1.1 Historical context Zimbabwe has a rich stock of natural resources, which the economy is heavily dependent on. More than 67 percent of people live in rural areas with agriculture and natural resource linked livelihoods. 1 The country has a highly variable climate with a single rainy season making agriculture vulnerable to periodic droughts exacerbated by climate change. Most of the country’s soils (70 percent) are sandy, inherently low in fertility, pH and moisture retention capacity, and highly prone to erosion. 2 Surface water resources are limited. Most rivers are seasonal, and dams and irrigation schemes are not widespread. Dependence on limited groundwater is high for domestic, irrigation, and commercial activities.3 All rural communities rely heavily on forests for fuel, timber, and non-timber products for food and income.4 Due to cultural norms, women and children provide agricultural labour and are responsible for water and fuelwood collection. This makes them most vulnerable to environmental degradation and climate change impacts.5 It is necessary to explore the history context in order to understand the current land degradation and natural resource exploitation in Matabeleland North. Early environmental governance According to the literature, pre-colonial Zimbabweans lived in close synchronicity with their natural environment and developed complex social and cultural systems for environmental governance.6 Under traditional African beliefs systems, humans are considered part of the environment. The concept of natural resources as valued only in terms of their use by people is alien to this belief system. Interaction with the environment was controlled by traditional and religious leaders through promotion of taboos, rules, sacred sites, and family totems. Environmental abuses were punished by the supreme being (often manifesting as drought) and threats from spiritual beings such as water spirits. Community cohesion was cemented through communal ceremonies and collective action including amalima.7 Women, especially the elderly, midwives, and herbalists, understood the importance of environmental management because of their direct interaction with resources in terms of food processing and soil management, and collecting water, firewood, and wild plant and animal products. 8 They were also involved with intergenerational transfer of indigenous knowledge related to environmental management through storytelling. Colonial influences Traditional governance and belief systems declined in the colonial era from the late 1800s, due to the introduction of Christianity and colonial values. Missionaries preached that man should have dominion over the environment and science superseded indigenous knowledge.9 The state took control of resource management and resource protection was linked to economic value. When land-use technologies were introduced by the state, men were invariably targeted.10 The colonial government reorganised the national settlement pattern through land redistribution acts, the creation of National Parks, and the Kariba dam displacing communities into new areas to claim the most productive land for
Zimstat, 2017 Dhliwayo et al., n.d. FAO, 2016 4 GOZ, n.d Fifth National Biodiversity Communication 5 FAO, 2017 6 Mapara, 2009 7 Amalima is the Ndebele word for the social contract by which community members come together to help each other engage in productive activities such as land cultivation, livestock tending, and asset building. 8 Manyonganise and Museka, 2020 9 Mapara, 2009 10 Page and Page, 1991 1 2 3
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