These parallel ranges run from the Arabian Sea coast in Gujarat in the west to the coal-rich Chota Nagpur Plateau in [42]
Jharkhand in the east.
To their south, the remaining peninsular landmass, theDeccan Plateau, is
flanked on the left and right by the coastal ranges, Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats respectively;[43] the plateau contains the oldest rock formations in India, some over one billion years old. Constituted in such fashion, India lies to the north of the equator between 6째44' and 35째30' [44]
north latitude
and 68째7' and 97째25' east longitude.[45]
The Himalayas form the mountainous landscape of northern India. Seen here isLadakh in Jammu and Kashmir.
India's coast is 7,517 kilometres (4,700 mi) long; of this distance, 5,423 kilometres (3,400 mi) belong to peninsular India, and 2,094 kilometres (1,300 mi) to the Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep Islands.
[46]
According to the Indian naval hydrographic charts, the mainland coast consists of the
following: 43% sandy beaches, 11% rocky coast including cliffs, and 46% mudflatsor marshy coast.
[46]
Major Himalayan-origin rivers that substantially flow through India include the Ganges (Ganga) and the Brahmaputra, both of which drain into the Bay of Bengal.
[47]
Important tributaries of the Ganges
include the Yamuna and the Kosi; the latter's extremely low gradient causes disastrous floods every year. Major peninsular rivers, whose steeper gradients prevent their waters from flooding, include the Godavari, the Mahanadi, the Kaveri, and the Krishna, which also drain into the Bay of Bengal;
[48]
and the Narmada and the Tapti, which drain into the Arabian Sea.[49] Among notable
coastal features of India are the marshy Rann of Kutch in western India, and the [50]
alluvialSundarbans delta, which India shares with Bangladesh.
India has two archipelagos:
the Lakshadweep, coral atolls off India's south-western coast; and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a volcanic chain in the Andaman Sea.
[51]
Culture Main article: Culture of India
The Taj Mahal in Agra was built byMughal emperor Shah Jahan as a memorial to his deceased wife Mumtaz Mahal. It is aUNESCO World Heritage Site considered to be of "outstanding universal value".[178]
India's culture is marked by a high degree of syncretism[179] and cultural pluralism.[180] India's cultural [181]
tradition dates back to 8000 BCE years.
[182]
and has a continuously recorded history for over 2,500
With its roots based in the Indus Valley Tradition, the Indian culture took a distinctive shape
during the 11th century BCE Vedic age which laid the foundation of Hindu philosophy, mythology, literary tradition and beliefs and practices, such as dhárma, kárma, yógaand mokṣa.
[183]
It has managed to preserve established traditions while
absorbing new customs, traditions, and ideas from invaders and immigrants and spreading its cultural influence to other parts of Asia, mainly South East and East Asia. Indian religions form one of the most defining aspects of Indian culture.[184] Major dhármic religions which were founded in India include Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. Considered to be a successor to the ancient Vedic religion, on the Upanishads,
[186]
[185]
Hinduism has been shaped by the various schools of thoughts based
the Yoga Sutras and the Bhakti movement.[184]Buddhism originated in India in
5th century BCE and prominent early Buddhist schools, such asTheravāda and Mahāyāna, gained dominance during the Maurya Empire. India 5th century CE onwards, thought.
[187]
[184]
Though Buddhism entered a period of gradual decline in
it played an influential role in shaping Indian philosophy and
[184]
Indian architecture is one area that represents the diversity of Indian culture. Much of it, including notable monuments such as the Taj Mahal and other examples of Mughal architecture and South Indian architecture, comprises a blend of ancient and varied local traditions from several parts of the country and abroad. Vernacular architecture also displays notable regional variation. Considered to be the earliest and foremost "monument" of Indian literature, the Vedic or Sanskrit [188][189]
literature was developed from 1,400 BCE to 1,200 AD.
Prominent Indian literary works of the
classical era include epics such as Mahābhārata and Ramayana, dramas such as
the Abhijñānaśākuntalam (The Recognition of Śakuntalā), and poetry such as the Mahākāvya.
[190]
Developed between 600 BCE and 300 AD, the Sangam literature consists 2,381
[191][192][193] From 7th century AD to 18th poems and is regarded as a predecessor of Tamil literature.
century AD, India's literary traditions went through a period of drastic change because of the emergence of devotional poets such as Kabīr,Tulsīdās and Guru Nānak. This period was characterised by varied and wide spectrum of thought and expression and as a consequence, medieval Indian literary works differed significantly from classical traditions.
[194]
In the 19th century,
Indian writers took new interest in social questions and psychological descriptions. During the 20th century, Indian literature was heavily influenced by the works of universally acclaimed Bengali poet and novelist Rabindranath Tagore.
[195]
Society and traditions
A statue of Śiva, a principal Hindu deityand one of three aspects of trimūrti, inMurudeshwara, Karnataka.
Traditional Indian society is defined by relatively strict social hierarchy. The Indian caste systemdescribes the social stratification and social restrictions in the Indian subcontinent, in which social classes are defined by thousands of endogamous hereditary groups, often termed as jātis orcastes.
[196]
Several influential social reform movements, such as the Bramho Shômaj,
the Arya Samāja and the Ramakrishna Mission, have played a pivotal role in the emancipation [197]
of Dalits (or "untouchables") and other lower-caste communities in India.
However, the majority of [198]
Dalits continue to live in segregation and are often persecuted and discriminated against.
Traditional Indian family values are highly respected, and multi-generational patriarchal joint [199]
families have been the norm, although nuclear families are becoming common in urban areas.
An
overwhelming majority of Indians have their marriages arranged by their parents and other respected [200]
family members, with the consent of the bride and groom. the divorce rate is extremely low.
[201]
[200]
Marriage is thought to be for life,
and
Child marriage is still a common practice, more so in rural India,
[202][203] with about half of women in India marrying before the legal age of 18.
Many Indian festivals are religious in origin, although several are celebrated irrespective of caste and creed. Some popular festivals are Diwali,Ganesh Chaturthi, Ugadi, Thai
Pongal, Holi, Onam, Vijayadashami, Durga Puja, Eid ul-Fitr, Bakr-Id, Christmas, Buddha Jayanti, Moharramand Vaisakhi.[204][205] India has three national holidays which are observed in all states and union territories — Republic Day, Independence Day and Gandhi Jayanti. Other sets of holidays, varying between nine and twelve, are officially observed in individual states. Religious practices are an integral part of everyday life and are a very public affair. Traditional Indian dress varies across the regions in its colours and styles and depends on various factors, including climate. Popular styles of dress include draped garments such as sari for women and dhoti or lungi for men; in addition, stitched clothes such as salwar kameez for women and kurtapyjama and European-style trousers and shirts for men, are also popular.
Music, dance, theatre and cinema Indian music covers a wide range of traditions and regional styles. Classical music largely encompasses the two genres – North IndianHindustani, South Indian Carnatic traditions and their various offshoots in the form of regional folk music. Regionalised forms of popular music include filmi and folk music; the syncretic tradition of the bauls is a well-known form of the latter. Indian dance too has diverse folk and classical forms. Among the well-known folk dances are the bhangra of the Punjab, the bihu of Assam, the chhau of West Bengal, Jharkhand , sambalpuri of Orissa , the ghoomar of Rajasthan and the Lavani of Maharashtra. Eight dance forms, many with narrative forms and mythological elements, have been accorded classical dance status by India's National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama. These are: bharatanatyam of the state of Tamil Nadu, kathak of Uttar Pradesh, kathakali and mohiniyattam of Kerala,kuchipudi of Andhra Pradesh, manipuri of Manipur, odissi of Orissa and the sattriya of Assam.[206] Theatre in India often incorporates music, dance, and improvised or written dialogue.[207] Often based on Hindu mythology, but also borrowing from medieval romances, and news of social and political events, Indian theatre includes the bhavai of state of Gujarat, the jatra of West Bengal, the nautanki and ramlila of North India, the tamasha of Maharashtra, the burrakatha of Andhra [208] Pradesh, the terukkuttu of Tamil Nadu, and the yakshagana of Karnataka. [209]
The Indian film industry is the largest in the world.
Bollywood, based in Mumbai, makes commercial
Hindi films and is the most prolific film industry in the world.
[210]
Established traditions also exist
in Assamese, Bengali, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Oriya, Tamil, andTelugu language cinemas.
[211]
Cuisine Indian cuisine is characterised by a wide variety of regional styles and sophisticated use of herbs and spices. The staple foods in the region are rice (especially in the south and the east), wheat [212]
(predominantly in the north)
and lentils.[213] Spices, such as black pepper which are now consumed
world wide, are originally native to the Indian subcontinent. Chili pepper, which was introduced by [214]
the Portuguese, is also widely used in Indian cuisine.
Sport
Main article: Sport in India
A 2008 Indian Premier League Twenty20cricket match being played between theChennai Super Kings and Kolkata Knight Riders
India's official national sport is field hockey, administered by Hockey India. The Indian hockey team won the 1975 Hockey World Cup and 8 gold, 1 silver and 2 bronze medals at the Olympic games, making it one of the world's most successful national hockey teams ever. Cricket, however, is [215]
by far the most popular sport;
the India cricket team won the 1983 and the 2011World Cups, 2007
ICC World Twenty20, and shared the 2002 ICC Champions Trophy with Sri Lanka. Cricket in India is administered by the Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI) and domestic competitions include the Ranji Trophy, the Duleep Trophy, the Deodhar Trophy, the Irani Trophy and the NKP Salve Challenger Trophy. In addition, BCCI conducts the Indian Premier League, a Twenty20 competition. India is home to several traditional sports which originated in the country and continue to remain fairly popular. These include kabaddi, kho kho, pehlwani and gilli-danda. Some of the earliest forms of Asian martial arts, such as Kalarippayattu, Yuddha, Silambam and Varma Kalai, originated in India. The Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna and the Arjuna Award are India's highest awards for achievements in sports, while the Dronacharya Award is awarded for excellence in coaching. Chess, commonly held to have originated in India, is regaining widespread popularity with the rise in the number of Indian Grandmasters.
[216]
Tennis has also become increasingly popular, owing to the
[217] India has a strong victories of the India Davis Cup team and the success of Indian tennis players.
presence in shooting sports, winning several medals at the Olympics, the World Shooting Championships and the Commonwealth Games.[218][219] Other sports in which Indian sports-persons have won numerous awards or medals at international sporting events [220]
include badminton,
boxing[221] and wrestling.[222][223] Football is a popular sport in northeastern
India, West Bengal,Goa, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.[224] India has hosted or co-hosted several international sporting events, such as the 1951 and the 1982 Asian Games, the 1987, 1996 and 2011 Cricket World Cups, the 2003 Afro-Asian Games, the 2006 ICC Champions Trophy, the 2010 Hockey World Cup and the 2010 Commonwealth Games. Major international sporting events annually held in India include the Chennai Open, Mumbai
Marathon, Delhi Half Marathon and the Indian Masters. It will also host the first Indian Grand Prix in 2011 in Greater Noida.
[225]