Fragmented City dniM detnemgarF
“When will Ferguson
HEAL? “
- CNN - August 15th, 2014
TEAR GAS fills Ferguson’s streets again. “
“
- CNN - August 13th, 2014
“Ferguson mayor sees possible
PROTESTS in region when grand jury decides“
- CNN - November 6th, 2014
”A THOUSAND FERGUSONS across America” - CNN - November 24th, 2014
”OVERREACTION to the Ferguson situation?” -Fox News -December 5th, 2014
”Phoenix POLICE SHOOTING ignites protests” -Fox News -December 5th, 2014
A
RIOT is the language of the UNHEARD - Martin Luther King Jr.
“HOPE is the belief that our tomorrows can be better than our todays. Hope is not magic; HOPE IS WORK.” ― DeRay Mckesson, On the Other Side of Freedom: The Case for Hope
“No Justice, No Peace” ― Black Lives Matter Movement
“It is our duty to fight for our
FREEDOM. It is our duty to win” ― Black Lives Matter Movement
“We are trying to
MOURN and you come in here with 300 cop cars, riot gear, and K9 units. ” ― Ferguson Protester
“Hands Up, Don’t Shoot” ― Black Lives Matter Movement
Anyone who has grown up here, you tangibly know when you cross the county line you have to drive a little differently. Your
BEHAVIOR CHANGES because you know how POLICING CHANGES.” ― Ferguson Protester
“To be a Negro in this country and to be relatively
CONSCIOUS is to be in a RAGE almost all the time.” -James Baldwin
Fragmented City dniM detnemgarF cierra higgins [instructor] gines garrido [assistant] maeve elder washington university in st. louis graduate school of architecture + urban design sam fox school of design + visual arts design thinking_SP 2019
Contents
Preface Introduction
Power + Space Fragmentation of the City Fragmentation of the Mind Reclamation of Spatial Agency
“No, I am not a spook like those who haunted Edgar Allen Poe; nor am I one of your Hollywood-movie ectoplasms. I am a man of substance, of flesh and bone, fiber and liquids -- and I might even be said to possess a mind. I am invisible, understand, simply because people refuse to see me.”
Ralph Ellison “Invisible Man”
“To remove from a person her or his right to act in space is the deny that person any kind of spatial agency. That is, it is to take away the power of individuals to determine movement through the world and to rob them of the dignity of the spatial aspect of free will. Indeed, throughout human history one of the most effective means of exercising power has been to conquer, circumscribe and control a people’s space.” Lisa Findley “Power, Space, and Architecture” in Building Change: Architecture, Politics, and Cultural Agency
agency (n) a) action or intervention, especially such as to produce a particular effect. synonyms: action, activity, effect, influence, force, power, work
“There is, I conceive, no contradiction in believing that mind is at once the cause of matter and of the development of individualized human minds through the agency of matter.”
Alfred Russel Wallace “Utilitarianism” in On Liberty
PREMISE
SITE
In a society fragmented by race, class,
Set between 3 catalyst institutions near Fair-
opportunity, crime, and access, marginal-
ground Park in North St. Louis, the site will
ized communities often suffer from a lack of
serve as a hub to further perpetuate existing
resources to stimulate growth and promote
initiatives of reclaiming mental and physical
upward mobility in education, economics,
agency. These catalysts all aim to educate,
and spatial agency. Denying a community
inspire, and provide resources to help allevi-
agency of space and mind has historically
ate the burden of generational disinvestment
been used as a tool of oppression and mar-
within the area.
ginalizes these circles from ever aggregating to fight back. These tools of oppression are
PROGRAM
physically and mentally debilitating, often
The proposal of a campus centered around
moving in silence; making it harder to be
mental and physical well being is the first
seen by the naked eye. It is only when these
step in reclaiming agency of self. The pro-
marginalized communities unite and work
gram aims to challenge the negative conno-
together to build themselves up, can they
tation of mental illness within minority com-
truly reclaim the power from those who have
munities and seeks to do that by fostering
used it against them.
spaces for education and cultural celebration which has historically been the path marginalized groups have used in reclaiming space.
Community
Agency of Space
Access
Agency of Mind
We must develop and maintain the capacity to forgive. He who is devoid of the power to forgive is devoid of the power to love. There is some good in the worst of us and some evil in the best of us. When we discover this, we are less prone to hate our enemies. Martin Luther King Jr.
POWER + SPACE Power struggles in the forms of riots, massacres, and protests have been embedded in America’s historical urban fabric since its ‘discovering.’ In a country designed to privilege western European ancestry, at the hands of slaves and indentured servants, these marginalized demographics continue to find ways in which to fight back for power. Though not every battle for power has been historically favored and celebrated, it is equally important to understand the context in which communities in the United States have continued to fight towards power and spatial agency.
THE PRATT STREET RIOT 1861 “Marylanders were divided in their sympathies. While many disliked the idea of secession, they felt that it was a state’s right to secede from the union if it chose to. Many also felt that Maryland should not permit troops to pass through the state to attack a sister state, and others mistrusted the President’s intentions, suspecting that the troops would be used to force Maryland to remain in the Union.” SNOW RIOTS 1835 “This incident caused great excitement among the citizenry and “menacing assemblages” gathered in the streets. Rumors spread that Snow had made disparaging remarks about the “wives of white mechanics who work at the Navy Yard.” Denying that he had used such language, Snow escaped with the help of white friends to Canada where he remained.”
THE LOMBARD STREET RIOT 1842 “..eruption of the mounting tension between 19th-century South Philadelphia’s two largest minority groups: African Americans and Irish immigrants. On August 1, 1842, more than 1,000 blacks took part in a temperance parade to commemorate the eighth anniversary of the abolition of slavery in the West Indies. They were attacked on Fourth Street by an Irish mob that beat many of the marchers and looted black homes in the area.”
CINCINNATI RIOTS 1892 “On March 9, 1892, Thomas Moss, Calvin McDowell and Will Stewart — the owners of People’s Grocery — were killed by a white mob. The conflict that led to the lynching began after People’s Grocery began to take business away from white grocer William Barnett.”
SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 1896 “In 1896, the Supreme Court ruled in Plessy v. Ferguson that segregation was constitutional. The ruling established the idea of “separate but equal.” The case involved a mixed-race man who was forced to sit in the black-designated train car under Louisiana’s Separate Car Act.”
BELLINGHAM RIOTS 1907 “On September 4th, 1907 five hundred white working men in Bellingham, WA gathered to drive a community of South Asian migrant workers out of the city. With the mission of “scar[ing] them so badly that they will not crowd white labor out of the mills,” the growing mob rallied and went to work”
EAST ST LOUIS MASSACRE 1917 “A smoldering labor dispute turned deadly as rampaging whites began brutally beating and killing African-Americans. By the end of the three-day crisis, the official death toll was 39 black individuals and nine whites, but many believe that more than 100 African-Americans were killed.”
BLOCKBUSTING 1900s “Blockbusting refers to the practice of introducing African American homeowners into previously all white neighborhoods in order to spark rapid white flight and housing price decline. Real estate speculators have historically used this technique to profit from prejudice-driven market instability.”
RED SUMMER 1919 “Many African American soldiers returning from World War I were outspoken against racial discrimination, inequality, and violence that continued to plague black communities, and they played an active role in defending their communities during Red Summer. “By the God of Heaven,” W.E.B. Du Bois said of returning veterans, “we are cowards and jackasses if now that the war is over, we do not marshal every ounce of our brain and brawn to fight a sterner, longer, more unbending battle against the forces of hell in our own land” TULSA RACE MASSACRE 1921 “Following World War I, Tulsa was recognized nationally for its affluent African American community known as the Greenwood District. This thriving business district and surrounding residential area was referred to as “Black Wall Street.” In June 1921, a series of events nearly destroyed the entire Greenwood area.”
ROSEWOOD MASSACRE 1923 “The Rosewood Massacre was an attack on the predominantly African-American town of Rosewood, Florida, in 1923 by large groups of whites. The town was entirely destroyed by the end of the violence, and the residents were driven out permanently”
HARLEM RIOT 1935 “Harlem race riot of 1935, a riot that occurred in the Manhattan neighborhood of Harlem on March 19–20, 1935. It was precipitated by a teenager’s theft of a penknife from a store and was fueled by economic hardship, racial injustice, and community mistrust of the police. It is sometimes considered the first modern American race riot.”
SHELLEY V. KRAEMER 1948 “Petitioners Shelley, who were black, bought a home in a neighborhood in which thirty out of thirty-nine parcel owners had signed a restrictive covenant which stated that no home was to be sold to any person who was black, which led to the suit by the neighborhood to undo the sale of the property to Shelley.”
CICERO RACE RIOT 1951 “The Cicero Race Riot occurred on this date in 1951. One of the 20th century’s worst race riots happened when a mob of 4,000 whites attacked an apartment building that housed a single Black family in a neighborhood in Cicero, Cook County, Illinois.”
MONTGOMERY BUS BOYCOTT 1956 “The Montgomery Bus Boycott was a civil-rights protest during which African Americans refused to ride city buses in Montgomery, Alabama, to protest segregated seating. The boycott took place from December 5, 1955, to December 20, 1956, and is regarded as the first largescale U.S. demonstration against segregation.”
DEMOLITION OF MILL CREEK VALLEY 1956 “Mill Creek became sort of the poster child of how not to do urban renewal. You cannot wipe out 5,000 buildings. Well, they left a couple standing. There were 43 historical churches, and they wiped those all out … To me, it was not well thought out and definitely not well done.”
GREENSBORO SIT INS 1960 “Young African-American students staged a sit-in at a segregated Woolworth’s lunch counter in Greensboro, North Carolina, and refused to leave after being denied service. The sit-in movement soon spread to college towns throughout the South. Though many of the protesters were arrested for trespassing, disorderly conduct or disturbing the peace, their actions made an immediate and lasting impact, forcing Woolworth’s and other establishments to change their segregationist policies.” BIRMINGHAM RACE RIOT 1963 “From May 2 to May 10, 1963, the nation bore witness as police in Birmingham, Ala., aimed high-powered hoses and sicced snarling dogs on black men, women and even children who wanted just one thing — to be treated the same as white Americans.” HARLEM RIOT 1964 “A six-day period of rioting that started on July 18, 1964, in the Manhattan neighborhood of Harlem after a white off-duty police officer shot and killed an African American teenager. The rioting spread to Bedford-Stuyvesant and Brownsville in Brooklyn and to South Jamaica, Queens, and was the first of a number of race riots in major American cities” HOUGH RIOT 1964 “The economically depressed and predominantly black Hough neighborhood in Cleveland was a powder keg of racial tension the summer of 1966, and it finally exploded the evening of July 18 when an African American man was denied a glass of water at the white-owned Seventy-Niners Cafe at Hough Ave. and E. 79th St. The police proved unable to handle the rioting and violence that ensued, and on July 19 Cleveland City Mayor Ralph Locher asked Ohio Governor James Rhodes to send in the National Guard. The National Guard arrived later that evening and into the next morning to restore order.”
MARCH ON SELMA 1965 “ In an effort to register black voters in the South, protesters marching the 54-mile route from Selma to the state capital of Montgomery were confronted with deadly violence from local authorities and white vigilante groups. As the world watched, the protesters—under the protection of federalized National Guard troops—finally achieved their goal, walking around the clock for three days to reach Montgomery.” WATTS RIOTS 1965 “The Watts Riots, also known as the Watts Rebellion, was a large series of riots that broke out August 11, 1965, in the predominantly black neighborhood of Watts in Los Angeles. The Watts Riots lasted for six days, resulting in 34 deaths, 1,032 injuries and 4,000 arrests, involving 34,000 people and ending in the destruction of 1,000 buildings, totaling $40 million in damages.”
LONG, HOT SUMMER OF 1967 “The “Summer of Love” in the United States took place alongside rising racial tensions in many of the country’s cities. Nearly 160 riots occurred across the United States in the summer of 1967.”
HUMBOLDT PARK RIOTS 1968 “20-year-old Aracelis Cruz was shot by police on the corner of Damen and Division in the wake of celebrations following the city’s first Puerto Rican Day parade. The shooting was the catalyst for a series of riots over the next two days that destroyed businesses, injured 16 and led to various reforms and community organization.”
STONEWALL RIOTS 1969 “In the early hours of June 28, 1969, New York City police raided the Stonewall Inn, a gay club located in Greenwich Village in New York City. The raid sparked a riot among bar patrons and neighborhood residents as police roughly hauled employees and patrons out of the bar, leading to six days of protests and violent clashes with law enforcement outside the bar on Christopher Street, in neighboring streets and in nearby Christopher Park.” WOUNDED KNEE INCIDENT 1973 “On the Pine Ridge Reservation in South Dakota, some 200 Sioux Native Americans, led by members of the American Indian Movement (AIM), occupy Wounded Knee, the site of the infamous 1890 massacre of 300 Sioux by the U.S. Seventh Cavalry. The AIM members, some of them armed, took 11 residents of the historic Oglala Sioux settlement hostage as local authorities and federal agents descended on the reservation.”
BOSTON BUSING RIOTS 1976 “U.S. District Judge Arthur Garrity ordered the busing of African American students to predominantly white schools and white students to black schools in an effort to integrate Boston’s geographically segregated public schools.”
WHITE NIGHT RIOTS 1979 “Thousands of members of San Francisco’s predominantly gay Castro District community took to the streets to protest the lenient sentence received by Dan White for the murders of local politician and gay rights activist Harvey Milk and Mayor George Moscone. Their anger– combined with the actions of police who arrived to quell the scene–soon boiled over into rioting.“
RODNEY KING RIOTS 1992 ”...four Los Angeles policemen — three of them white — were acquitted of the savage beating of Rodney King, an African-American man. Caught on camera by a bystander, graphic video of the attack was broadcast into homes across the nation and worldwide. Fury over the acquittal — stoked by years of racial and economic inequality in the city — spilled over into the streets, resulting in five days of rioting in Los Angeles.” OSCAR GRANT PROTESTS 2010 “The shooting on New Year’s of Oscar Grant, a 22-yearold black man from Oakland, California, sparked major protests against excessive deadly force used by the police... The incident had been caught on camera by four different observers, and had gone viral on YouTube. As a result, the black community in Oakland reacted swiftly. While demonstrations began peacefully, tensions would build on both sides with the police eventually resorting to tear gas and non-lethal weapons. FERGUSON RIOTS 2014 “Michael Brown, an unarmed black teenager, was shot and killed on Aug. 9, 2014, by Darren Wilson, a white police officer, in Ferguson, Mo., a suburb of St. Louis. The shooting prompted protests that roiled the area for weeks. On Nov. 24, the St. Louis County prosecutor announced that a grand jury decided not to indict Mr. Wilson. The announcement set off another wave of protests” WOMEN’S MARCH 2016 “On the first full day of Donald Trump’s presidency, hundreds of thousands of people crowd into the U.S. capital for the Women’s March on Washington, a massive protest in the nation’s capital aimed largely at the Trump administration and the perceived threat it represented to reproductive, civil and human rights.”
LGBTQ MARCH 2017 “Winding its way from Farragut Square along the National Mall before culminating with a rally in front of the U.S. Capitol, the march represented for many activists the most aggressive grassroots push for LGBTQ rights and policies of the post-Obergefell era.”
ST. LOUIS PROTESTS 2017 “.. judge in St. Louis found Jason Stockley, a white former St. Louis police officer, not guilty of first-degree murder in the death of a black man named Anthony Lamar Smith. Smith was shot and killed by Stockley after a high-speed chase in 2011. Throughout the weekend, groups of protesters took to the streets of St. Louis, voicing their anger with the decision”
CONCLUSION The U.S. has an ugly history in perpetuating the continued oppression of marginalized groups through both violent and political measures. Between both de facto and de jure segregation practices, inequitable social norms, and an unnerving amount of riots and massacres, marginalized groups often have no choice but to either stay silent or rise up. This imposed fragmentation will continually be challenged through the assemblage of community. It is in these cultural community spaces where agency will continue to be recaptured, despite efforts of institutional oppostition.
“....ethnic and racial segregation is often readily visible at the scale of the city. Those meant to be invisible live in degraded areas that tend to be below the radar of city services -- streets go un-repaired, median strips unplanted, and infrastructure un-maintained. It is very clear, in most American cities, when one moves from the ‘white’ part of the city to the ‘black’ neighborhood.” Lisa Findley “Power, Space, and Architecture” in Building Change: Architecture, Politics, and Cultural Agency
DELMAR BLVD
GRAND BLVD
FAIRGROUND PARK
Fairground Park Originally used as the grounds for America’s
unconstitutional in violation of the 14th
largest amphitheater in the mid-late 1800’s,
amendment. With racial tensions still being
Fairground Park was officially named and
at its peak in the mid 20th century, conflict
dubbed a public park during the St. Lou-
became inevitable and shortly thereafter Af-
is Exposition in 1908. A few years later, the
rican Americans were being escorted out by
site of the amphitheater was planned to be
police for fear of their safety. It later escalated
reconstructed into a community swimming
to where a reported 1000 person mob showed
pool; which was at that time the largest pool
up at the park to intimidate and harass any
in the world, housing 10,000 - 12,000 swim-
remaining blacks in the pool. It quickly be-
mers a day. Since this was during the heydays
came violent and thus was later dubbed the
of segregation, the Fairground pool was only
FAIRGROUNDS PARK RIOT, which became a
accessible to white visitors. It wasn’t until
national headliner. This unfortunately was an
1949 when black residents were able to swim
all too familiar altercation which foreshad-
alongside their white neighbors, after city of-
owed the grueling and violent days yet to
ficials deemed segregation of the pool being
come in this newly “integrated” America.
N
DELMAR BLVD
GRAND BLVD
S
N
S
HOUSING
N
S
RECREATION
N
S
RELIGION
N
S
FOOD
“One of the most difficult feelings to rid oneself of is the emotional turmoil associated with being marginalized by a person or group in the position of power. Feelings of anger and confusion are often followed with those of inferiority. The internal struggle is exacerbated when it seems obvious that the perpetrator had no ill intent in conveying the denigrating message, particularly when patronizing. Society is replete with these micro-aggressions that more often than not go unnoticed but have a lasting impact on the recipient.” Dr. Nathaniel Granger. “Marginalization: The Pendulum Swings Both Ways”
STL AS AN [ARCH]IPELAGO
VACANCY
DELM
AR B
LVD
GR AN D
BL VD
HOLC Hazardous Zones
DELM
AR B
LVD
GR AN D
BL VD
Poverty + Education
DELM
AR B
LVD
GR AN D
BL VD
Violence 01/01/19 - 03/31/19
DELM
AR B
LVD
GR AN D
BL VD
Quality of Life 01/01/19 - 03/31/19
DELM
AR B
LVD
GR AN D
BL VD
Property Crimes 01/01/19 - 03/31/19
DELM
AR B
LVD
GR AN D
BL VD
Education Proximity
DELM
AR B
LVD
GR AN D
BL VD
Food Proximity
DELM
AR B
LVD
GR AN D
BL VD
Clinic Proximity
DELM
AR B
LVD
GR AN D
BL VD
Church Proximity
DELM
AR B
LVD
GR AN D
BL VD
Alcohol Proximity
DELM
AR B
LVD
BL VD GR AN D CONCLUSION These assets, or lack there of, provide critical insight into the environment in which many people in North city are living. The fragmentation of resources makes it much more difficult for individuals to be able to make positive changes for themselves and their families. While also being engulfed in a community surrounded by blight, vacancy, and crime, self worth and agency of mind become a critical issue to acknowledge. How would we expect individuals who have so much stacked against them to ever prosper in a capitalistic society that fortifies and emboldens the already privileged?
“It is very nearly impossible to become an educated person in a country so distrustful of the independent mind.... The paradox of education is precisely this - that as one begins to become conscious one begins to examine the society in which he is being educated. ”
James Baldwin “They Can’t Turn Back” and “A Talk to Teachers”
FRAGMENTATION OF THE MIND Growing up in fragmented conditions often leads to a varying amount of trauma that one must deal with internally. Due to our current crisis in providing equitable health insurance across the country, it is often only those with sufficient financial means who are able to get the help they need for ‘less severe’ illnesses. Unfortunately in many minority circles, mental illness is often looked down upon as a weakness, one that can be ignored or cured solely by religion. It is my goal to envision a space that harnesses the community in which religion often creates while also breeding healthier lifestyles that one can take with them back into their homes to be used to reclaim agency of the mind. This program aims to also provide space for education on mental illnesses and the sharing of experiences coping with it, as a means of normalizing and acknowleging its impact on disinfranchised communities.
A n x i e t y
PTSD Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
D e p re s s i o n
Work Stress Medication Side Effect
Lack of Oxygen
Anxiety
Financial Stress Illicit Drug Use
School Stress
Emotional Trauma Medical Illness
Hormone Imbalance Genetics
Poor Nutrition
Stress
Depression
Physical Health Brain Chemistry Imbalance
Substance Abuse
Grief and Loss
Substance Abuse
Anxiety/Depression
Constant exposure to violence and death
Assault
Childhood Abuse
PTSD
Combat Exposure
Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
Lacking good support systems
Sexual Abuse
Exposure to intense and/or long lasting trauma
Legend:
Most Common Causes | Risk Factors
Blood Relatives w/ mental illnesses
VACANT LOTS CONSTRUCTION SITES
Nat ura l Br idge Av
e
DR
.M
AR TIN
LU T
HE
RK
IN
GD
GR
AN
DB
LV D
R.
Green Space
Fairground Park
Rumbold Park
Community
5th Baptist Church
Tri-Union AME
Education
Beaumont High
Vashon High
Yeatman Square Park
Jet Banks Park
Boys & Girls Club CHIP Wellness Center
STLCC
Norman Seay Park
Chambers Park
Saint Teresa
St. Luke’s Baptist
Dunbar Elementary Clyde Miller Academy
When evaluating sites suitable to tackle issues of mental illness and spatial agency, I based my searches on 4 critical points. Proximity to green space, community, education, and economic opportunities were key indicators of a Economic Opportunities
site capable of fostering upward mobility. Missions STL
Justine Petersen Financial Planning
THE SITE
approx. 55,000sqft
BEAUMONT TECHNICAL CENTER
MISSION ST LOUIS
BOYS & GIRLS CLUB
GR
AN D
BL VD
Beaumont High School shut its doors in the Spring of 2014 after its last graduating class. It is now being used as a technical institute for college and career preparedness. It offers 4 programs in culinary arts, cosmetology, construction trades, and nursing.
Mission STL is a nonprofit organization that focuses on breaking the cycles of poverty by focusing on education and attacking recidivism. Their 3 primary programs are Beyond School, Beyond Jobs, and Beyond Charity, in which all 3 are aimed at bringing up the surrounding community and perpetuating upward mobility for generations to come.
The Boys and Girls Club of St Louis aims to guide children towards HS graduation and foster healthy lives and work ethics to better ensure a successful future. It does so by providing numerous after school activities that not only build useful skills, but allow for vulnerable children to stay off of the streets. They’re programs include, education, sports and recreation, art, career development, and character and leader development.
COMM NATURAL TREATMENTS CENTRALIZED GREEN SPACE
ANXIETY
SECLUDED GREEN SPACE MEDICINAL MARIJUANA HORTICULTURE
PTSD
URBAN GARDEN
AGENCY OF MIND
FITNESS CENTER/STUDIO HYDROTHERAPY
DEPRESSION
ACCE
Cosmetology Construction Trade Culinary Arts CNA Patient Care Athletic Facilities Classrooms Auditorium
approx. 55,000 sqft appr
UNITY
AGENCY OF SPACE
Character and Leadership ad Dev. Education and Career ree Services Health and Life Skills il The Arts Sports, Fitness, and nd Recreation Teen Programs Summer Camp Drop Out Preventio on Program Mentorship
ESS
KNOWLEDGE
CULTURE ART MUSIC
FORUM
DANCE LITERATURE SPOKEN WORD
Poverty Alleviation Mission Trips Senior Services Tax Prep Home Repair Services c Mentorships Personal Growth Interpersonal Relationship t Dev. Conflict Resolution Time Management Communication Financial Responsibility b Language Immersion o School College Prep Community Outreach c Job Training/ Skill D Dev. After School Program a
[Arch]ipelago Matrix The site is situated to work as a campus of resources. Through the proximity of catalysts surrounding the central facility, the aim of the project is to create a space that has the opportunity to become parasitic and continue to sprawl through the rest of the community, serving future needs that begin to populate over time.
GR
AN D
BL VD
CONCLUSION Despite the countless reasons as to why North St. Louis has become what we know if it today, it has remained resilient and hopeful. Through that hope derives power and strength which is critical in steps towards reclaiming agency of space and agency of mind. With the proposal of a campus centered around mental and physical well being, it carries the weight of instilling the most important practice one could ever harness; agency of mind and self. With the surrounding support from catalyst institutions, marginalized communities can begin to crawl from underneath the burdens that once seemed immovable.
SOURCES POWER + SPACE CASE STUDIES "1842 Lombard Street Riot." Build Nation. April 11, 2016. Accessed April 2019. https://buildnationblog.wordpress.com/2016/04/11/1842-lombard-street-riot/.
"1921 Tulsa Race Massacre." Tulsa Historical Society & Museum. Accessed April 2019. https://www.tulsahistory.org/exhibit/1921-tulsa-race-massacre/.
Andrew Desiderio, Scott Bixby. "'TRUMP DOOMS NATION': LGBTQ Protesters March On Washington." The Daily Beast. June 11, 2017. Accessed April 2019. https://www.thedailybeast.com/trump-dooms-nation-lgbtq-protesters-march-on-washington.
"Cicero Race Riots Happen." African American Registry. Accessed April 2019. https://aaregistry.org/story/cicero-race-riots-happen/.
Gaspaire Brent. "Blockbusting • BlackPast." BlackPast. February 01, 2019. Accessed April 2019. https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/blockbusting/.
Greenlaw, Marshall. "The Oscar Grant (Oakland) Protests, 2009-2011 • BlackPast." BlackPast. January 27, 2019. Accessed April 2019. https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/oscar-grant-oakland-protests-2009-2011/. .com. "Greensboro Sit-In." History.com. February 04, 2010. Accessed April 2019. https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/the-greensboro-sit-in.
"Harlem Race Riot of 1935." Encyclopædia Britannica. March 12, 2019. Accessed April 2019. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Harlem-race-riot-of-1935.
"Harlem Race Riot of 1964." Encyclopædia Britannica. July 11, 2018. Accessed April 2019. https://www.britannica.com/event/Harlem-race-riot-of-1964.
Hemphill, Evie. "Remembering Mill Creek Valley, Once Home to 20,000 Black St. Louisans." St. Louis Public Radio. Accessed April 2019. https://news.stlpublicradio.org/post/remembering-mill-creek-valley-once-home-20000-black-st-louisans#stream/0.
"Humboldt Park Riots Remembered." The Chicagoist. Accessed April 2019. https://chicagoist.com/2006/06/14/humboldt_park_riots_remembered.php.
Keyes, Allison. "The East St. Louis Race Riot Left Dozens Dead, Devastating a Community on the Rise." Smithsonian.com. June 30, 2017. Accessed April 2019. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/east-st-louis-race-riot-left-dozens-dead-devastating-community-on-the-rise-180963885/.
"Montgomery Bus Boycott." History.com. February 03, 2010. Accessed April 2019. https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/montgomery-bus-boycott.
Moore, Linda A. "Marking 125 Years since Lynching That Launched Ida B. Wells' Campaign." Cincinnati.com. March 10, 2017. Accessed April 2019. https://www.cincinnati.com/story/news/nation-now/2017/03/10/memphis-lynching-peoples-grocery-125-years/99004756/.
"Red Summer of 1919." Equal Justice Initiative. Accessed April 2019. https://eji.org/reports/online/lynching-in-america-targeting-black-veterans/red-summer.
Sastry, Anjuli, and Karen Grigsby Bates. "When LA Erupted In Anger: A Look Back At The Rodney King Riots." NPR. April 26, 2017. Accessed April 2019. https://www.npr.org/2017/04/26/524744989/when-la-erupted-in-anger-a-look-back-at-the-rodney-king-riots.
"Segregation in the United States." History.com. November 28, 2018. Accessed April 2019. https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/segregation-united-states.
"Selma to Montgomery March." History.com. January 28, 2010. Accessed April 2019. https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/selma-montgomery-march.
"Shelley v. Kraemer." Casebriefs Shelley v Kraemer Comments. Accessed April 2019. https://www.casebriefs.com/blog/law/property/property-law-keyed-to-cribbet/role-of-property-in-society/shelley-v-kraemer/.
POWER + SPACE CASE STUDIES CONT...
Siemaszko, Corky. "Birmingham Erupted into Chaos in 1963 as Battle for Civil Rights Exploded in South." Nydailynews.com. January 10, 2019. Accessed April 2019. https://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/birmingham-erupted-chaos-1963-battle-civil-rights-exploded-south-article-1.1071793.
Stezano, Martin. "What Were the White Night Riots?" History.com. June 07, 2017. Accessed April 2019. https://www.history.com/news/what-were-the-white-night-riots.
"Stonewall Riots." History.com. May 31, 2017. Accessed April 2019. https://www.history.com/topics/gay-rights/the-stonewall-riots.
Taylor, Alan. "A Weekend of Protest in St. Louis." The Atlantic. September 18, 2017. Accessed April 2019. https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2017/09/a-weekend-of-protest-in-st-louis/540189/.
"The Hough Riots (July 18-24, 1966)." The Hough Riots of 1966 - The Cleveland Memory Project. Accessed April 2019. http://www.clevelandmemory.org/houghriots/index.html.
"The Pratt Street Riot." National Parks Service. Accessed April 2019. https://www.nps.gov/fomc/learn/historyculture/the-pratt-street-riot.htm.
"The Riots of the Long, Hot Summer." EncyclopĂŚdia Britannica. Accessed April 2019. https://www.britannica.com/story/the-riots-of-the-long-hot-summer.
"The Snow Riot." Emancipation. Accessed April 2019. https://emancipation.dc.gov/page/snow-riot.
"Violence in Boston over Racial Busing." History.com. February 09, 2010. Accessed April 2019. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/violence-in-boston-over-racial-busing.
"Violence in Boston over Racial Busing." History.com. February 09, 2010. Accessed April 2019. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/violence-in-boston-over-racial-busing.
"Watts Riots." History.com. September 28, 2017. Accessed April 2019. https://www.history.com/topics/1960s/watts-riots.
"What Happened in Ferguson?" The New York Times. August 13, 2014. Accessed April 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2014/08/13/us/ferguson-missouri-town-under-siege-after-police-shooting.html
SITE ANALYSIS & MENTAL HEALTH SOURCES
"A Cold Splash–Hydrotherapy for Depression and Anxiety." Psychology Today. Accessed March 2019. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/inner-source/201407/cold-splash-hydrotherapy-depression-and-anxiety.
"Fairground Park: The History We Choose to Forget." NextSTL. August 14, 2014. Accessed April 2019. https://nextstl.com/2010/12/fairground-park-the-history-we-choose-to-forget/.
"How Architecture Can Help Address America's Mental-Health-Care Crisis." Metropolis. November 06, 2018. Accessed February 2019. https://www.metropolismag.com/architecture/healthcare-architecture/behavioral-healthcare-cannon-design/.
"How Hydrotherapy Can Be Useful for PTSD Sufferers." PTSD UK |. Accessed May 07, 2019. https://www.ptsduk.org/how-hydrotherapy-can-be-useful-for-ptsd-sufferers/.
"Marijuana for Trauma." MMJ Canada. October 28, 2017. Accessed April 2019. https://mmjcanada.ca/marijuana-for-trauma/.
"Office of Minority Health." Mental Health - The Office of Minority Health. Accessed March 2019. https://www.minorityhealth.hhs.gov/omh/browse.aspx?lvl=4&lvlid=24.
SITE ANALYSIS & MENTAL HEALTH SOURCES CONT...
"People's Family of Corporations." Hopewell Center. Accessed February 2019. https://hopewellcenter.com/services/adult-services/.
"Risky Business: Marijuana Use." Mental Health America. April 03, 2018. Accessed March 2019. http://www.mentalhealthamerica.net/conditions/risky-business-marijuana-use.
Staggs, Sara. "Psychotherapy Treatment for PTSD." Psych Central. October 24, 2018. Accessed March 2019. https://psychcentral.com/disorders/ptsd/psychotherapy-treatment-for-ptsd/.
"Social Explorer." Social Explorer. Accessed February 2019. https://www.socialexplorer.com/.
"The Effects of Patronizing and Marginalizing Minority Groups." Unbound. October 31, 2018. Accessed March 2019. https://www.saybrook.edu/unbound/marginalization/.
"Types of Complementary and Alternative Medicine." Johns Hopkins Medicine Health Library. Accessed March 2019. https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/wellness-and-prevention/types-of-complementary-and-alternative-medicine.
"Types of Mental Illness." Healthdirect. Accessed March 2019. https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/types-of-mental-illness.
UpToDate. Accessed March 2019. https://www.uptodate.com/contents/psychotherapy-for-posttraumatic-stress-disorder-in-adults.
US Census Bureau. "Census.gov." Census.gov. Accessed April 2019. https://www.census.gov/.
"View Park." Stlouis. Accessed April 2019. https://www.stlouis-mo.gov/parks/parks/browse-parks/view-park.cfm?parkID=4&parkName=Fairground Park.
LITERATURE
"5. Invisible Man: Black and Blue." The Craft of Ralph Ellison. doi:10.4159/harvard.9780674423176.c6.
Awan, Nishat, Tatjana Schneider, and Jeremy Till. Spatial Agency: Other Ways of Doing Architecture. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge, 2011.
Baldwin, James. The Price of the Ticket: Collected Nonfiction, 1948-1985. New York: St. Martins/Marek, 1985.
Findley, Lisa. Building Change: Architecture, Politics and Cultural Agency. London: Routledge, 2006.
Gordon, Colin. Mapping Decline: St. Louis and the Fate of the American City. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008.
Jacobs, Jane. The Death and Life of Great American Cities. London: Vintage Digital, 2016.
Lang, Clarence. Grassroots at the Gateway. University of Michigan Press, 2009.
Lefebvre, Henri, and Donald Nicholson-Smith. The Production of Space. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2009.
The City in the City. Berlin: A Green Archipelago. Oswald Mathias Ungers, Rem Koolhaas, Peter Riemann, Hans Kollhoff, Arthur Ovaska. Critical Edition, Original 1977. Ennetbaden: Lars MĂźller Verlag, 2012.
Rothstein, Richard. The Color of Law: A Forgotten History of How Our Government Segregated America. New York: Liveright Publishing Corporation, a Division of W.W. Norton & Company, 2018.
Sharkey, Patrick. Stuck in Place: Urban Neighborhoods and the End of Progress toward Racial Equality. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013.
Wallace, Alfred Russel. "The Malay Archipelago: The Land of the Orang-utan, and the Bird of Paradise. By Alfred Russel Wallace ..." 1869. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.11170.