2.1 Education and Society
Evaluation of Bowles and Gintis According to David L. Swartz (2003), Schooling in Capitalist America is undoubtedly one of the classics in the sociology of education ‘having had a major impact on education theory and research’. As a result, it has had both widespread support and criticism. The main criticism is that the argument is too deterministic – it sees education as determined by the economy. As such, it ignores the possible effects of other aspects of society. And it gives too much emphasis to capitalism. For example, Karabel and Halsey (1977) maintain that education in communist Cuba placed ‘heavy reliance on grades and exams as sources of student motivation’ and teaching is based on a ‘generally authoritarian and teacher-centred method of instruction’. Critics have also argued that Bowles and Gintis largely ignored resistance in schools and in the wider society to the type of education they describe. Numerous studies show that many students have scant regard for school rules and little respect for the authority of teachers as the following section shows. And, as Henry Giroux (1984) argues, schools can be seen as sites of ideological struggle – clashes based on conflicting views within and between various groups such as teachers, school managers, parents, students, school inspectors, school governors, local authorities and the ministry of education.
Key terms Ruling class ideology A system of ideas which justifies the position of the ruling class (the bourgeoisie). False class consciousness A false picture of society which disguises the exploitation of the subject class (proletariat). Ideological State Apparatuses Institutions, including the education system, which transmit ruling class ideology. Repressive State Apparatuses Institutions, such as the army and the police, which keep the subject class in its place. Hidden curriculum A curriculum apart from the subjects taught that is hidden from teachers and students. Correspondence theory A theory that states that there is a similarity between two things. Alienation Cut off from, unable to find satisfaction from. Sites of ideological struggle Places where there are conflicts based on different beliefs and values.
Summary 1. According to Althusser, education, as part of the Ideological State Apparatuses, transmits ruling class ideology. 2. Critics say that Althusser:
››provides only a general framework with little evidence to support his views
››treats people as ‘cultural dopes’ who passively accept ruling class ideology.
3. According to Bowles and Gintis, education in capitalist society reproduces labour power. It does this by:
››rewarding discipline ››legitimating inequality and disguising
exploitation by promoting the myth of a meritocracy.
4. Critics argue that Bowles and Gintis:
››give a deterministic view seeing education shaped by the economy
››ignore resistance to and conflict within the education system.
Paul Willis – Learning to Labour In an important study titled Learning to Labour: How Working Class Kids get Working-Class Jobs, Paul Willis (1977) developed a distinctive, neo-Marxist (new Marxist) approach to education. Willis studied a Midlands school in England in the 1970s. He used a variety of methods – ‘observation and participant observation in class, around the school and during leisure activities, regular recorded group discussions, informal interviews and diaries’. Willis did not just rely on analysis of the relationship between education and the economy. He also tried to understand the experience of schooling from the perspective of the students and how they saw the present and the future. He soon found that schools were not as successful as Bowles and Gintis supposed in producing docile and conformist workers.
The counter-school culture The school Willis studied was situated on a working-class housing estate in a mainly industrial small town. The main focus of his study was a group of 12 working-class boys whom he observed over their last 18 months at school, and their first few months at work. The 12 students formed a friendship group
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