St Mary’s University College Twickenham London
At a glance Opinion: The Ethics of University Research Activities in Brief Shopping for Organs in China CBET Staff
Issue 6 Spring 2012 www.smuc.ac.uk
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CBETBulletin
Newsletter for the Centre for Bioethics & Emerging Technologies
Opinion
most typically outsource is that involving specialist and intricate, but essentially routine, measurements for which they lack the equipment and expertise. Bold innovation,
The Ethics of University Research: Freedom, Efficiency & Economics
in the style of Apple's Steve Jobs, who famously remarked that "it's hard for consumers to tell you what they want when they've never seen anything remotely like it", is a rarity, which is why Apple is a rather remarkable company. If, therefore, a university wishes to maximize its
Jeremy Ramsden
income it has no choice but to focus on relatively pedestrian work and academics are strongly discouraged to work on innovative new ideas simply because it is less likely to bring in income. Maximizing income as a priority carries with it the even more dangerous temptation to give a client the results it wants for fear of losing business otherwise. Whatever the mechanism of such distortion, which might be through wilful disregard of the scientific method and the scientific integrity of which it is an integral part (e.g., by neglecting to make crucial measurements, or by choosing inappropriate measurement technology incapable of yielding an unpalatable result), the outcome is pernicious – erosion of excellence leading to insidious mediocrity. In the case of research council projects, the distortion might take the form of plodding on with the
High demands are placed on University governance by
The research councils are essentially government
project as described in the original proposal in order to
the model statute (Section 202 of the Education Reform
agencies and they allocate funding by sifting through the
ensure that the reports submitted to the council match
Act, 1988), adopted by many universities, with its regard
grant applications they receive. Typically, only a small
the contractual obligations set out in the grant award
to the need "to ensure that academic staff have freedom
fraction, nowadays around 10%, of the funding requests
even if, as a result of the way the research developed,
within the law to question and test received wisdom, and
can be granted and the decision is made by a panel or
the investigators no longer believe that those obligations
to put forward new ideas and controversial or unpopular
committee. The larger charities operate in a very similar
represent the best or even a useful way of proceeding.
opinions, without placing themselves in jeopardy of losing
fashion. It is an inevitable consequence of committee-
Another kind of distortion, prevalent when the institution
their jobs or privileges they may have at their institutions".
based decisions that mainstream ideas are favoured,
has to collectively decide which outgoing proposals to
The dilemma that university administrations find
because by definition the majority of committee members
support, is to make the decision based on which
themselves in is that, nowadays, so much income comes
will be in the main stream. This was already pointed out
proposal would bring in the greatest income, rather than
from external sources rather than endowments or
by C. N. Parkinson and, more recently and with specific
which is the more intellectually challenging, or the more
student fees. The influx of such external funds is indeed
reference to scientific work, by D. Gillies. The corollary is
socially useful. For this reason, proposals that involve the
now practically taken for granted, as evinced by the
obvious – "new ideas and controversial or unpopular
purchase of very expensive equipment are always likely
Wilson Review of Business – University Collaboration
opinions" are not likely to be favourably received and are
to be favoured over proposals to do theoretical work
(published in February, 2012), and comes mostly from
unlikely to be awarded funding. Nor is salvation to be
requiring only pencil and paper, even if the
the research councils, charities and businesses paying
expected from industry. In scientific, engineering and
measurements to be made with the equipment are of a
for research projects undertaken at universities.
technological fields the kind of research that companies
routine nature.
Continued page 4 >
CBET Bulletin Issue 6 Spring 2012 | 1
Opinion: The Ethics of University Research Continued ... The model statute also has regard to the need to
demand and, therefore, they readily achieve large
cost burden on the University and makes it even more
"engage in research efficiently and economically.” There is
incomes from external clients with relatively little effort.
imperative that high-income projects are favoured (the
nothing to suggest that this provision should predominate
Such large incomes could be used to offset the small
typically pedestrian nature of which also tends to ensure
over the need to ensure academic freedom, but
incomes inevitable when embarking in a new direction. In
that the risk of failure to obtain results is small).
nowadays in practice the income an academic is able to
time, one hopes that the new line will, in turn, become a
bring in is the main preoccupation, to the general
highly profitable venture that will itself, in turn, subsidize a
technology it is quite unnecessary to have such a large
new set of new ideas – there needs to be, of course, a
administrative corps. Properly written software could take
constant generation of new ideas if the University is going
care of many of the budget and project management
detriment of the originality and quality of ideas. This intense focus on research income generation breaks solidarity; a "dog-eat-dog" attitude becomes latently prevalent among staff. In a small university like
to be sustainable. The other essential need in order to ensure that
Given today's extremely sophisticated information
duties that are, at present, performed by a large staff who demonstrate their diligence by constantly requesting the
Cranfield, which has a small endowment and no
research is economical is to rigorously restrict the size of
academic staff to provide them with information. The
undergraduates, the pressure to bring in external funds is
the administrative corps. During the last few decades
administrators may be resistant to the automation of the
especially acute. Hence, external sources are guarded by
there has been a tendency to professionalize university
bulk of their work because, presumably, they will not be
the individuals tapping into them as jealously as were new
administration. Thus, vice-chancellors no longer rotate
eager to relinquish their jobs, but a drastic downscaling is
ideas in mediaeval establishments. This does not make
among the senior professors every one or two years, but
the only way to render the University economically and
research efficient, because the ensuing wrangling over
occupy their posts permanently and receive salaries that
intellectually sustainable – except for the rare institutions
the apportionment of funds among several investigators
might be five times the professorial level. A similar state of
like All Souls College, Oxford that can flourish thanks to
discourages true collaboration. Yet, there is nothing
affairs reigns lower down in the hierarchy with the heads
their endowment.
intrinsically wrong with cross-subsidization. Custodians of
of divisions and departments. There has also been an
highly specialized, complex equipment – such as a high-
enormous increase in the ratio of administrative to
The author was Chair of Nanotechnology at
resolution electron microscope – are likely to find it in high
academic staff numbers. All this imposes a very severe
Cranfield University.
Activities in brief
Dr Erden has been invited to be an independent evaluator for the final report (with recommendations for policy) which will be published in autumn 2012.
Artificial Intelligence Co-authored with Dr K. Magill, Dr Erden has written a
Researching Nanomaterials for Food Packaging
paper on ‘Autonomy and Desire in Machines and
In November 2011 Dr. Yasemin J Erden taught at a
issue of Cognitive Computation, forthcoming June 2012.
training school in Skopje organised by the European
Seven universities, ten research institutions and ten
Cooperation in Science and Technology (COST), one of
industrial partners, from thirteen countries, are teaming
Cognitive Agent Systems’ to be published in a special
the longest-running European frameworks supporting
up to develop ever more compact and streamlined
cooperation among scientists and researchers across
technology that slips seamlessly into our daily lives. The
Europe. This particular school is part of COST-FA0904
go into his report on ‘stakeholder engagement’ to the
project leaders have invited Dr Erden to be part of their
project on Polymer Nanomaterials for Food Packaging
European Commission. Related publications include: 4th
Ethics Advisory Board on ethical and social issues
(PNFP). On the same COST project Prof. Hunt and
NanoImpactNet Report on Stakeholders and their
relating to the development of these future and novel
Dr Erden visited Valencia in March for the European
Interests in Nanomedicine, Characterisation and
information and communication technologies (ICT)
conference of this project. During the conference Prof
Communication, Geoffrey Hunt, Luigi Cazolai, Darren
applications.
Hunt gave a presentation entitled ‘Plankton, Packaging,
Hart and Juan Riego-Sintes, 09.09.2011, Deliverable
and Particles’. As Vice-leader for the Inter Group Activity
4.1d; Hunt, G. & Riediker, M (2011) ‘Building Expert
Teaching
(young scientists) ‘Making the Future of Science’ in PNFP
Consensus on Uncertainty and Complexity in
In November 2011, Dr Pia Matthews facilitated a
Dr Erden helped at the conference to organise an early
Nanomaterial Safety’, Nanotechnology Perceptions, Vol.
symposium on bioethics and end of life issues for the
career researchers' round table meeting which has
7 (July) 82-98. See: www.nanoimpactnet.eu
resulted in a LinkedIn group being formed as well as
diocese of Arundel and Brighton. This was followed by two moral theology sessions at Canterbury Franciscan
plans for future meetings. She has also written a chapter
Ethics Expertise
Centre in March and two sessions on human dignity at
for the book ‘Ecosustainable Polymer Nanomaterials for
Commencing in 2012, Dr Erden has been invited to
the beginning of life and living life at Worth Abbey in April.
Food Packaging’ (Forthcoming, Brill) entitled ‘Ethics,
become an Independent Expert in Ethics for the
Christian evolution has been the focus of two book
Communication and Safety in the Use of PNFP’.
European Commission, in the evaluation of research
reviews Dr Matthews has written recently. She also has a
proposals submitted to the European Framework
paper on human dignity and disability to be published in
Researching Health Impacts of Nano
Programme. Dr Erden also participated in The Ethical
edition 17.2 of the CBET journal. She is also preparing a
Governance of EmergIng Technologies (EGAIS)
book for publication by the end of 2012. Natural Law
Since 2008 St Mary’s has been a consortium partner in
Consortium Workshop held in Namur, Belgium in
was the focus of a paper presented by Dr Matthews on
the NanoImpactNet project, a 4-year multidisciplinary
January. The Nuffield Council on Bioethics recently held a
Tuesday 22nd May at a seminar hosted by the
European project looking at the health and environmental
public consultation on emerging biotechnologies such as
Anscombe Bioethics Centre, "In Search of a Universal
impact of nanomaterials. The final project conference
synthetic biology and nanotechnology. The Working Party
Ethic: A New Look at the Natural Law". She is also
took place in Dublin in February 2012 which both Prof.
is considering the common ethical issues raised by such
preparing a paper on the persons (human and divine) for
Geoff Hunt and Dr Erden attended. Prof. Hunt led a
technologies, both past and present, and the implications
the Ian Ramsey Foundation to be presented in July.
survey into client satisfaction with the project, which will
for policy, governance and public engagement.
2 | CBET Bulletin Issue 6 Spring 2012
Continued page 4 >
Shopping for Organs in China: Expert visits CBET from Japan Dr Trevor Stammers Programme Director in bioethics and medical law We were privileged to have Prof. Masayuki OBAYASHI of
involved was also called into question. This unsurprisingly
Toyo Eiwa University, Tokyo, visit CBET at the end of
gave rise to huge public distrust of the whole process of
March. Prof. Obayashi is an ethnologist currently
organ transplantation in Japan and in particular of the
researching organ trafficking in China and as someone
accuracy of diagnosis of brain dead donors.
who has a research interest in this area, I had the
Even today brain death is widely rejected as a diagnosis
pleasure of spending several hours will him in discussion
of death and curiously is only accepted in Japanese law
at CBET and over lunch afterwards. Organ transplantation in Japan has a complicated and salutary history. Initially it was on a par with the rest of the developed world with the first full-scale kidney
as a diagnosis of death when organ donation is being considered. This has not surprisingly led to Japan having a very low rate of organ donation. Though the US population is
transplant intended for permanent grafting being carried
only around twice that of Japan, 100 times as many
out in 1964 at the University of Tokyo, followed by the
organ transplants are performed each year. The number
international conference last year also poignantly
first heart transplant in at Sapporo Medical University in
of patients on the waiting list for a kidney alone is almost
demonstrates this) and I was able to pass onto him the
1968. However the controversy over the latter brought transplantation in Japan almost to a standstill since the surgeon involved not only chose the recipient patient but
36 000 in Japan. Such a situation provides a climate in
US neurologist, Alan Shermon’s classic paper about his
which organ trafficking can and does flourish even
reservations over abuses he perceived of the diagnosis of
though selling organs is illegal in Japan. Prof Obayashi kindly let me have some of his pictures
brain death. The meeting confirmed to me the huge dangers of making organ donation rates worse if one fails
also carried out the brain stem death determination on
illustrating Japanese traditional attitudes towards death
to educate the general public sensitively, accurately and
the donor himself and the integrity of the paperwork
(the film Departures which was screened at CBET’s
without any sense of undue pressure.
Biometrics: Big Brother or Guardian Angel? Actually it’s both. But before I suggest why, a preamble will help navigate the purpose of my PhD study of the ethics of biometrics. The reason for looking at this subject began after studying the issues of consent and privacy associated with clinical photography in healthcare, which culminated in policy writing and two postgraduate degrees in bioethics (SMUC) and law (QMUL). In today’s digital world photographs have become images, which can be easily transmitted or published without the subject’s knowledge which in the case of celebrities have been contested in the courts. However, in healthcare privacy is coherent with dignity and therefore photography of patients is regulated by codes of practice, which are designed to restrain the ‘point &
The big question is: What does biometrics achieve and at
maturity has still to be reached. Much work has already
shoot’ culture prevalent elsewhere. With this in view, my
what cost?
been done by the EU funded RISE project, but there is
Technology aside, my main purpose is to examine the
biometrics is associated with maintaining security in and
curiosity turned to biometrical imaging such as iris scans and facial recognition technologies, and the purpose of
still some unfinished business. On one hand, most of
these in the post 9/11 world. And whether there was any
nature of biometric imaging and its effect on individuals
around transport termini. Is this Big Brother? When
useful paradigm between clinical images / photographs
and society. In medicine, the use of clinical images
biometrical data is accessed via surveillance cameras to
and biometric imaging. It is often assumed that biometrics and CCTV for
supports treatment and medical education. However,
verify individuals, is a panoptical nirvana within reach? If
given Kant’s maxim of not treating anyone as a means to
so at what cost of liberty?
surveillance began the day after 9/11. Both were in active
an end, the use of clinical photographs in medical
development before then, but were accelerated the day
teaching is secondary to the primary use of therapeutic
On the other hand, biometrics is also connected to the maintenance of personal security. An iris scan or
after the Twin Towers fell. The US Patriot Act stimulated a
documentation. This recognises the patient’s autonomy
fingerprint will verify your identity. In the future passwords
technology race to create the perfect foolproof system,
and is therefore conducive of dignity, in as much as it
will be unnecessary. An iris scan may gain you access to
which still remains elusive; and cannot deliver a high
coheres to similar ethical considerations associated in
online banking or ATMs. And your data will be secure
speed level of accuracy in some applications, therefore:
research scenarios. Yet arguably, in biometrics ethical
from hackers! Biometrics, your Guardian Angel! Continued page 4 >
CBET Bulletin Issue 6 Spring 2012 | 3
CBET resident staff Technology ethics Prof. Geoffrey Hunt CBET Director and Professorial Research Fellow Tel: +44 (0)20 8240 2311 Email: huntg@smuc.ac.uk Dr Yasemin J. Erden Research Fellow in Ethics & Emerging Technologies Tel: +44 (0)20 8240 4250 Email: erdenyj@smuc.ac.uk
Biomedicine ethics Dr Trevor Stammers Programme Director in Bioethics Tel: +44 (0)20 8240 4310 Email: stammerst@smuc.ac.uk
Additional staff Prof. David Albert Jones Visiting Professor of Bioethics Email: director@bioethics.org.uk Dr Wendy Hiscox Lecturer in Medical Law Tel: +44 (0)20 8240 4250 Email: w_hiscox@yahoo.co.uk Prof. Rodney Taylor Visiting Professor Tel: +44 (0)20 8240 4250 Email: taylorr@smuc.ac.uk Mr Matthew James CBET Administrator Tel: +44 (0)20 8240 4250 Email: jamesm@smuc.ac.uk Dr Pia Matthews Lecturer in Healthcare Ethics Tel: +44 (0)20 8240 4250 Email: pia.matthews@smuc.ac.uk
Biometrics: Big Brother or Guardian Angel Emerging Themes
sociological: trusting others for instance. Within the
Firstly, the issue is not specifically about imaging and the
reach of these three, the intention is to discuss the
connections to my earlier work, though informative does
effects on the individual and society generally.
not directly apply. Secondly, the technology is here to
Specifically looking at the nature of autonomy, trust and
stay and is likely to improve exponentially, for instance
the political will imposed by a ‘state of exception’, which
who would have thought in 1980, you would be
has to some degree suspended 250 years of moral
accessing something called email on a cell phone.
thought related to the individual and society. All of this is
Thirdly, there are benefits, especially if passwords are a
somewhat removed from my previous work on privacy
pain; however the eschatological implications are of
and consent, but which will remain in the background as
concern to a large minority.
the thesis evolves.
Fourthly, biometrics affects all of us, and encroaches on three aspects of modern life, the ethical: obtaining and the handling of the data; the political: governmental
Ian Berle
response to terror threats and security issues; and the
Doctoral student in CBET
Activities in Brief Continued ... Contributing to the ongoing public conversation
parts of the world. Co-authored with Dr Stephen
concerning the ethics of abortion Dr Trevor Stammers
Bullivant (TPH, St Mary’s), Dr Stammers has a chapter in
wrote an article published in the British Medical Journal
a textbook on healthcare and spirituality to be published
entitled ‘The Hand of God’ in December
by OUP in July 2012.
2011.'Evolution, Divine Command Theory and Moral
Tel: 020 8240 4250 Fax: 020 8240 2362 www.smuc.ac.uk/cbet
4 | CBET Bulletin Issue 6 Spring 2012
Visiting Professor Rodney Taylor has recently
Foundations' was the title of a lecture given by Dr
engaged in an extensive period of teaching and learning.
Stammers on Saturday 7th January as part of the
Since December Prof. Taylor has been teaching at
Society of Apothecaries' Philosophy of Medicine course.
Imperial College, London on the second year Medical
Over recent months the question of organ donation has
Ethics and Law course and on the intercalated BSc
never seemed too far away from the media spotlight,
course on Death, Autopsy and the Law. He has also
particularly following the Welsh Assembly's white paper
taught on the Diploma in the Philosophy of Medicine
consultation on an opt-out system for organ donation.
course at the Society of Apothecaries, and taught
Dr Stammers has been involved in a number of events
American postgraduate healthcare administrators on
which have looked at the ethical implications behind this
MBA courses. In addition to this he has also taught
emotive topic.
several history of medicine courses and continues as
On Sunday 22nd January, he gave a lecture on the
Convenor of Examiners in the History of Medicine. As
ethics of organ donation in Cardiff for CARE Wales. In
Senior Warden of the Worshipful Society of
May, he spoke on the ethics of organ donation at
Apothecaries, Prof. Taylor anticipates becoming Master
Maidstone Hospital for Kent’s Regional Training Day on
this summer. Prof. Taylor has also recently become a
Organ Donation. On the related theme of the global
member of the Management Committee of the King’s
trade in human organs, Dr Stammers will also be
College London (KCL) Haemato-Oncology Tissue Bank,
speaking as part of an ethics study module at Surrey
a research biobank licensed by the Human Tissue
University, convened by Dr Anne Gallagher.
Authority.
Dr Stammers attended the Cambridge University
Centre for Bioethics & Emerging Technologies St Mary's University College Waldegrave Road, Strawberry Hill Twickenham TW1 4SX
Continued ...
Prof. Hunt gave an introductory presentation on
Press 2nd Annual Conference on Teaching Bioethics, in
nanotechnology to higher level pupils at The
Paris from the 11th-13th April which focused on a draft
Charterhouse School, Surrey on 9th February. This was
paper delineating the goals of bioethics education. This
followed by his Inaugural Lecture at St Mary’s on 21st
provided ample opportunity for networking and
February in which he explained why he thought there
promoting the St Mary’s MA course at St Mary's as well
were theoretical and evidential grounds to conclude that
as scope to exchange ideas and best practice from
the whole project of science as currently understood is
those who are involved in teaching bioethics in different
incompletable. For a copy contact huntg@smuc.ac.uk.