Postering and City Ads as Gorilla Marketing

Business Research: Marketing Title: Postering and City Ads on Poles, Boards, or Similar Category: Marketing & Advertising Description: MLA w Footnotes Format, 10+ Sources, 18 Pages, www.china-doll.org www.customwrittenbusinessplans.com www.prewrittenbusinessplans.com www.universityessayexperts.com www.researchandwriting.org Keywords: Business research, business marketing, essays, term papers, theses, thesis, dissertations, dissertation, literature review, custom writing, prewritten papers, pre-written, pre-written papers, school paper, business paper, academic paper, academic writing, free papers, book review, papers online, article review, annotated bibliography, case study, case studies, research paper, research papers, research writing, essay writing, article writing, marketing, advertising, marketing research, marketing essay, marketing term paper, postering, posters, city advertising, traditional marketing, gorilla marketing, marketing with posters,

1

Postering and City Ad Placement Advertising & Marketing Overview Advertising

and

marketing

enterprise

regardless

enterprise

will

not

of

are

necessary

industry.

rely

on

a

in

Typically,

single

any a

business

commercial

advertising

media

but

rather a mix of advertising media composed of traditional media as well as new media channels. Traditional media channels are print

such

as

newspapers,

which

postering

is

a

magazines

segment

of,

and are

direct a

marketing

segment

of

of

print

advertising, radio which now includes traditional and satellite radio

such

includes

as

Sirius

Satellite,

traditional,

and

satellite,

television

cable

and

which

internet

now based

segments. New media advertising media is dominated by Internet based

advertising

but

can

be

divided

into

segments

such

as

banner advertising as well as search engine sponsored marketing such as Google AdWords.1 However, there are a host of other new media advertising channels such as cell phone/wireless channels and mobile media channels related to personal digital assistants (PDAs) including iPods and other handheld electronic devices.

Establishing an effective media mix for an enterprise’s media plan

is

a

considerable research

carefully amount

relevant

to

of

planned

task

research

and

the

product,

that

incorporates

reference

service,

or

to

a

existing

relationships

2

being marketed or sought after. Commercial enterprises must take careful consideration of all their media advertising options and incorporate

only

those

that

offer

the

greatest

return

on

investment and this is not always, as is too often the case, solely Internet based marketing initiatives.

Summary Conclusion. Advertising and marketing is usually a mix of various advertising media rather than a single marketing channel alone. The combination of these various media channels is known as a marketing mix. The different primary types of advertising channels are:  Print: newspapers, magazines, journals and similar  Radio:

traditional

radio

via

AM

or

FM

frequencies

and

satellite radio dominated by Sirius and XM  Television:

dominated

by

the

major

networks

but

also

includes independent producers such as HBO and delivered over the airwaves, cable, satellite and Internet  Internet: all web-based advertising is Internet based  Wireless & Mobile: various advertising efforts designed for handheld phones, PDAs, and other mobile devices Print Media Advertisers

who

are

considering

print

media

must

put

a

great deal of thought into which publications and venues to advertise

in.

Many

researchers

believe

that,

in

contrast

to

popular theory that has print media dying, print, rather than 3

being in decline, is evolving more into a form of electronic advertising:2

“When

print

moves

to

an

electronic

mode,

the

concept of the publishing cycle is undermined. Therefore, print must prepare for dramatic changes in currency as it evolves toward an electronic medium.” However, of more relevant concern when considering print advertising the clutter factor that is often associated with it:3 “quantity of advertising negatively affects

attitude

toward

magazine

ads

and

that

intrusiveness

(disruption) negatively affects magazine ad recall, as well as attitude toward the ads...”

The perception that a magazine or

newspaper is more of an “ad rag” than a valid content oriented publication

will

have

a

highly

negative

impact

on

the

advertisement’s effectiveness. The advertiser must consider how effective a company’s advertisement will be amidst the backdrop of

myriad

other

similar

ads

that

create

the

impression

of

clutter which is measured in three dimensions: 1) quantity—how many ads will there be in the publication or display in total, 2) competitiveness—how many like or similar ads will be in the publication or display, and 3) intrusiveness—how often or how drastically do advertisements interrupt the editorial flow of the publication.4 For the advertiser, and this is especially true for small businesses, print advertising is often critical but can be difficult to employ appropriately.

4

Summary Conclusion. Print is rapidly evolving into a hybrid form of advertising media with many formerly printed outlets now also

printing

to

the

Web

or

moving

purely

to

an

electronic

format.5 This means that in many instances the line between print and

Internet

media

is

blurring.

Considerations

for

print

advertising are:  Quantity:

how

many

advertisements

overall

are

in

the

publication  Competitiveness:

how

many

similar

service

or

product

advertisements will be in the print outlet  Intrusiveness:

how

do

advertisements

interrupt

the

editorial content of the print outlet Television Television is often not a feasible advertising medium for many small businesses but for some small businesses and most medium

and

larger

enterprises

television

has

long

been

considered one of the most effective methods to disseminate a message.

Television

has

long

been

thought

to

be

effective

because it addressed one of the primary assumptions of marketing which

is

the

hierarchy

communication

events

must

predisposed"

consumer

of

effects:

“...a

occur--advertising

from

brand

sequence

must

awareness

to

move

of "the

purchase

behavior...this sequence of events is known as the hierarchy of effects...”.6

This

hierarchy

of

effects

is

considered

best 5

facilitated through television marketing material: “For both the creatives,

themselves,

and

for

their

client

counterparts,

television was overwhelmingly judged the most exciting vehicle for the creation of national ads”.7 In devising and executing an effective television advertisement there are several dimensions of concern one must maintain focus on throughout the conception and planning process. be

made

is

whether

One of the most basic considerations to the

advertisement

is

meant

to

actually

generate sales or to establish and build brand equity relating to

a

focused

message

service

targeting

a

or

product

rather

audience.8

mass

than

a

more

general

This

distinction

is

important as a failure to understand what the enterprise wants to

accomplish

can

lead

to

a

complete

lack

of

return

on

investment (ROI). Basically, it must be understood that just because television is seen by potentially thousands or millions of individuals does not mean that an advertising message is being received.

Summary expensive

Conclusion.

advertising

Television

medium

and

is

thus

perhaps must

be

the

most

approached

carefully. Television can be utilized to achieve sales or brand enhancement:  Television advertisements can reach wide audiences  Television advertisements can be purchased by local market

6

ďƒ˜ Creating a television advertisement is itself expensive and a drain on resources Radio The need for effective marketing is, if nothing else, even more vital

to

developing

brand

identity

and

radio

has

long

been

thought to facilitate this attempt to develop brand identity.

Radio is rarely utilized as the sole marketing channel for an enterprise but it is almost always included as part of a media mix.9

The traditional marketing mix has typically included some

radio advertisements at some point in time or another if not regularly for most small businesses. do

not

incorporate

channels

into

the

their

Internet

Currently, companies that

and

advertising

mix

Internet will

related

find

media

themselves

performing below the level of their competitors who do take advantage of this channel but with such innovations as streaming audio

and

Internet

based

radio

stations

this

distinction

is

quickly blurring as well. That said there is still room for radio as the sole advertising medium though in a limited form: “Radio

is

the

only

traditional that

medium

expected

from

that

will

online

see

in

growth

remotely

approaching

the

next

year�.10

Currently, there are efforts being made by new media

companies such as Google.com to incorporate traditional media channels such as radio into their formats which are bringing radio and the others back into vogue.

7

Summary Conclusion. channels

that

have

Radio is one of the traditional media

not

suffered

dramatically

from

the

introduction of the Internet and other new media. Radio can still

achieve

strong

contextual

targeting

based

on

listener

demographics:  Radio

can

reach

wide

audiences

through

syndication

nationally  Satellite radio is in its infancy and while not advertiser driven it offers future avenues for potential advertisement distribution Web & Internet Web consisted customers click

advertising of

pasting

either

through

and a

ignore

without

web

advertising

banner the

research

advertisement

advertisement

purchasing.

The

and

altogether medium

has

formerly watching or

just

advanced

considerably since its early formative years even though, some would

argue,

the

medium

is

still

in

its

formative

stages:

“Research has also shown that banner advertisements are becoming less and less effective as web users get more experienced...Web users are becoming harder to influence with marketing that they have not asked for”.11

Though Web media and Web marketing still

have further to go before they can be considered a mature, it is difficult to argue that Internet based advertising is not just effective

but

business

critical

in

one

aspect

or

another.

8

Currently, companies that offer search engine based sponsored advertising, such as Google.com and Yahoo!, are able to offer advertisers very effective contextual marketing tools that allow marketers to target consumers right at the time of need or when they are ready to make a purchase. As technology improves these companies are increasingly able to narrow audiences or consumers into

ever

more

refined

market

segments

and

sponsored

search

results, hosted advertisements, and web-logs (blogs) have made the banner advertisement archaic at best.

Summary

Conclusion.

The

Internet

has

allowed

contextual

market or marketing that focuses on target markets at precisely the time, space, and context in which they are most likely to make a purchase or utilize a service. ďƒ˜ Internet advertising is cost-effective ďƒ˜ Internet advertising is highly granular (targeted) ďƒ˜ Internet advertising can be inexpensive to produce and even less expensive to disseminate Common Industry Usage by Type Prior to the introduction of the Internet and Web related technologies

it

was

likely

that

many

industries

might

have

consolidated their marketing efforts around a single media such as print or television. While there are likely some isolated enterprises enterprises,

in

some

industries

regardless

of

that

industry

still find

it

do

so,

most

increasingly 9

necessary to utilize a marketing mix and this applies as much to the small business as it does to the large multi-national.

For

example, even small construction companies have turned to Web integration in their marketing efforts to reach clients where once these same companies would have relied almost solely on the Pages.12

Yellow

television

To

further

networks

have

illustrate turned

to

the

point,

Internet

even

based

major

delivery

channels to achieve greater degrees of penetration in markets that have become increasingly competitive.13 This indicates that the

more

appropriate

question

is

what

percentage

of

each

marketing media do the different industries typically employ; i.e. what is the character of their marketing mix. However, research indicates that the automotive industry, the fast moving consumer

goods

(FMCG),

and

the

overall

retail

industry

has

shifted marketing capital from traditional media to online, Webbased media by as much as 24.1% and within these industries approximately 15% of their total marketing budgets is allocated towards

Internet

typically Internet

allocate based

marketing.14

based 15%

of

advertising

their efforts

Thus,

marketing and

have

these

industries

budgets

towards

increased

their

investments towards direct marketing from traditional media as well.

Other

focused

on

research expanding

reports the

that

US

percentage

based of

businesses

their

marketing

have mix

focusing on direct marketing from 20% to as much as 45% on

10

average of their total budgets.15 It is clear that industries have focused their marketing budgets on a diverse marketing mix that incorporates some or all traditional media channels as well as select new media channels within their marketing plans. The primary distinction that can be made is the percentage of their overall budget that targets a specific media channel or what could best be described as a multimedia approach to marketing.

Summary Conclusion. Industry marketing efforts have shifted from historical concentration on single media channels to a more pronounced mix of media. The media mix varies by industry but on average

industries

allocate

their

marketing

spend

in

the

following proportions:  Approximately 15% towards new media channels  Approximately 45% towards direct marketing methods  Approximately 40% towards traditional media channels The Rising Costs of Advertising v. Viewership The increased cost of advertising has as much to do with the production expense of marketing collateral as it does with the

fact

fractured.

that

consumers

Marketing

in

and

audiences

today’s

highly

are

increasingly

fractured

media

environment where gaining access to audiences takes a far more selective effort than in the past when all that was necessary was a phone call to a local newspaper, TV station, radio station or

pursuing

the

same

traditional

media

through

syndication.

11

These types of broad-based media campaigns, while still useful to

some

degree,

are

increasingly

ineffective.

Yet,

the

corresponding effect on the marketing industry is not a death knell unless a traditional marketer misinterprets the market, but is an indication that the marketing industry as a whole has shifted into new and different modality requiring a more with a much

more

precise

footprint.

Part

of

the

problem

is

that

consumers and audiences are inundated with marketing messages. A recent survey reveals that a full 88% of Canadians believe that they are saturated with too many marketing messages while 94% of young

Canadians

complain

that

there

is

currently

even

more

advertising today than previously (Leger) and by media channel and outlet the sense that there are too many advertisements is revealing as the following chart indicates:16 Perceived ad clutter Too many amount Too few Television 1% Radio 4% Newspapers 5% Billboards, street or transit signs 7% Internet 3% Magazines 3% Mail to home 5% *don’t know/no response not included

78%

Right

19% 35%

54%

31%

59%

33%

55% 56%

15%

56%

35%

65%

27%

12

These figures are contrasted by the impression on the part of Canadians that consumers in the US are exposed to even more extreme

levels

of

advertising.

Currently,

73%

of

Canadians

indicate the belief that the US consumer is even more exposed to marketing

material

and

yet,

and

perhaps

more

importantly

to

marketers, only 31% consider this saturation unacceptable while 56% simply tune out the messages:17 These figures are important because they reveal that marketers have to spend more to gain the attention of the consumer not just because of a fractured market and audience but also because of the over-saturation of advertising that has led to the consumer simply tuning these advertising efforts out.

The

costs

associated

with

marketing

spend

can

vary

substantially from industry to industry and from competitor to competitor. Typically businesses compute marketing spend as a percentage of revenue and this percentage can be from as little as 1% to as much as 20 to 30% depending on the industry (see appendix). For example, a small business such as a coffee shop or a bakery might reinvest 5-7% of its annual revenues into advertising which might be a sum as little as 5 to 7k while a major multi-national such as Carnival Cruise lines has an annual marketing revenues

budget in

in

2006.18

excess Contrast

of

$464m

these

or

approximately

expenses

by

the

3%

of

company’s

advertising expenses in 2003, 2002, and 2001 which were $334,

13

$208, and $214 respectively. Given that the marketing spend for the company increased by more than 100% in a span of just 5 years it is clear that marketing and advertising expenses are increasing across the board in all industries. Yet, research indicates that not all of these marketing related costs are due to production and design expenses because technology has allowed many

advertisements

generated

and

the

such

as

television

cost

savings

can

ads be

to

be

computer

substantial.

One

researcher cites the example of a television commercial that would have cost $10k just a few years ago no cost just under $3k because the special effects can all be created through CGI or computer

generated

imaging.19

Thus,

the

conclusion

is

that

industry competitors must employ more advertising across more marketing channels and media than in previous eras because the target

markets

are

increasingly

fractured

and

difficult

to

reach.

Summary

Conclusion.

Marketing

efforts

require

ever

increasing percentages of an enterprise’s revenues in order to maintain the same level of revenues much less increase revenues.

Target

markets

are

difficult

to

reach

and

have

ever

more

too

many

competitors and industries vying for their attention: ďƒ˜ 78%

of

consumers

feel

that

Television

has

advertisements

14

 56%

of

consumers

feel

that

the

Internet

has

to

many

homes

are

advertisements  65%

of

consumers

feel

that

mailers

to

their

excessive  Marketing

budgets

have

increased

by

as

much

as

100%,

depending on the industry, from even just 5 years ago Conclusions—Why Direct Marketing Works The strategic response to these increasing costs associated with acquiring new consumers or in establishing a brand can best be met by the small to medium enterprise through a concerted effort to incorporate further direct marketing initiatives into their

marketing

advertising

mix.

must

be

While

obviously

maintained,

other

marketers

media

are

channel

realizing

that

while many traditional media outlets are becoming irrelevant, many traditional media methodologies, such as direct marketing, are

actually

becoming

more

important.

Many

enterprises

automatically equate direct marketing with mail campaigns and related involves

efforts any

but

method

this in

is

which

misleading.

Direct

communication

marketing

channel

can

be

established directly with the consumer by the advertiser and this could be direct mailing, door to door sales, as well as postering techniques. In fact, Leger points out that 72% of Canadian

consumers

believe

that

posters

are

not

only

an

15

acceptable

means

of

direct

marketing

but

preferable

as

the

following chart indicates:20 Acceptable Advertisers sponsoring outdoor festivals 76% Advertisers sponsoring major charity events 74% Print advertising in newspapers 74% Posters on buses or subways 72% Radio advertising 69% Television advertising 66% Advertisers sponsoring university events 66% Ads on shopping carts 65% Signs on taxis 62% Logos on clothing 62% Advertisers sponsoring high school events 59% Billboards along the roads 58% Product placement in television shows 51% Advertisers sponsoring elementary school events TV news programs promoting newspaper stories Advertisers sponsoring whole half-hour TV 45% Ads in washrooms 44% Commercials before movies start in theatres 42% Banner advertising on the Internet 31% Ads on cellphone displays 31% Advertising where an actor pretends to be a tourist Ads placed on personal property 23%

51% 48%

30%

16

Famous people praising prescription drugs 16% Pop-up windows on the Internet 14% None are acceptable 2% By contrast, advertisements such as pop-up ads on the Internet are considered detestable with a mere 14% of consumers finding them acceptable. respects

as

Postering works in the same manner in many

direct

mail

advertising

because

it

is

viewable

directly in those places where the consumer or target market member typically habituates. As such direct advertising is cost effective, can be highly targeted to specific populations, and is

informative.

The

intent

behind

direct

advertising

is

to

generate a response from the recipient of the advertisement and is usually a potential or existing consumer.

21

The purpose of

direct advertising methods is to obtain more potential consumers as well as to keep the existing ones. The fact remains that direct

marketing

marketers

to

geographic advertisements

techniques

segment

target

dimensions. in

other

are

highly

markets

by

Furthermore, media

formats,

granular both

and

allows

demographic

posters, typically

and

unlike have

high

consumer recall as this chart indicates:22 B-Format C-Company D-Planning agency/specialist E-Recall (%) 17

A

B

C

D

E 1

48s

Coca-Cola 52 Madagascar

Mother/Vizeum UK

2

6s

3=

AOL

Grey London/Vizeum UK Bartle Bogle Hegarty/Walker

6

KFC 44 Ford 42 Wedding Crashers Abbey 36 Gillette Venus

WCRS/MindShare

48 48s,96s 44 3= 6s Media 5 6s

7

Buses 37 Buses

8

6s

9

35 96s

DFS 32 Fantastic Four

10 48s Mediavest 1 2 3 4 46 5 UK 6

Feref/ZenithOptimedia

Ogilvy & Mather/MindShare Redwire/MediaCom

BBDO New York/MindShare Publicity Bureau/Brilliant Media The Creative Partnership/Starcom

30 6s,96s, buses CharlieZ& the Chocolate Factory Warner Bros/PHD 65 6s Sky HHCL Red Cell/MediaCom 57 48s,96s O2 Vallance Carruthers Coleman Priest/ZenithOptimedia 55 48s,96s Yellow Pages Abbot Mead Vickers BBDO/PHD

48s,96s 42 6s,buses 40 7 6s McCann 38 8 6s,96s 37 9 48s,96s 35 10 48s

Halifax NescafĂŠ

Delaney Lund Knox Warren/Vizeum McCann-Erickson/MindShare

Bacardi Breezer

Campbell Doyle Dye/Universal

Lynx

Bartle Bogle Hegarty/MindShare

Barclaycard

Bartle Bogle Hegarty/Starcom

Esure 34

Lionworks, in-house/Carat

18

The primary point to be made is that the above percentages apply to a variety of different products and services and of the total number of consumers surveyed between 34 and 52% of them recalled specific posters they had viewed in the course of their daily travels.

Considering

the

cost

of

postering

in

comparison

to

comparable advertisement efforts in other media it is difficult to not include a direct marketing effort utilizing postering in targeted neighborhoods. A typical small business can have 3k 8.5X11 posters distributed throughout a neighborhood or district for

a

mere

$900

in

the

downtown

districts

of

Toronto

and

Vancouver and this advertising comes with a substantial amount of residual traffic where the typical print media campaign in the local newspaper can run into the $1000s for the same period of time. Direct marketing is one of the most targeted forms of advertising

available

and

postering

allows

a

competitor

to

further segment its market providing a cost-benefit rationale that is unbeatable by other forms of print advertising and even most other media channel advertising.

Appendix Advertising Benchmarks in 94 Industries(2006 Norms)23

19

Works Cited “2006 Norms for Ad Spending Guide the Shift to Internet.”

20

Controller’s Report, 9(2006):

1-16.

Benson, Jim. “New Media, New Strategies.” Broadcasting & Cable, 137/23, p.12.

“Carnival Corporation Annual Report.” Carnival Corporation Investor Relations.

< http://media.corporate-

ir.net/media_files/

NYS/ccl/reports/CCP06AR.pdf>.

Clever, Uwe. “Print Meets Multimedia.” Seybold Report: Analyzing Publishing

Technologies, 4/22(2005): 12-14.

Dahlen, M., Rasch, A., & Rosengren, S. “Love at first site? A study of website

advertising effectiveness.” Journal of

Advertising Research, 43/1(2003): 25+.

Donato, P. J. “Research in a world of expanding media options: Chicken or egg?”

Journal of Advertising Research,

36/1(1996): 35+.

Elliott, M. T., & Speck, P. S. “Consumer perceptions of advertising clutter and its impact

across various

media.” Journal of Advertising Research, 38/1(1998): 29.

Geller, L. K. Response: The Complete Guide to Profitable Direct Marketing. New York: Oxford University Press; 2002.

“Google Adwords.” Google.com (online). <http://www.google.com>.

Ha, L., & Litman, B. R. “Does advertising clutter have diminishing and negative

returns?” Journal of

Advertising, 26/1(1997): 31+.

Lee, Jeremy. “Traditional Media Lose Share.” Marketing,

21

10/18(2006): 6.

Leger, Jean-Marc. “Advertising Avalanche.” Marketing Magazine, 107/45(2002).

“Leverage Web 2.0 to Connect With New Clients.” Contractor’s Business Management Report, 6(2007): 2-3.

Meyers, H. M. & Gerstman, R. Branding @ the Digital Age. New York: Palgrave;

2001.

“Old Line, New Tricks.” Crain’s New York Business, 22/2(2006): 15.

“Posterwatch.” Marketing, 08/17(2005): 22.

Quilter, James. “US Businesses Resolve to Expand Direct Strategies.” Precision

Marketing, 17/9(2004): 9.

Reid, L. N., & King, K. W. “Agency Creatives like TV Advertising Best.” Newspaper

Research Journal, 24/3(2003): 6+.

“Survey Suggests Only Radio Will Rival Internet for Growth.”

Marketing Week, 28/29(2005):19.

Zhou, N., Zhou, D., & Ouyang, M. “Long-Term Effects of Television Advertising on

Sales of Consumer Durables

and Nondurables: The Case of China.” Journal of Advertising, 32/2(2003): 45+.

22

1

“Google Adwords.” Google.com (online). Jun. 17, 2007<http://www.google.com>.

Donato, P. J. “Research in a world of expanding media options: Chicken or egg?” Journal of Advertising Research, 36/1(1996): 35+.

3 Elliott, M. T., & Speck, P. S. “Consumer perceptions of advertising clutter and its impact across various media.”

4 Ha, L., & Litman, B. R. “Does advertising clutter have diminishing and negative returns?” Journal of Advertising, 26/1(1997): 31+.

5 Clever, Uwe. “Print Meets Multimedia.” Seybold Report: Analyzing Publishing Technologies, 4/22(2005): 12-14.

6 Reid, L. N., & King, K. W. “Agency Creatives like TV Advertising Best.” Newspaper Research Journal, 24/3(2003): 6+.

7 Reid, L. N., & King, K. W. “Agency Creatives like TV Advertising Best.” Newspaper Research Journal, 24/3(2003): 6+.

8 Zhou, N., Zhou, D., & Ouyang, M. “Long-Term Effects of Television Advertising on Sales of Consumer Durables and Nondurables: The Case of China.” Journal of Advertising, 32/2(2003): 45+.

9 Meyers, H. M. & Gerstman, R. Branding @ the Digital Age. New York: Palgrave; 2001.

10 “Survey Suggests Only Radio Will Rival Internet for Growth.”

Marketing Week, 28/29(2005):19.

11 Dahlen, M., Rasch, A., & Rosengren, S. “Love at first site? A study of website advertising effectiveness.” Journal of Advertising Research, 43/1(2003): 25+.

12 “Leverage Web 2.0 to Connect With New Clients.” Contractor’s Business Management Report, 6(2007): 2-3.

13 Benson, Jim. “New Media, New Strategies.” Broadcasting & Cable, 137/23, p.12.

“Carnival Corporation Annual Report.” Carnival Corporation Investor Relations. Jun.17, 2007< http://media.corporateir.net/media_files/ NYS/ccl/reports/CCP06AR.pdf>.

14 Lee, Jeremy. “Traditional Media Lose Share.” Marketing, 10/18(2006): 6.

Leger, Jean-Marc. “Advertising Avalanche.” Marketing Magazine, 107/45(2002).

15 Quilter, James. “US Businesses Resolve to Expand Direct Strategies.” Precision Marketing, 17/9(2004): 9.

16 Leger, Jean-Marc. “Advertising Avalanche.” Marketing Magazine, 107/45(2002).

17 Leger, Jean-Marc. “Advertising Avalanche.” Marketing Magazine, 107/45(2002).

18 “Carnival Corporation Annual Report.” Carnival Corporation Investor Relations.

Jun.17, 2007< http://media.corporate-ir.net/media_files/ NYS/ccl/reports/CCP06AR.pdf>.

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