Durham Castle Journal 2021 by castlemcr

DURHAM

CASTLE JOURNAL 2 0 2 1

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Introduction academic, its interdisciplinary nature means that it has also been designed with non-subject specialists in mind: it seeks both to celebrate the detailed and complex research undertaken by University College students (as well as other students who have also contributed to the academic life of the college this year) and to share this research across the divisions that all too often segregate academic disciplines. The same impulse behind the atomisation of academic subjects is also apparent in the seclusion of academic institutions from the world beyond. Located in a walled and gated 11th century castle, University College (generally known as Castle) is often seen as emblematic of this climate of segregation and elitism that has pervaded academic spaces historically and in the present. A growing awareness of the urgent need to recognise, challenge, and Hello Everyone,

unsettle the structures that perpetuate inequalities on campus and in wider society, has underpinned

The first edition of the Durham Castle Journal is

the college’s academic programme this year, cul-

finally here and it has certainly been worth the

minating in the 2021 Durham Castle Conference

wait. The journal is University College Durham’s

contemplating the themes of Power, Privilege and

new scholarly journal, created by the Castle Mid-

Possible Futures.

dle Common Room Academic Committee, which showcases the academic research conducted with-

The conference, held virtually in June 2021,

in and beyond our college. It is a proudly interdis-

brought together postgraduate speakers from across

ciplinary journal, featuring papers from students

the North of England and Scotland with a wide

working across the sciences, the social sciences,

range of topics from cinematic representations of

and the arts and humanities as well as displaying

women’s mobility and sign language in poetry to

a range of work contributed by undergraduate,

the future of the galaxy and an afrocentric approach

postgraduate taught, and postgraduate research

to the politics of astronomy. We were honoured to

students. Whilst the journal is first and foremost

welcome Professor Kehinde Andrews as the key-

Front Cover Image: Sophie Draper

Page 3 note speaker and the conference also hosted an ex-

porting life; and the politics of graffiti in spaces of

pert panel to discuss vital issues of decolonisation

confinement and isolation. Especially relevant to

within the British higher education system. Videos

our own college, we even have a paper on the me-

of the keynote speech and panel discussion can be

dieval castle as a symbol of power. We hope that

found here. Planning is already underway for the

this journal can provide a snapshot of the current

Durham Castle Conference 2022: Transitions and

research undertaken in Castle at this transitional

New Realities, which will take place in April 2022

moment both globally and within our own academ-

(see page 108 for more information).

ic community. But more than that, we hope it will convey an impression of the academic life of the

It was a huge privilege to hear the wonderful array

college as a whole, taking in both the exclusive in-

of ideas and research shared at the conference and a

stitutional structures in which this research contin-

real pleasure to experience the sense of community

ues to be embedded and the values of open-minded-

that emerged amongst so many talented and com-

ness and self-critique that are necessary to confront

mitted postgraduates, especially after the isolation

these structures.

of the previous year. We have tried to capture a flavour of this event in the final section of this journal,

A brief note on the formatting: in light of the jour-

which is dedicated to several of the research papers

nal’s interdisciplinary approach, we made the ed-

and posters presented at the conference.

itorial decision not to impose a single format, but allowed each author to choose the format and referencing systems they felt most appropriate to their work, although we have chosen and implemented a common font and presentation across the papers. The resulting constellation of styles may seem a little unusual at first but we are very pleased with the result, ensuring each contributor is able to use the system they feel best represents their research whilst maintaining an overall sense of cohesion throughout the journal. Finally, a big thank you to everyone who has been involved in the journal and the academic life of Castle over the last year. It has been a pleasure working with you all and I’m so proud of what we

Durham Castle Journal 2021 is a collection of nine

have achieved together.

research papers and two research posters, discussing topics as varied and topical as: flood response

Aidan Bracebridge (he/him)

policies in Mozambique; newly developing tech-

MCR Academic Officer 2020-21

niques for observing distant planets capable of sup-

University College Durham

Page 4

Contents Introduction by Aidan Bracebridge

Foreword by Wendy Powers & Ellen Crabtree

The Possible Future of Ground Based Exoplanet Detection by Kathryn Hartley

The Importance of £76.75: Britain’s Responses to East German Classical Music

Diplomacy (1955–1972) by Yundi Guo

X-ray Imaging Studies of Nanoscale Magnetic Skyrmions by Luke Turnbull

Fundamental Differences in the Radio Properties of the Red and Blue Quasars by

V. A. Fawcett, D. M. Alexander, D. J. Rosario, L. Klindt, S. Fotopoulou, E. Lusso, L. K. Morabito, & G. Calistro Rivera

Climate Hotspot: An Analysis of Urban Flooding in the City of Maputo in Mo-

zambique by Filipe Mate

Selling Out or Exacting Change? Paul Beatty’s The Sellout, Don DeLillo’s Zero K

and the End of History by Aidan Bracebridge

Reliability of Working Memory Measures Across Different Types of Visual Stimulation: Modulating Location Dependence of Memory Items by Harry Seymour

Page 5

Château Gaillard: A Study of a Twelfth-Century Castle as Artwork and a Symbol

of Power by Capri Pappas

Resistant Writings: Considering the Relationship Between Graffiti, Power and

Privilege in Controlled and Restricted Spaces by Emma Bryning

A New Strategy of Digital Documentation Approach for Conservation: A Case

106

Study of Al-’Ula by Wajdi Ali Atwah

Education & Power: Class & Its Privilege by Hinna Abid

107

Acknowledgements

109

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Foreword

We are delighted to share with you this showcase

We are indebted to the 2020-2021 University Col-

of cutting-edge research University College stu-

lege MCR Academic Officer, Aidan Bracebridge,

dents have undertaken, as well as postgrads from

along with his cross-disciplinary team for their vi-

across the North of England. We are privileged to

sion, organisation and planning for this academic

teach and learn in higher education, and we must

journal as well as the powerful Castle Conference

take seriously the responsibility of educating crit-

held on 4-5 June 2021. We share our students’ com-

ical thinkers who will make a difference in our lo-

mitment to learn from the challenges of the past

cal, national and global communities. This journal

and committing to creative ways we can all make

seeks to display both the diverse range of research

a difference in our personal and professional lives.

being conducted across our University College

The journal and conference theme tackles contem-

student body, and the way our academic commu-

porary issues of privilege, power and access to elite

nity engages with broader social issues beyond our

spaces head on, and we are so proud of our student

castle walls. There is no more important topic than

community for providing space for brave conver-

the one explored in the 2021 Durham Castle Con-

sations, ensuring that we learn from each other and

ference and the companion section of the journal

become better allies and advocates for justice and

– Power, Privilege and Possible Futures. We must

equality.

interrogate personal, institutional and systemic privilege and power in order to dismantle White

Our collegiate home, Durham Castle, is a site of

supremacy and rebuild our communities, institu-

scholarly exploration and exchange stretching back

tions and systems with equity and justice at their

many centuries. In 2022, we will mark 950 years of

core.

Durham Castle and will host a dynamic programme

Page 7 of events to celebrate this remarkable history. The

ence, but it is the academic life of the College that

Castle belongs to all of us – members of the col-

grounds us.

lege, neighbours, alumni, and thousands of annual visitors. Durham Castle has been our home since

We have robust partnerships with Durham Uni-

the 1830s, when Bishop Van Mildert gifted the cas-

versity’s Institute for Medieval and Early Modern

tle to Durham University. Durham Castle is also

Studies, the Institute for Advanced Studies and

the home of Tunstall – mathematican and political

the Global Policy Institute, each of which afford

innovator, who negotiated his way through all the

us the tremendous opportunity to host visiting ac-

Tudors and lived to tell the tale. It’s the home of

ademics and residential Fellows from around the

5000 museum and collection items, the home of

world who share their research interests and discov-

100 students who live inside the castle walls while

eries with our community. We also benefit from the

pursuing myriad academic disciplines, and the

wisdom of 14 Senior Common Room Fellows, 5

home of nearly 100 dedicated staff who serve the

Emeritus Fellows and our Chaplain and Solway

college and castle with dedication and honour. We

Fellow – these fellows represent a variety of disci-

have the privilege to call this place home, and we

plines and professions, and each contributes to the

are committed to sharing and celebrating Durham

intellectual engagement in College.

Castle’s heritage with as many different audiences as possible whilst challenging those who pass

Perhaps one of our most well-known academ-

through our doors to look at the world in new ways.

ic opportunities is our Castle Lecture Series, including such renowned speakers as Saskia Sas-

The

Durham

University

Collegiate

system

sen, Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Rowan Williams,

is all about community building and student learn-

Peter Singer, Carol Ann Duffy, and many oth-

ing, with everything designed to complement and

ers. Presentation topics including globalization and

support the academic life of each undergraduate

human migration, the politics of climate change,

and postgraduate student. University College is

and the future of the university have led to robust

home to nearly 700 undergraduate and 500 post-

conversations with Castle student and faculty schol-

graduate scholars in our Junior and Middle Com-

ars. Particularly poignant given our current theme

mon Rooms, as well as nearly 500 academic and

is the talk Professor Christian Jopke delivered in

professional colleagues in our Senior Common

2018 entitled ‘Is Multiculturalism Dead?’ Just as

Room. We are an academic community striving

the Castle Conference consistently delivers a dy-

to ensure each student flourishes in their chosen

namic and thought-provoking learning opportu-

discipline and feels a strong sense of belonging in

nity, so too the Castle Lecture Series creates a vi-

our learning community. The Common Room sys-

brant atmosphere for intellectual debate on major

tem intentionally includes the Senior Common

issues of global importance. We look forward to re-

Room, replete with esteemed scholars and commu-

starting the Lecture Series for the College and the

nity leaders further contributing to the intellectual

community in the coming academic year.

life of the College and her students. Of course, socializing is an integral part of the student experi-

The University College MCR recently earned the

Page 8 Durham Students Union 2020 – 2021 ‘Best Student

munities – issues of race, class, and other social

Group’ award by working diligently throughout the

identities often divide, isolate and exclude rather

Covid-19 pandemic to ensure a robust co-curricu-

than uniting, connecting and strengthening. Just

lar offering for its students. Led by MCR President

as in broader society, we grapple with ignorance,

Vicky Fawcett, the student leaders coordinated

intolerance, bias and even bigotry. But we have

numerous Sunday Seminars, welcomed Olympic

begun the difficult work of interrogating privilege,

medallist and climate activist Etienne Stott for a

and educating one another to disrupt the systems,

talk, engaged many with our College Chaplain for

traditions and expectations that keep us from ful-

an Interfaith Dialogue, hosted multiple profession-

filling our best possible future.

al development workshops for Postgrad Research students, offered bursaries for students in need as

Our vision for the future will be achieved when

well as prizes for academic research, hosted many

we have created a truly diverse, brave and inspir-

social activities, facilitated a successful new stu-

ing learning environment that thrives on sharing,

dent orientation program, and organized both the

listening, celebrating, challenging and support-

Castle Conference and this tremendous Academic

ing one another across our Common Rooms and

Journal. With a new slate of student leaders look-

with our alumni, neighbours and guests. In time

ing ahead to next year, there are plans to reinstate

and with a great deal of effort and humility, we

financial support for postgrad attendance at pro-

are confident University College will become rec-

fessional conferences, engagement with academic

ognized across

research, and other employability/career develop-

the region as a leader in the advancement of so-

ment opportunities. As the Castle Conference and

cial justice-oriented leadership development, peer

this journal attest, the award-winning University

education, academic research and community

College Middle Common Room serves as a sig-

action. This journal and the 2021 Castle Confer-

nificant catalyst in our college-wide effort toward

ence are important steps on the journey, and there

becoming a more diverse and inclusive communi-

will be many, many more steps to come. Once

ty. Not only do our postgraduate students hail from

again, we are grateful to Aidan and the team of stu-

around the world, but our MCR student leaders are

dents who coordinated both, and we invite those of

passionate about ensuring a welcoming and cele-

you engaging with this journal to explore the ways

bratory environment for all.

you might make a difference as well.

The MCR’s commitment reflects our belief that

Floreat Collegium!

the

university

and throughout

University College must strengthen her culture in terms of equality, diversity and inclusion. We as-

Professor Wendy Powers, Principal

pire to be a bold inclusive learning community

Dr Ellen Crabtree, Vice-Principal

in which each member feels an enduring sense of belonging. Those who know us recognize that we

University College | Durham University

have work to do to achieve this ambitious goal. It is

The Castle | Palace Green | Durham | DH1 3RW

no secret that here at Castle – like most other com-

The Possible Future of Ground Based Exoplanet Detection Kathryn Hartley

Supervised by Dr Richard Wilson & Dr James Osborn Kathryn Hartley outlines a new technique for observing exoplanets – planets in other solar systems – from ground-based telescopes, the only telescopes big enough to observe key details in determining whether or not life may exist on these planets. Developing this method further, she suggests, can enhance the search for other planets hospitable to life, by using a form of 3D imaging to correct the scintillation – or twinkling – of stars caused by turbulence in the earth’s atmosphere, which forms a significant obstacle to the observation of exoplanets. Image: P. Horálek/ESO. https://www.eso.org/public/images/potw1813a/

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1. Introduction One of the biggest questions philosophers have posed over the centuries is ‘are we alone in the Universe?’. The discovery of exoplanets, planets around stars other than our own, has been a huge breakthrough in astronomy which could provide an answer to this very question.

Castle Research Postgraduate Paper The recent discovery of phosphine gas in the cloud decks of Venus [3] is an exciting signal of potential life on other planets. The presence of phosphine gas is unexplained after exhaustive studies of Venus’ atmosphere, clouds and surface; leaving only two options: either it originates from unknown photochemistry/geochemistry, or from the presence of life. This discovery has spurred on new hope for the detection of life on

One of the most successful methods of exoplan-

exoplanets and thus the need for scintillation correction

et detection is the transit method. This is where a dip techniques. As of yet, no such instrumentation for scinin the measured brightness from a star is observed as tillation correction is in use. a planet passes between the star and our line of sight. Exoplanet surveys such as the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) [1] are finding many exoplanet transit candidates around bright stars. These candidates require follow up observations from the ground to confirm their existence.

‘Scintillation correction for astronomical photometry on large and extremely large telescopes with tomographic atmospheric reconstruction’ by James Osborn (2016) describes a new concept for scintillation noise correction on large telescopes. The concept is to use a tomographic algorithm and several guide stars

However, ground based observations are limited to reconstruct a 3D model of the turbulence above the by scintillation noise, a source of noise produced by telescope. The reconstructed turbulence model can then high altitude turbulence in the atmosphere. The intensi-

be used to get an estimate for the scintillation pattern.

ty variations produced by atmospheric turbulence range This estimated scintillation pattern can then be used to from 0.1% to 1.0% whilst exoplanet transit depths can correct the measured light curve. be much smaller, on the order of 0.01% to 0.1% [2]. The measurement and correction of atmospheric scintillation is therefore vital for ground based observations of such transits.

In simulation, it was shown that the scintillation noise can be reduced by a factor of up to between 5 and 10 depending on the instrumentation. This was simulated with 5 guide stars, four on a ring of radius 45 arcsec

Scintillation correction is also needed for more and one in the centre of the field [4]. The simulation advanced studies of the planetary systems. For exam-

was only performed on an atmosphere made up of only

ple, from measurements of the absorption and emission 2 layers. Although this method has been shown to work lines at different wavelengths of an exoplanet transit, theoretically, it had not been thoroughly simulated or the molecular composition of the planet’s atmosphere tested on-sky (i.e., on a real telescope). can be determined. These measurements help to develop our understanding of atmospheric processes including atmospheric chemistry, the greenhouse effect and the physics of clouds and winds. Most significantly, these studies could lead to the discovery of life on other planets.

This paper shows the results from a more vigorous simulation in preparation for an on-sky test at the Isaac Newton Telescope (INT) in La Palma. A tomographic algorithm was used to reconstruct the turbulence. The Trapezium asterism (a group of stars in the Orion nebula) has been selected as a suitable on-sky

Page 11

Kathryn Hartley target. This asterism was rigorously tested in simula-

the shape and duration of the transit dip. This includes

tion on fifteen real turbulance profiles to test the tomo-

the planet’s mass, radius, and distance from it’s parent

graphic model on a realistic atmosphere.

star. For example, the depth of the transit is directly

2. Theory

proportional to the ratio of the radius of the planet to the radius of the star as given by:

2.1 Transits (1) where ∆F is the change in the flux (i.e., brightness) of the star, Rp is the planet radius and R is the star’s ra* dius. From observations of a transit in multiple wavelengths, details of the planet’s atmosphere can be determined. As the light passes through the atmosphere the different molecules within the atmosphere will absorb light at certain wavelengths creating lines in the measured spectra of the light. From this the planet’s atmospheric composition can be determined. However, this Figure 1: A schematic showing an exoplanet transit and its

method requires a large amount of light and therefore

lightcurve.

requires a large telescope and hence must be done from the ground. Scintillation noise significantly limits these

Exoplanets are planets around stars other than our own.

observations.

Planets do not emit light and therefore cannot easily be observed directly. Hence, exoplanets are often detect-

2.2 Scintillation Theory

ed by the effects they have on their parent star. One of the most successful methods for detecting exoplanets The twinkling of stars, known as scintillation, has puzis the transit method. This is where a dip in the mea- zled observers for centuries. Many astronomers have sured brightness of a star is observed as a planet passes come up with theories of its origin; Aristotle believed between the observer and the star as demonstrated in the effect to be due to a weakness in the eye, Leonarfigure 1. Satellite surveys such as TESS which was

do Da Vinci believed it to be an optical illusion, whilst Johannes Kepler believed it was the stars themselves

launched in April 2018 measures the brightness of changing in brightness. It wasn’t until the eighteenth thousands of stars and searches for these characteristic century that Isaac Newton correctly attributed the effect periodic dips in brightness [1]. These candidates then of scintillation to atmospheric turbulence [5]. require follow up observations from the ground to con- As light propagates through the atmosphere, arfirm their existence and for further study.

eas of optical turbulence can act as a lens which can

One of the main benefits of the transit method is either focus or defocus the incoming starlight. This prothat a large number of parameters can be determined by duces a ‘flying shadow’ pattern which crosses the tele-

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Castle Research Postgraduate Paper

scope pupil. An example of a scintillation pattern can es to produce a 3D image. Tomographic reconstruction be seen in figure 5a. These patterns then change over in astronomy was first proposed by Tallon and Foy in time as the ‘flying shadows’ move with the wind and as

1990 [7]. Their proposition was to use the light from

the turbulence itself evolves [6]. This changing pattern several guide stars to probe the 3D phase perturbations is what produces the noise in the measured intensity of and to reconstruct the turbulence volume by solving an the star.

inverse problem. This method has been developed over

The amount of scintillation in a light curve is measured by the scintillation index

. This is given

time by several groups including Fusco et al. [8]. In astronomy, Wavefront Sensors (WFS) are used

by the variance of the relative intensity fluctuations of to image slices of the turbulence above the telescope. A the source:

WFS measures the distortions of the incoming starlight to produce an image of the summed turbulence in the (2)

direction of the star. Multiple guide stars are then used to measure these distortions in multiple directions. If

where I is the intensity as a function of time and

rep-

the heights and relative strengths of the turbulent layers

resents an ensemble average. The scintillation noise σI

are known, a 3D model can then be determined by the

is the square-root of the scintillation index. Scintillation geometry of the guidestars and hence the relative overcan therefore be studied either by measuring the scintillation index or by observing the scintillation patterns [6].

lap in the WFS measurements, as shown in figure 2. The turbulence at low altitudes will be well sampled as there is a large overlap between WFS measurements. As you get to higher altitudes the amount of over-

2.3 Tomography

lap reduces and so there is less information to use in the reconstruction. Once altitudes are reached where there is no overlap of the WFS measurements, there will be little correlation between them, and so the turbulence cannot be reconstructed at these heights. Therefore, this technique can only be used when guide stars are close enough together such that their measurements overlap at high altitudes. This is a particular problem for small telescopes where the required distance between the stars becomes impossibly small. It is for this reason that tomography is only suitable for larger telescopes [4].

Figure 2: A schematic showing the concept of astronomical

Several astronomy Adaptive Optics (AO) meth-

tomography. WFS measurements of stars are used to probe

ods that use tomography to correct image distortions

the turbulent atmosphere in different directions.

are currently being developed including multi object AO (MOAO) [9], laser tomography AO (LTAO) [10]

Tomography is where a medium is imaged in sections and Multi-Conjugate AO (MCAO) [11]. However, toto produce a 3D image. An everyday example of this

mography has never before been used to correct scintil-

technique is a CT scan which images the body in slic-

lation.

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Kathryn Hartley 2.4 Stereo-SCIDAR

An example of the turbulence profile measured

To perform the tomographic reconstruction, knowledge of the turbulence profile is needed including the relative strength of the turbulent layers and their location. This can be measured using a turbulence profiler such as Stereo-SCIDAR. Stereo-SCIDAR is an instrument that measures turbulence strength as a function of height. It works by observing two stars with angular separation θ. Turbulence at height h will produce two copies of the intensity fluctuation pattern at the ground which will be separated by a distance of hθ. Cross-correlating the intensity patterns of these two stars allows the heights and strengths of the turbulent layers to be measured [12]. The maximum altitude that Stereo-SCIDAR can observe is given by:

by Stereo-SCIDAR in 2013 in La Palma can be seen in figure 3 where the

colour scale is a measure

of turbulence strength. A strong layer of turbulence is consistently observed around 12km which is due to the jet stream. A strong layer of turbulence is also seen near the ground, caused by the heat from the ground.

3. Method The proposed method is to use multiple guide stars around a target star to probe the atmosphere from which a 3D model of the turbulence above the telescope can be produced using tomography. This model can then be used in simulation to produce an estimate for the scintillation pattern across the telescope pupil. This estimated scintillation pattern can then in turn be used to correct

(3) where D is the telescope diameter and θ is the angle between the two stars. For a given telescope, θ should be chosen such that hmax is ~ 20km since this is the maximum height of any optical turbulence [12].

for scintillation noise in the target star’s intensity. The results in this paper were simulated for the Isaac Newton Telescope (INT), a 2.54m diameter telescope at Roque de los Muchachos Observatory in La Palma, Canary Islands, as it is planned to test this method on-sky using the INT in September 2021.

Figure 3: An example of a turbulence profile measured by Stereo-SCIDAR [12].

Castle Research Postgraduate Paper

Page 14 3.1 Simulation Flow Chart

To test this proposed method a simulation was produced. A flow chart of this simulation is shown below.

Stereo-SCIDAR data taken in La Palma in 2015 was used to produce realistic turbulence profiles. Optimal Grouping [13] was used to group the data into 15 profiles each with 15 layers [14]. These profiles were used to simulate accurate atmospheres above the INT. Thesecould then be used to test potential target asterisms in preparation for on-sky observations.

(a) Simulated high turbulent layer.

(b) Reconstructed high turbulent layer.

Figure 4: (4a) An example of a simulated high turbulent layer at 10km. (4b) An example of the reconstructed high turbulent layer.

(a) Scintillation pattern.

(b) Estimated Scintillation pattern.

Figure 5: (5a) An example of a scintillation pattern (or ‘flying shadow’ pattern) across a telescope pupil. (5b) The estimated scintillation pattern produced from the turbulence model across a telescope pupil.

Kathryn Hartley

Page 15 The corrected (green) lightcurve is the remaining inten-

4. Results 4.1 Parameter Selection

sity after removing the predicted scintillation noise.The low frequency scintillation noise has been successfully measured and removed. Having tested the validity of the simulation’s tomographic reconstruction method, the simulation could then be used to test a wide range of parameters. The details of these tests go beyond the scope of this paper. However, the results can be summarised as: 1. An exposure time of 0.1s for the INT was found to

Figure 6: An example of a simulated lightcurve showing the uncorrected, measured (from the scintillation estimate) and corrected lightcurve.

be optimal 2. 3 stars were found to be sufficient to perform the tomography

The simulation described in §3.1 was used to a test a wide range of observation parameters.The simulations 3. The stars must be brighter than around 12th magniwere all performed for the INT.

tude (where a lower magnitude is a brighter star)

An example of a simulated turbulent layer can be seen in figure 4a and its tomographic reconstruction 4.2 Target Asterism in figure 4b. It can be seen that the tomographic reconstructor has effectively reconstructed the low order spatial scales of the altitude turbulence. High order spatial scales however cannot be easily reconstructed. The scintillation pattern produced by this turbulence can be seen in figure 5a and the estimated scintillation pattern produced by the tomographic turbulence model can be seen in figure 5b. When comparing the two patterns it is not obvious that the estimated scintillation pattern is a good estimate of the true scintillation pattern. This is because the method can only measure the low-order scales in the pattern and cannot estimate the higher order fluctuations. This is clearly seen by looking at an example lightcurve shown in figure 6. The uncorrected (blue) lightcurve is the original intensity seen by the telescope. The measured (orange) lightcurve is the predicted intensity from the tomographic turbulence model.

Based on the results in §4.1 a suitable target for on-sky tests on the INT could then be found. Finding suitable targets for the INT is challenging due to it’s relatively small aperture size of 2.54m. Only a handful of potential targets were found, the most suitable of which was the Trapezium asterism. The Trapezium, or Orion Trapezium Cluster, is a tight open cluster of stars in the heart of the Orion Nebula. The target chosen is three of the stars from this cluster, details of which can be found in table 1. A schematic of the asterism can be seen in figure 7. The configuration of the three stars was chosen such that the target star was at the centre. Theta1 Orionis C has been chosen as the target as it is the brightest and provides a suitable configuration with respect to Theta1 Orionis A and D such that it can be placed in the centre of the metapupil. The Fourth star, Theta1 Orionis

Castle Research Postgraduate Paper

Page 16 Table 1: The target asterism parameters.

Figure 7: A schematic of the Trapezium cluster.

B, can then be used as a comparison star. The Trapezium asterism was tested on the 15 4.3 Transit Analysis Profiles taken from La Palma. An exposure time of 0.1s was used and a total light curve of 100s was measured for each profile. 15 layers were used for each turbulence profile. The average reduction in the scintillation noise was found to be 3.2 ± 0.5. This shows great promise for our on-sky experiment scheduled for September 2021. Figure 8: An example of a simulated exoplanet transit lightcurve in green with realistic scintillation noise added in blue and tomographically reduced scintillation noise added in orange.

Kathryn Hartley

Page 17

The scintillaiton noise reduction technique was then ap-

The results from using MCMC on the simulat-

plied to a simulated transit to investigate the improve-

ed lightcurves can be seen in figure 9. The measured

ment in transit lightcurve measurements. Artificial tran-

depth for the transit lightcurve with realistic scintilla-

sit lightcurves for Kelt-3b, a real exoplanet transit, were tion noise is 0.0931 ± 0.00098. However, the measured simulated, which has Rp / R = 0.0939 ± 0.0011 [15]. * An example of such a lightcurve is shown in fig-

depth for the transit lightcurve with the tomographically reduced scintillation noise of 0.0937 ± 0.0005 is much

ure 8. The green curve is the ideal real transit with no closer to the true depth of 0.0939 ± 0.0011. In addinoise. The blue curve shows the simulated transit under tion, the uncertainty in the measurement is reduced by normal atmospheric conditions. Using the tomographic a factor of 1.8. Hence, reducing the scintillation noise reconstruction method, the noise is reduced by on aver-

for exoplanet transits will lead to more accurate results

age a factor of 3.2, as shown by the orange curve.

and reduced uncertainty. Furthermore, this will enable

A Markov-Chain Monte-Carlo (MCMC) method smaller planets to be detected from the ground. was used to fit the transit theory curve (in green) to both the transit lightcurve and the lightcurve with reduced scintillation noise [15]. This is a method that randomly changes the value of one of the parameters which defines the theory curve and then measures how well this new theory curve fits to the data. Whether the change is accepted is randomly chosen with a probability distribution dependent on whether the new fitness is better or worse. In other words, it is more likely a change to the theory curve will be accepted if the new fitness is better than the old fitness. This is done many times to produce a histogram for each parameter such that the best fit can be measured.

5. Conclusion In conclusion, the detection of exoplanets is essential in the search for habitable Earth-like planets. However, ground-based exoplanet transit observations are significantly limited by scintillation noise, a source of noise produced by high altitude turbulence in the atmosphere. Measuring the turbulence in multiple directions using guide stars can be used to produce atomographic estimate for the scintillation noise. This estimated noise can then be used to correct the scintillation noise in the target light curve. Simulations of this technique show promising results. It was found that only three stars are needed for a reasonable correction. The Trapezium asterism was used to demonstrate this method on a real target. Fifteen profiles taken from La Palma were modelled, each with fifteen layers. This resulted in an average reduction in the scintillation noise of 3.2 ± 0.4. Testing this on simulated transit lightcurves lead to more accurate results with a reduction in uncertainty of 1.8.

Figure 9: The results from performing MCMC on simulated Kelt-3b lightcurves. The results for a realistic scintillation noise are in blue, and the tomographically reduced scintillation noise is given in orange.

This simulation is being extended to work for Laser Guide Stars (LGS), an artificial star produced by pointing lasers into the sky. The main advantage of using LGS is that it would mean that the tomography could be performed for any target star

Page 18

Castle Research Postgraduate Paper

which doesn’t have close by bright stars. However, Scintillation correction will be measured for a range of LGS induce more noise into the tomography. The vi-

exposure times. In addition the number of layers need-

ability of using LGS must therefore be investigated. ed for the reconstruction matrix can be further investiThe validity of this method is to be tested on sky

gated with the on-sky data.

at the INT in La Palma in September (Covid allowing).

References [1] J. Villanueva, Steven, D. Dragomir, and B. S. Gaudi, “An Estimate of the Yield of Single-transit Planetary Events from the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite,” The Astronomical Journal, vol. 157, p. 84, Feb. 2019. [2] J. Osborn, D. Föhring, V. S. Dhillon, and R. W. Wilson, “Atmospheric scintillation in astronomical photometry,” Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, vol. 452, p. 1707–1716, Jul 2015. [3] J. S. Greaves, A. M. S. Richards, W. Bains, P. B. Rimmer, H. Sagawa, D. L. Clements, S. Seager, J. J. Petkowski, C. Sousa-Silva, S. Ranjan, E. Drabek-Maunder, H. J. Fraser, A. Cartwright, I. Mueller-Wodarg, Z. Zhan, P. Friberg, I. Coulson, E. Lee, and J. Hoge, “Phosphine gas in the cloud decks of Venus,” Nature Astronomy, Sept. 2020. [4] J. Osborn, “Scintillation correction for astronomical photometry on large and extremely large telescopes with tomographic atmospheric reconstruction,” Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, vol. 446, pp. 1305–1311, 11 2014. [5] V. F. Sofieva, F. Dalaudier, and J. Vernin, “Using stellar scintillation for studies of turbulence in the earth’s atmosphere,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engi-

neering Sciences, vol. 371, no. 1982, p. 20120174, 2013. [6] D. Dravins, L. Lindegren, E. Mezey, and A. T. Young, “Atmospheric intensity scintillation of stars, i. statistical distributions and temporal properties,” Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, vol. 109, p. 173, feb 1997. [7] M. Tallon and R. Foy, “Adaptive telescope with laser probe: isoplanatism and cone effect.,” Astronomy

and Astrophysics, vol. 235, pp. 549–557, Aug. 1990. [8] T. Fusco, J.-M. Conan, G. Rousset, L. M. Mugnier, and V. Michau, “Optimal wave-front reconstruction strategies for multiconjugate adaptive optics,” J. Opt. Soc. Am. A, vol. 18, pp. 2527–2538, Oct 2001. [9] E. Gendron, F. Assémat, F. Hammer, P. Jagourel, F. Chemla, P. Laporte, M. Puech, M. Marteaud, F. Zamkotsian, A. Liotard, J.-M. Conan, T. Fusco, and N. Hubin, “Falcon: multi-object ao,” Comptes Rendus

Physique, vol. 6, no. 10, pp. 1110 – 1117, 2005. Multi-Conjugate Adaptive Optics for very large telescopes. [10] T. Fusco, S. Meimon, Y. Clenet, M. Cohen, H. Schnetler, J. Paufique, V. Michau, J.-P. Amans, D. Gratadour, C. Petit, C. Robert, P. Jagourel, E. Gendron, G. Rousset, J.-M. Conan, and N. Hubin, “ATLAS: the E-ELT laser tomographic adaptive optics system,” in Adaptive Optics Systems II (B. L. Ellerbroek, M. Hart, N. Hubin, and P. L. Wizinowich, eds.), vol. 7736, pp. 151 – 162, International Society

Kathryn Hartley

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for Optics and Photonics, SPIE, 2010. [11] F. Rigaut and B. Neichel, “Multiconjugate adaptive optics for astronomy,” Annual Review of Astronomy

and Astrophysics, vol. 56, no. 1, pp. 277–314, 2018. [12] J. Osborn, R. W. Wilson, M. Sarazin, T. Butterley, A. Chacón, F. Derie, O. J. D. Farley, X. Haubois, D. Laidlaw, M. LeLouarn, and et al., “Optical turbulence profiling with stereo-scidar for vlt and elt,”

Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, vol. 478, p. 825–834, Apr 2018. [13] D. Saxenhuber, G. Auzinger, M. L. Louarn, and T. Helin, “Comparison of methods for the reduction of reconstructed layers in atmospheric tomography,” Appl. Opt., vol. 56, pp. 2621–2629, Apr ts, url = http://ao.osa.org/abstract.cfm?URI=ao-56-10-2621, doi =10.1364/AO.56.002621. [14] O. J. D. Farley, J. Osborn, T. Morris, M. Sarazin, T. Butterley, M. J. Townson, P. Jia, and R. W. Wilson, “Representative optical turbulence profiles for ESO Paranal by hierarchical clustering,” Monthly No-

tices of the Royal Astronomical Society, vol. 481, pp. 4030–4037, 09 2018. [15] D. Föhring, R. Wilson, J. Osborn, and V. Dhillon, “Scintillation noise in exoplanet transit photometry,”

Journal of Physics: Conference Series, vol. 595, p. 012010, apr 2015.

The Importance of £76.75: Britain’s Responses to East German Classical Music Diplomacy (1955-1972) Yundi Guo Through an analysis of the diplomatic roles played by East German classical music troupes, and the responses to them of the British government and media, Yundi Guo explores the political dynamics between Britain, East Germany, and West Germany during the non-recognition era of the Cold War, and their interrelationship with the classical music performances of the day. Semantic Scholar’ website. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Performing-Diplomatic-Relations%3A-Music-and-East-in-Kelly/04463f5e900a18700af519c77dd9dd7eda362b5c

Castle Research Postgraduate Paper

Introduction

Page 21 noticeable rise in assessing the role of some prominent musical personalities and productions that involved ar-

Komska has stated that ‘at the Iron Curtain, culture was

tistic engagement from the GDR and Britain.3 The ma-

politics, politics was culture’ to describe the inseparable jority of these works are case studies highlighting the links between culture and Cold War international poli- musicological aspect rather than the political sphere. It tics.1 The Anglo-German Democratic Republic (GDR)

is worth noting that some scholars have stressed how

classical music relations can vividly reflect how trans- cultural personalities and institutions played their part 4 bloc music exchanges were significantly entangled in in the policymaking process. Nevertheless, there is a the two powers’ relations. This paper focuses on the lack of research providing a close look at how BritAnglo-GDR relations during the non-recognition era ish responses to the East German classical music di(1955-1972), examining how the Socialist Unity Party plomacy evolved under the influence of the triangular of Germany (SED) government in the GDR mobilised Anglo-GDR-Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) relaGermanic music heritage as a soft power resource to tions and pressure groups from the British society. This paper argues that neither the East German reach Britain for the GDR’s recognition project, and more importantly, how Britain responded to the GDR’s classical music diplomacy succeeded in accelerating the classical music diplomacy according to its national in- British government’s official recognition of the GDR, nor did it noticeably enhance the GDR political pres-

terest. In the existing literature researching An-

ence in British society during this era. The reason was

glo-GDR relations during the non-recognition era, few

primarily due to the British government’s intention of

works specifically address the interactions between distancing itself from the SED government and undertop-decision makers and the rest of the actors, i.e., insti- mining East German classical music troupes’ political tutions, event organisers, and cultural representatives.2

publicity. Especially after 1961, driven by the purpose

Regarding research on Anglo-GDR classical music in-

of winning the FRG support for its European Econom-

teractions, in particular the last decade has witnessed a ic Community (EEC) membership, the British govern-

1 Yuliya Komska, ‘Theater at the Iron Curtain’, German Studies Review, 37.1 (2014), 87-108 (p. 99). 2 For scholarly research on Anglo-GDR relations before 1973, see for instance, Marianne Howarth, ‘KfA Ltd. Und Berolina Travel Ltd. Die DDR-Präsenz in London von und nach der diplomatischen Anerkennung’, Deutschland Archiv, 32 (1999), 591-600; Marianne Howarth, ‘Freundschaft mit dem Klassenfeind. Die Image-Politik der DDR in Großbritannien nach der diplomatischen Anerkennung’, Deutschland Archiv, 1 (2003), 25-33; Ian Wallace, ‘The GDR’s Cultural Activities in Britain’, German Life and Letters, 53 (2000), 394-408; Ulrich Pfeil, ‘Intersystemische Kulturbeziehungen im Ost-West-Konflikt’, in The Other Germany: Perceptions and Influences in British-East German Relations, 1945-1990, ed. by Stefan Berger and Norman LaPorte (Ausburg: Wissner, 2005), 189210. 3 For scholar research on Anglo-GDR interactions within the classical music era, see for instance, Julie Waters, ‘Alan Bush, the Byron Symphony and the German Democratic Republic: A Cold War Musical Collaboration’, Musicology Australia, 33 (2011), 201-11; Toby Thacker, ‘‘‘Renovating’’ Bach and Handel: New Musical Biographies in the German Democratic Republic’, in Musical Biography: Towards New Paradigms, ed. By Jolanta Pekacz (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2006), 17-42; Toby Thacker, ‘‘‘Something Different From the Hampstead Perspective’’: An Outline of Selected Musical Transactions Between Britain and the GDR’, in The Other Germany 189-210; Tom Sutcliffe, Believing in Opera (London: Faber, 1996), 125-64, 355-76. Elaine Kelly, ‘Realism and Artifice: Innovation, Wagner’s Ring, and Theatre Practice in the German Democratic Republic, in Music Semiotics: A Network of Significance in Honour and Memory of Raymond Monelle, ed. by Esti Sheinberg (Farnham: Ashgate Publishing, 2012), 197-210. 4 Rhein Thomas, ‘Wales and the German Democratic Republic: Expressions and Perceptions of Welsh Identity during the Cold War’, (unpublished doctoral thesis, University of South Wales, 2014); Jonathan Yaeger, ‘The Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra and the Wages of Diplomatic Service’, in Music and Diplomacy From the Early Modern Era to the Present Rebekah Ahrendt, ed. by Mark Ferraguto & Damien Mahiet (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), 68-82.

Yundi Guo

Page 22 ment made more efforts to de-politicise Anglo-GDR

the international stage. The Soviet’s recognition of the

classical music exchanges. Below the governmental GDR sovereignty in 1955, together with the establishlevel, East German classical music diplomacy attracted ment of FRG-USSR diplomatic relations in the same affinity from some interest groups, particularly classi-

year, alerted the FRG to issue the Hallstein Doctrine to

cal music circles. Driven by either political or musi-

prevent the GDR’s road to wider international recog-

cal agendas, these groups and individuals promoted nition. The doctrine warned countries with which the Anglo-GDR classical music exchanges, hoping to help FRG was currently in diplomatic relations that, except the GDR’s image-building project within British soci-

for the Soviet Union, any country’s de facto recogni-

ety during the non-recognition era. This paper contains tion of the GDR would bring its FRG relationship to the two sections. The first section explains why and how

verge of breakup.5 Under this condition, no capitalist

the SED government used Anglo-GDR classical music country would risk its FRG connections by recognising interactions for the GDR recognition project in Britain. the GDR’s sovereignty. From its foundation to 1970, In dividing Anglo-GDR relations into three phases: (1) the GDR only opened diplomatic relations with 26 1955-1961, (2) 1961-1969, (3) 1969-1972, the second countries with whom one was from the capitalist bloc.6 section investigates the evolution of Britain’s responses to East German classical music diplomacy.

Confronted with the diplomatic isolation, the SED considered winning Britain’s de facto recognition to be of significance for the GDR’s international legit-

Section I: The employability of classical music diplomacy for the SED’s recognition project in Britain

imacy. The rationale, as has been noted by Childs, lay in the SED’s political and economic pragmatism in its foreign policymaking towards capitalist countries – the improvement of the GDR’s credibility in the western world not only would discredit the FRG and weaken

Why did the SED government use classical music di-

North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) but also

plomacy for its recognition project in Britain? An im-

further the GDR’s economic performance and indus-

portant reason was the GDR’s somewhat troubled rela-

try.7 Britain’s role as a leading international power, an

tions with the FRG, leading to its illegitimacy viewed ally to the FRG, a leading presence in NATO, and the by the Western Bloc before the early 1970s. In 1949, the Commonwealth states’ leader appeared hugely attracemergence of the FRG and the GDR pushed the divided tive to the SED. Therefore, in the eyes of the SED govtwo German states into the frontline of the Cold War ernment, building up and consolidating its connections contestation between the Western and Eastern Blocs. with Britain would for sure boost up the GDR’s confiBefore Brandt introduced Ostpolitik in 1969, neither dence on the international stage. German state recognised each other’s legal status on

Among all possible resources (e.g. the connec-

5 Klaus Larres, ‘Britain and the GDR: Political and Economic Relations, 1949-1989’, in Uneasy Allies: British-German Relations and European Integration since 1945, ed. by Klaus Larres and Elizabeth Meehan (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), pp. 63-89 (p. 72). 6 Marianne Howarth, ‘The Business of Politics, the Politics of Business. The GDR in Britain Before and After Diplomatic Recognition’, in German Studies towards the Millennium, ed. by Christopher Hall and David Rock (Oxford: Peter Lang, 2000), pp. 9-26 (p.9). 7 David Childs, ‘East German Foreign Policy: The Search for Recognition and Stability’, International Journal, 32 (1977), pp. 334351 (pp. 346-47).

Castle Research Postgraduate Paper tions of communism, trading, church, sports, and cul-

Page 23 tractive to British musical elites and the public who had

ture) mobilised by the SED government in assisting the an interest in classical music culture. All these suggest recognition project, the Anglo-GDR classical music the employability of East German classical music’s emlink served a significant role. As a state claiming itself ployability in British society. to represent ‘the second German Enlightenment’,8 the

In practice, the SED government applied its

GDR emphasised promoting Germanic music heritage rather selective ‘two-way’ communication in manipfor culturally legitimatising the GDR and delegitimis-

ulating Anglo-GDR classical music exchange for the

ing the FRG among the East German populace and the recognition project. One way was attracting potential international audience. Multiple aspects suggest the British sympathisers to visit the GDR. Targeting the employability of East German classical music diploma-

British musical and cultural circles, the Ministry for

cy targeting British society. Since the 1700s, Britain had Culture (Ministerium für Kultur, MfK) invited British been one of the most fervent admirers of Austro-Ger-

musical groups, friendship societies, and personalities

man music in Europe. Some of the most significant to participate in the GDR cultural events. The other way German musical luminaries of all time (e.g. Handel, was sending leading prestigious GDR classical music Johann Christian Bach, Beethoven, Mendelssohn), ei-

troupes and talents to tour in Britain. Political activities

ther through residing or travelling, left their footprints would be planned during East German music troupes’ in Britain and were celebrated. Another aspect was that British performances, including press reports from the the division of Germany after WWII fortuitously left Left-wing British press, the presence of GDR nationthe GDR state some leading German classical music al flag, emblem name in the public space and publicaestablishments. Thomanerchor, the Leipzig Gewan-

tions, the playing of GDR national anthem and social-

haus Orchestra, the Staatskapelle Dresden. Apart from ist music, and making political statements in claiming the legacy of the historical past, equally important were the GDR’s sovereignty to the British public.10 Through the musical ties provided by Cold War contemporaries these activities, the SED hoped to engage British musifrom both East German and British sides. Crucial to the cal personages and attract British public awareness of ties were the contacts between German and British mu-

the GDR’s positive image in favour of the recognition

sical elites when German communists were forced into project. exile in Britain during the 1930s.9 Prominent figures involved in this wartime contact and latterly played a leading role in promoting Anglo-GDR music exchang-

Britain’s responses: British policymaking on Anglo-GDR classical music exchange

es were East German musicologist Ernst Hermann Meyer and Gorge Knepler and British composer Alan Bush. In addition, the GDR’s cultural policy in making high culture accessible to all appeared particularly at-

1955-1961 Between 1955 and 1961, the British government’s in-

8 Elaine Kelly, Composing the Canon in the German Democratic Republic: Narratives of Nineteenth-Century Music (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), 1. 9 Arnd Bauerkämper, ‘Einleitung: Großbritannien und die DDR. Wahrnehmungen, Beziehungen und Verflechtungen im Ost-WestKonflikt’, in Britain and the GDR: Relations and Perceptions in a Divided World, ed. by Arnd Bauerkämper (Berlin: Philo, 2002), pp. 7-41(p.9). 10 Berlin, Ministry for Foreign Affairs [MfAA], C/122/70, ‘Händel-Festspiele’; and C/150, ‘Notiz’.

Yundi Guo

Page 24

tention to de facto recognise the GDR was apparent. also mentioned the anthem’s premiere in Britain.14 In With the FRG and the GDR joining NATO and the a similar vein, as has been put by Thomas, after initial Warsaw Pact respectively since May 1955, Britain saw

opposition from the local authority, the GDR national

the impossibility of German unification in the short flag was raised in showing the GDR Sorbian Choir’s term. Despite its alliance with the FRG, the British gov-

participation at the Llangollen International Eisteddfod

ernment hoped the German division could maintain its Festival in 1960.15 status quo. The British rationale was that the GDR’s

However, due to the prevailing anti-communist

existence could tangibly impede the rise of the FRG

sentiment shared by the British public and the lack of

as an international power, thus reducing Britain’s risk formal diplomatic relationship, East German classical of being politically and economically surpassed by the music diplomacy’s political success was limited. ReFRG. The British anxiety about the FRG’s revitalisa-

garding British media reports on the Leipzig Gewand-

tion notably increased in the 1950s. In contrast to the haus Orchestra’s first British tour, apart from The Times FRG’s economic miracle, Britain experienced relative-

report, which put the ‘E’ in ‘East Germany’ in lower

ly slow economic growth.11 As have been suggested by case, the rest of the available press reports described the Berger and LaPorte, considering Britain as a significant orchestra as a German orchestra without mentioning its international power superior to the FRG at this stage, geopolitical origin. Despite all reports praising the orthe British government thought of developing its own chestra’s artistic excellence, the British public hardly GDR relations without strictly adhering to the FRG’s

knew that this orchestra was from the GDR through

Hallstein Doctrine.12

reading these reports.16 Even worse, before this British

A visible step taken by the British government tour, the orchestra’s three top musicians defected to the in favour of the de facto recognition was its tolerance of FRG. Such scandal attracted noticeable media coverage East German musical troupes’ political activities. For

from Britain,17 making no positive impact on improv-

instance, during the Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra’s

ing GDR’s international image.

first UK tour in 1958, the GDR national anthem played at the beginning of each concert. Moreover, because 1961-1969 the BBC broadcast one of the orchestra’s concerts, the anthem reached a wider British audience through Since late 1961, however, the British government had the radio waves.13 In addition, a report in The Times to quit its plan of de facto recognition, undermining the 11 Anne Deighton, ‘British-West German Relations, 1945-1972’, in Uneasy Allies: British-German Relations and European Integration since 1945, ed. by Klaus Larres and Elizabeth Meehan (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), pp. 27-44 (pp. 32-34). 12 Stefan Berger and Norman LaPorte, Friendly Enemies: Britain and the GDR, 1949-1990 (New York: Berghahn Books, 2010), pp. 77-78. 13 Yaeger, ‘The Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra and the Wages of Diplomatic Services’, p. 72; and Berlin, Bundesarchive (BArch), DR 1/178, ‘Reise des Gewandhaus-Orchesters nach England, 27 Februar 1958’. 14 ‘The Gewandhaus Orchestra’, The Times, 17 April 1958, 3. 15 ‘DDR-Flagge weht in Wales (Liangollen), Neues Deutschland, 09 July 1960, 5; see also, Thomas, ‘Wales and the German Democratic Republic’, p. 81. 16 Regarding the British press reports on the Gewandhaus’ British touring concert in 1958, see for instance, John Warrack, ‘British Debut of German Orchestra’, Daily Telegraph, 17 April 1958, 12; ‘The Mozart Orchestra for Britain’, Daily Mail, 11 April 1958, 3. 17 Regarding the British press reports on this defection, see for instance, ‘Orchestra’s Visit to Britain Cancelled’, The Times, 24 February 1958, 12; ‘Leipzig Orchestra’s British Tour’, The Times, 25 February 1958, 3.

Castle Research Postgraduate Paper GDR’s political presence in Britain. Crucial to the shift of its East German policies were the US-led western reaction to the Berlin Wall and Britain’s increased reliance on FRG support in its EEC membership. The Berlin Wall’s erection in late 1961 further confirmed the British thought of Germany in the division, somewhat

Page 25 in any public publication nor space; 3) The national origin of East German delegations and individuals should be referred to as ‘Germany’ instead of ‘the GDR’; 4) No press conference should be held.21

motivating the British government to develop some links with the GDR. However, according to McCauley, As one of the tripartite decision-makers in the ATO, it was the US, rather than Britain, who had a decisive Britain applied these conditional terms to its East Gerrole in formulating and implementing NATO policy to-

man cultural visitors, minimising East German cultural

wards the GDR at this point. Aiming at pushing the troupes’ political presence. In addition to the US influSED government to revoke the newly established bor- ence, perhaps more important was that Britain’s appli18

der control policy,19 the Allied Travel Office (ATO) sus-

cation to the EEC membership required it to fasten its

pended issuing Temporary Travel Documents (TTDs)

FRG relations. Since Britain officially declared its deci-

to East Germans. Without TTDs, East Germans could sion to enter into the EEC in July 1961, de Gaulle twice not visit any NATO country.20 In the subsequent years, voted against the British application in 1963 and 1967, voices against the ATO travel ban were raised not only respectively. Under this condition, Britain’s need for from the GDR but also within the Western Bloc, push- FRG support for its EEC application increased.22 The ing the ATO to loosen its travel restrictions. Suspicious execution of the FRG’s Hallstein Doctrine appeared to of East German trans-bloc cultural activities, the ATO be the best way for Britain to win the FRG affinity. required East German applicants travelling for cultural It is worth noting that while adopting the non-recogevents to conform with the following terms: nition policy, Britain also intended to use the GDR as a bargaining chip in negotiating with the FRG over its 1) GDR national anthem should not be played in EEC membership. On the one hand, aware of the impublic; portance of distancing itself from the SED for winning 2) GDR national symbols, including flag, emblem, the Bonn government’s affinity, Britain implemented and the national names: ‘the German Demo- stricter policies in curtailing the GDR’s political activcratic Republic, ‘Deutsche Demokratische Re-

ities than the pre-Wall era. On the other hand, as has

publik’, ‘GDR’, ‘DDR’, should not be shown

been pointed out by Bauerkämper, Britain was also

18 Martin McCauley, ‘British-GDR Relations: A See-Saw Relationship’, in Britain and the GDR: Relations and Perceptions in a Divided World, ed. by Arnd Bauerkämper (Berlin: Philo, 2002), pp.43-61 (p.61). 19 Kew, The National Archives (TNA), FO 1060/4616, ‘Quadripartite Consultations in Bonn: Record of the 184th Meeting held at the United States Embassy on September 18, 1963’, f. 16210. 20 Before the 1970s, an East German was required to provide his/her TTDs and travel visa in visiting any NATO country. TTDs were issued by the tripartite ATO governed by the US, British and French powers. A travel visa was issued by the country where the applicant planned to travel. Heather Dichter, ‘‘‘A Game of Political Ice Hockey’ NATO Restrictions on East German Sport Travel in the Aftermath of the Berlin Wall’, in Diplomatic Games: Sport, States, and International Relations since 1945, ed. by Heather Dichter and Andrew Johns (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2014), pp. 19-52 (p. 29). 21 MfAA, C/122/70, ‘Auszug aus dem Bericht über die Reise des Bachorchesters nach England vom 30.09-10.10.1967’. 22 Berger and LaPorte, Friendly Enemies, p. 80.

Yundi Guo

Page 26

keen on exploiting ‘West German fears of a collapse According to a report by a Travel Management funcof its non-recognition policy’ for its EEC application.23

tionary who accompanied the orchestra during the tour,

Guided by such rationale, apart from following the while the orchestra’s British performances achieved ATO travel conditions, Britain did not put further re-

profoundly artistic achievement, its political publicity

quirements when issuing UK visas to East German cul-

was tangibly undermined by the British media and tour-

tural travellers. Moreover, given that Britain was under ing musicians’ inaction. Regarding the British press rethe Labour government between 1964 and 1970, the ports, apart from a concert notice published in Newcascommunist link between the Labour Party and the SED

tle Evening Chronicle, other British newspapers did not

encouraged some East German cultural troupes’ lesser appear interested in reporting this East Berlin musical compliance with the ATOs’ political ban.

troupe’s British tour. Like the Gewandhaus Orchestra’s

The Staatskapelle Berlin’s British tour in 1967 British tour in 1958, the Newcastle newspaper notice provided a case in exemplifying Britain’s dealings did not address the geopolitical origin of the Staatskawith its GDR classical music relations during this era. pelle Berlin, noting that the orchestra was from Berlin Knowing the ATO ban on political activities, the GDR

rather than East Berlin. This act, perceived by the func-

side still hoped to exploit the touring chance for the tionary, misled the British audience into believing that SED’s political ends. Via utilising its connections with the orchestra was from the FRG instead of the GDR. In the local CPGB and the Labour Party, this East German addition, the functionary also appeared to be infuriatmusical troupe was able to conduct political activities ed by the inaction of conductor Kurt Masur. Before the in Newcastle and London, including:

tour, the conductor established his artistic reputation on the international stage and was well known to the Brit-

1) In Newcastle, some orchestra members were in-

ish concertgoers. As the concert’s Newcastle newspa-

troduced to the Lord Mayor of Newcastle at the per notice shows, Masur name was put into a large font concert reception;

by the orchestra’s British agency.25

2) In Newcastle, the GDR representation spoke to eight representatives of the British press at a press conference; 3) In London, the GDR representation gave a closing speech at the concert reception in the Royal

(Newcastle Evening Chronicle, Friday 10

Festival Hall.

November 1967)

Despite implementing these political activities, this East German musical troupe’s political publicity did not ap-

Intending to exploit Masur’s reputation for the GDR’s

pear to reach a broad audience outside the concert halls. political publicity, the SED functionary asked Masur to make a political statement. However, Masur refused to 23 Arnd Bauerkämper, ‘It Took Three to Tango: The Role of the Federal Republic of Germany in the Relationship between Britain and the GDR, 1949-1990’, in The Other Germany: Perceptions and Influences in British-East German Relations, 1945-1990, ed. by Stefan Berger and Norman LaPorte (Ausburg: Wissner, 2005), pp. 45-60 (p. 46). 24 MfAA, C/122/70, ‘Erklärung’. 25 ‘Berliner Staatskapelle’, Newcastle Evening Chronicle, 10 November 1967.

Castle Research Postgraduate Paper

Page 27

do so on the grounds of the ATO’s political ban, saying (which is equivalent to around £1,060 in 2021 accordthat a political statement would endanger the prospec-

ing to the CPI inflation rate) to the British Council for

tive Anglo-GDR cultural exchange programme.26 All his visit to the Berlin Festival (Berliner Fesstage). Althese reasons resulted in the limited political success though Whettam knew the lack of formal Anglo-GDR achieved by this highly prestigious GDR classical mu-

diplomatic relations, he believed that the Council would

sic troupe.

sponsor his visit considering the foreseeable diplomatic normalisation. In addition, he also made the following

1969-1972 In February 1973, Britain officially launched its diplomatic relations with the GDR. In 1969 Brandt introduced Ostpolitik, expressing the FRG attitude favouring the normalisation of two German states’ relations.

efforts in furthering his application. 1) Writing to the Council about the FRG, France, and Belgium’s active role in preparing to develop their political and cultural relations with the GDR at the state level.

In 1971 Honecker headed as the top of the GDR lead-

2) Reminding the British Council of its duties in

ership. After giving a detailed analysis of Honecker’s

promoting Britain’s international cultural ac-

speech at the eighth Party congress, Britain knew that

tivities.

granting its acknowledgement to the GDR’s legitimacy would be inevitable and possibly happen soon. Moreover, the signing of the Berlin Agreement in September 1971 by the four wartime allies favourably supported the tendency towards the recognition.27 However, in or-

3) Knowing that Prime Minister Edward Heath loved classical music as he was himself a pianist, Whettam wrote a letter to Heath on 3 March 1971 with the hope of gaining support.

der to secure its EEC application, Britain had no inten-

4) Given that there is no evidence showing that

tion to speed up the recognition before the French and

Whettam got a direct reply from Heath. Thir-

FRG governments did so. Therefore, after the launch of

teen days later, Whettam published this letter

FRG-GDR diplomatic relations in 1972 and Britain’s

to Heath in The Times, expressing his disaffec-

entry into the EEC on 1 January 1973, Britain officially

tion with the Council’s refusal and addressing

launched its diplomatic relations with the GDR.

a British athletic team’s high-profile visit to the

The British Council’s dealings with two funding

GDR in March as a comparison. As he wrote,

applications for Anglo-GDR classical music exchanges

‘one can but marvel, Sir, at the twist of admin-

present the British government’s cautious steps to the

istrative logic which refuses to send a musician

GDR recognition during this era. In July 1971, com-

to a country which diplomatically does not ex-

poser Graham Whettam, chairman of the Composer’s

ist and then send a whole team of athletes to the

Guild of Great Britain, applied for an amount of £76.75

same place’.28

26 MfAA, C/122/70, ‘Vermerk’. 27 Detlev Nakath, ‘Die deutsch-deutschen Vertragsverhandlungen und die Abstimmungen Bonns mit der britischen Regierung, 1969 bis 1974’, in The Other Germany: Perceptions and Influences in British-East German Relations, 1945-1990, ed. by Stefan Berger and Norman LaPorte (Ausburg: Wissner, 2005), pp. 61-76 (p. 64). 28 TNA, FCO 13/433, Graham Whettam’s letter to Royle (21 October 1971), Whettam’s letter to the Prime Minister (March 1971), and Graham Whettam, ‘Exchange with E Germany’, The Times, 15.

Yundi Guo

Page 28 However, the British Council turned down Whettam’s

regarding its GDR relations.

application by giving the following reasons:

Conclusion 1) Because no formal diplomatic relations existed between Britain and the GDR, the Council’s permission of this application would ‘cause embarrassment with the press, Parliament, or the FRG,’ thus impairing the peaceful recognition between the two German states. 2) The funding budget of the British Council was tight in 1971. 3) There was no British Council representative appointed in the GDR. Thus Whettam’s expenditure of the funding could not be monitored.29

This paper has explored how Anglo-GDR classical music exchanges’ political capital was exploited by power authorities from both the SED and British governments. As the GDR faced diplomatic isolation from the Western bloc, the SED government took pains in using the musical exchanges to achieve the recognition purpose. On the other side of the Iron Curtain, the British government’s intention of manipulating its relations with the two German states for maximising its national interest essentially provided its framework of policymaking in classical music exchanges with the GDR. Compared

with the SED government, the British government’s Parallel to Whettam, the Sadler’s Wells also applied to decision-making was more fluctuating. It weighed all the British Council to fund its exchange programme the possible advantages and disadvantages that arose with the Komische Oper Berlin in 1971. Same as Whet-

from the triangular Anglo-GDR-FRG relations and tam, the Council refused to sponsor the Sadler’s Wells’ needed to consider voices from within, from pressure visit to East Berlin. The reason provided by the For- groups campaigning for and against the GDR’s recogeign Office for the refusal was the ballet company’s nition. After the British government decided to pursue quasi-official character due to the Arts’ Council’s substantial subsidy to the company. Fearing that the GDR

a closer relationship with the FRG than the GDR, it re-

mained indifferent to, and sometimes, gave repressive would exploit this exchange for propagandistic ends, responses to the GDR’s classical music diplomacy. At this application had to be aborted.30 the same time, via tactically switching between loosenThe above two cases demonstrate the Brit-

ing and tightening its policies towards the exchanges, ish government intention of disassociating itself from the British government hoped to maximise its nationAnglo-GDR classical music exchanges at the dawn of al interest. Meanwhile, cultural institutions, event ordiplomatic normalisation. The British government had ganisers, the press, and musical elites also influenced many other international priorities above its GDR links the governmental policymaking process, along with at this stage, all of which seemed to have some uncertain factors. Its membership in the EEC, its unique rela-

the delivery and reception of Anglo-GDR classical

music diplomacy. In all, this paper has concluded the tions with the US, and its intention to keep the leading limited political success of East German classical murole in Europe all influenced Britain’s decision-making sic diplomacy in Britain during the recognition era. 29 TNA, FCO 13/433, ‘Mr Graham Whettam’s visit to the Berliner Festtage’. 30 TNA, FCO 13/433, ‘Exchange between Salder’s Wells and Opera in East Berlin (16 November 1971)’, and ‘Salder’s Wells and Komische Oper’.

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Bibliography Archival and Document Sources Ministry for Foreign Affairs [MfAA], Politische Archive des Auswärtigen Amts, Berlin, Germany C/122/70, C/150 The National Archives (TNA), Kew, the UK FO 1060/4616, FCO 13/433 Secondary Sources Bauerkämper, Arnd, ‘Einleitung: Großbritannien und die DDR. Wahrnehmungen,

Beziehungen und Verflech-

tungen im Ost-West-Konflikt’, in Britain and the GDR: Relations and Perceptions in a Divided World, ed. by Arnd Bauerkämper (Berlin: Philo, 2002), pp. 7-41 —— ‘It Took Three to Tango: The Role of the Federal Republic of Germany in the Relationship between Britain and the GDR, 1949-1990’, in The Other Germany: Perceptions and Influences in British-East German Relations, 1945-1990, ed. by Stefan Berger and Norman LaPorte (Ausburg: Wissner, 2005), pp. 45-60 Berger, Stefan, and LaPorte, Norman, Friendly Enemies: Britain and the GDR, 1949-1990 (New York: Berghahn Books, 2010) Berliner Staatskapelle’, Newcastle Evening Chronicle, 10 November 1967. Childs, David, ‘East German Foreign Policy: The Search for Recognition and Stability’, International Journal, 32 (1977), pp. 334-351 ‘DDR-Flagge weht in Wales (Liangollen), Neues Deutschland, 09 July 1960, 5 Deighton, Anne, ‘British-West German Relations, 1945-1972’, in Uneasy Allies: British-German Relations and European Integration since 1945, ed. by Klaus Larres and Elizabeth Meehan (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), pp. 27-44 Dichter, Heather, ‘‘‘A Game of Political Ice Hockey’ NATO Restrictions on East German Sport Travel in the Aftermath of the Berlin Wall’, in Diplomatic Games: Sport, States, and International Relations since 1945, ed. by Heather Dichter and Andrew Johns (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2014), pp. 19-52 Howarth,Marianne, ‘KfA Ltd. Und Berolina Travel Ltd. Die DDR-Präsenz in London von und nach der diplomatischen Anerkennung’, Deutschland Archiv, 32 (1999), 591-600 ——, ‘The Business of Politics, the Politics of Business. The GDR in Britain Before and After Diplomatic Recognition’, in German Studies towards the Millennium, ed. by Christopher Hall and David Rock (Oxford: Peter Lang, 2000), pp. 9-26 ——, ‘Freundschaft mit dem Klassenfeind. Die Image-Politik der DDR in Großbritannien nach der diplomatischen Anerkennung’, Deutschland Archiv, 1 (2003), 25-33 Kelly, Elaine, ‘Realism and Artifice: Innovation, Wagner’s Ring, and Theatre Practice in the German Democratic

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Yundi Guo

Republic, in Music Semiotics: A Network of Significance in Honour and Memory of Raymond Monelle, ed. by Esti Sheinberg (Farnham: Ashgate Publishing, 2012), 197-210. —— Composing the Canon in the German Democratic Republic: Narratives of Nineteenth-Century Music (New York: Oxford University Press, Larres, Klaus, ‘Britain and the GDR: Political and Economic Relations, 1949-1989’, in Uneasy Allies: British-German Relations and European Integration since 1945, ed. by Klaus Larres and Elizabeth Meehan (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), pp. 63-89 ‘Leipzig Orchestra’s British Tour’, The Times, 25 February 1958, 3. McCauley, Martin, ‘British-GDR Relations: A See-Saw Relationship’, in Britain and the GDR: Relations and Perceptions in a Divided World, ed. by Arnd Bauerkämper (Berlin: Philo, 2002), pp.43-61 Nakath, Detlev, ‘Die deutsch-deutschen Vertragsverhandlungen und die Abstimmungen Bonns mit der britischen Regierung, 1969 bis 1974’, in The Other Germany: Perceptions and Influences in British-East German Relations, 1945-1990, ed. by Stefan Berger and Norman LaPorte (Ausburg: Wissner, 2005), pp. 61-76 ‘Orchestra’s Visit to Britain Cancelled’, The Times, 24 February 1958, 12 Pfeil, Ulrich, ‘Intersystemische Kulturbeziehungen im Ost-West-Konflikt’, in The Other Germany: Perceptions and Influences in British-East German Relations, 1945-1990, ed. by Stefan Berger and Norman LaPorte (Ausburg: Wissner, 2005), 189-210 Sutcliffe, Tom, Believing in Opera (London: Faber, 1996) Thacker, Toby, ‘‘‘Renovating’’ Bach and Handel: New Musical Biographies in the German Democratic Republic’, in Musical Biography: Towards New Paradigms, ed. by Jolanta Pekacz (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2006), 17-42 —— ‘‘‘Something Different From the Hampstead Perspective’’: An Outline of Selected Musical Transactions Between Britain and the GDR’, in The Other Germany: Perceptions and Influences in British-East German Relations, 1945-1990, ed. by Stefan Berger and Norman LaPorte, 189-210 ‘The Gewandhaus Orchestra’, The Times, 17 April 1958, 3. ‘The Mozart Orchestra for Britain’, Daily Mail, 11 April 1958, 3 Thomas, Rhein, ‘Wales and the German Democratic Republic: Expressions and Perceptions of Welsh Identity during the Cold War’, (unpublished doctoral thesis, University of South Wales, 2014) Wallace, Ian, ‘The GDR’s Cultural Activities in Britain’, German Life and Letters, 53 (2000), 394-408 Warrack, John, ‘British Debut of German Orchestra’, Daily Telegraph, 17 April 1958, 12 Waters, Julie, ‘Alan Bush, the Byron Symphony and the German Democratic Republic: A Cold War Musical Collaboration’, Musicology Australia, 33 (2011), 201-11 Whettam, Graham ‘Exchange with E Germany’, The Times, 15. Yaeger, Jonathan, ‘The Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra and the Wages of Diplomatic Service’, in Music and Diplomacy from the Early Modern Era to the Present Rebekah Ahrendt, ed. by Mark Ferraguto & Damien Mahiet (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), 68-82

X-ray Imaging Studies of Nanoscale Magnetic Skyrmions Luke Turnbull Luke Turnbull surveys the possibilities unlocked by x-ray imaging techniques in the study of nanoscale magnetic skyrmions, tiny magnetic objects that have great potential use in attempts to develop ultra-low technologies in response to the global energy crisis. Employing x-ray imaging offers new ways of investigating varying skyrmionic formations in three dimensions, providing a greater understanding of their behaviours and dynamics, which is key to assessing the technological possibilities they could unlock. Image: Ella Maru Studio. https://www.sciencenews.org/article/skyrmions-open-door-next-level-data-storage

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Matter behaves differently in the nanoscale world. With a global energy crisis looming, swirling vortex patterns of magnetism in nanoscopic crystals might hold the key to producing ultra-low energy technologies. Magnetic skyrmions are knotted whirls of magnetism whose unusual properties have promising applications in advanced computing devices. However, before new technologies are implemented it is important to characterise the novel behaviours of these magnetic objects. This report will review the high-resolution x-ray imaging studies which first shone light on the 3D structure of magnetic skyrmions1 and investigated reports of skyrmion molecules known as biskyrmions.2,3 Ferromagnetic materials, such as their name-

the rich array of complex magnetic configurations ob-

sake iron, exhibit spontaneous magnetisation; their served, and the applications of their novel properties internal structure contains regions called domains, in in computing devices. A key moment in the field came which magnetic moments all align in the same direction in 2009, with the discovery of skyrmions in magnetic (Figure 1). This alignment arises from a quantum me-

systems.5 Skyrmions, had originally been proposed by

chanical interaction between neighbouring moments. British physicist Tony Skyrme as a model for the inSuch exchange interactions occur over atomic length ternal structure of subatomic particles.6 However, years scales, however when a majority of these magnetic later, the same solutions have become significant in the domains align, they can collectively produce a macro-

field of magnetism.

scopic magnetic field that we experience via the attractive and repulsive forces which drive electric motors and keep ornaments stuck to the fridge door.4

Magnetic Skyrmions

As advances in science and technology enabled

the study of smaller and smaller length scales, nanoscale Magnetic skyrmions are nanoscopic vortex-like struc7,8 magnetism garnered significant research interest due to tures that can arise in chiral magnetic crystals. The

symmetry of a magnetic crystal determines the nature of its internal magnetic interactions and in chiral systems there are two dominant interactions that determine which magnetic configurations are stabilised: the direct exchange interaction, which favours parallel alignment of magnetisation; and the antisymmetric exchange interaction, which favours perpendicular alignment of magnetisation.9 The competition between these two interactions leads to the twisting structures shown in Figure 2. A magnetic helix is the ground state of such systems; it is characterised by a helical winding of the magnetisation along a propagation vector. How-

FIG. 1. Schematic of a paramagnet with no net magnetisation, and a ferromagnet with a spontaneous magnetisation and large stray magnetic field.

ever, if an external magnetic field, which encourages alignment of the magnetisation with the field, is applied under specific conditions, the magnetic helix will transform into a lattice of skyrmions. A single skyrmion has

Luke Turnbull

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a core aligned anti-parallel with an external magnetic fies the nature of a texture’s winding and skyrmions are field, and winds radially outwards to perimeter aligned characterised by N = 1.10 In contrast, the projection of parallel to the field. These configurations are particular-

a helix onto a sphere only forms a ring around the sur-

ly notable due to their topology.10

face. By considering how one can roll an elastic band off a ball, it can be reasoned that a helix cannot enclose a sphere and it therefore belongs to the N = 0 topological group. This is a significant result as it suggests that once a skyrmion is formed, it cannot be deformed back to a helix, without a magnetic discontinuity. It is thought that this confers additional stability to a skyrmion, known as topological protection, due to the higher energetics typically associated with magnetic discontinuities.11 The winding of a skyrmion also leads to emergent physical properties. When acted on by a driving force, a skyrmion will deflect at an angle away from the drive, akin to the Magnus force on a spinning ball.12 It was also discovered that skyrmions can be moved with electrical current densities a factor of 105 lower than those currently used to drive magnetic domains in computing devices.13 This opens the door to a new generation of ultra-low energy spintronic devices for computing applications. The first application proposed was a racetrack memory, in which the presence and absence

FIG. 2. a) Schematic view of magnetic helix and its corre-

of nanometric skyrmions on a track could be used to

sponding inverse stereographic projection onto a sphere. b)

encode binary “1’s” and “0’s” at high densities, while

Equivalent view of a Bloch skyrmion. c) Schematic view of a

operating with a significantly reduced energy consump-

2D hexagonal skyrmion lattice.

tion.14 Since then a multitude of further technological applications have been proposed including reshuffling

Topology describes properties of an object that mechanisms for signal decorrelation in probabilistic are preserved under continuous deformations and in computing15 and as artifiticial synapses for neuromophthe case of magnetic skyrmions can be visualised by ic computing.16 considering a projection of the texture onto a sphere.

However, before such devices are practically

Much like the correspondence of a map and a globe, a implemented it is important to fully characterise the skyrmion entirely winds around the surface of a sphere

behaviour of skyrmions. As the properties of these

and any continuous perturbation to the structure of the objects can be dominated by their local environment, skyrmion cannot break this complete winding. We can imaging studies are key in developing our understandtherefore define a winding number, N, which quanti-

ing. Imaging nanoscale magnetic textures is not easy; it

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requires a high resolution (5-20 nm) imaging method, ty of light, which encodes the amplitude information, which is also sensitive to the magnetisation vector field but loses the phase information. This is the premise of a sample. This report examines the use of resonant of the famous phase problem, which is significant as x-ray imaging to map the 3D structure of skyrmions the phase carries vital structural information in diffracand investigate reports of magnetic biskyrmions in na-

tion patterns. Holography techniques encode both the

noscale lamellae of magnetic single crystals.

amplitude and phase information of scattered light by

Magnetic X-ray Imaging

capturing the interference of a coherent reference wave with a beam of light, scattered through the sample.20 This hologram can then be Fourier transformed to re-

X-ray scattering is a well-established technique for the construct a real space projection of the object, or in this structural characterisation of condensed matter sys- case, the magnetisation components parallel with the

tems. X-ray distraction is commonly used to determine beam (Figure 3a). The holography with extended refthe crystalline structure of complex proteins and inor- erence by autocorrelation linear differential operator ganic materials, while medical imaging methods such (HERALDO) implementation uses the sharp edges of as projectional radiography and computed tomography an extended slit to form the reference wave21- 24, which

(CT) scans rely on differential x-ray absorption. In each produces images with a higher resolution, set by the of these cases it is the interaction of x-rays with the sharpness of the slit edge, and makes it possible to tilt a charge density of the sample, or patient, which is being sample relative to the incoming beam, while maintainexploited. However, as with all forms of light, x-rays ing reference wave intensity.25 This tilting approach al-

are electromagnetic waves and therefore there is also a lows all components of the magnetisation to be mapped magnetic component to their scattering cross section.17 using the same tomographic approach as a CT scanner. This magnetic sensitivity in the scattering is typically Scanning transmission x-ray microscopy (Figure 3c) orders of magnitude weaker than the charge scattering, is an alternate imaging technique which uses a Fresnel but it can be resonantly enhanced. By tuning the ener-

zone plate lens to focus an x-ray beam down to a spot

gy of the x-ray beam to match the energy of specific size of 15 nm. A sample is then raster scanned through electronic transitions within the ferromagnetic ions of the beam and an image is formed pixel by pixel. Maga sample, the interaction of x-rays with magnetic or-

netic contrast is produced in both methods by utilising

der is significantly enhanced. In addition, there is a the XMCD effect. further resonant phenomena known as x-ray magnetic In order to create the high intensity, coherent, circular dichroism (XMCD), in which the use of circu- monochromatic circularly polarised x-ray beams nec18

larly polarised x-rays allows components of the magne-

essary for these techniques, an x-ray synchrotron must

tisation parallel with the x-ray beam to be isolated and be used. These are large scale particle accelerators in imaged.19 The following studies utilised two forms of which high energy electrons are wiggled with arrays of

resonant x-ray imaging: x-ray holography and scanning magnets to produce directed beams of x-ray synchrotransmission x-ray microscopy (Figure 3). tron radiation. The following work was completed at Monochromatic light waves can be character-

the SOLEIL Synchrotron, Paris and the BESSY-II Syn-

ised by two parameters: amplitude and phase. Com- chrotron, Berlin. mon methods of imaging collect an averaged intensi-

Luke Turnbull

Page 35

FIG. 3. Schematic of the HERALDO imaging process and sample configuration. a) The HERALDO reconstruction process, showing coherent x-rays incident on the sample and reference slit, which diffract and interfere to form a hologram on the CCD. A differential filter in the direction of the slit is then applied, followed by a Fourier transform to reconstruct the real space image, an example of which is shown on the right. b) The HERALDO sample configuration, showing a lamellae mounted onto a Si3N4 window. A gold mask is used to form the sample aperture and reference slit. Figure and caption reproduced from [2] (CC BY 4.0). Copyright © 2020, American Chemical Society. c) Schematic of a scanning transmission x-ray microscope, showing an x-ray beam passing through a monochromator, focusing optics, and then the transmission is tracked through the sample.

Skyrmion Tubes: Into A Third Dimension

elusive. The following study represents the first real-space observation of skyrmion tubes, by performing

So far we have only considered magnetic skyrmions resonant x-ray holography and STXM on a 120 nm thick as two-dimensional objects, however they are thought lamella of the archetypal skyrmion-host material, FeGe.26 to possess an extended, tube-like structure in three di-

Another common magnetic imaging technique

mensions (Figure 4). The study of these skyrmion tubes is known as Lorentz transmission electron microscopy is key to the understanding of skyrmion formation and (LTEM).27 It relies on tracking the deflection of elecdynamics, but due to the practical limitations of many trons by the total magnetic field of the sample, arising commonly-utilised magnetic imaging techniques, ob-

from the Lorentz force on charged particles in motion.

servation of this axial dimension of skyrmions remained Unlike x-ray methods, this technique is sensitive to

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a metastable form of carbon, with graphite as the true ground state.28 This is not an issue, as the energy barrier between the two states is larger than the activation energy available to system in ambient conditions, so diamonds do not readily decay in jewellery. In our case the skyrmions are a stable magnetic configuration, but exist at a higher energy than magnetic helices at 100 K. The state formed shows the hexagonal ordering commonly associated with a skyrmion lattice and the SkL period was found to be ~ 76 nm. In this imaging regime we are projecting along the length of the skyrmion tube, and therefore cannot directly observe its tube-like nature. Having established successful x-ray imaging of conventional helical and skyrmion textures for outFIG. 4. Three dimensional visualisation of skyrmion tubes.

of- plane magnetic fields, we investigated the possibil-

Reproduced from [1] (CC BY 4.0).

ity of observing the extent of skyrmion tubes. In order to do so, a magnetic field was applied in the plane of

magnetic components perpendicular to the probe beam, the sample, such that the tubes formed parallel to the making them complementary imaging techniques. field and the imaging projection occurs through the Magnetic images acquired by x-ray holography, STXM

side of the tube. This operation can only be performed

and LTEM techniques are presented in Figure 5.

practically using an x-ray beam, as this magnetic field

Projections of the helical state exhibit stripe- orientation would deflect probe electrons away from like structures consistent with the oscillatory nature of the sample. Figure 6 shows STXM images produced a helix and the period was found to be ~ 68 nm. The after field cooling an FeGe lamellae under an applied orientation of these stripes are determined by addition- in-plane magnetic field of 35 mT. The three horizontal al weak anisotropic interactions present in the FeGe

stripes at the bottom of the image have the expected

lamella. To generate higher magnetic contrast, mea- appearance of skyrmion tubes embedded in the vertical surements were performed at 100 K in order to reduce stripes of a helicoidal state. The upper tube bends into thermal effects.

the helicoidal stripes, while the two lower tubes appear

A skyrmion lattice state (SkL) was produced to terminate at bulging ends. by applying a magnetic field out of the sample plane.

To verify the identification of these structures

As the skyrmion lattice state is not a ground state at as skyrmion tubes, we performed micromagnetic simulow temperatures, we utilised a field cooling procedure

lations. The simulations were initialised with three pa-

to form the lattice at 270 K, and then rapidly cool the raboloid tube precursors in a uniform background, and sample to freeze the skyrmions as a metastable state at then an energy minimisation was performed to relax the 100 K.27 Metastability refers to any stable state which is system into energetically stable configurations. There is not a system’s lowest energy state. A common example a remarkably strong agreement between the simulated of this is carbon: at atmospheric pressures diamond is images and experimental data, with three dimensional

Luke Turnbull

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FIG. 5. X-ray holography, STXM and LTEM images of magnetic helices and skyrmions projected along the skyrmion tube. The x-ray images show magnetisation parallel with the x-ray beam, while the LTEM shows the projection of the total magnetic field components orthogonal to the probe beam. This figure is an abridged reproduction from [1] (CC BY 4.0).

FIG. 6. STXM images and corresponding micromagnetic simulations of skyrmion tubes embedded in helicoidal stripes. Three dimensional renderings of the micromagnetic simulations are also shown and exhibit clear tube structures. This figure is an abridged reproduction from [1] (CC BY 4.0).

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Castle Research Postgraduate Paper

renderings of these simulations also showing clear tube structures. This study demonstrated the first direct imaging of magnetic skyrmion tubes utilising resonant x-ray imaging and comparative micromagnetic simulations. This observation confirms in real-space the three dimensional nature of the magnetic skyrmion and enables future studies of the formation and dynamics of these extended objects. The full study is available in reference [1].

Bursting Bubbles: An Investigation into Biskyrmions Magnetic skyrmions are chiral objects. The antisymmetric exchange interaction in chiral magnets imposes a fixed chirality onto the magnetism such that all hosted skyrmions wind in the same direction; this phenomena can be seen in the LTEM image in Figure 5. However, skyrmionic textures have also been reported in centrosymmetric magnets, which lack chirality, and instead arise due to long range dipolar forces.10 In these systems magnetic stripes, akin to the helix, comprise the ground state and in an increasing magnetic field these stripes will rupture, forming cylindrical bubble domains, with a comparable structure to skyrmion tubes. If the domain wall of a bubble has a singular winding, then it is topologically identical to a skyrmion. However it is also possible for a bubble composed of two half domain walls of opposite chirality to form. This object has no global winding and is known as a type-II bubble. These states can be distinguished by the winding 29

number, N, as skyrmions are defined by N = 1, whereas type-II bubbles are N = 0. Such topological differenc-

FIG. 7. X-ray imaging projections of magnetic bubbles. a-b) X-ray imaging projection of a skyrmion at normal incidence and tilted 30° about the vertical axis, respectively. Arrows indicate the in-plane magnetization components at normal incidence. c-d) Equivalent projections of a type- II bubble. e-f) Equivalent projections of a biskyrmion. g) Schematic of the off-normal transmission scattering geometry. Reproduced from [2] (CC BY 4.0). Copyright © 2020, American Chemical Society.

systems, in particular the biskyrmion, a bound pair

es carry profound consequences for the energetics and of skyrmions with opposite chiralities.31 The biskyrdynamical behaviour of the respective objects.30 The mion is an N = 2 topological object, and its existence intense research efforts surrounding nanoscale mag-

would represent the potential for the creation of com-

netism also led to reports of more exotic objects in these plex skyrmion molecules and rich new tunable prop-

Page 39

Luke Turnbull erties. Figure 7 shows schematics of all these states and their corresponding x-ray imaging projections. All initial reports of biskyrmions came via LTEM imaging.32-34 One feature of LTEM is that it is sensitive to the total magnetic field of a system, including the stray magnetic field projecting from a sample.35 The inclusion of this stray magnetic field can distort images and lead to ambiguity in the identification of objects. In this study we utilised x-ray holography to directly image the structure of magnetisation in lamellae of the centrosymmetric system MnNiGa, previously reported to host biskyrmions. Figure 8 shows holographic images of the magnetic bubble texture stabilised. Significantly, the close-packing of single core bubble structures is observed, and while this is consistent with skyrmions or type-II magnetic bubble domains, it is not indicative of a biskyrmion texture. We determined the winding nature of these bubbles by tilting the sample with respect to the x-ray beam. While the projection at normal incidence for skyrmions and type-II bubbles is indistinguishable, their wind-

FIG. 8. Normal and tilted imaging of dense bubble lattice. a)

ing can be discerned by imaging at off-normal angles,

Holographic image of field cooled bubble state at normal in-

which brings the in-plane winding components of the

cidence. b) Holographic image of field cooled magnetic state

magnetization parallel with the x-ray beam, from which

projected after 30° tilt about vertical axis. c) Magnified region

the chirality of the textures can be inferred.36 The tilted

of image a. d) Equivalent magnified region of sample pro-

projections of all the objects at θ = 30° are shown in

jected after 30° tilt about vertical axis. e) Line profiles taken

Figure 7. The singular winding of a skyrmion leads to

of bubble projection in c following the white dashed lines

an anisotropic signal due to domain wall components

in these figures. The left offset is experimental data and the

pointing in opposite directions about the core. The type-

right offset is the model profile for a single bubble. f) A corre-

II bubble is symmetric about the horizontal axis and

sponding line profile of magnetic bubbles at 30° incidence is

therefore has symmetric response when tilted about the

left offset and line profile of the corresponding model type-I

vertical axis. Figure 8 shows the bubble state after tilting

and type-II projections for a single bubble shown in Figure 2

about the vertical image axis by θ = 30°. Line profiles

are shown as dashed and dot-dashed lines respectively. Re-

taken from the magnified images show there is a clear

symmetric contraction of the bubble core profiles after

can Chemical Society.

tilting, consistent with two half domain walls of opposite chirality. This closely matches the inset model type- with a skyrmion. Further investigation with collaboraII bubble profile taken from Figure 7 and is inconsistent tors also went on to show that the stray field above a

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type-II bubble can lead to an LTEM projection which Time-resolved experiments are also planned to more looks similar to what one would expect for a biskyr-

closely examine the dynamical behaviour of skyrmi-

mion. All this evidence leads to the conclusion that the ons and demonstrate the utility of skyrmions in adlikely explanation for previous reports of biskyrmions vanced computing devices. was the misidentification of non-topological magnet-

Acknowledgements

ic bubbles3 and biskyrmions are yet to be realised in a physical system. Both complete studies are available in references [2,3].

This report is based on previously published work

Looking Into The Future

the CC-BY 4.0 licence. To view a copy of this licence

[1,2,3] and components have been reproduced under visit: creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. This work

Magnetic skyrmion research is part of a rich and evolv-

was supported by the UK Skyrmion Project EP-SRC

ing field, in which x-ray imaging methods are playing Programme Grant (EP/N032128/1). The research was an increasingly key role. Future studies look to perform completed in collaboration with teams from The UK tomographic imaging to produce three dimensional Skyrmion Project, The Diamond Light Source (UK), vector field visualisations of more complex magneti-

SOLEIL Synchrotron (France), and BESSY-II Syn-

sation textures, including the recently observed higher chrotron (Germany). Individual author contributions dimensional topological objects known as Hopfions.37

are listed on the relevant publications.

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N. Jaouen, F. Yakhou-Harris, S. A. Cavill, and G. van der Laan, Time-resolved imaging of magnetic vortex dynamics using holography with extended reference by autocorrelation linear differential operator, Sci. Rep. 6, 36307 (2016). [25] M. Guizar-Sicairos and J. R. Fienup, Holography with extended reference by autocorrelation linear differential operation, Opt. Express 15, 17592 (2007). [26] X. Yu, Y. Onose, N. Kanazawa, J. Park, J. Han, Y. Matsui, N. Nagaosa, and Y. Tokura, Real-space observation of a two-dimensional skyrmion crystal, Nature 465, 901 (2010). [27] X. Yu, N. Kanazawa, Y. Onose, K. Kimoto, W. Zhang, S. Ishiwata, Y. Matsui, and Y. Tokura, Near roomtemperature formation of a skyrmion crystal in thin-films of the helimagnet FeGe, Nature Materials 10, 106 (2011). [28] A. Lazicki, D. McGonegle, J. R. Rygg, D. G. Braun, D. C. Swift, M. G. Gorman, R. F. Smith, P. G. Heighway, A. Higginbotham, M. J. Suggit, and D. E. Fratanduono et al., Metastability of diamond ramp-compressed to 2 terapascals, Nature 589, 532 (2021). [29] K. Kurushima, K. Tanaka, H. Nakajima, M. Mochizuki, and S. Mori, Microscopic magnetization distribution of Bloch lines in a uniaxial magnet, Journal of Applied Physics 125, 053902 (2019). [30] G. Chen, Skyrmion Hall effect, Nature Physics 13, 112 (2017). [31] L. Peng, Y. Zhang, M. He, B. Ding, W. Wang, H. Tian, J. Li, S. Wang, J. Cai, G. Wu, J. P. Liu, M. J. Kramer, and B. Shen, Generation of high-density biskyrmions by electric current, npj Quantum Mater. 2, 30 (2017). [32] X. Yu, Y. Tokunaga, Y. Kaneko, W. Zhang, K. Kimoto, Y. Matsui, Y. Taguchi, and Y. Tokura, Biskyrmion states and their current-driven motion in a layered manganite, Nature Communications 5, 3198 (2014). [33] W. Wang, Y. Zhang, G. Xu, L. Peng, B. Ding, Y. Wang, Z. Hou, X. Zhang, X. Li, E. Liu, and S. Wang et al., A centrosymmetric hexagonal magnet with superstable biskyrmion magnetic nanodomains in a wide temperature range of 100-340 K, Advanced Materials 28, 6887 (2016). [34] L. Peng, Y. Zhang, W. Wang, M. He, L. Li, B. Ding, J. Li, Y. Sun, X.-G. Zhang, J. Cai, S. Wang, G. Wu, and B. Shen, Real-space observation of nonvolatile zero-field biskyrmion lattice generation in MnNiGa magnet, Nano Letters 17, 7075 (2017). [35] A. Tonomura, X. Yu, K. Yanagisawa, T. Matsuda, Y. Onose, N. Kanazawa, H. S. Park, and Y. Tokura, Realspace observation of skyrmion lattice in helimagnet MnSi thin samples, Nano Letters 12, 1673 (2012). [36] C. Donnelly, S. Finizio, S. Gliga, M. Holler, A. Hrabec, M. Odstrčil, S. Mayr, V. Scagnoli, L. Heyderman, and M. G.-S. . J. Raabe, Time-resolved imaging of three-dimensional nanoscale magnetization dynamics, Nature Nanotechnology 15, 356 (2020). [37] N. Kent, N. Reynolds, D. Raftrey, I. T. G. Campbell, S. Virasawmy, S. Dhuey, R. V. Chopdekar, A. Hierro-Rodriguez, A. Sorrentino, E. Pereiro, S. Ferrer, F. Hellman, P. Sutcliffe, and P. Fischer, Creation and observation of hopfions in magnetic multilayer systems, Nature Communications 12, 1562 (2021).

Fundamental Differences in the Radio Properties of Red and Blue Quasars V. A. Fawcett, D. M. Alexander, D. J. Rosario, L. Klindt, S. Fotopoulou, E. Lusso, L. K. Morabito, & G. Calistro Rivera Employing high resolution radio data, Vicky Fawcett et al. investigate the fundamental differences in the radio properties of quasars – supermassive black holes at the centres of galaxies surrounded by a bright disc of matter that outshines the entire galaxy.Whilst most quasars are blue, this paper discusses the radio properties of the rarer red quasars, which suggest red quasars represent an earlier phase in the overall evolution of quasars. Image: Bob Patterson. https://pixels.com/featured/quasar-universe-giant-bob-patterson.html

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et al. 2007; Klindt et al. 2019), or the red colours could

1. Introduction

be intrinsic (Whiting et al. 2001). However, the locaQuasi-stellar objects (QSOs), also known as quasars,

tion of this dust remains unclear (Hickox & Alexander

are the most powerful class of Active Galactic Nuclei 2018). Red QSOs could just be a consequence of the (AGN). Their extremely high bolometric luminosities AGN orientation model (Urry & Padovani 1995), repare now known to be caused by accretion onto a super-

resenting a grazing incidence viewing angle through

massive black hole (SMBH; 108–109 M 1) and are some the “dusty torus” (dust close to the SMBH). An alternative hypothesis is that red QSOs represent a rapid of the most luminous objects in the Universe. Due to the unobscured view of the SMBH ac-

evolutionary phase whereby a red QSO evolves into

cretion disc (bright disc of matter that surrounds the a blue QSO (Hopkins et al. 2006, 2008; Alexander SMBH), which peaks in the ultra-violet (UV), the ma- & Hickox 2012). In this context, galaxy mergers are jority of Type 1 QSOs have very blue optical colours. thought to drive a starburst phase, resulting in obscuHowever, there is a small but significant subset with ration by dust in the early stages which is then blown redder optical-infrared colours (coined as “red QSOs”;

out through AGN-driven outflows (commonly referred

see Fig. 1). Although red QSOs have been well studied to as “AGN feedback”), eventually resulting in an unin the literature (Webster et al. 1995; Serjeant & Raw- obscured AGN (within the context of our study, a blue lings 1996; Kim & Elvis 1999; Richards et al. 2003; unobscured QSO). Some studies claim to see merger Glikman et al. 2007; Georgakakis et al. 2009; Urrutia induced activity in red QSOs (Urrutia et al. 2008; Urruet al. 2009; Banerji et al. 2012; Glikman et al. 2012; tia et al. 2012; Glikman et al. 2015). However, it is less Kim & Im 2018; Klindt et al. 2019), their exact nature clear that red QSOs systematically show an enhancement in merger signatures when compared to typical

remains unclear.

QSOs (e.g., Zakamska et al. 2019). Taking a novel approach to uniformly define their QSO samples, Klindt et al. (2019) used Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) DR7 data (Schneider et al. 2010) to optically select the top, bottom and middle 10 percentiles of the redshift2-dependent observed optical colour distribution to create a red, blue and conFigure 1. Optical images taken from the Sloan Digital Sky

trol (“typical”) QSO sample, respectively. They found

Survey of a blue (left) and red (right) quasar.

a factor ≈ 3 larger radio detection rate in the red QSO sample making use of Faint Images of the Radio Sky

The origin of the red colours has been widely at Twenty-centimeters (FIRST; Becker et al. 1995) debated: for the majority of red QSOs the reddening data, compared to both the blue and control QSOs. appears to be due to extinction by dust, similar to why The radio-detection enhancement was driven by red sunsets appear red e.g. (Webster et al. 1995; Glikman QSOs with compact radio morphologies (small-scale 1M

= solar masses, so 1 M

is equivalent to the mass of the Sun.

2 “Redshift” is an increase in wavelength of light due to the expanding Universe which can be used as a measure of distance to astrophysical objects.

V. A. Fawcett et al

Page 45

emission) and luminosities placing them around the red QSO sample from the SDSS DR14 catalogue (Pâris radio-loud/radio-quiet threshold (defined as a ratio be-

et al. 2018) and follow a similar approach to Klindt et

tween radio to optical luminosity). These results rule al. (2019), using the SDSS colours to define red and out the simple orientation model, suggesting differenc-

control QSOs (see Section 2). In Section 3.1 we explore

es in the “environment” between red QSOs and typical the origins of the red colours in our red QSOs. In SecQSOs which may be driven within the evolutionary se-

tion 3.2 we explore the radio enhancement in red QSOs

quence3.

down to lower radio fluxes than in Klindt et al. (2019)

QSOs exhibit a wide range of radio morpholo-

and test how it varies across the radio-loudness plane.

gies, with some that display large-scale jets and lobes In Section 3.3 we focus on the morphological properthat can extend over Mpc (~3.3 million light-years or

ties of our red QSO sample, probing finer scales than in

3.1 × 1019 km) scales (e.g. Krishna et al. 1998). The Klindt et al. (2019) and in Section 3.4 we use the deepmain classifications can be split into compact, where the er COSMOS data to explore what is causing the radio radio emission is spatially unresolved on scales of a few emission. Our results add weight to the emerging picarcseconds4, and extended morphologies. The extended ture that red QSOs are fundamentally different to typical category includes the spectacular Fanaroff-Riley (FR)

QSOs. Throughout our work we adopt a flat Λ-cosmol-

type I and II (Fanaroff & Riley 1974) systems, as well ogy with H0 = 70 kms−1Mpc−1, ΩM = 0.3 and ΩΛ = 0.7. as resolved diffuse emission. This binary distinction is simplistic, with sources that can show small-scale jets

2. Methods

(few pc to tens of kpc), such as compact steep spectrum (CSS; Fanti et al. 1990, 1995) or gigahertz-peak-

In this paper we explore the high-resolution radio prop-

ed spectrum (GPS; Stanghellini et al. 1998; O’Dea et erties of Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) optically seal. 1991) sources. Recent studies have shown that FRII

lected QSOs at a redshift of 0.2 < z < 2.4. The overall

sources also have low-powered jets with low radio lu-

quasar selection process used is similar to that adopted

minosities (Mingo et al. 2019).

in Klindt et al. (2019). However, in our work we now

In this work we use deep (smaller area but bet-

select QSOs from the SDSS DR14 Quasar Catalogue

ter source statistics) and high-resolution (can probe (Pâris et al. 2018), as opposed to Klindt et al. (2019) smaller scale emission) radio data to further investigate who used the SDSS DR7 catalogue (Schneider et al. the origins of the difference in the radio properties be-

2010), which provides a factor ≈ 5 improvement in

tween red QSOs and typical QSOs down to kpc scales

sample size, as well as going almost two magnitudes

and significantly fainter radio fluxes than explored in deeper in the optical. Klindt et al. (2019). We use two different high-resolu-

In this paper we use radio data from two Very

tion Very Large Array (VLA) radio surveys: VLA Stripe Large Array (VLA) radio surveys: VLA Stripe 82 82 (Hodge et al. 2011) and VLA-COSMOS 3 GHz

(Hodge et al. 2011; hereafter S82) and VLA COSMOS

(Smolčić et al. 2017), which are ~ 3 and 38 times deep-

3GHz (Smolčić et al. 2017; hereafter C3GHz). For

er than the FIRST survey, respectively. We select our

more details, refer to the papers and references therein.

3 In this work we use the term “environment” to indicate the environment on anything from nuclear and host-galaxy scales to much larger physical scales (i.e., the dark matter halo). 4 An “arcsecond” is an angular measurement equal to 1/3600 of a degree, used to measure the angular size of astrophysical objects.

Castle Research Postgraduate Paper

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bution was binned using contiguous redshift bins consisting of 1000 sources. This produced a sample of 130 800 QSOs (21 800 rQSOs and 109 000 cQSOs). The g* − i* colour distribution of the colour-selected samples is shown in the top panel of Fig. 2. Table 1. The number of parent QSOs, rQSOs and cQSOs, and their radio-detection fraction, for our two samples for selection process and sample numbers. The parent QSOs are selected within the two regions before the colour-selection. The radio-detection enhancement of the rQSOs in comparison to the cQSOs is also shown, where we see a clear enhancement for the S82 sample but only a tentative enhancement in the deeper C3GHz sample.

Figure 2. Sample distribution comparison of observed g* − i* colour (top) and rest-frame L6µm luminosity (bottom) versus redshift. The filled circles represent S82 QSOs and the open stars represent the C3GHz QSOs: the rQSOs and cQSOs are plotted in red and cyan, respectively. The grey points in the top plot illustrate the colours of the parent sample DR14-

The

colour-selected

QSO

samples

were

WISE detected QSOs within the two fields (Stripe 82: 3234;

matched to the high-resolution radio catalogues. This

COSMOS: 70). The top plot shows our redshift dependent

resulted in an initial sample of 139 S82-detected QSOs

colour-selection approach and the bottom plot shows that the

(60 rQSOs and 79 cQSOs) and 28 C3GHz-detected

range in L6µm and redshift for the two samples are consistent.

QSOs (8 rQSOs and 20 cQSOs). Based on the analysis of Lu et al. (2007) (applied to the deeper depths of these

To define our sample of colour-selected QSOs

surveys), we expect a false association rate of ~ 0.2%

we used the g* (4770 Å5) and i* (7625 Å) band extinc-

and 0.6% for C3GHz and S82, respectively. To take

tion-corrected photometry. Our red and control QSOs

into account rarer FRII-like sources (large-scale radio

(hereafter, rQSOs and cQSOs) were selected above the emission), whose cores may be too faint to be detected top 90th percentile and within the middle 50th percentile of the observed SDSS g* - i*6 distribution, respec-

and whose radio lobes can extend beyond our search radius, we matched again using a 10’’ search radius and

tively; the cQSOs therefore represent typical QSOs. In

summed the radio flux from all sources within that radi-

order to produce a redshift sensitive colour sample, the us. This produced an extra 12 potential matches for the QSOs were sorted by redshift and the g* − i* distri-

S82 data, and 1 for C3GHz. These sources were visual-

5 An Angstrom (Å) is a unit of distance corresponding to 0.1 nm. 6 Since the i-band has a longer wavelength, it is more red and so higher values of the colour g − i corresponds to redder objects.

V. A. Fawcett et al

Page 47

ly inspected and only the FRII-like sources were added To explore whether dust is the main cause of the red coto our samples (S82: 4; C3GHz: 0, see Fig. 3), with lours in our red QSOs, we stacked the SDSS spectra for the remaining sources discounted as spurious matches. the red and control quasars in our colour-selected parThis gave a final sample of 143 S82-detected QSOs (61 ent sample. The resulting stacked spectra, normalised rQSOs and 82 cQSOs) and 28 C3GHz-detected QSOs

to ~ 3000 Å, are displayed in Fig. 4, which indicate that

(8 rQSOs and 20 cQSOs). The C3GHz and S82 parent the red composite is consistent with the blue composite samples (70 and 3234 QSOs, respectively) were also

plus some amount of dust reddening. The major emis-

matched to the respective radio surveys following the sion lines are also displayed, which show diminished same method as the colour-selected samples, resulting optical lines for the red composite, compared to the in 49 and 234 radio-detected C3GHz and S82 parent blue. This suggests that the origin of the red colours are sample QSOs, respectively. Table 1 displays the num-

due to dust, which is confirmed using wider wavelength

ber of QSOs and radio-detection fraction for the parent range X-shooter spectra in Fawcett et al. (in prep). QSOs, rQSOs and cQSOs in the two surveys. To determine the radio morphologies of the co-

3.2 Radio enhancement in red QSOs

lour-selected QSOs we took the same approach as that used in Klindt et al. (2019). We created

square cut-

To explore the radio-detection enhancement in more

outs for all sources, and visually inspected them in detail we plotted the cumulative detection fractions of random order, blind to whether they were part of the the rQSOs and cQSOs, utilizing the C3GHz, S82 and rQSO or cQSO sub-samples so as not to bias our judge-

FIRST data as a function of radio flux; see Fig. 5. We

ment. Here we use similar morphology classes to Klindt find that rQSOs exhibit a higher radio-detection fraction et al. (2019), where a source can be defined as compact compared to the cQSOs in all three surveys, although in (unresolved; i.e., point-like), extended (single sources regions with low source statistics this enhancement is with extended emission), FRII-like (double lobed sys-

consistent with unity within the uncertainties. Down to

tems with Fpeak,lobe > Fpeak,core) or faint; Fpeak < 15σ, where the S82 flux limit, this enhancement is broadly constant σ is the typical RMS of the respective survey (S82: Fpeak at a factor of ≈ 2–3. These results are therefore in quan< 1 mJy7; FIRST: Fpeak < 3 mJy; C3GHz: Fpeak < 35μJy).

titative agreement with Klindt et al. (2019) (see Fig-

In our study, classic FRI sources (Fpeak,lobe < Fpeak,core) are ure 4 therein), who found a factor ≈ 3 enhancement in included within the extended category and the com-

the FIRST radio-detection fraction of rQSOs compared

pact-FRII class adopted in Klindt et al. (2019) is com-

to their cQSO and blue QSO samples, but with much

bined within the FRII-like category due to the rarity of higher source statistics at the brighter end. We note the these systems.

apparent detection fraction discontinuity in the overlapping region of fluxes between C3GHz and S82 is con-

3. Results

sistent within the large statistical uncertainties (only 3 cQSOs and 3 rQSOs are enclosed by this overlapping

3.1 Origin of the red colours

region). However, there may be small systematic contributions due to different deconvolution and source ex

7 A Jansky (Jy) is a unit of flux density; 1 Jy =10−26Wm−2Hz−1.

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FRII cQSOs

FRII rQSOs J222030.0-00

z=0.6

FRII z=1.06

J222231.4-01

z=1.9

J224532.5+00

J221356.0-00

FRII

J221142.6+00

z=0.65 FRII z=0.74 E J011546.3+00 J010329.4+00

z=1.34

FRII z=1.43

J222720.4-00

z=0.96

J224932.2-01

FRII z=1.14

FRII

Figure 3. Thumbnails ( x ) using data from Hodge et al. (2011) of S82 FRII-like rQSOs (left) and cQSOs (right). The morphology classification (see Section 3.3) from visually inspecting the FIRST VLA data is shown in the bottom right of the image; FRII (FRII-like) or E (extended). The redshift is shown in the bottom left corner and the VLA source name is shown at the top left corner. The star in the top right corner indicates the 4 FRII sources included from the wider 10’’ search radius. The white circle in the first thumbnail illustrates the beam size of the VLA data.

Figure 4. Spectral SDSS composites of the red and blue quasars, normalised at ~ 3000 Å; the red composite appears to be consistent with the dust-reddened blue composite due to the flatter appearance. The dashed lines indicate the main emission lines, which are also labelled. It should be noted that the optical emission lines (e.g. CIII and CIV) are more diminished in the red composite, compared to the blue, which is another indicator of dust.

traction methods between the two radio surveys whichare especially prominent at the faint end of the S82 sample. This radio-detection enhancement in the rQSOs is also confirmed in Rosario et al. (2020), who use LOFAR Two-metre Sky Survey (LoTSS) DR1 (Shimwell et al. 2019) ~ 150MHz radio data (see Figure 7 therein).

3.3 Red QSOs have compact radio morphologies We classified the radio morphologies of the rQSOs and cQSOs following Section 2, using the high-resolution S82 and C3GHz radio data. Fig. 6 shows the S82 radio morphology fractions: the rQSOs show a clear enhancement in the faint and compact morphology

V. A. Fawcett et al

Page 49

groups by a factor of

and

, respectively,

when compared to the cQSOs, quantitatively consis100

tent with the result from Klindt et al. (2019). However, we now also see a tentative difference in the extended ment compared to the cQSOs. This enhancement is not

larger than 5′′). Although this enhancement is around the 2σ significance level, this may indicate fundamental differences between rQSOs and cQSOs on

–5′′

rQSO/cQSO

extended category (defined as radioemission on scales

FIRST limit

0.1

S82 limit

al. (2019) found the two samples to be consistent in the

FIRST rQSO FIRST cQSO

1 C3GHz limit

seen at the lower resolution of FIRST, where Klindt et

S82 rQSO S82 cQSO

( > Fradio) (%)

enhance-

det

group, with rQSOs showing a factor

C3GHz rQSO C3GHz cQSO

10 1 0.01

0.1

100

1.4 GHz Fradio [mJy]

1000

scales (16–40 kpc at z = 1.5) that can be explored with even higher spatial resolution.There is no difference in

Figure 5. Cumulative radio-detection fractions for the S82,

the FRII-like category within the 1σ error bars, consis-

C3GHz and FIRST detected rQSOs (red) and cQSOs (cyan)

tent with that found in Klindt et al. (2019).

as a function of radio flux density. The 1.4 GHz flux for the

This enhancement in the small scale extend-

C3GHz sample was calculated from the 3 GHz flux assuming

−0.7 (unless 1.4 GHz data

ed radio emission for the rQSOs is in agreement with

a uniform spectral slope of α =

Rosario et al. (2021), who use extremely high resolu-

was available). The shaded error region was calculated using

tion e-MERLIN radio data of a sample of red and blue

the method described in Cameron (2011) and corresponds to

QSOs.

1 σ binomial uncertainties. Cuts were applied at the 5 σ sensitivity limit of each survey, and data from the bright end was

3.4 Enhancement due to AGN emission

cut when the number of sources became less than 2 (C3GHz)

In Klindt et al. (2019), the enhancement in the radio-detection fraction arose from systems around the radio-loud/radio-quiet threshold. To quantify how many of the rQSOs and cQSOs in our sample are ‘radio-quiet’ we adopted the same “radio-loudness” parameter ( ) as that used in Klindt et al. (2019), defined as the dimensionless quantity:

is the 6μm mid-infrared luminosity. We also used the same radio-loud/radio-quiet threshold of

= −4.2.

Splitting the S82 and C3GHz radio-detected < −5, −5 <

gions; the dotted lines display the 5 σ flux limits for the three surveys. The bottom panel displays the fractional difference between the radio-detected rQSOs and the radio-detected cQSOs. Across the full range of radio fluxes, the rQSOs have a higher detection fraction than the cQSOs, although the uncertainties are large at the faintest fluxes in the C3GHz survey.

where L1.4GHz is the 1.4 GHz radio luminosity and L6μm

sources into four contiguous

or 10 (S82 & FIRST) to reduce the widths of the shaded re-

bins (with boundaries

< −4.2, −4.2 <

< −3.4 and

−3.4), we calculated the enhancement in the radio-detection fraction of the full colour-selected sample for the rQSOs. From the lowest bin ( highest bin (

< −5) to the

> −3.4),we found an enhancement of and

respectively

which is displayed in Fig. 7. The shaded pink region

Castle Research Postgraduate Paper

Page 50 compares our results to Klindt et al. (2019), who probe down to

~ −4.5. We find good agreement with the

enhancement seen in Klindt et al. (2019) (within 1σ uncertainties), despite using an optically fainter QSO to the levels where star-formation (SF) is likely to be important (detection limit of C3GHz at z = 1.5: 3.9 × 1023 WHz−1). Therefore, we confirm that the radio enhancement seen in rQSOs appears to arise around the radio-loud/radio-quiet threshold with tentative evidence for a decrease at both

< −5 and

> −3.4; the

latter confirmed with better source statistics in Klindt et al. (2019). This is also confirmed with a larger sample using deep LOFAR data, which gives qualitatively the same result, demonstrating there is a decrease in the radio enhancement of rQSOs for

Fraction of colour selected sample (%)

sample, but also show that with C3GHz we can push

S82 rQSO S82 cQSO

10.0

1.0

0.1 Faint Compact Extended (Fpeak, S82 < 1mJy) Radio Morphology

FRII-like

< −5 (Rosario et al.

2020).

Figure 6. Radio morphology fractions for the S82 rQSOs and cQSOs. The thumbnails display 45’’

4. Discussion We have used high-resolution, deep radio data to explore differences between red QSOs and typical QSOs detected in the SDSS DR14 quasar survey. Using the VLA Stripe 82 and VLA-COSMOS 3 GHzdata, we have explored the radio properties of QSOs to a depth of ~ 3 and 30 times that of FIRST, down to scales of 16 kpc and 7 kpc at z = 1.5, respectively. With these data we confirm the results from Klindt et al. (2019), but down to lower radio luminosities and hence unexplored regions of the radio-loudness plane (L6μm vs L1.4GHz). From this we can gain new insight into the origin and scale of the radio emission in radio-quiet systems. We find a significant enhancement in the radio emission of red QSOs down to low radio fluxes (~ 0.3

× 45’’ examples of the

four morphology types for the S82 VLA data (Hodge et al. 2011). The white circles represent a 10’’ radius. The error bars were calculated using the method described in Cameron (2011) and correspond to the equivalent 1 σ uncertainties on the ratio. The rQSOs show a strong factor ≈ 3 enhancement in the faint and compact classes and a less significant factor ≈ 2 enhancement in extended radio morphologies; however, there are no differences between the rQSOs and cQSOs in the FRII-like group within the 1 σ error bars although we note that there are only 9 FRII-like QSOs in total; however, we note that we also did not see any significant difference in the FRII-like category between rQSOs and cQSOs in our companion study (Klindt et al. 2019) which had significantly improved source statistics.

fluxes in the C3GHz field (see Fig. 5). We also explored

mJy in S82). Looking at the radio-detection fraction as the radio-detection enhancement in the rQSOs as a a function of flux for FIRST, S82 and C3GHz, we find function of the radio-loudness parameter , where we an enhancement that is broadly constant at a factor of confirm the enhancement peaks around the radio-qui≈ 3, although the uncertainties are large at faint radio et threshold −5 <

< −3.4 (enhancement of ~ 3–6);

V. A. Fawcett et al

Page 51 tween rQSOs and cQSOs become apparent at

3.4

the radio emission. However, whether this process is due to AGN-driven winds, frustrated jets, star-formation or a coronal component (to name a few) is unclear (Zakamska & Greene 2014; Kellermann et al. 2016;

Laor et al. 2019; Panessa et al. 2019; Jarvis et al. 2019).

An enhanced fraction of broad absorption line

QSOs (BALQSOs; known to host powerful winds)

have been found in red QSOs (Urrutia et al. 2009),

1 0

possibly due to a different process starting to dominate

6 rQSO/ cQSO

4.2

AGN dominated SF dominated

Klindt + 2019 rQSO

<−3.4,

Radio quiet 5.5

which could be evidence that red QSOs are more wind

Radio loud

5.0 4.5 4.0 3.5 Radio-loudness parameter ( )

3.0

2.5

dominated than typical QSOs. Although BALQSOs are virtually all radio-quiet, they have also been found to show a remarkably similar enhancement in the radio as

Figure 7. The radio-detection enhancement for rQSOs as a

that found for red QSOs (Klindtet al. 2019; Morabito et

function of the radio-loudness parameter,

. The red cir-

al. 2019; Alexander et al. in prep). Further corroborating

cles give the overall enhancement, which peaks around the

but independent evidence for wind-dominated sources

radio-loud/radio-quiet threshold, and decreases in both the

becoming more relevant at lower

highest and lowest bin, a trend also seen using deep LOFAR

Mehdipour & Costantini (2019), who showed a signif-

data in our companion study by Rosario et al. (2020). The

icant inverse correlation between the X-ray measured

shaded pink region represents the result from Klindt et al.

column density of the ionised wind in AGN and the ra-

(2019), which is consistent with our data for the overlapping

dio-loudness parameter. On the basis of this we may

, within the 1 σ uncertainties. Therefore we con-

therefore expect a larger fraction of the rQSOs to have

firm the result at the brighter end, but also push much deeper

more extreme winds than typical QSOs, which would

< −5), the C3GHz

be consistent with rQSOs representing a younger phase

sources that are SF dominated are indicated by the purple star,

in the QSO evolutionary scenario. In Calistro Rivera et

and the sources predominately AGN dominated are indicat-

al. (2021), they found larger FWHM in the [Oiii]λ5007

ed by the green star. The vast majority of the SF-dominated

wing components for rQSOs compared to cQSO; an in-

< −5 suggesting that the radio-detection en-

dicator of larger outflows, adding weight to this “dusty

≈ −5 to −3.4 is due to AGN processes.

wind” scenario. Other studies have also found evidence

We argue that the decrease in the radio enhancement seen at

for red QSOs residing in a “blow out” phase (Glikman

regions of

with the C3GHz data. In the lowest bin (

sources lie at

hancement seen at

< −5 is therefore not intrinsic but is due to SF diluting the

values comes from

et al. 2012; Glikman 2017).

overall radio emission.

5. Conclusions however, for our lowest bin (

< −5), which probes a

magnitude below that explored in Klindt et al. (2019),

Using high-resolution and deep radio data of SDSS

we see a decrease in the enhancement by a factor of ~ DR14 QSOs, we extended the results from Klindt et al. 3. This suggests that the fundamental differences be-

(2019) to further explore differences in the radio prop-

Page 52

Castle Research Postgraduate Paper

erties of red QSOs compared to typical QSOs at 0.2

with −5 <

< −3.4 and are likely driven by differenc-

< z < 2.4. With the VLA S82 and C3GHz radio data es in the radio-AGN activity between red and typical explored in our study, we probe down to host-galaxy QSOs. These results provide further evidence for red scales and constrain the star-formation contribution to QSOs representing a young phase in galaxy evolution. the radio emission. Our main findings are:

For more information on any of the analyses presented in this paper, see Fawcett et al. (2020).

• Dust is the cause of the red colours (see Fig.

Acknowledgements

4): from creating SDSS composites of our red and control QSOs, we find that the red composite is consistent

with the control composite plus some amount of dust We acknowledge a quota studentship funded by the reddening. This result is confirmed in more detail in our Science and Technology Facility Council (VAF), the Faculty of Science Durham Doctoral Scholarship (LK),

upcoming study; Fawcet et al. (in prep).

the Science and Technology Facilities Council (DMA, • rQSOs show an enhancement in radio emis-

DJR, through grant codes ST/P000541/1 and ST/

sion around the radio-quiet threshold (see Fig. 5, T000244/1). 7): we confirm that rQSOs have a higher radio-detec-

Funding for the Sloan Digital Sky Survey has

tion fraction compared to cQSOs in S82, C3GHz and been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the FIRST within uncertainties. We find that down to the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science, and S82 flux limits, this enhancement is broadly constant at the Participating Institutions. SDSS-IV acknowledges a factor of ≈ 3. Splitting the S82 and C3GHz radio-detected sources into four contiguous

support and resources from the Center for High-Per-

bins, we find that formance Computing at the University of Utah. The

the enhancement arises from sources within −5 <

< SDSS web site is www.sdss.org. SDSS-IV, the primary

−3.4, with no significant enhancement at higher or low-

data set used in this analysis, is managed by the As-

trophysical Research Consortium for the Participating

values.

Institutions of the SDSS Collaboration including the • rQSOs show differences in their radio mor-

Brazilian Participation Group, the Carnegie Institution

phologies compared to cQSOs down to host-galaxy for Science, Carnegie Mellon University, the Chilean scales (see Fig. 6): we find that rQSOs show an en-

Participation Group, the French Participation Group,

hancement in the compact and faint radio morpholo-

Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, Institu-

gies compared to cQSOs, with a fractional difference to de Astrofísica de Canarias, The Johns Hopkins Uniof around 2–4. We also find an enhancement in the extended group for rQSOs (

versity, Kavli Institute for the Physics and Mathematics

–5′′; 16–43 kpc at z = of the Universe (IPMU) / University of Tokyo, the Ko-

1.5), which is not seen at the FIRST resolution, indi-

rean Participation Group, Lawrence Berkeley National

cating we are probing scales on which these differences Laboratory, Leibniz Institut für Astrophysik Potsdam occur.

(AIP), Max-Planck-Institut für Astronomie (MPIA Heidelberg), Max-Planck-Institut für Astrophysik (MPA These fundamental differences in the radio Garching), Max-Planck-Institut für Extraterrestrische

properties of red QSOs predominantly arise in sources Physik (MPE), National Astronomical Observatories of

Page 53

V. A. Fawcett et al China, New Mexico State University, New York Uni-

This publication makes use of data products

versity, University of Notre Dame, Observatário Nacio-

from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, which

nal / MCTI, The Ohio State University, Pennsylvania is a joint project of the University of California, Los State University, Shanghai Astronomical Observatory,

Angeles, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California

United Kingdom Participation Group, Universidad Na-

Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aero-

cional Autónoma de México, University of Arizona, nautics and Space Administration. University of Colorado Boulder, University of Oxford,

The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is

University of Portsmouth, University of Utah, Universi-

a facility of the National Science Foundation operated

ty of Virginia, University of Washington, University of

under cooperative agreement by Associated Universi-

Wisconsin, Vanderbilt University, and Yale University. ties, Inc.

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Climate Hotspot: An Analysis of Urban Flooding in the City of Maputo in Mozambique Filipe Mate Focusing on the city of Maputo in Mozambique, Filipe Mate surveys the increased risk of urban flooding as a result of climate change and the current national policies and institutions responsible for addressing such disasters, arguing the need for a long-term flood management framework that emphasises greater collaboration both amongst these institutions and between them and the residents most affected by the flooding. Image: Agata Nowicka. https://dornsife.usc.edu/news/stories/3357/when-the-floods-came/

Page 56

Introduction

Castle Taught Postgraduate Paper Meanwhile, in the last five years the urban population growth has been stable recording 4.36% in 2015;

Research on flooding and policy implementation in 4.38% in 2016; 4.40% in 2017; again 4.40% in 2018 Mozambique is scarce. Although there are some pieces and in 2019 the urban population growth was 4.39% of work being done on that matter. Nganhane, et al. (The World Bank Mozambique, 2020). In places where (2013) have written one of the most important works

on the history of disasters in Mozambique and discuss

there is rapid population growth simultaneously there is the demand for infrastructures such as housing, basic

some of steps that have been taken by the Mozambique services and employment, and these grow faster than government towards policymaking. the supply, (UN Habitat, 2013). Disasters such as cyclones, earthquakes, floods,

IPCC in its Report Global Warming (2018)

and tsunamis have caused large economic losses and reported that an increase of rainfall is projected to be costs have increased to an average of between $250 registered in Mozambique, including Maputo (Masson-

billion and $300 billion a year worldwide (Matlombe, Delmotte et al., 2019). The harshness and occurrence 2019). These losses can be reduced by implementing of floods is expected to surge in many regions around

policies that will tackle specific disasters in certain the world including Mozambique as a result of climate regions, (OECD, 2007). Cities are considered as change and economic and population growth in floodvulnerable to climate change due to the high number prone regions (Haer, Botzen and Aerts, 2016). In of populations, infrastructures, urban poverty, among general, latest events have highlighted the exposure of

others factors, (De Sherbinin, Schiller and Pulsipher, urban areas to flooding worldwide (De Sherbinin, et. 2007; UN Habitat, 2013; Revi et al., 2014). al., 2007), with urban areas with high concentrations Cities across Southern Africa due to urban of populations and buildings particularly vulnerable expansion are facing huge challenges from poverty, (Junior, 2009). “As cities continue to rapidly urbanise lack of quality infrastructures and social services, surrounding areas, they typically increase their exposure climate change, high magnitude and frequency of

to climate events as development patterns expand into

storms and unstable rainfall that affect urban space areas that are more vulnerable to climate change and (Zehra et al., 2019). Rapid urbanisation and poor extreme events” (UN Habitat, 2013, p. 105). planning processes have resulted in haphazard growth

Climate hotspot is a concept that has emerged

of slums and blockage of natural drainage paths in the recently. It has different meanings and interpretation cities such as Maputo, causing an exacerbation of flood depending on the purpose and institution or entity events. Recurrent floods including the recent Cyclone defining it. For this assignment climate change hotspot is Idai have had a negative impact on infrastructure “defined as a region for which potential climate change services such as sanitation, solid waste management, impacts on the environment or different activity sectors water supply, housing and accessibility for emergency can be particularly pronounced” (Giorgi, 2006). In this

response; which is why assessment techniques with assignment we are studying Maputo, Mozambique as low resourcing requirements are needed (Zehra et al., our climate hotspot. Then, the focus is analysing the 2019). gap between policies and regulations tackling flooding In the year of 2004 the urban rate growth was in Mozambique. calculated in 8.3 for the city of Maputo (Mendes, 2005).

Page 57

Filipe Mate

Brief overview of the country and Urban Flooding in Mozambique

Cholera. The government of Mozambique, the United Nations and other international organisations placed both cyclones as among the most destructive tropical

Mozambique is located on the southeast coast of Africa cyclones ever recorded in the southern hemisphere and extends from the Rovuma River (10°30’S) to the (The World Bank Mozambique, 2019; Emerton et al., border with South Africa (26°49’S). To the north is 2020). Over the past 20 years, the high frequency, alTanzania, with Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, South ternation and intensity of extreme weather events has Africa and Swaziland (Eswatini) to the west and to the become a growing threat to national development (In-

east is the Indian Ocean (fig.1). The total area of the stituto Nacional de Gestão de Calamidades, 2017). The country is about 799,380 km2 of which 13,000 km2 is intense and persistent rains in the South (Maputo and water.

Matola City), Downtown (Beira and Quelimane City) has caused floods in urban villages and neighborhoods, affecting housing infrastructure, agricultural crops and creating situations of impassability on some roads (CENOE, 2019). The IPCC report 2007 alongside the Mozambican government have been warning about a trend of increased temperature that is being recorded in Mozambique (Broto, Oballa and Junior, 2013). This could be looked at based on Clausius – Clapeyron relationship (CC) which states that if relative humidity remains constant, then the atmospheric humidity will increase at a rate that follows the saturation vapour pressure dependency on temperature - a rate of ~6–7% °C−1 of surface warming” (Blenkinsop et al., 2017). This basically means the relationship between how much the atmosphere can hold at a given temperature.

Figure 1: Map showing the location of Mozambique

So higher temperatures have the ability to hold more

(Source: https://pt.maps-mozambique.com/mo%C3%A7am-

water and this is a rate of maybe 7% more water per

bique-mapa#&gid=1&pid=1)

It is well known that due to its geographical location, the country is considered one of the most vul-

degree warming (Lewis et al., 2018). According to World Risk Index Report 2019, Mozambique ranks 46 out of 180 countries (Radtke et al., 2019). Mozambique also ranks third amongst the

nerable to disasters, particularly floods, drought and African countries most exposed to risk from multicyclones (Broto, et al., 2013). Between February and ple-related hazards, such as floods, cyclones, drought, March 2019, Mozambique was devastated by a dead-

and epidemics (Ehrhart and Twena, 2006; Schmuck,

ly and multifaceted extreme climate-related event in 2013; Chavana, 2015; Jongman et al., 2020). Flooding 2019. Among others three major climate events stand is one of those risks that Mozambique faces and (Ma-

out: Tropical Cyclone Kenneth and Idai, Floods and buku et al., 2018, 2019) it is still considered one of the

Page 58 most damaging hazards (Artur et al., 2015) in Mozam-

Castle Taught Postgraduate Paper tions and groups of stakeholders directly participate in

bique. The regional drainage combined with torrential disasters response operations converge.” National Institute of Meteorology (INAM) –

rains, strong winds typical of the oceanic tropical cli-

mate makes Mozambique a vulnerable place (Araújo, INAM was created by Decree 30/89 of 10 October, Lima and Chicombo, 2020). Between 1956 and 2019 in Mozambique oc-

1989. INAM is responsible for coordinating meteorological activity at national level in all its fields, in

curred 20 floods and 1,921 people perished from the particular those of the exploration and applications of disaster, and 9,039,251 were affected (Schmuck, 2013).

meteorology, with emphasis on climatology, agro-me-

Data on urban flooding in Mozambique is hard to find teorology, aeronautics, marine and air quality monitorbut data available shows that Maputo was affected by ing. INGD Maputo city Delegation, Municipal

5 major urban floods: In 1967, 1985, 2011, 2014 and

2016 (EMDAT, 2021). According to the same source, Council for Risk Disaster Management, Technical many people and infrastructures have been severely af-

Council for Risk Disaster Management. Local committee for Risk Disaster Management

fected by these floods. The articulation of flood policies

within a country, among countries and globally is still – this acts at neighbourhood level. It is the first to report a huge challenge. However, some international events a disaster occurrence in the neighbourhood. have pointed to this direction, which is the need to articulate flood policies from local and global perspectives acknowledging the fact that different governments have different needs, interests and preferences (Araújo, Lima and Chicombo, 2020).

Key Institutions involved in addressing climate related-issues in Mozambique Ministry of Land and Environment – was created by Decree No. 2/94 of 21 December, 1994. INGD (National Institute for Disaster Management) – according to decree 38/99 of 10 June 1999, INGC is a public institution, subordinated to the Ministry of State Administration and has as a mandate “the management of calamities and the coordination of prevention actions, relief to victims of disasters and restoration of affected infrastructures.” CENOE (National Centre for Emergencies Operations) – CENOE was approved by the 25th Session of the Council of Ministers of 17 October 2006. “It is a multisectoral coordination and decision-making framework where representatives of institutions, organisa-

Some of the existing policies on floods in Mozambique Mozambique has made efforts to improve responses at all levels, particularly in policy-making against disasters. For example, from 2000 Mozambique has adopted a proactive approach to reduce the vulnerability of local communities, the economy and infrastructure. In 2006, the country approved the Master Plan for the Prevention and Mitigation of Natural Disasters (PDPMCN) for the period 2006-2016 (Matlombe, 2019). Resolution No. 18/99 of 10 June, 1999 (Calamities management policy) – Contributes to the conservation and preservation of the environment and management of calamities. Resolution No. 7/96, April 2, 1996 (Weather Development Policy) – Provides the country with advance notices of adverse and extreme weather conditions. Resolution No. 43/2006 of 26 December, 2006 (Meteorology Development Strategy) – Minimizes

Page 59

Filipe Mate the impact of natural disasters and other climatic fac-

prevention and mitigation and strengthen institutional,

tors on Mozambique’s development.

intersectoral coordination in response to the effects of

National Climate Change Adaptation and natural disasters, etc. Mitigation Strategy – Establishes action guidelines to build resilience, including reducing climate risks, in communities and in the national economy and promot-

Policy analysis on flooding and other climate related-policies in Mozambique

ing low-carbon development and the green economy by According to the document approving the Nationintegrating it into the sectoral and local planning pro- al Strategy for Adaptation and Mitigation of Climate cess. Change (2013-2025), the Ministry for The CoordinaAnother important instrument is the Law No.

tion of Environmental Action is the institution of coor-

15/2014 (Disaster Management Law). The aim is to dination of Climate Change. However, as far as inforestablish legal principles and mechanisms to prevent mation sharing is concerned, and although some tools and reduce the risk of disasters and their impacts on have been designed and implemented in recent years, the economy and communities. Under Article 12 of the there is still a large space for improving both the comsame law, Mozambique draws up annually the contin-

munication strategy, as well as institutionalised pro-

gency plan for disaster mitigation and management that cedures and tools, which clearly and for the different includes cross-sectoral interventions for rapid response stakeholders at various levels, show the type of inforand resilient disaster recovery (Matlombe, 2019). mation that needs to be collected, structured and shared Sustainable

Development

Environmental with interested parties (Federação Internacional das SoStrategy 2007-2017 – defines its objectives within four ciedades Nacionais da Cruz Vermelha e do Crescente main groups: protection and management of natural resources, urban planning, air pollution and population. Beside the public policies adopted by the gov-

Vermelho, 2012). Most Mozambican cities are located in coastal zones and these are flood-prone zones. This makes

ernment of Mozambique, UN Agencies, The World flood risk management increasingly necessary and relBank Group, Care International and other stakehold- evant. Due to extreme weather events linked to climate ers have been involved in some initiatives that help to change flood risk areas are increasing in many cities reduce the country’s vulnerability to the effect of cli- in Mozambique (Haer, Botzen and Aerts, 2016). Tramate change, in particular floods. For instance, The ditionally cities such as Beira, Chókwe and Quelimane World Bank Group in Mozambique and other partners were known as lying in flood-prone areas but lately the have been supporting the government of Mozambique country has added to the list other cities such as Mapuon Green Urban Infrastructure (GIU) implementation to, Nacala, etc. (Patt and Schröter, 2008; Silva, Eriksen (Jongman et al., 2020).

and Ombe, 2010). It is important to acknowledge that

Master Plan for The Prevention and Mitigation of Natural Disasters

cities and their municipal leaderships have power to in-

fluence the causes of climate change and yet find out strategies to protect themselves through adaptation, and

Create a database that allows studies of climate mitigation (Junior, 2009).

and its impacts, map risk zones, strengthen the means

In the last 20 years Mozambique has developed

of the early warning system, mobilise resources for

plans and strategies that set out synergies and imple-

Castle Taught Postgraduate Paper

Page 60 mentation mechanisms linking climate mitigation, ad-

should be considered (Smith, 1973, p. 3).

aptation and development (Naess et al., 2015). Some of

Floods management brings to the table different

the examples in Mozambique we have NDCs (Nation-

institutions with competing mandates and ideologies,

ally Determined Contributions), National Water Policy, and a wide variety of actors with conflicting material of Municipal Management Plan, Local Plan for Climate interests and uneven power, into competition with one Adaptation (Chokwe, Beira, Dondo, and Quelimane another […] in policy space (Naess et al., 2015). Floods have more detailed plans as they are the most affect-

management also involves money, interest, power and

ed by floods), among others. To materialise these plans politics. “Money talks in climate change and developduring the severe floods, the central government nor-

ment” (Naess et al., 2015, p. 9). It is obvious therefore

mally seeks funding to minimise the suffering of the that different stakeholders have different stakes in flood affected community. This funding is for institutional risk management. program coordination and implementation (Parkinson, 2013).

Recommendations

Data and policies on floods

Policies are designed with the objective to drive social

Well organised data and information on the past flood-

1973). These changes have to be anticipated by sweep-

change or to induce new patterns in lifestyle (Smith,

ing is scarce in Mozambique. Policies, regulations and ing the old problems that make difficult the implemenother legal tools available in the country are relatively tation process, such as having technically and materialnew and have been undergoing changes. However, rel-

ly qualified personnel in the institutions (Smith, 1973).

evant aspects can be found scattered in legislation from

Natural floods management involves techniques

the different sectors, even if they are generally applica-

that aim to work with natural hydrological and morpho-

ble (Federação Internacional das Sociedades Nacionais logical processes, features and characteristics to manda Cruz Vermelha e do Crescente Vermelho, 2012). The policies on flood management in Mozam-

age the sources and pathways of flood waters (Forbes, Ball and McLay, 2015). The alternative means to reduce

bique have emerged in a contentious political context the risk of flooding is to reduce the damage caused by in Mozambique, in which there are controversies over flooding. Flood proofing and flood-plain management, floods governance. The institutional context is charac-

dike compartments, room for the river, and River and

terised by lack of harmonisation amongst sector poli-

Land are examples of proposed flood management pol-

cies, weak implementation of floods policies and legis-

icies in the Netherlands (Van Ogtrop, Hoekstra and Van

lation (Matlombe, 2019). Weak policy implementation Der Meulen, 2005). or policy implementation gap is when the intended out-

In the case of Mozambique, the Early Warning

come is not achieved by a given policy (KHAN and System (EWS) statement results from a technical analKhandaker, 2016). Scholars have identified several rea-

ysis of the monitoring of the event and its likely con-

sons for weak policies implementation (Smith, 1973). sequences. The institutions that generate information Weak implementation is caused by “corruption, lack of that can lead to an EWS are: the INAM, ARAs (institucontinuity in government policies, inadequate human tions that manage the dams and control the rivers flow) and material resources” (Makinde, 2005, p. 1). Be-

and DNA (National Directorate of Water), the National

side, “legal or technical difficulties in implementation” Directorate of Geology (in cases of earthquake), CE-

Filipe Mate NACARTA, FEWSNET, SARCOF and other regional

Page 61 Although the essay gives some recommenda-

and international sources (Federação Internacional das tions, it’s important to point out that there is no ‘one Sociedades Nacionais da Cruz Vermelha e do Crescente size fits all’ recommendation. Each municipal city and Vermelho, 2012). According to Federação Internacional das So-

village have their own specificities which need to be assessed individually and provide specific and realistic

ciedades Nacionais da Cruz Vermelha e do Crescente recommendations. Vermelho (2012) it would be important to: 1.

In general, there is a lack of study of small

Continue to improve the information collection floods, with only emphasis on large floods by interna-

and circulation system, as well as the communication tional institutions and private companies, due to the structure, and the standardising of information collec-

absence of a government agency directly responsible

tion procedures used by the various actors involved in for dealing with flood study, which could add great disaster management and, as a consequence, improve knowledge to the area of study (RIBEIRO, 2018). the quality of shared information. 2.

Written procedures should be developed in

writing and disseminated to all those in the process that ensure the operability. Define more clearly throughout the system how information is shared in particular with regional and international bodies such as SADC and OCHA. In every 5 years the elected president of the Republic of Mozambique has power to change the name of any Ministry or institute in the country. These changes imply that the attached departments, may be affected. It also affects some of the decrees, regulations and some other legal bindings. By so saying, we recommend that the Ministries involved in flood management, at least, may not be changed so that long institutional planning is not affected in every 5 years. There is a lack of institutions directly linked to the management and mitigation of each calamity, such as Cyclone, Floods, Epidemics and Droughts, for these being the biggest climate change driven hazards in the country, as previously highlighted, it would be of great advantage to study the constant learning of patterns and trends throughout the Mozambican territory so that in the near future the country would be better prepared (RIBEIRO, 2018).

Conclusion This paper has discussed flood risk management with main focus on how different institutions involved in flood risk management play their role. Throughout the paper we have highlighted that flood risk is a mandatory tool given the fact that Mozambique has been recording floods in urban settings. Due to the urban growth rate and lack of space for house building people tend to settle themselves in waterways which makes these people vulnerable to flood-related events bringing economic losses and more likely losses of lives. The paper ended drawing our attention to the need of more effective approach towards floods management in terms of inter-institutional collaboration. It also became necessary to build up a unique framework that will tackle the flood management. Flood management framework requires that the potentially affected people may be involved from the beginning and not only be as receptionists of the framework.

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References Araújo, A. A. de, Lima, J. C. de and Chicombo, T. F. (2020) ‘Vulnerabilidade socioambiental: uma análise do ciclone Idai e suas implicações internacionais em Beira- Moçambique’, Conjuntura internacional, 17(1), pp. 39–51. doi: 10.5752/p.1809-6182.2020v17n1p39-51. Artur, L. et al. (2015) ‘Desenvolvimento Compatível Com O Clima Lições De Moçambique’, 44(0). Blenkinsop, S. et al. (2017) ‘Quality-control of an hourly rainfall dataset and climatology of extremes for the UK’, International Journal of Climatology, 37(2), pp. 722–740. doi: 10.1002/joc.4735. Broto, V. C., Oballa, B. and Junior, P. (2013) ‘Local Environment The International Journal of Justice and Sustainability Governing climate change for a just city: challenges and lessons from Maputo, Mozambique’. doi: 10.1080/13549839.2013.801573. CENOE (2019) Relatório Balanço da Época Chuvosa e Ciclónica 2019-2020. Maputo. Chavana, X. (2015) ‘Policy, legal framework and country strategies and priority sectors for investments in climate resilience: Case study of Mozambique’. Available at: https://unfccc.int/files/cooperation_support/financial_ mechanism/long-term_finance/application/pdf/mozambique_supporting_document.pdf (Accessed: 5 March 2017). Ehrhart, C. and Twena, M. (2006) ‘Climate change and poverty in Tanzania realities and responses’, Background report for the CARE International Poverty-Climate Change Initiative, (November), p. 33. EMDAT (2021) The International Disaster database. Available at: https://public.emdat.be/data (Accessed: 1 May 2021). Emerton, R. et al. (2020) ‘Emergency flood bulletins for Cyclones Idai and Kenneth: A critical evaluation of the use of global flood forecasts for international humanitarian preparedness and response’, International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 50(September), p. 101811. doi: 10.1016/j.ijdrr.2020.101811. Federação Internacional das Sociedades Nacionais da Cruz Vermelha e do Crescente Vermelho (2012) Leis de Resposta a Desastres de Dimensão Internacional (IDRL) em Moçambique: Uma análise da preparação legal de Moçambique para a regulamentação de questões relacionadas com operações internacionais de resposta a desastres naturais. Genebra. Available at: www.ifrc.org (Accessed: 24 April 2021). Forbes, H., Ball, K. and McLay, F. (2015) Natural Flood Management Handbook. Available at: www.sepa.org.uk (Accessed: 25 April 2021). Giorgi, F. (2006) ‘Climate change hotspots’, GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH LETTERS, 33. doi: 10.1029/2006GL025734. Haer, T., Botzen, W. J. W. and Aerts, J. C. J. H. (2016) ‘The effectiveness of flood risk communication strategies and the influence of social networks-Insights from an agent-based model’, Environmental Science and Policy, 60, pp. 44–52. doi: 10.1016/j.envsci.2016.03.006. Instituto Nacional de Gestão de Calamidades (2017) ‘Plano director para a redução do risco de desastres 2017-2030’, pp. 1–52. Jongman, B. et al. (2020) UPSCALING NATURE-BASED FLOOD PROTECTION IN MOZAMBIQUE’S CITIES Quality control and review by World Bank Task Team: Bontje Marie Zangerling (Task Team Lead). Junior, P. da conceição (2009) Climate Change assessment for maputo, mozambique: a summary. Edited by T.

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Urbanization, 26(1), pp. 11–28. doi: 10.1177/0956247814523539. RIBEIRO, S. B. J. (2018) ‘GESTÃO DE INUNDAÇÕES: COMO AMENIZAR SEUS EFEITOS EM MOÇAMBIQUE’, Director, 15(40), pp. 6–13. Available at: http://awsassets.wwfnz.panda.org/downloads/earth_ summit_2012_v3.pdf%0Ahttp://hdl.handle.net/10239/131%0Ahttps://www.uam.es/gruposinv/meva/ publicaciones jesus/capitulos_espanyol_jesus/2005_motivacion para el aprendizaje Perspectiva alumnos. pdf%0Ahttps://ww. Saude, M. da (2019) Ciclones Tropicais Idai e Kenneth-SitRep Nacional. Available at: https://www.afro.who.int/ news/more-500-000-doses- (Accessed: 20 April 2021). Schmuck, H. (2013) ‘The Economics of Early Response and Resilience : Summary of Findings’, pp. 1–18. De Sherbinin, A., Schiller, A. and Pulsipher, A. (2007) ‘The vulnerability of global cities to climate hazards’, IIED, 19(1), pp. 39–64. doi: 10.1177/0956247807076725. Silva, J. A., Eriksen, S. and Ombe, Z. A. (2010) ‘Double Exposure in Mozambique’s Limpopo River Basin’, Source: The Geographical Journal, 176(1), pp. 6–24. doi: 10.1111/j.1475-4959.2009.00343.x. Smith, T. B. (1973) ‘The policy implementation process’, Policy Sciences, 4(2), pp. 197–209. doi: 10.1007/ BF01405732. The World Bank Mozambique (2019) Cyclone Idai & Kenneth Emergency Recovery and Resilience Project (P171040). Available at: https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/dsa/pdf/2018/dsacr1865.pdf. The World Bank Mozambique (2020) Urban population growth (annual %) - Mozambique | Data. Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.GROW?end=2019&locations=MZ&start=1961&view=chart (Accessed: 26 April 2021). UN Habitat (2013) Global Report on Human Settlements 2011: Cities and climate change, United Nations Human Settlements Programme. Zehra, D. et al. (2019) ‘Rapid flood risk assessment of informal urban settlements in Maputo, Mozambique: The case of Maxaquene A’, International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 40, p. 101270. doi: 10.1016/j. ijdrr.2019.101270. Legislative Documents: CONSELHO DE MINISTROS. Decreto 43/2006, 29 November - Instituto Nacional de Meteorologia (INAM) _________________. Estratégia Nacional de Mudanças Climáticas _________________. Estratégia Ambiental de Desenvolvimento Sustentável (2007-2017). MINISTÉRIO PARA COORDENAÇÃO DA ACÇÃO AMBIENTAL (2011). Revisão da Despesa Pública do Sector Ambiental – Relatório Final, Moçambique __________________ (2012). Estratégia Nacional de Mudanças Climáticas. Maputo. __________________.Plano Estratégico do Ministério para Coordenação da Acção Ambiental (2005-2015). __________________. Resolução nº 18/99 de 10 de Junho - Política de gestão das calamidades. MINISTÉRIO DOS TRANSPORTES E COMUNICAÇÕES. Plano Estratégico de Desenvolvimento da Meteorologia (2013-2016). Maputo. ________________. Resolução nº 7/96 de 2 de Abril – Política de Desenvolvimento da Meteorologia.

Selling Out or Exacting Change? Paul Beatty’s The Sellout, Don DeLillo’s Zero K and the End of History Aidan Bracebridge Considering two recent US novels, Paul Beatty’s The Sellout and Don DeLillo’s Zero K, Aidan Bracebridge discusses their depiction of the post-racial politics of liberalism through the lens of Francis Fukuyama’s claim that human history and politcs have realised their ideal form. Against this claim, this paper analyses the texts’ depiction of contemporary racial politics, arguing that, far from resolving racial inequality, contemporary liberal politics is fundamentally constituted by it. Image: Aude van Ryn. https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2018/09/03/francis-fukuyama-postpones-the-end-of-history

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According to Francis Fukuyama, the collapse of the all ‘strange thoughts’ arising in Albania, Burkina Faso Soviet Union marked the end of the last viable alterna-

or anywhere beyond the West, redeploying Hegel’s and

tive, in communism, to political and economic liberal-

Marx’s supposition of non-Western people as premod-

ism, leading him to herald the End of History, ‘that is, ern and prepolitical.5 Whilst DeLillo’s exploration is the end point of mankind’s ideological evolution and located primarily within the liberal post-historical fanthe universalization of Western liberal democracy as

tasy manifested in the Convergence and Beatty’s in the

the final form of human government’.1 This assertion site of erased Otherness represented by Dickens, both was predicated on a Hegelian-Marxist understanding work to re-historicise and re-politicise these sites as a of History as ‘a single, coherent, evolutionary process,

necessary precursor to the possibility of escaping the

when taking into account the experience of all people in persistent binarity liberalism engenders and maintains. all times’, a process that is self-created by humanity but

In re-segregating Dickens, Beatty’s narrator in

nevertheless ‘follows a clear directionality dictated by

The Sellout attempts to recover a communal, racialised

the unfolding of reason’.2 Fukuyama uses this direction-

identity that is no longer compatible with liberal pre-

al conception of History to dismiss continued material tensions of a post-historical, post-political, post-racial inequalities within liberal democracies as the ‘incom-

world. As ‘a product of [his] environment, and nothing

plete implementation of the twin principles of liberty more’ his reversal of Dickens’s erasure, which has left and equality on which modern democracy is founded, him with ‘no idea who [he] was’, signifies the central rather than of flaws in the principles themselves’, with importance that race and class identities retain.6 But it these flaws instead blamed on ‘the historical legacy of

is not until Foy Cheshire, the novel’s unofficial spokes-

premodern conditions’ which will eventually, inevitably person for the post-racial ideal, asks ‘We, and I think I be resolved.3 Scepticism about this assertion animates

speak for most of the group, have only one question:

two very different recent novels, Paul Beatty’s The Sell-

Why?’ that the full implications of the narrator’s project

out and Don DeLillo’s Zero K. Both texts, this essay

emerge (TS, p. 100). Embedded in this question are a

contends, suggest instead that an enduring epistemolo-

claim to near-universality and a disavowal of the wrong

gy of dialectical Othering is fundamentally constitutive kind of Black identity — one based on difference from, of liberalism, which depends on a racially marked Other rather than mimesis of, Whiteness — against which that it is perpetually overcoming.4 Indeed, Fukuyama’s

Foy’s own identity is contrasted, even as he refuses

argument itself utilises this globally distributed ‘col-

to acknowledge this foundational racially inflected hi-

or-line’ to project liberalism as universal and dismiss

erarchy. In this context, putting Dickens back on the

1 Francis Fukuyama, ‘The End of History?’, National Interest, 16 (1989), 3–18 (p. 3). 2 Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (London: Penguin, 1992), p. xii. Francis Fukuyama, ‘A Reply to My Critics’, National Interest, 18, (1989), 21–28 (p. 27). 3 Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man, p. xi. Fukuyama, ‘The End of History?’, p. 15. 4 Fukuyama, ‘The End of History?’, p. 10. 5 W. E. B. Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk: Essays and Sketches (Chicago: A. C. McClurg & Co., 1904), p. vii; Fukuyama, ‘The End of History?’, p. 9. See also Alan Ryan, ‘Introduction’, in After the End of History, ed. by History Today (London: Collins & Brown, 1992), pp. 1–5 (p. 1). 6 Paul Beatty, The Sellout (London: Oneworld, 2016), p. 40. All further references to The Sellout will be from this edition and will be given parenthetically within the text using the abbreviation TS.

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Aidan Bracebridge

map becomes an epistemic, as well as geopolitical, ultimate expression of the ‘particularly white fantaundertaking, emphasised by its representation through sy of autonomous individualism’ interrogated by Tim a ‘schematic’ portraying a discrete binary between Engels’s reading of DeLillo’s White Noise.9 Here, we ‘White America’/‘the best of times’ and ‘Dickens’/‘the see the Convergence’s venture framed within the libworst of times’ (TS, p. 99). When the narrator asserts

eral ambition of possessing, through commodifying,

that ‘Dickens exists in our heads’, he is invoking not everything, material and conceptual, up to and includonly its erasure from the geopolitical sphere but also its ing death. Moreover, this ambition initially presents itfunction as the afro-pessimistic anchor against which self as a universalised, disincorporated truth until Jeff all other cities define themselves in order to come clos-

attributes it to his father, in his novel-long attempt to

er to acceptance by liberal ‘White America’, as realised unmask the subject behind the utterance. That Ross’s in Kinshasa’s rejection of Dickens as ‘too black’, full of

substantial investment in the Convergence derives from

‘backward American [racial slur redacted]’ (TS, p. 141; ‘an early reputation […] analysing the profit impact of p. 147).7 Every city, then, is revealed as a tale of two natural disasters’ (ZK, p. 7; p. 14), only confirms the cities, the one it presents itself as and the other it pres-

project’s material and epistemic dependence on the very

ents itself in contradistinction from, and the segregation catastrophes it is designed to evade, a point underlined of Dickens from White America becomes a refusal to by the ubiquitous screens objectifying and differentiatignore this structuring binary’s existence.

ing those precarious lives still ‘mired in History’.10 Fac-

Whereas The Sellout’s narrator turns his back ile as much of it is, Jeff’s obsessive commentary elidon the post-racial fantasy of liberal America from the ing observation, interpretation, and re-invention of the outset, Jeff Lockhart, the narrator of DeLillo’s Zero K, Convergence alerts the reader to his role, which Herren follows it to its globalised and cosmopolitanised lair, notes, as an embedded secret artist, a ‘hidden [creator] revealing where it lives and how it thinks when it’s at residing “within or behind or beyond or above” [his home. Despite repeated declarations by proponents of creation]’.11 Presenting the Convergence through Jeff’s the Convergence that, in this remote location, they have first-person narration, DeLillo subtly undermines the ‘fallen out of history’, Jeff’s need to name, contextual-

suggestion that any person or concept is exempt from

ise, and ‘locate [himself] within the place’ alerts us to the implications and limitations of holding ‘a “private the whitewashing of history this ‘bleached landscape’ address”’, as Lentricchia argues DeLillo himself ought in reality represents.8 From the novel’s opening line — to be.12 In doing so, DeLillo brings into view what Mi‘Everybody wants to own the end of the world’ (ZK,

gnolo, translating Castro-Gómez, calls the ‘hubris of

p. 3) — Ross Lockhart pursues mastery of death, the the zero point’, the assumption that the ‘knowing sub7 In recognition of the harmful potential of the use and normalisation of racist language, the racial slurs from the text have been redacted within quotations throughout this essay. 8 Don DeLillo, Zero K (London: Picador, 2017), p. 129; p. 10; p. 4. All further references to Zero K will be from this edition and will be given parenthetically within the text using the abbreviation ZK. 9 Tim Engles, ‘“Who Are You Literally?”: Fantasies of the White Self in White Noise’, Modern Fiction Studies, 45:3 (1999), 755-87 (p. 759). 10 Fukuyama, ‘The End of History?’, p. 16. 11 Grayley Herren, The Self-Reflexive Art of Don DeLillo (New York: Bloomsbury, 2019), p. x. 12 Frank Lentricchia, ‘The American as Bad Citizen’, in Introducing Don DeLillo, ed. by Frank Lentricchia (Durham: Duke University Press, 1991), pp. 1–6 (p. 6).

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Castle Taught Postgraduate Paper

ject […] is transparent, disincorporated from the known ing the Convergence’s fantasy of achieving a universaland untouched by the geo-political configuration of the ised objectivity through overcoming death. Motivated world in which people are racially ranked and regions to seek immortality by her pursuit of ‘the world as it are racially configured’.13 Seductive as it might be, this truly looks’, projected as ‘a white of enormous depth, myth of objectivity is no more attainable to the Conver-

white without contrast’, Artis represents this fantasy

gence and its creators than it is to Jeff.

not as a synthesis of the racially marked Other with the

Against this firmly historicised context, the St-

White self, but as its total, genocidal eradication (ZK,

enmarks’ proclamation that they have transcended the p. 46). Despite the assertion of liberal post-historicism unanswered questions which threaten to place their implicit in the Convergence’s symbolic overwriting of project politically and philosophically demonstrates its formerly Soviet location, its ambitions continue to not the surpassing of their own limitations but rather a be produced by the same language and thought of birefusal to interrogate those limits, even as they bid ‘to nary Othering revealed by Beatty, requiring every Condo whatever we are capable of doing in order to alter vergence to have its Dickens. human thought and bend the energies of civilization’

That the Stenmarks envision their undertaking

(ZK, p. 71). Although not explicitly rooted in material as ‘[separating] [themselves] from reasonableness’, affluence, this formulation echoes Fukuyama’s dream yet enact it through an unquestioning reiteration of of ‘the limitless accumulation of wealth’ made possible rationality’s own colonial, binary presupposition that, by technological advances achieving ‘an ever-expand-

in Quijano’s words, knowledge is ‘a product of a sub-

ing set of human desires’, all of which nevertheless ject-object relation’, shows the difficulty of escaping a occurs within the horizon of liberalism – supposed-

knowledge-system so pervasive it becomes difficult to

ly infinite invention contained within an overarching observe (ZK, p. 71).15 Wynter, in revealing the historical ideological and epistemic framework.14 That this dream and epistemic process through which rational Man has of infinite affluence is as much a fantastical fiction de-

instituted itself as the ‘descriptive statement’ around

rived from the ‘hubris of the zero point’ as the ‘pure which Western society is organised at the same time that drama’ of the eponymous ‘Zero K’ unit, named after a reason itself has been projected as natural, thereby dis‘temperature called absolute zero’ which the cryostor-

simulating the human authorship of liberal humanism,

age never actually approaches, is confirmed by the co-

suggests a more radical humanism as a challenge to lib-

lonial language the Stenmarks employ to describe their eral hegemony, one which is taken up by Beatty.16 Even project: ‘We have remade this wasteland, this secluded without the quip that Dickens hasn’t ‘had a single Day desert shithole’, ‘We will colonize [the dead’s] bodies of Enlightenment’, it is clear that the narrator’s choice with nanobots’ (ZK, pp. 142–43; p. 71). Most telling, to live as a subsistence farmer in twenty-first-century however, is Artis, who comes closest to (dis)embody-

California manifests a fundamental contestation of the

13 Walter Mignolo, ‘Epistemic Disobedience, Independent Thought and Decolonial Freedom’, Theory, Culture and Society, 26:7–8 (2009), 159–81 (p. 160). The phrase is translated by Mignolo from a text in Spanish yet to be translated into English: Santiago Castro-Gómez, La Hybris del Punto Cero: Cienza, Raza e Ilustración en la Nueva Granada, 1750–1816 (Bogotá: Pontifical Xavierian University Press, 2005). 14 Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man, p. xiv. 15 Aníbal Quijano, ‘Coloniality and Modernity/Rationality’, Cultural Studies, 21: 2–3 (2007), 168–78 (p. 172). 16 Sylvia Wynter, ‘Unsettling the Coloniality of Being/Power/Truth/Freedom: Towards the Human, After Man, Its Overrepresentation — An Argument’, CR: The New Centennial Review, 3 (2003) 257-337.

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Aidan Bracebridge Hegelian-Marxist understanding of preindustrial peo-

Sellout’s penultimate page — ‘So what exactly is our

ple and communities as pre-political, an understanding thing?’ (TS, p. 288) — nevertheless provides a stronger on which Fukuyama’s End of History proclamation re-

basis from which to find a response that is not wholly

lies (TS, p. 146). In this context, the re-segregation of predicated on a binary exclusion of the Other from the Dickens becomes not just one of the ‘strange thoughts’ (comedy) club. summarily dismissed by Fukuyama but also a rebuttal

Whilst the possibility of escaping this binarity

to the conceptual framework from which that dismiss-

may seem to be undermined by the narrator’s inability

al derives its authority. Likewise, the recuperation of to answer this question, it’s true significance lies rather Blackness acts not as a struggle to institute a new hege-

in its open-endedness, its ability, unlike those foreclosed

monic ‘descriptive statement’ but as a suggestion that by the Stenmarks, to be answered differently, again and the starting point for dismantling the structure of hege-

again. For now, Blackness clearly remains mitigated

mony itself must be a thorough interrogation and inhab-

by Whiteness; but through his irreverent, insubordinate

itation of that existing epistemic structure. Thus, King prose Beatty intimates the possibility of creating a lanCuz challenging the black intelligentsia’s post-racial guage that might articulate a new answer, not through pretensions ‘the best way he [knows] how’ (TS, p. 220),

the Convergence’s entirely new ‘language isolate, be-

by rapping and break-dancing, represents not the es-

yond all affiliation with other languages’, but through

sentialist identity politics that Michaels fears leads only a reappropriation of language as it currently exists (ZK, to ‘a world in which we all speak different languages p. 130). Jeff too is haunted by the question of how such and can’t understand each other’, but to Mignolo’s pol-

a language might emerge, albeit without much opti-

itics of identity grounded on the premise that instead mism. Despite his scepticism of the Convergence, in of ‘thinking [coming] before being […] it is a racial-

many instances he finds himself mimicking its aspira-

ly marked body in a geo-historical marked space that tions.18 His perennial attempts to ‘find the more or less feels the urge or [gets] the call to speak, to articulate, in precise meaning of a word’ show a similar engagement whatever semiotic system, the urge that makes of living with its project of discovering a language of objective organisms “human” beings’.17 Inhabiting Blackness, as

reality leading to a similar reiteration of the ideological

it is currently constructed, raises the possibility present-

and conceptual liberal framework (ZK, p. 216). Like

ed by ‘Unmitigated Blackness’ of ‘coming to the real-

The Sellout’s narrator, he posits ‘ordinary people’ as a

ization that as fucked up and meaningless as it all is, counterweight to the Convergence’s hubris but is able sometimes it’s the nihilism that makes life worth living’ only to describe them, through the economic parlance (TS, p. 277). Unlike the unmitigated Whiteness Artis

of post-historical liberalism, in their aggregate: ‘The

dreams of as the symbol of liberal rationality’s final ex-

bet makes the event more likely. I understand that. Or-

orcism of its irrational other, ‘Unmitigated Blackness’ dinary people sitting at home.’ (ZK, p. 194). It is only offers an intuition that the same nihilism that denies on the final page, faced with the uncanny geometry of a the possibility for any universal or unified answer to particular Manhattan sunset, that he intuits language’s the emphatically collective question left ringing on The

capability, however qualified, of reversing this process,

17 Walter Benn Michaels, The Shape of the Signifier: 1967 to the End of History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004), p. 64. Mignolo, p. 160. 18 See Herren, p. 213.

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Castle Taught Postgraduate Paper

with Boxall’s identification of DeLillo’s paradoxical a real human being […] in direct ratio to [their] masuse of tautology to reveal language’s ‘poetic surplus’,

tery of the [colonial] language’.21 It is in this context

its ability to exceed itself, offering a nuanced reading of that The Sellout’s provocative title, acknowledging this conclusion.19 Jeff still cannot express himself out-

the way literature itself operates within the neoliberal

side of the idea of History in which he is mired: even economy, should be understood. As with all the satire as he states that the boy’s ‘howls of awe’ are ‘far more in Beatty’s novel, it asks to be read both comically and suitable than words’, he nevertheless renders them as

seriously, resisting either simple confirmation or dis-

‘prelinguistic grunts’ reapplying the political hierarchy missal of what, after all, Beatty himself tells us he is enforced through the Othering projection of backward-

doing with a metafictional awareness to match DeL-

ness (ZK, p. 274). Yet Jeff’s failure to evade this lan-

illo: keeping white people occupied, confirming their

guage of Othering does not entirely foreclose DeLil-

liberal post-historical pretensions, ‘with bad poetry,

lo’s ability to convey the power of the boy’s ‘cries of

jazz, and corny stand-up routines about the difference

wonder’, which is only partially compromised by the between white moths and black moths’ (TS, p. 132).22 language whose tautological structure and pretensions With this multivalent multiplicity of meaning underto universality would seem to preclude this possibility. mining any Jeff-like attempt to define singly a word, a This scene finally validates what DeLillo intuits in the sentence, a novel, the significance that the initial reineternally open-ended question-statement given to Ar-

statement of segregation occurs in the section entitled

tis’s post-historical, post-human consciousness and to ‘Exact Change’ becomes apparent (TS, p. 111). In its the novel itself: ‘Am I just the words. I know that there economic precision, this phrase appears superficially is more.’ (ZK, p. 162). This intuition is embraced by Beatty, whose use

to confirm the supremacy of the language of post-historical liberalism that Jeff struggles to evade. But its

of comedy revels in the plurality of meaning available double meaning outlines what Beatty’s project hopes to in language and through this begins to enact a future achieve, turning the definitive stasis of the noun into the beyond the stasis of post-history. Warren has suggested open-ended possibility of the verb, and suggesting that that the category of African-American literature took given the current hegemonic dominance of economic shape as an explicitly political challenge to the ‘ra-

and political liberalism, exacting monetary change (for

cial subordination and exploitation represented by Jim example, through the £50,000 2016 Man Booker Prize Crow’ but that this category no longer obtains after the award) from those who hold and regulate economic and accomplishments of the civil rights movement.20 Thus, ideological power is, for now at least, the necessary Beatty’s fictional re-segregation can also be seen as a condition for exacting political change. rejuvenation of this hybrid literary-political challenge,

The Hegelian-Marxist view of History articulat-

a challenge necessarily mediated through Fanon’s ob-

ed by Fukuyama remains a site of contestation within

servation that a Black person ‘will come closer to being these two texts. The Sellout, in refuting the suggestion 19 Peter Boxall, ‘A Leap Out of Our Biology: History, Tautology, and Biomatter in Don DeLillo’s Later Fiction’, Contemporary Literature, 58:4 (2017) 526–55. 20 Kenneth W. Warren, What Was African American Literature? (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011), p. 2. 21 Frantz Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks, trans. by Charles Lam Markmann (London: Pluto, 2008), p. 8. 22 See Seth Colter Walls, ‘The Sellout by Paul Beatty Review’, Guardian, 4 March 2015, for an example of this kind of overly simplified interpretation.

Aidan Bracebridge

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that a post-racial society has been achieved in the U.S., humanity but also the possibility of any ideal achievdemonstrates that its liberal democracy requires a ra-

ing a universal and timeless hegemony. In its exuberant

cialised Other against which to define itself, whilst Zero

plurality, both writers sense a possibility for language

K interrogates the way this racialised binary structure is

to exceed its own structural limitations, its inherent

rehearsed within the fantasy of a cosmopolitanised and self-referential tautology figuring it as an open-endglobalised post-racial, post-historic world, uncovering ed question whose answer might eventually provide the genocidal impulse that animates it. These critiques another alternative to either the hegemony of History of liberalism’s whitewashing of tensions based on iden-

or the dissolution of all meaning. Whether or not this

tity raise the spectre of a nihilistic End of History, as pluralising of History would constitute its end cannot Michaels suggests, in which an emphasis on the iden-

yet be assessed, as these alternative histories claim the

tity and subjectivity of the speaker precludes the pos-

hubris of neither inevitability nor universality, mean-

sibility of meaningful communication, thus dissolving ing for now they remain engaged with and through the the possibility of History as a coherent concept. Fear dominance of (post)History and its persistent Othering. of this intellectual desolation, and failure to imagine an Fukuyama’s claim to have reached the End of History is alternative, continues to draw Jeff to the seduction of thus exposed as an expression of liberalism’s ideologHistory’s universalising, directional narrative despite ical exhaustion, an inability to imagine any alternative his scepticism. But where, until the final chapter, he to its own bleached intellectual landscape, a point he finds only nihilism in meaning, Beatty and his narra-

effectively concedes in his article’s prematurely nostal-

tor, instead find meaning in nihilism, suggesting that a gic conclusion.23 Although it remains uncertain what an thorough visibilisation and occupation of the material, alternative future might look like, the continued efforts epistemic, and linguistic conditions which produce and to imagine it, in Albania and Burkina Faso, Dickens reproduce the illusion of liberal hegemony can provide and Manhattan, display clearly that a monolithic, direca fertile ground for challenging not only liberalism’s tional History hasn’t so much ended as run out of ideas. pretentions to representing the political ideal of all

Bibliography Beatty, Paul, The Sellout (London: Oneworld, 2016) Boxall, Peter, ‘A Leap Out of Our Biology: History, Tautology, and Biomatter in Don DeLillo’s Later Fiction’, Contemporary Literature, 58:4 (2017), 526–55 DeLillo, Don, Zero K (London: Picador, 2017) Du Bois, W. E. B., The Souls of Black Folk: Essays and Sketches (Chicago: A. C. McClurg & Co., 1904) Engles, Tim, ‘“Who Are You Literally?”: Fantasies of the White Self in White Noise’, Modern Fiction Studies, 45:3 (1999), 755-87 Fanon, Frantz, Black Skin, White Masks, trans. by Charles Lam Markmann (London: Pluto, 2008) Fukuyama, Francis, ‘The End of History?’, National Interest, 16 (1989), 3–18 — ‘A Reply to My Critics’, National Interest, 18 (1989), 21–28 — The End of History and the Last Man (London: Penguin, 1992) 23 Fukuyama, ‘The End of History?’, p. 18.

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Herren, Grayley, The Self-Reflexive Art of Don DeLillo (New York: Bloomsbury, 2019) Lentricchia, Frank, ‘The American as Bad Citizen’, in Introducing Don DeLillo, ed. by Frank Lentricchia (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991) pp. 1–6 Mignolo, Walter, ‘Epistemic Disobedience, Independent Thought and Decolonial Freedom’, Theory, Culture and Society, 26:7–8 (2009), 159-81 Quijano, Aníbal, ‘Coloniality and Modernity/Rationality’, Cultural Studies, 21:2–3 (2007), 168–78 Ryan, Alan, ‘Introduction’, in After the End of History, ed. by History Today (London: Collins & Brown, 1992), pp. 1–5 Walls, Seth Colter, ‘The Sellout by Paul Beatty Review’, Guardian, 4 March 2015 Warren, Kenneth W., What Was African American Literature? (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011) Wynter, Sylvia, ‘Unsettling the Coloniality of Being/Power/Truth/Freedom: Towards the Human, After Man, Its Overrepresentation — An Argument’, CR: The New Centennial Review, 3 (2003), 257-337

Reliability of Working Memory Measures Across Different Types of Visual Stimulation: Modulating Location Dependence of Memory Items Harry Seymour Harry Seymour investigates the use of visual working memory – a form of shortterm memory – as an indicator of a person’s cognitive abilities. Presenting the results of his study into the effects of changing the location of visual stimuli on the retention of that information, he suggests individual working memory capacity is dependent on external factors and therefore not a useful measure of cognitive ability. Image: Nata Schepy/Ideas.Ted.com. https://ideas.ted.com/struggling-to-recall-something-you-may-not-have-a-memory-problem-just-an-attention-problem/

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1. Introduction

Castle Undergraduate Paper rely on the assumption that WM capacity is stable within individuals. A measure of a temporary capacity at

Working Memory (WM), as proposed by Baddeley and any given point in time may not reflect permanent cogHitch (1974), is a model for short-term memory. The nitive abilities. For instance, if WM capacity were not model assumes that short-term memory is a multi-com-

wholly independent then the conditions under which it

ponent system with different stores for modality-spe-

is examined would impact the predictions made about

cific memories. For instance, a distinction was made cognitive abilities. Currently these fundamental asbetween auditory stores and visuo-spatial stores of sumptions are purely speculative as they have yet to be WM. Each store within WM was stated to be relatively empirically tested. It is reasonable to assume that WM is reliant independent and exist with varying storage capacities. A measure for visual WM (VWM) capacity within in-

on more than just an individual’s cognitive abilities.

dividuals was defined by Cowan (2001) as the index The most obvious factors which appear to affect WM ‘K’. A higher K value indicates higher levels of VWM are environmental. For example, a study by Taylor et capacity. The capacity of the VWM store was found to al. (2016) demonstrated how temperature can have a significant impact on cognitive functions and perforbe limited at 3-4 items (Luck and Vogel, 2017). An individual’s WM capacity has been demon-

mance. The study found that extreme temperature en-

strated to be highly correlated with a number of im-

vironments, both hot and cold, can have a negative

portant cognitive abilities. These include multi-tasking, impact on cognitive functions and negatively influence fluid intelligence, and, in some cases, as a predictor for both simple and complex task performance. Similarly, academic performance (Yuan et al., 2006). WM capac-

studies have shown that unattended background speech

ity has also been linked to anxiety and stress (Darke, can disrupt WM capacity (Salamé and Baddeley, 1987), 1988). What these findings highlight is that WM capac- whilst further studies have found that background ity is an important factor to an individual’s cognitive white noise can provide beneficial study conditions for abilities. The implications of such findings are that tests otherwise inattentive school children (Söderlund et al., of an individual’s WM capacity (or other similar cog-

2010). Research by Tulving (1974) posed that external

nitive functions) could be used to assess candidates for

conditions can not only interrupt memory recall but are

suitable roles or determine their potential in the future. also able to facilitate it by using environmental cues. For example, a test of an individual’s capacity could Tulving concluded that retrieval of memories is more indicate how well they would cope with courses that likely if the retrieval occurs under the same conditions demand high levels of memorization such as medicine as when the information was encoded. It is plausible (Qiao et al., 2014). Similarly, if a capacity test is being that cues within an experimental method may also conused to determine how prone an individual is to stress tribute to WM capacity. or anxiety then it could be used as a screening test for

WM capacity is typically measured using

candidates applying for high stress roles such as mili-

change detection tasks in which participants memorize

tary special forces (Taverniers et al., 2010).

a set of visual stimuli from a memory display. The par-

Quite clearly the implications of these studies ticipants are tasked with maintaining the stimuli withcould have large effects on the academic and career in WM during a retention period before then comparprospects for any individual. However, these studies ing them to second set of stimuli in a test display. The

Harry Seymour

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participant is then required to identify whether the test that visual and spatial components of VWM may not display matches the memory display. The majority of be as independent as traditionally assumed. It is therestudies which rely on change detection tasks involve fore plausible that stimulus location may also interact maintaining the same stimulus locations between mem-

with stimulus features, even when stimulus location is

ory and test displays, examples can be seen in Figure completely task irrelevant (as is the case with tradition1. It is feasible that the location of the memory stimuli al change detection tasks). A disruption to the location used in change detection tasks could act as a retrieval of the stimuli could be detrimental to recall, therefore cue.

leading to lower K values. If it were the case that location of stimuli could

This study was designed to investigate wheth-

act as a retrieval cue, then the measure of WM capacity er individual WM capacity varies depending on stimwould not be independent under conditions where stim-

ulus-related task parameters. Specifically, do measures

ulus locations are constant versus changed. Qian et al. of VWM capacity (K) change when participants have (2017) investigated the effects of depth on VWM. The to memorise items that are presented at variable or study found that depth perception could affect VWM fixed locations. The experiment shall involve moduand so altering the depth of objects can have a signifi-

lating location dependence of memory items to assess

cant impact on VWM capacity. These results indicate whether changing the spatial location of items affects

Figure 1. Examples of change detection tasks. (a) a study by Vogel and Machizawa (2004) to demonstrate working memory capacity, and (b) a study by Fukuda et al. (2010) reviewing the relationship between working memory capacity and a variety of intellectual abilities.. These two samples demonstrate how colours of sitmuli were changed between the memory and test display, however the location of the stimuli was consistent. (c) a study by Woodman et al. (2012) where the size of the test display was either changed or consistent, however again the location of stimuli was always consistent.

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Castle Undergraduate Paper

an individual’s ability for recall. The hypothesis will Participants were comprised of nine Durham Univerbe that measures of an individual’s VWM capacity are sity undergraduate and master’s psychology students; negatively affected by modulating the location of stim-

eight participants were female, and one participant was

uli. This should be demonstrated by a lower K value male. A priori power analysis (G*Power; Faul et al., in task conditions where spatial properties of stimuli 2007) with an assumed alpha of .05 and power (1-ß) of are changed, compared to when spatial properties are .95, and an effect size (f) of 2.71 (determined according consistent.

to Cohen, 1988) confirmed that a sample of nine participants is sufficient to reach statistical reliability. The

2. Methods

reference effect size reflects a substantial difference in VWM capacity (K) between change detection task con-

2.1 Participants

ditions with and without mental rotation (Grubert and

Figure 2. shows the difference in displays between task conditions. Stimuli were comprised of four differently coloured squares measuring 30x30 pixels although visual angle could not be reliably controlled due to remote testing. The colour of the squares was randomly selected from a list of seven possible colours: green, yellow, red, cyan, blue, magenta, and grey. The coloured squares were presented against a black display and a grey fixation cross was present in the centre for the duration of the task. The stimuli were presented for 200ms during the memory display, followed by a 1000ms blank display for the retention period. The test display was presented until a response was recorded. Between trials a blank display was presented with a temporal jitter of 300-500ms. In each trial, the four stimulus locations were randomly chosen from a set of 24 possible stimulus locations arranged on three imaginary circles with 50-, 100-, and 150-pixels distance from central fixation. The inner circle contained four possible stimulus locations at the 12, 3, 6, and 9’o’clock positions. The intermediate circle contained eight equally spaced possible stimulus locations, two in each quadrant. The outer circle contained 12 equally spaced possible stimulus locations with two stimuli being located at the 12 and 6’o’clock positions.

Harry Seymour Eimer, 2015; ηp2=.88). All participants were aged be-

Page 77 the first condition where featural and spatial properties

tween 18 and 24 years with an average age of 21 years of stimuli are consistent (exact repetition), the second (SD=1.618). The data from all participants was includ-

condition where featural properties are consistent but

ed for the data analysis. All participants gave written spatial properties are randomised (randomised colours), consent to take part in the study and were given the and the third condition where featural and spatial propopportunity to withdraw at any time.

erties are randomised (randomised locations). The independent variable was the modulation of visual stim-

2.2 Stimuli and Task

ulus presented, i.e., the spatial and featural variability between memory and test stimuli (exact repetition, ran-

The study investigates the effects of modulating loca-

domised colour, randomised location). The three con-

tion dependence of memory items to assess whether ditions had equal chances of occurring and were prechanging the spatial location of items affects an indi-

sented randomly, intermixed within each experimental

vidual’s ability for recall. A change detection task was

block. The dependent variable was the WM capacity of

used in which participants memorised coloured stimuli participants, measured using an adapted form of Cowduring the visual display and then, following a reten-

an’s K index (Cowan, 2001): K = (hit rate + correct

tion period, had to determine if the test display con-

rejection rate) x N.

tained the same colours as the visual display. Figure 2 provides an example and description 2.3 Procedures of the visual stimuli as well as demonstrating the difference between memory and test displays across the The experiment was setup remotely on participants’ different task conditions. For the stimulus repetition home computers for self-testing. All participants were condition, the four memory stimuli were presented at provided with the necessary software (MATLAB) and the exact same locations in both the memory and test experimental files. display. In the randomised colour condition, the stim-

Participants were free to complete the experi-

ulus locations in the memory and test display were the ment at a time convenient to them. Before the experisame, but the colours were shuffled across the stimu-

ment began, participants were shown a screen contain-

lus locations. In the randomised location condition, the ing a consent form which had to be accepted before the four stimulus locations in the test display were random-

experiment would run. Following this they were shown

ly chosen from a set of 24 possible stimulus locations, a screen providing instructions for the experiment. independent of the stimulus locations in the memory Participants could review an information sheet before, display. If participants detected a colour change, they during, and after the study and had full access to the were required to press the ‘C’ key, if they did not then privacy notice. they were required to press the ‘N’ key on a standard

The experiment comprised of 15 blocks each

computer keyboard. Change and no-change trials were containing 42 trials resulting in 630 total trials for each equiprobable.

participant. For each task condition (exact repetition,

The study was performed as a fully balanced randomised colours, randomised locations) there were within-subjects single-factorial design with three levels 105 trials for each trial type (change, no-change). leading to three repeated measures within participants:

Participants were able to practice the experi-

Castle Undergraduate Paper

Page 78 ment prior to the experiment proper. However, the prac-

memory set size (N) for all trials was 4. From this, the

tice trials were not recorded.

K value for each participant could be calculated using

The accuracy of participants’ responses was

the previously listed formula [K = (hit rate + correct

displayed at the end of each block. The next block be-

rejection rate) × N]. The mean K value for exact repe-

gan when the participant decided meaning that breaks titions was 3.4 (SD=0.3), randomised colours was 3.3 were self-paced. Upon completion of the final block (SD=0.3), and randomised locations was 3.2 (SD=0.3). the participants were thanked and informed that the ex-

The total mean K value was 3.3 (SD=0.3). Figure 3

periment was concluded. Participants’ responses were demonstrates the distribution of K values across task recorded and their correct responses in change and no- conditions. change trials were analysed.

To test whether the difference between task conditions was significant, a repeated measures ANO-

3. Results

VA test was run on the K values (F(2,16)=4.5, p=.028, ηp2=.360). The results of the ANOVA indicate the dif-

After participant responses had been recorded the per-

ference in K values between task conditions was sig-

centage of correct responses in change trials (hit rate) nificant. and the percentage of correct responses in no change

To determine which of the task conditions sig-

trials (correct rejection rate) could be derived. The nificantly differed from one another, paired samples

Figure 3. Displays a boxplot diagram of K values in all three task conditions. The figure indicates that the mean K value in each task condition (represented by x) diminishes between exact repetition and randomised locations. The range of K values increases between each task condition.

Harry Seymour

Page 79

t-tests were run between each task condition. The re-

Figure 4 demonstrates the variation in K values across

sults of the t-test indicated a significant difference be-

task conditions. These results indicate that modulating

tween exact repetitions and randomised location con-

the location of stimuli had a significant effect which

ditions (t(8)=4.1, p=.004). The other two tests between was more prominent than merely randomizing the coexact repetitions and randomised colours (t(8)=1.8, lours of stimuli. Location has an effect on K values, p=.108), and randomised colours and randomised lo-

even when not requested, meaning K values are not in-

cations (t(8)=.7, p=.495) did not reach significance. dependent.

Figure 4. shows the variation in K values across task conditions. The K value diminishes between the exact repetition tasks and the randomised location tasks. This indicates that participants were able to retain fewer items under the randomised location condition.

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Castle Undergraduate Paper

Figure 5. Demonstrates the significant correlation between exact repetitions and randomised locations (top), and between randomised locations and randomised colours (middle). It also demonstrates the insignificant corelation between exact repetitions and randomised colours (bottom).

Harry Seymour

Page 81

To give insight as to whether the variation in recall under conditions where location is constant. A K values across task conditions was true for all par-

study by Butler and Rovee-Collier (1989) demonstrat-

ticipants a correlation was also run between the task ed that changing retrieval cues significantly impacted conditions. The results found no significant correla-

recall performance concluding that memory retrieval is

tion between exact repetitions and randomised colours highly specific to the cues present when it was original(r(9)=.611, p=.080). However, there was a highly sig-

ly encoded. This study was dependent on the model of

nificant correlation between exact repetitions and ran-

‘attention-gating’ posed by Reeves and Sperling (1986).

domised locations (r(9)=.889, p=.001) as well as a sig-

Under this explanation, one could expect the duration

nificant correlation between randomised colours and for which the memory display and the retention period randomised locations (r(9)=.753, p=.019). The correla-

was presented for to have a significant impact as the

tions are demonstrated in Figure 5. These results indi-

participant’s attention-gate is ‘open’ for a longer period

cate that the change in K values between task condi-

facilitating higher levels of coding to VWM. The high

tions was consistent for all participants. This means K

specificity of retrieval cues would explain why merely

is a stable measure.

randomising colours did not have a significant effect as colour detection was the primary objective rather than

4. Discussion

a contextual factor. The working memory model proposed by Cow-

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects an (1998) suggested that once the focus of attention of modulating the location of stimuli on an individu-

has been distracted by a disruption to otherwise con-

al’s working memory capacity. This was tested using sistent physical properties, a deficit in the performance change detection tasks in which the participants were of memory representations shall ensue. This too could tasked with identifying a change in the colour of stim-

partially explain the effect of modulating the location

uli across conditions where spatial properties were of stimuli on K values. If a participant’s WM is anticconsistent or randomised. The hypothesis stated that ipating a change of colours (as is directed by the task measures of an individual’s VWM capacity would be instructions) then a change to the location of stimuli negatively affected by changing the location of stimuli comes relatively unexpectedly. As such, the change can contrasted to when the location is kept consistent. Re-

act as a disruption to the focus of attention and break a

sults found that participant K values were significantly smooth direct process of recall. This theory is supported different between task conditions. Specifically, the K

by an analogous affect demonstrated by Lange (2005)

values for the randomized locations condition (spatial in a study which demonstrated the disruption of a phoproperties were randomised) were significantly lower nological process by using distracting, but unattended, than the exact repetitions condition (spatial properties sound tones. A similar study was performed by Larswere consistent).

en and Baddeley (2010) where phonological working

What these results indicate are that K values are memory stores were disrupted by irrelevant speech and not independent of location when assessing VWM ca-

articulatory suppression. It’s reasonable to suggest that

pacity. An explanation for this may be the previously a similar phenomenon is occurring to VWM when the suggested notion that the location of stimuli acts as a location of stimuli is changed; the unexpected change retrieval cue, as defined by Tulving (1974), to facilitate distracts the store from encoding, rehearsal, or recall

Castle Undergraduate Paper

Page 82 and as a result the capacity is diminished.

abilities. This indicates that K is a stable measure as it

Motivation for the study partially developed reflects the difference between participant abilities in from the suggestion that K values can be used as a pre-

task conditions.

dictor for cognitive abilities and disorders such as stress

From this it could be reasonably concluded

or anxiety. However, as has been demonstrated, K val-

that K is reliable as a consistent measure across task

ues are not independent. Adopting the explanation that conditions for participants. However, as a measure of retrieval cues have a highly significant impact on K, the VWM capacity it lacks validity due to being dependent validity of propositions regarding K as a predictor for

on the location of visual stimuli which demonstrates K

cognitive functions can be questioned. Overton (1966)

measures are not as independent as typically assumed.

conducted a study investigating the effects of neuro-

This study indicated that VWM capacity is variable

pharmacological drugs on learning in rats. The results depending on cues within an experimental method. A supported the developing theory of state-dependent study by Ye et al. (2014) concluded that resolution of learning in which recall of information is better when representations in tasks to determine the capacity of performed under the same physical state that the infor-

VWM did not affect capacity. This would indicate that

mation was encoded in. Subsequent studies demon-

not all features of an experimental paradigm are signif-

strated how an individual mood can act as a sufficient icant enough to affect results. Before a measure such change in state to affect memory (Eich and Metcalfe, as K can be plausibly used as a predictor for any form 1989; Eich, 1995). It is plausible that the change in state of cognitive function, additional extraneous variables caused by stress leads to disrupted recall and so low-

must be identified and suitably accommodated for.

er K values when assessing VWM. As such K is not a Further research could be directed towards identifying predictor for stress but rather stress is a detrimental fac-

such variables or towards establishing the limit of the

tor to K values. This would be congruent with studies effects from modulating the location of stimuli. It is unwhich pose that stress also disrupts context-dependent likely however that location of stimuli can be exploitmemory (Schwabe et al., 2019).

ed to improve capacity of VWM beyond the typically

Following the tests to examine the effects of stated 3-4 items. Research by Hartshorne (2008) used modulating the location of stimuli, a correlation was several experiments to confirm the sharp limitation of run between task conditions to assess whether the vari-

VWM, demonstrating its relative immunity for lasting

ation in K values across task conditions was true for effects from practice and explicit learning strategies. all participants. The results of the correlation indicat-

As such, the location dependence of VWM would be

ed that the change in K values between task conditions better considered developing a more thorough measure was consistent for all participants. This means that the of VWM capacity than K and predicting additional exchange in K values for each participant between the traneous variables that might affect VWM capacity. three task conditions was in line with the participants’

References Baddeley, A.D. and Hitch, G., 1974. Working memory. In Psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 8, pp. 4789). Academic press. Butler, J. and Rovee-Collier, C., 1989. Contextual gating of memory retrieval. Developmental Psychobiology:

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The Journal of the International Society for Developmental Psychobiology, 22(6), pp.533-552. Cohen, J., 1988. Statistical power for the behavioural sciences. Hilsdale. NY: Lawrence Erlbaum. Cowan, N., 1998. Attention and memory: An integrated framework. Oxford University Press. Cowan, N., 2001. The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity. Behavioral and brain sciences, 24(1), pp.87-114. Darke, S., 1988. Anxiety and working memory capacity. Cognition and emotion, 2(2), pp.145-154. Eich, E., 1995. Searching for mood dependent memory. Psychological Science, 6(2), pp.67-75. Eich, E. and Metcalfe, J., 1989. Mood dependent memory for internal versus external events. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 15(3), p.443. Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A.G. and Buchner, A., 2007. G* Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior research methods, 39(2), pp.175-191. Fukuda, K., Awh, E. and Vogel, E.K., 2010. Discrete capacity limits in visual working memory. Current opinion in neurobiology, 20(2), pp.177-182. Grubert, A. and Eimer, M., 2015. Does visual working memory represent the predicted locations of future target objects? An event-related brain potential study. Brain research, 1626, pp.258-266. Hartshorne, J.K., 2008. Visual working memory capacity and proactive interference. PLoS one, 3(7), p.e2716. Lange, E.B., 2005. Disruption of attention by irrelevant stimuli in serial recall. Journal of Memory and Language, 53(4), pp.513-531. Larsen, J.D. and Baddeley, A., 2003. Disruption of verbal STM by irrelevant speech, articulatory suppression, and manual tapping: Do they have a common source?. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A, 56(8), pp.1249-1268. Luck, S.J. and Vogel, E.K., 1997. The capacity of visual working memory for features and conjunctions. Nature, 390(6657), pp.279-281. Overton, D.A., 1966. State-dependent learning produced by depressant and atropine-like drugs. Psychopharmacologia, 10(1), pp.6-31. Qian, J., Li, J., Wang, K., Liu, S. and Lei, Q., 2017. Evidence for the effect of depth on visual working memory. Scientific Reports, 7(1), pp.1-10. Qiao, Y.Q., Shen, J., Liang, X., Ding, S., Chen, F.Y., Shao, L., Zheng, Q. and Ran, Z.H., 2014. Using cognitive theory to facilitate medical education. BMC medical education, 14(1), pp.1-7. Reeves, A. and Sperling, G., 1986. Attention gating in short-term visual memory. Psychological review, 93(2), p.180. Salamé, P. and Baddeley, A., 1987. Noise, unattended speech and short-term memory. Ergonomics, 30(8), pp.11851194. Schwabe, L., Böhringer, A. and Wolf, O.T., 2009. Stress disrupts context-dependent memory. Learning & Memory, 16(2), pp.110-113. Söderlund, G.B., Sikström, S., Loftesnes, J.M. and Sonuga-Barke, E.J., 2010. The effects of background white noise on memory performance in inattentive school children. Behavioral and brain functions, 6(1), pp.110.

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Taverniers, J., Van Ruysseveldt, J., Smeets, T. and von Grumbkow, J., 2010. High-intensity stress elicits robust cortisol increases, and impairs working memory and visuo-spatial declarative memory in Special Forces candidates: A field experiment. Stress, 13(4), pp.324-334. Taylor, L., Watkins, S.L., Marshall, H., Dascombe, B.J. and Foster, J., 2016. The impact of different environmental conditions on cognitive function: a focused review. Frontiers in physiology, 6, p.372. Tulving, E., 1974. Cue-dependent forgetting: When we forget something we once knew, it does not necessarily mean that the memory trace has been lost; it may only be inaccessible. American scientist, 62(1), pp.7482. Vogel, E.K. and Machizawa, M.G., 2004. Neural activity predicts individual differences in visual working memory capacity. Nature, 428(6984), pp.748-751. Woodman, G.F., Vogel, E.K. and Luck, S.J., 2012. Flexibility in visual working memory: Accurate change detection in the face of irrelevant variations in position. Visual cognition, 20(1), pp.1-28. Ye, C., Zhang, L., Liu, T., Li, H. and Liu, Q., 2014. Visual working memory capacity for color is independent of representation resolution. PloS one, 9(3), p.e91681. Yuan, K., Steedle, J., Shavelson, R., Alonzo, A. and Oppezzo, M., 2006. Working memory, fluid intelligence, and science learning. Educational Research Review, 1(2), pp.83-98.

Château Gaillard: A Study of a Twelfth-Century Castle as Artwork and a Symbol of Power Capri Pappas Discussing Chateau Gaillard, the twelfth-century castle built in Normandy by Richard the Lionheart, Capri Pappas examines the intertwining of the artistic, symbolic, and military considerations that underpinned the architecture of the medieval castle. In particular, this paper traces the under-explored influence of Islamic architecture on the design and construction of Chateau Gaillard and how the innovations inspired by this were used to enhance Richard’s own power and reputation. Image: ‘Sulis Fine Art’ website. https://www.sulisfineart.com/1908-watercolour-chateau-gaillard-qw872.html

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The castle has always been a powerful and impressive capable of things in advance of his age.”1 The Lionsymbol of regal authority and military prowess. Castles heart nickname was coined to him due to his ferociare often discussed as strictly practical structures con-

ty, his bravery and nobility as a warrior king.2 In 1187,

structed for the sake of protecting keystone strategic Richard took the cross at Tours alongside the King of sites to maintain control over larger regions, but they France, Philip II Augustus, with a vow to embark on are truly very complex. Each choice made is thought the Third Crusade. He then officially embarked on cruout carefully: the castle’s location, the materials used to sade during the summer of 1190 and arrived in Sicily build it, and the lasting impression its presence leaves by September of that year.3 Richard’s crusading journey on the land where it is situated.

maps his movements from Messina to Cyprus, where

However, European castles are usually not en-

he paused for his wedding to Berengaria of Navarre,

tirely European, and the outside influences on Europe-

before continuing onto Acre. His path along the coast

an military architecture have largely been glossed over of Syria took him from Acre to Jaffa and from there to in order to paint an image of kings and leaders who

Bayt Nuba, a village that is now the Israeli settlement

were innovative masterminds. Château Gaillard, Rich-

of Mevo Horon.4 Bayt Nuba is merely 12 miles away

ard the Lionheart’s iconic castle and the one most often from Jerusalem, but Richard made the decision to reconsidered symbolic of his life, has been described as

treat back to the coast.5 Richard embarked on his return

being born from the mind of a military genius. I argue journey on October 9, 1192.6 However, Richard was that not enough credit has been given to its predeces-

captured near Vienna by Leopold V, Duke of Austria,

sors and also its contemporaries, especially in places who accused Richard of the murder of his cousin.7 where Islamic architecture has great prominence. Rich-

During Richard’s two-year absence, Philip Augustus

ard’s recombination of architectural elements from var-

had attempted to take control of Normandy and had

ious sources was innovative, but his castle might have seized many of Richard’s lands, including the crucial more Ayyubid-inspired components than what has been county of the Norman Vexin, which was important due properly acknowledged.

to its close proximity to Paris and the coastal cities of

Richard the Lionheart was arguably one of the Normandy. After being held captive in Dürenstein Casmost legendary leaders of the central Middle Ages.

tle and Trifels Castle until February 4, 1194, Richard

To the people of his time, Richard was “a hero whose

was release and he returned to France to battle Philip

[valor] shone [conspicuously] in a valiant age; but he and reclaim his lost territories.8 The most monumental was also an able captain, an engineer full of resources, decision Richard made to ensure that his campaign to experienced; a master in the practice of his art, [and] take back the Norman Vexin was successful would be 1 Euguene-Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc, Castles & Warfare in the Middle Ages, trans. M. Macdermott (Mineola: Dover Publications, Inc., 1977), p. 80. 2 Jean Flori, Richard the Lionheart: Knight and King, trans. Jean Birrell (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1999), p. 41. 3 Ibid., p. 111. 4 John Man, Saladin: The Sultan Who Vanquished the Crusaders and Built an Islamic Empire (London: Da Capo Press, 2016), p. 221. 5 John Gillingham, Richard I (London: Yale University Press, 1999), p. 198. 6 Ibid., p. 267. 7 Flori, p. 180. 8 Gillingham, pp. 288-300.

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Capri Pappas to build what is arguably the most magnificent castle of his time: Château Gaillard. Château Gaillard is considered an engineering marvel of its time with a three-tiered defense in order to ward off besiegers.9 The castle’s strategic purpose was to protect the duchy of Normandy from Philip. Every aspect of Château Gaillard was thought out carefully, beginning with the castle’s precise location. Château Gaillard was built high atop the limestone cliffs of Les Andelys in Normandy, overlooking the mighty river Seine. Its position is not only practical, but political and

Fig. 1. A view of the Seine and Les Andelys from the cas-

symbolic as well. Richard’s placement of the fortress in

tle’s ruins. Photo retrieved from the “Fédération des Guides

Les Andelys makes practical sense due to its location

de Normadie” website. 2019. https://normandyguides.com/

right at the tip of a curve in the Seine. The river curves

visit-idea/vernon-andelys-chateau-gaillard/.

to form a peninsula of land opposing the castle, and the town of Les Andelys is directly in between Vernon and Gisors, two of the key cities that Philip seized during Richard’s imprisonment (fig.1). Importantly, Les Andelys sits on the bank of the Seine, which the French used in order to communicate back and forth easily between these points. The castle was situated there to disrupt this communicative link. Furthermore, the Seine was a direct path to Paris, which could provide ample support, resources and reinforcement armies to the French, so controlling the river itself was vital for Richard. By placing Château Gaillard over this pathway, it made

Fig. 2. A view of the Seine towards Paris from the castle ru-

communication to Paris difficult and prevented the

ins. Photo taken by Capri Pappas, July 28th, 2015.

French from seizing Rouen, the capital city of Normandy, which was Richard’s chief concern.10 The strategic of power; it represented the strength of Richard’s strong placement and alignment of Château Gaillard made its centralized government, the economic superiority of tactical relevance impossible to miss. However, Châ-

his kingdom, his administrative efficiency and, most

teau Gaillard was designed with multiple factors in blatantly, his regal authority. The height of the mounmind, including artistic elements that have often been tain is staggering, especially when viewed from the overlooked in emphasizing the castle’s obvious practi-

ground. The castle’s towers were designed in such a

cality.

way to make the castle appear as if it were ascending, Château Gaillard had a role as a political symbol as described by the chaplain of Philip Augustus shortly

9 William E. Welsh, ‘The Fall of Chateau Gaillard,’ Military Heritage (2019), p. 62. 10 Viollet-le-Duc, p. 83.

Page 88 after the castle was completed:

Castle Conference Research Paper scape of Normandy, the land he was trying to protect from an invasion of the French king.

By the riverside the shape of a lofty tower re-

The other Angevin kings flexed their accom-

veals itself, and so well are the surfaces pol-

plishments similarly by building castles, especially in

ished and the cliff and the wall joined, that they England, but it should be noted, as Allen Brown points seem to make a straight line that boldly essays

out, that castle-building sometimes was a reflection of

to reach the stars… the situation and the beauty

insecurity.14 Castles were used for a multitude of rea-

of the fortifications and surroundings soon de-

sons and were always the “bones of the kingdom” in

served the well-known and celebrated appella-

that they represented the military and administrative

tion of “Le Château-Gaillard.”11

strength of a ruler in some way, whether serving as a seat of government or a strategic defensive base in the

Furthermore, it is important to consider how the land-

midst of a war.15 In the case of Château Gaillard, it was

scape was viewed from the perspective of the castle an impregnable fortress meant to keep the French from itself. Oliver Creighton stresses the notion that “the po-

further invading Normandy, and at the same time it was

tential quality of views from within a structure could a visible representation of Richard’s prominence and be a major consideration in its architecture and domes-

rulership in Normandy. The clear message of Richard’s

tic planning [… and] the availability of elevated views regal authority was communicated though the powerful could influence the organization of the tract of land-

symbol of the keep, which contained two rooms: an an-

scape immediately surrounding the castle.”12 From atop techamber and an audience room. This room was likely the cliff over the Seine, Richard could see far towards a throne room for royal audiences to further emphasize 16 Paris and the coast of Normandy with an unobscured the political importance of Château Gaillard. Castles

view of the river and who was sailing on it (fig. 2 and as a whole were symbolic of lordship, but their keeps 3). The castle’s location was surely considered with the were considered the most striking displays of power in view from the inside in mind as well. After all, “con-

both appearance and function.17 Château Gaillard’s keep

trol over access to such raised views could be symbol-

is the tallest point of the castle and separates Richard’s

ic of control over the landscape itself.13 In the case of throne room from the bailey. This unusual keep was Château Gaillard, what Richard could see from such an not entirely inspired by Islamic architecture or English elevated viewpoint was an impressive view of the land-

castles, but there are similar keeps in various French

11 Charles Roessler Graville, ‘The Rock of Andeli and the Château-Gaillard, fortified A.D 1196-98 and besieged 1203-4’, The Journal of the British Archaeological Association, 23 (1917), p. 23. 12 Oliver Creighton, ‘Room With A View: Framing Castle Landscapes’, in Château Gaillard, 24: Études de castellologie médiévale, Château et représentations, ed. by Peter Ettel, Anne-Marie Flambard- Héricher, and Tom E. MacNeill (Caen: Publications du CRAHM, 2010), pp. 37-49 (p. 46). 13 Ibid. 14 Allen R. Brown, ‘Royal Castle-Building in England, 1154-1216’, The English Historical Review, 70 (1955), p. 362. 15 Ibid., p. 361. 16 Robert Liddiard, Castles in Context: Power, Symbolism and Landscape, 1066 to 1500 (Macclesfield: Windgather Press Ltd., 2005), p. 54. 17 Adrian Pettifer, English Castles: A Guide by Counties (Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 1995), p. 319.

Capri Pappas

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structures; most interestingly, Philip Augustus’s castle for he felt the need to name one of the bridges ‘Merbuilt in 1190, La Roche Guyon.18 Both castle keeps are cadier Bridge’ after his longtime friend and most trusttowers en bec—that is, with one side drawn out to a ed mercenary general.24 Additionally, Richard spent an sharp angle or break.19 Philip constructed a keep en bec estimated £8,000 on Château Gaillard, according to the at Château de Gisors, the heart of the Norman Vexin, Norman Exchequer Roll of 1198.25 The price indicates when Richard was still captured in Dürenstein, which Richard’s love for the castle in addition to the other was likely a very offensive gesture to Richard.20 How-

evidence already mentioned, for he only spent about

ever, the keep at La Roche Guyon is cruder and not £7,000 total on all other castles in England during his as dramatically sophisticated as the keep of Château reign.26 Richard truly considered the castle’s appearGaillard. It is possible that Richard purposefully took ance and refining touches important, even if the castle Philip’s innovation and made it more complex to flaunt itself was not primarily an artistic endeavor. According that he could build an even more impressive tower.

to Viollet-le-Duc, “no sculpture is to be seen [on the

Richard’s personal involvement in the planning castle], or [moldings] of any kind […] everything has of this castle is not a far-fetched idea amongst histori-

been sacrificed to the [defense].”27 However, the ma-

ans, for Allen Brown suggests that the master mason of sonry should still be considered from an aesthetic perChâteau Gaillard was Richard himself.21 This is pos-

spective. If Richard was truly in charge of the castle’s

sible due to the constant presence of Richard on the construction, or at the very least part of the major deciconstruction site, indicating his deep interest and care sions made by the master stone masons, he likely mixed for the castle. He boasted that the walls would not fall ideas encountered in Islamic, English and French struceven if they were made of butter and referred to the tures into designing Château Gaillard. castle as his “beautiful daughter,” which parallel with

The depth and range of what inspired Richard

his involvement on the construction site and deliberate is difficult to address, considering that many fortresses choices in structure and design.22 Additionally, both the have since been destroyed and documentation remains inner and outer bailey had their own moats with bridg-

scarce. Richard encountered castles built by previous

es carved out of the limestone found on-site.23 These crusaders and Muslims, though it is hard to say in what bridges were practical, but they also must have looked state each castle was, among those he may have seen. finished and refined enough to evoke pride in Richard, When trying to determine the development of crusading

18 Allen R. Brown, English Castles (Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 1954), p. 54. 19 Christopher Gravett, The History of Castles: Fortifications Around the World (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2007), p. 17. 20 Ibid. 21 Brown, English Castles, p. 113. 22 Ibid. 23 Welsh, p. 63. 24 J.F. Verbruggen, The Art of Warfare in Western Europe During the Middle Ages: From the Eighth Century to 1340 (Suffolk: Boydell & Brewer, 1997), p. 137. 25 Brown, ‘Royal Castle Building’, p. 367. 26 Ibid. 27 Viollet-le-Duc, p. 90.

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Castle Conference Research Paper

fortification and its debt to Byzantine and Islamic mod-

hilltop fortresses.32 Richard passed through Antioch

els, much depends on accurate dating.28 Most of the for-

along its main coastal roads, so it is likely that he saw a

tresses Richard seized were likely rebuilt or modified range of these fortresses—most notably, the large ones by Saladin in 1187, when he was conquering Jerusa-

that made use of the surrounding rock designs, which

lem from the crusaders, so we can assume most of what encouraged him to take advantage of the mountainous Richard saw reflected Ayyubid taste. Some of this aes-

location for the construction of Château Gaillard. In ad-

thetic can be seen in the masonry of Château Gaillard. dition to the incorporation of existing rock forms into The stones used to build Château Gaillard were local the designs of their castles, there were other decoralimestone, as was the case with most castle building tive elements to be seen on Islamic architecture, such that usually took materials from the construction site as ablaq stonework, which was the mixture of white itself. Château Gaillard incorporated already-existing limestone and dark basalt as a form of decoration in rock into its design, for the walls of the castle emerge Bilad al-Sham.33 The masonry of Château Gaillard was directly from the limestone cliffs that it stands upon.

made of silex bedded in “excellent mortar and revetted

The tailoring of the masonry to fit the living rock, and […] with carefully executed face-work in small coursthe shaping of the rock to fit the masonry, is a feature es, here and there having alternate courses of red and that would not be seen elsewhere in the West for at least white stone.”34 This pattern of red and white seems to another century.29 However, it was a common practice mimic the ablaq style. in Bilad al-Sham, the geographical area of Greater Syr-

In the twelfth-century Palestine, prior to the

ia, to make existing rock formations into buttresses and Third Crusade, “the experience of local builders skilled to integrate cracks and gaps in the rock into the design. in the construction of substantial stone vaulting, broad 30

The decision to make use of topographical features arches, domes and other complex load-bearing struc-

to strengthen Château Gaillard was likely learned from

tures became available to the conquerers: as a result,

Islamic architecture, as noted by Nikita Elisséef.31 For

indigenous Syro-Palestinian architectural influence be-

instance, in the early twelfth century, castles built in came more apparent in many aspects of crusader archithe Principality of Antioch were integrated along the tecture.”35 These aspects include the placing of entrancregion’s mountainous landscape, which encouraged ex-

es beneath and through towers rather

perimental and daring designs. The perfect surround-

than curtain walls, defensive towers that protruded far-

ings plus a mixture of Byzantine, Armenian, Western ther from a wall to permit enfilading fire, the use of a European and Syrian-Islamic masons created an inter-

keep not as a last resort but as the center of an overall

esting range of castles, from simple structures to huge defensive scheme, an increase in the size of towers, and 28 Kenneth Meyer Setton, A History of the Crusades: The Art and Architecture of the Crusader States (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1977), p. 143. 29 Brown, English Castles, p. 62. 30 David Nicolle, Crusader Castles in the Holy Land 1097-1192 (Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2004), p. 19. 31 Ibid., p. 9. 32 Ibid., p. 20. 33 Ibid. 34 Viollet-le-Duc, p. 90. 35 Nicolle, p. 10.

Capri Pappas the use of heavily embossed masonry.36 All of these ele-

Page 91 fortresses also had these defensive features that likely

ments, save the concept of an entrance through a tower, inspired both Christian and Islamic military architects. were used in Château Gaillard. Even if implemented However, most of these traits did not appear in Western differently, the gateway of Château Gaillard may have fortifications until after the crusades, and Château Gailbeen partially inspired by Islamic architecture. Château lard was amongst the first to introduce, or perhaps reGaillard’s gateway is not prominent like the gatehouses introduce, these concepts to the West. Islamic citadels in European castles during the twelfth century, which did not often include residential palaces or ceremonial had diverse tower forms in all types of shapes.37 This rooms until the Ayyubid period, and European castle is likely because these gatehouses were not formed in keeps did not usually contain throne rooms or any sort response to technological changes in warfare, but rather of ceremonial hall. The Ayyubid citadels, meanwhile, as a matter of aesthetic choice, as John Goodall argues,

were aggressively military and political. One example

and so Richard’s gateway was not emphasized whatso-

is the Citadel at Aleppo, which has a monumental gate-

ever.38 Instead, it is discreet, with two small posts on the house ornamented with figurative imagery that symbolinside of the wall

ized the power of the state, while also being pierced with

rather than the outside. The gateway of Château Gail-

multiple arrow slits and machicolated brattices. Aleppo

lard is one of the earliest examples of towers flanking is too far inland for Richard to have visited it, but the an entrance gate, applied here to counter the blind-spot defensive features so prominently displayed on its gate, immediately in front of the gate.39 During Richard’s

such as arrow loops, machicolations, and towers flank-

lifetime, the idea of the barbican—a word derived from ing the gate, were characteristic of Ayyubid military the Arabic bab, gate, and khan, enclosure—wasbeing architecture of the time.42 Notably, the Qal’at Salah Alimplemented in European castles for the first time since Din, located on the coast of Syria, generally followed earlier crusaders had brought the idea back to Europe.40

the same design as the Aleppo gatehouse with reception

Richard may have been inspired by this

rooms inside. The Qal’at Salah Al-Din, fortified in the

imported but already established idea as well as the Is-

tenth century, is one of the most elaborate castles of

lamic method of putting an entrance between towers.

the Mediterranean due to its showcasing of Byzantine,

Overall, Ayyubid citadels were massive struc-

Frankish, Ayyubid and Mamluk military architectural

tures, scarcely ornamented save for the gatehouse, and

styles.43 Richard may have gone to the Qal-at Salah

generally characterized by merlons, machicolations and Al-Din when meeting and negotiating with Saladin’s arrow slits.41 Château Gaillard makes use of all of these brother, Al-Adil I. Other now-ruined fortresses Richard characteristics on both its exterior and interior. Roman encountered likely had varying levels of mixing of de36 Ibid. 37 John Goodall, ‘The English Gatehouse’, Architectural History, 55 (2012), p. 10. 38 Ibid. 39 Pettifer, p. 317. 40 Goodall, p. 10. 41 Abd al-Razzaq Moaz, Yasser Tabbaa, and Zena Takieddine, The Ayyubid Era: Art and Architecture in Medieval Syria (Vienna: Museum Ohne Grenzen, 2015), p. 56. 42 Ibid., p. 56. 43 Ibid., pp. 206-7.

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fensive characteristics from multiple sources, including the damage from siege engines better than flat walls, Ayyubid military architecture, due to how often they and in addition, the insertion of arrow-slits along a were conquered, reconquered, destroyed and rebuilt curved wall allowed arrows to be fired at all angles.48 over the centuries. Other elements inspired by Islamic fortifica-

This wall combined with the unusual curtain wall made perfect use of the principles of concentric defense, and

tions are more obvious. The middle bailey of Château this combination is largely attributed to Richard’s own Gaillard was studded with towers that protruded far ingenious invention, though as Viollet-le-Duc menfrom the walls to allow enfilading fire, just like the cas-

tioned, it is “hard to say” if he “had brought back from

tles he may have seen when crusading along the coast. the East acquirements so far in advance for his age […] The keep is the core of Richard’s design, for Château or rather […] as a result of practical observation, found Gaillard had a concentric form that was fully developed in his own genius the ideas of which he then made so before crusader castles, like the Krak des Chevaliers, remarkable an application.”49 mastered the art.44 Château Gaillard was amongst the

Château Gaillard has generally been discussed

first to use this ancient concept in the West.45 Lastly, from a strictly strategic standpoint, discussed only as there are the most commonly know Islamic defensive a structure erected to defend Normandy from further elements that Richard learned on crusade and applied French invasion. However, castle architecture is “not to his castle: the use of slot machicolations and the con-

dictated by defensive necessity, but by the need of the

cept of the sloping front walls, or talus.46 Richard ‘land-

owner to show off his status: the architecture of castles

scaped’ the walls of Château Gaillard into the rock so is a symbol of gaining and preservation of power.”50 that the living rock beneath the walls were connected, To assume that Richard put little to no thought into the and so the further down the walls themselves went, the design of Château Gaillard is underestimating the love thicker they became. This thickening of the walls en-

he had for the castle and its image. The castle became

sured that they could withstand missiles and the slop-

Richard’s favorite residence, and contemporary char-

ing made climbing the walls extremely difficult. The ters remaining from Château Gaillard’s construction embossed masonry caused missiles to slide off without described the castle as the “Bellum Castrum de Rupe,” much damage. One of Richard’s original innovations or “the Fair Castle of the Rock.”51 Château Gaillard was was the design of the inner bailey, which had semi-cir-

and still is widely considered to be a beautiful and pow-

cular projections along the wall with arrow-slits re-

erful statement of regnal authority, a military marvel of

served in their masonry.47 The rounded walls absorbed its time, and the result of a single war-driven genius, but

44 Stephen Friar, The Sutton Companion to Castles (Stroud: Sutton Publishing, 2003), p. 77. 45 Nicolle, p. 11. 46 Ibid. 47 Viollet-le-Duc, p. 88. 48 Friar, p. 125. 49 Viollet-le-Duc, pp. 87-88. 50 Jan Kamphuis, ‘The Castle as a Symbol: The Image of Power’, in Château Gaillard, 24: Études de castellologie médiévale, Château et représentations, ed. by Peter Ettel, Anne-Marie Flambard-Héricher, and Tom E. MacNeill (Caen: Publications du CRAHM, 2010), pp. 129-133 (p. 132). 51 Gillingham, p. 303.

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not enough emphasis has been given to how deeply Rich-

remains an impressive accomplishment, with aspects of

ard integrated ideas he learned while on crusade into the various cultures chosen to create one of the most powcastle’s appearance and function. Château Gaillard still erful fortresses of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.

Fig. 3 and Fig. 4. Château Gaillard ruins and a miniature reconstruction of the castle. Photos taken by Capri Pappas, July 28th, 2015.

Works Cited Brown, Allen R., ‘Royal Castle-Building in England, 1154-1216’, The English Historical Review, 70 (1955), 35398 —— English Castles (Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 1954) Creighton, Oliver, ‘Room With A View: Framing Castle Landscapes’, in Château Gaillard, 24: Études de castellologie médiévale, Château et représentations, ed. by Peter Ettel, Anne-Marie Flambard-Héricher, and Tom E. MacNeill (Caen: Publications du CRAHM, 2010), 37-49 Flori, Jean, Richard the Lionheart: Knight and King, trans. by Jean Birrell (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1999) Friar, Stephen, The Sutton Companion to Castles (Stroud: Sutton Publishing, 2003) Gillingham, John, Richard I (London: Yale University Press, 1999) Goodall, John, ‘The English Gatehouse’, Architectural History, 55 (2012), 1-23 Gravett, Christopher, The History of Castles: Fortifications Around the World (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2007) Graville, Charles Roessler, ‘The Rock of Andeli and the Château-Gaillard, fortified A.D 1196-98 and besieged 1203-4’, The Journal of the British Archaeological Association, 23 (1917), 23-50 Kamphuis, Jan, ‘The Castle as a Symbol: The Image of Power’, in Château Gaillard, 24: Études de castellologie médiévale, Château et représentations, ed. by Peter Ettel, Anne-Marie Flambard-Héricher, and Tom E. MacNeill (Caen: Publication du CRAHM, 2010), 129-133 Liddiard, Robert, Castles in Context: Power, Symbolism and Landscape, 1066 to 1500 (Macclesfield: Windgather Press Ltd., 2005) Man, John, Saladin: The Sultan Who Vanquished the Crusaders and Built an Islamic Empire (London: Da Capo

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Press, 2016) Moaz, Abd al-Razzaq, Tabbaa, Yasser, and Takieddine, Zena, The Ayyubid Era: Art and Architecture in Medieval Syria (Vienna: Museum Ohne Grenzen, 2015) Nicolle, David, Crusader Castles in the Holy Land 1097-1192 (Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2004) Pettifer, Adrian, English Castles: A Guide by Counties (Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 1995) Setton, Kenneth Meyer, A History of the Crusades: The Art and Architecture of the Crusader States (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1977) Verbruggen, J. F, The Art of Warfare in Western Europe During the Middle Ages: From the Eighth Century to 1340 (Suffolk: Boydell & Brewer, 1997) Viollet-le-Duc, Euguene-Emmanuel, Castles & Warfare in the Middle Ages, trans. by M. Macdermott (Mineola: Dover Publications, Inc., 1977) Welsh, William E., ‘The Fall of Chateau Gaillard’, Military Heritage (2019), 58-70

Resistant Writings: Considering the Relationship Between Graffiti, Power and Privilege in Controlled and Restricted Spaces Emma Bryning Analysing a diverse range of graffiti from across Europe, Africa and North America, Emma Bryning explores the ways this form of art and communication, often associated in a contemporary context with illegality, has been used in restricted spaces as an act of resistance, as a means of sharing vital information, and also as a reinforcement of existing structures of power and privilege. Image: Jessica Rinaldi/Globe Staff. https://www.bostonglobe.com/2020/06/18/arts/protesting-police-violence-withbig-bright-art/

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Introduction

Castle Conference Research Paper archaeology' is particularly fitting as the etymology of the term ‘graffiti’, is rooted in in the disciplinary prac-

'Graffiti is a word most are familiar with; yet, due to a tice, thought to have been first used by archaeologists variety of particular understandings of and reactions to in 1851 (David and Wilson 2002, 42; Cody 2003, 84). the term, it resists a singular definition, encompassing a It then became more popularised following the publicaplurality of meanings and perspectives. In order to un- tion of Graffiti of Pompeii in 1856 by Raphael Garrucci derstand a particular piece of graffiti, it can be helpful (Baird and Taylor 2010, 1-2). The term comes from the to consider its materiality; the perceived message of the Italian words for ‘graffio’ and ‘graffiare’, meaning ‘to graffiti; the positionality of the graffitist, when this is

known; the relationship between the viewer and both the act of graffiti and that particular piece, and the so-

scratch’ and ‘to scribble’ (Graffiti Etymology Dictionary; Peden 2001, xix). In many historical contexts, the creation of

cial, historical and spatial context of the mark. In order graffiti was considered to be an important, or at least to discuss these ideas, this paper will examine graffi- normalised, part of everyday life, and the act of graffiti ti marks which have been created in three controlled

not necessarily disapproved of. Rebecca Benefiel has

spaces, whilst also considering the different ways the described how ancient graffiti formed an important part term 'restricted’ can be understood and how these en- of the built environment on cities including Pompeii vironment may affect graffiti production. These spaces

include graffiti marks made by conscientious objectors

(2010, 60), adding that such marks are ‘not a product of anyone particular locale, culture or chronological

who were detained at Richmond Castle during the First period. Although their particular expression may vary World War; graffiti created during the current Covid-19 according to time and place’ (2016, 80). This practice pandemic, and a series of graffiti tags carved into sev-

of graffiti of the everyday is also echoed by Lisa Cody

en national parks in the western United States during when referring to graffiti creation and reception in 2014. The latter example highlights a case in which 18th-century London, writing that the practice has an mark-making reinforces wider power dynamics and ‘apparently universal human appeal’ (2003, 84). Cody where restriction, rather than the production of graffiti, adds that, though graffiti is now - rightly or wrongly may actually function as a form of resistance. - often associated with territory, disaffected youth and

An Historical Context of Graffiti The term ‘graffiti’ can have a variety of meanings de-

visual annoyance on urban landscapes, writing on the wall in charcoal or chalk in pre-20th-century London was the easiest way of leaving a note and, thus, ‘must

pending on the social, spatial and historical context be considered functional’ (Ibid, 81). In comparison to of the mark. However, the practice can be understood modern understandings of graffiti, marks of the past within a continuation of communication practices used were often considered a useful and commonplace part by humans for the past 40,000 years through land- of the everyday. scape-making and mark-making (Ralph 2014, 3103).

The act of graffiti is now often defined by its

which archaeologists can learn about cultural iden-

as an acceptable, everyday act. Ralph has described

Jordan Ralph has written that these marks can also serve illegality and, though countless new pieces are created as an ‘important source of material evidence through and viewed each day, it is largely no longer permitted tities and ideas’ (Ibid, 3102). The concept of ‘graffiti how the term is, in the 21st-century, widely understood

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Emma Bryning

as markings which are unauthorised and ‘generally spatial, social and historic context(s) within which they conceived as illegal behaviour’ (2014, 3103). Our mod-

operate.

ern definition of graffiti is often understood through the idea of lack of permission or damage to another’s property. However, this is a relatively new concept for mark-making, one which is seemingly rooted in the 19th- and 20th-centuries. For example, Juliet Fleming noted that, in early modern England, the fact that there was not a specific term for graffiti meant that it was not distinguished from other forms of text, writing that this was ‘a fact not to suggest that the vice was unknown but that the activity was not distinguished from other writing practices, and not yet considered a vice’ (2001, 33). In reaction to this changing social and historical understanding of ‘graffiti’, Christopher Daniell has argued that the further back in time we apply its modern definition, framed through illegality, the more unstable the definition becomes (2011, 461). It has been argued that, in England, it was only in the Victorian times that graffiti began to be considered a criminal act as attitudes to the practice became less tolerant (McDonald 2013, 67-71). Whereas, according to Cody, the act of writing on walls and windows in the 18th-century was itself not regarded as criminal, as ‘perhaps people from all walks of life did it’, and it was only when the particular content was deemed offensive or immoral that illegality was considered (2003, 96). Thus, it was during the 19th, and arguably even more so during the 20th century, that graffiti as an act – as opposed to the message’s content – became considered socially offensive. Subsequently, the practice of graffiti became one which was transgressive and resistant itself, coded by its newly acquired illegal status. Thus, as an act, it could be increasingly used to highlight spaces and positions of power through marks created in public and private settings. In spite of our modern biases, the term ‘graffiti’ has a range of definitions shaped between the graffitist, the surface and the viewer, as well as the

Historically Resistant Spaces: Prisons and Places of Detainment Though graffiti may not have been viewed as inherently defiant before the 19th-century, there were spaces where graffiti as resistance could be found prior to this increased connection between mark-making and illegality. One of these spaces is arguably that of prison environments or where individuals are kept in detention, as there are obvious power dynamics enforced onto those imprisoned and detained. This is not to say that this was an act which was necessarily not allowed, but that those kept in such environments may have used graffiti as a tool to highlight perceived injustice. Jacqueline Z. Wilson argued that the creation of such graffiti may reflect a desire of those imprisoned to ‘temporarily forget the awful daily realities of incarceration’ (Wilson 2016, 62). Examinations of historic and modern graffiti in prisons and controlled spaces have been conducted by: Ruth Ahnert of the 16th-century marks in the Tower of London in England (2009); Khairul Azril Ismail of Pudu Jail in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (2008); Jeffery Burton and Mary M. Farrell of the graffiti at a Second World War Japanese American Internment Camp, the Manzanar Relocation Center in the United States (2013); Eleanor Conlin Casella of female convict prisons in 19th-century Tasmania (2001); Laura McAttackney of Kilmainham Gaol in Ireland (2016); both Daniel Palmer (1997) and B’geela Romano (2020) of Fremantle Prison in Australia, and Wilson of the graffiti in Australia’s prisons (2008 and 2016), to name a few. When examining the graffiti marks created in the Tower of London during the English Reformation

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in the 16th-century, Ahnert wrote that the majority of Richmond Sixteen, a group of absolutist COs held at the examples constitute names and monograms (2016, Richmond Castle during the First World War for re176). Ahnert described these marks as an assertion of

fusing to participate in the war on moral, political or

human subjectivity as they were carved into the walls religious grounds (Goodall 2016, 30; Ross 2021, 174). of the prison, made to last, at a time when the ‘prison

By late 1915, high casualty rates, a decline in

graffitists are dispossessed, for they have been ousted volunteers and a stalemate at the battlefront created a from their homes and their positions of power’ (Ibid). need for more soldiers. This persuaded the British War Consequently, such marks may function as resistance,

Cabinet that voluntary enlistment would no longer pro-

as they are created in an environment where personal duce the number of troops needed to ‘bring the war to power and agency has been reduced, whilst also func-

a victorious conclusion’ (Goodall 2016, 30; Boulton

tioning as an affirmation of being and a proclamation 2014, xxv). Following the Military Service Act 1916 of the individual’s identity and humanity, as they have in March of that year, conscription was introduced in been created in a dehumanising context. Wilson has Britain. Unless they received full-exemption in front of written that prison or confinement graffiti are seem-

a military tribunal, men who refused to fight were put

ingly ‘straightforward affirmations of the individual’s into the Non-Combatant Corps (NCC) where they were presence’ which can be compared to the modern act of

made to support the war effort by other means, such as

‘tagging’ (2016, 63). Both Ahnert and Wilson agree through moving weapon supplies (Ross 2021, 174). that, even though the graffiti would usually only be

Some of the COs, referred to as ‘absolutists’,

seen by the guards and the prisoners themselves, they refused to be involved in any army activity whatsoever, would have carried a great significance and psycholog-

including anything which could be construed as con-

ical value for those that made them (Ahnert 2009, 174; tributing to the war effort; therefore, they were conWilson 2016, 62).

sidered to be in breach of military discipline (Goodall 2016, 31). Because of their refusal, a small number of

First World War Conscientious Objector Graffiti at Richmond Castle, North Yorkshire Following this consideration of mark-marking practices made during detainment, in physically and ideologically restricted spaces, I will now examine the conscientious objector (CO) graffiti created during the First World War in the cell blocks at Richmond Castle in North Yorkshire, which is now in the care of English Heritage. There are estimated to be over 2,300 inscriptions across the walls of the cell block at the former military site, left between the 19th-century and the 1970s (Ross 2021, 176). The majority of these are believed to have been created by those detained, including The

the absolutists at Richmond Castle were detained in the cell block beside the keep, where they subsequently ‘left a record of their presence, and courage, on the walls in pencil’ (Ibid). Peter Ross has described how those detained were a mix of socialists and committed Christians, whose ‘pacifism was informed by their most deeply held beliefs. They must have felt their faith whether religious or political - was being tested’ (2021, 175). Many of these marks can still be found in the cells demonstrating these beliefs. They include (English Heritage, n.d.): ‘The only war worth fighting is the Class War.’, unknown, 1915

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Emma Bryning

‘Is England a free country? Well let us go. Let the MPs crumbling plaster of the cell walls, including political fight it out. Lets be free and look after our wives and

slogans, biblical texts and hymns, and records of dai-

children.’, unknown, about 1916

ly military life (2014, xxix). Further demonstrating the recognised important and significance of these marks,

‘If ye love me keep my commandments. Thou shalt not Megan Leyland, Senior Properties Historian at English kill.’ , unknown, about 1916

Heritage, when interviewed by Ross in 2020, stated:

‘You might just as well try to dry a floor by throwing This graffiti may have been the last mark that they water on it, as to try to end this war by fighting.’ , Rich-

thought they would leave to the world. If you got hold

ard Lewis Barry (CO), about 1916

of a pencil and thought you might soon die, what would you put on the wall? (Leyland in Ross 2021, 177).

The threat of further punishment was very real for the COs kept in the cells. David Boulton has de-

These marks, made during the COs’ periods of

scribed how COs could be threatened with being shot detainment, function as a further insight into their politas a means of persuading them to obey orders and how,

ical, social and religious beliefs and personal thoughts;

on 29th May 1916, The Richmond Sixteen were sent to a reflection of their identities and humanity, and a France to be court-martialled (2014, xxviii). Many have demonstration of their solidarity through these shared viewed this as the military authorities looking for a way

messages. The COs may have also left their marks to

to make an example of the absolutist COs; by sending be remembered by posterity, even if they would not them to France their lives were at risk as the penalty have known that their graffiti would later be viewed by for refusing to obey orders in the face of the enemy a wider audience. was death (Goodall 2016, 31). The Richmond Sixteen were among thirty-five men, across three batches of COs embedded in the NCC, who were court-martialled and taken to a parade ground to hear their sentences of ‘death by shooting’, which were, after a short pause, then commuted to ten years hard labour (Ibid; Boulton 2014, xxxiii). Even though the intervention came from the highest level, that of the then British Prime Minister Herbert Asquith, who was not comfortable with conscription in the first place, Ross has described how there was still a feeling at the time that the COs should not escape entirely from punishment (2021, 178). According to Boulton, the story of the COs kept at Richmond Castle during the First World War, as well as those imprisoned in the cells after, was given a new lease of life when, in the 1990s the castle museum made known this series of graffiti inscriptions on the

Graffiti and Street Art Created During the Current Covid-19 Pandemic When discussing restriction and potential confinement, there is one ongoing event which the majority of the global population have been affected by, that of the ongoing Covid-19 pandemic. However, it is important to recognise that, in spite of a perception of a ‘shared experience’, the pandemic has undoubtedly highlighted a range of inequalities on local, national and global scales, demonstrating the ways in which power and privilege operate within these social contexts. Many communities across the globe have had some level of restrictions placed on them and their movement limited in some way throughout the pandemic, including limitations on travel and stay at home orders.

Page 100 However, it is important to recognise that for

Castle Conference Research Paper that Covid-19 was real and recommending the use of

many individuals across the world, their movements mobile money (Ibid). Thus demonstrating how graffitwere already restricted prior to the Covid-19 pandem-

ists have used their practice to communicate their per-

ic. For example, the Passport Index lists the passports

spectives and messages on the pandemic. Stefan Bloch

of the world ranked based on countries’ visa character-

has described how this is a continuation of graffiti prac-

istics, with the passports of Germany, Finland, Spain, tices during times of difficulty and unrest, as ‘Walls are Switzerland and Austria having the highest passport where people have looked for centuries to gauge public rank, whilst Afghanistan, Iraq, Syria, Somalia and reactions to and personal perspectives on major events Pakistan are considered the least powerful passports

that cannot be left to those in power to convey’ (2021,

based on total mobility scores (Passport index, n.d.). 28). This is a conversation which may be particularly per-

Graffiti has been used to ‘provide a very pub-

tinent as the media of countries, such as the UK, focus

lic platform of dissent and cries for change’; as the

on the reduced ability to holiday abroad during a global pandemic has further exposed or exacerbated inequalpandemic, without considering that travel is a privilege ities, mark-making has continued to provide a platmany do not have access to (BBC News 2021). This form to criticise public figures and structures (Bryning desire for greater recognition of confinement during the 2020b). Tyson Mitman has also discussed how graffiti pandemic is reflected in a a mural created on a wall and street artists have incorporated Covid-19 subject in Gaza City in April 2020 by a Palestinian artist who matters into their work, reflecting the pandemic world expressed support for Palestinians held in Israeli jails around them and using graffiti as a communication tool during the Covid-19 pandemic (Nassar 2020).

to discuss these very contemporary issues (2020). Mit-

Alongside this, though many individuals were man has stated that street artists usually adapt ‘stories, able to adapt to working from home, this safety mea-

rumours and public information’ by exaggerating them,

sure was not possible for key workers or some commu-

but, unlike the mainstream media, they are not subject

nities. In May 2021, the Office for National Statistics to editorial control as they do not ‘ask permission to released figures showing that, though the proportion of be expressed’ (Ibid). Consequently, graffiti can form a people working from home doubled in the UK in 2020

fundamental part of how we understand particular mo-

during the pandemic, this was still only 25.9% of the ments in time, and how they are later understood as part working population, demonstrating what Richard Par-

of the historic record, whilst also making us reevaluate

tington described as ‘a reflection of the uneven impact public and private spaces when access is particularly and experiences of the health emergency across the UK’ (2021). Meanwhile, journalist Ayenat Mersie described

restricted or limited to some (Bryning 2020a). As previously discussed with the case in

how in Mathare in Nairobi, the capital’s second largest Mathare, Covid-19 graffiti has included graffitists usslum, within this ‘densely crowded settlement…social ing their status as public communicators to help spread distancing and working from home are a pipe dream for important information concerning physical and mental most’ (2020). Instead, a graffiti campaign led by Ant-

health. Sue Farran and Rhona Smith have described

ony Mwelu helped to spread health messages and tan-

how, as a result of a period of ‘artistic anarchy’, graffiti

gible ways to help people protect themselves and their marks concerning the Covid-19 pandemic have become communities, focusing on mask-wearing, reinforcing more tolerated, as many examples would have previ-

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Emma Bryning ously been removed by local authorities or even crimi-

in Edinburgh and ‘Make the Rich Pay for Covid-19’

nalised (2021, 84-85). Such messages have shown how

in Leeds. In the latter, ‘Rich’ has been crossed out to

some graffiti has been viewed more acceptably as the ‘CCP’ (Chinese Communist Party) reflecting a rise in art of the everyday with greater tolerance shown to the anti-Asian hate and xenophobia, and how graffiti has practice. Rather than being viewed predominantly as a continued to be used to attack particular communities. destructive force that threatens the fabric of the city-

There has also been a harmful rise in conspira-

scape (Kramer 2016, 404), its function has once again cy related graffiti such as ‘anti-mask, more recently anbeen recognised. Whilst in 18th-century London, leav-

ti-vaccination, and certainly text linking the virus and

ing notes may have been acceptable (Cody 2003, 84),

vaccines to 5G conspiracies’ (Farran and Smith 2021,

in the 21st-century world it is seemingly some global

85), as some view safety restrictions as oppression.

pandemic messages which elicit acceptability.

Alongside this harmful graffiti, numerous marks have

Graffiti have also been used during the pandem-

been used to highlight actual injustice and inequalities,

ic to express support and solidarity for key workers,

such as health disparities and how particular communi-

such as depictions of super nurses in Amsterdam by ties have been more greatly affected by the pandemic. FAKE; in Hamm by Uzey and by Banksy in South-

During the Black Lives Matter protest in Manchester in

ampton. Alongside this, a number of graffiti have also June 2020, a number of graffiti pieces appeared in the called for better pay for key workers among increased city which took the visual iconography of the UK Govrecognition of their important societal contributions, ernment’s ‘Stay Home, Save Lives, Protect the NHS’ with a piece by Dark in London stating, ‘FUCK THE message, changing this to ‘Speak out, Condemn OpCLAP Where Is Their Pay Rise?’. This increased rec-

pression and Save Humanity’ and ‘Educate, Eliminate

ognition among graffitists and the general public con-

Racism and Save Lives’. Meanwhile, a graffiti piece

trasts with the UK Government’s points-based im-

in Manchester appeared at a similar time dedicated to

migration system which classified some workers as

Belly Mujinga, a transport worker who was confront-

‘unskilled’ based on their prospective salary in early ed by an angry passenger in March 2020 and subse2020 (Brooks et al. 2020). Much of the work which had quently died from Covid-19, and whose death raised previously been designated ‘unskilled’ required work-

questions about ‘race, abuse and workers’ rights’ (Kale

ers to work away from home, reinforcing the idea that 2020). There are a number of different ways in which working from home was not necessarily a restriction, graffiti and street art reflect power and privilege in the but a privilege. Meanwhile, for some isolating at home, Covid-19 world. During a time of greater restriction the increased threat of domestic violence means that for many nations and communities, mark-making has home is not a safe space, with a German graffiti piece continued to be used for a variety of complex reasons, reflecting this, ‘Gegen Überwachung [Against surveil-

including to highlight inequalities and as calls for social

lance] / Gegen Isolation und häusliche Gewalt [Against justice. isolation and domestic violence]’. There has also been increased financial instability for many, worsened by the economically destabilising effects of the pandemic, with concerns over rent payments and financial wor-

Restriction as Resistance: How Can Graffiti Reinforce Power Dynamics? It is also important to consider how graffiti is used to re-

ries a recurring graffiti theme, such as ‘Rent is Theft’ inforce social power dynamics and hateful ideologies,

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Castle Conference Research Paper

as it may be used as an act of violence. In cases where form of repression and signalling how control of these the graffitist operates from a position of social privilege, social spaces ‘belongs only to the select few’ (Borck they may weaponise or reinforce this status rather than 2016, 5). Thus, demonstrating how graffiti, when used acting from a place of resistance. Fiona McDonald has in these ways, can reinforce power and privilege. It discussed how political graffiti can also include ‘racist is consequently the act of restriction - the inability to comments and hateful messages by ignorant people… make a mark in these controlled settings or to be widely [where] the intent is clearly of intimidation and to spread condemned for doing so - which, in such contexts, may fear and mistrust through a community’ (2013, 90). For

actually act as resistance.

example, Sathnam Sanghera described an example of this when discussing how far-right groups graffitied the

Conclusion

homes of immigrants in Wolverhampton telling them to ‘go home’ (2021, 73). Consequently, it is important What I hope that I have demonstrated here is that the to consider the content of the message and its spatial examination of graffiti - as an art form, a communicacontext, and how these relate to structures of privilege tion tool and as a record - can be used to better underwhere marks are placed ‘into a position of power over stand spaces of confinement and their effects on those kept within these spaces, within the context of differ-

instead of power against’ (Borck 2016, 3-4).

Lewis Borck stated that, when it comes to ent types of restricted space. Through graffiti, as both graffiti, ‘context is important’ (2016, 3). The com- an act and a message, privilege and power can both be ment was made in reference to an incident in which a enforced and weaponised against those that are maryoung woman from Highland, New York, called Casey ginalised, as well as exposing social inequalities and Nocket, went on a graffiti spree through seven national highlighting injustice. parks in the Western United States, tagging ‘Creepy-

Acknowledgements

tings’ (Ibid, 1). Borck described these marks are an act of ‘self-aggrandizement’ which particularly impacted contemporary tribes, to whom such ‘places are sacred, living landscapes’ (Ibid, 4). Although Nocket was widely condemned, she did have some defenders online (Christeller 2014). However, Borck has argued that marks created on national monuments and public spaces by those who come from privilege are messages of entitlement, ‘of mine, not yours, of me, not you’, turning street art as an activity against oppression into a

This paper has been influenced by Emma Bryning’s ongoing research project, Making Marks, Changing Values: The Contemporary Significance of Graffiti at Historic Sites, a Collaborative Doctoral PhD in conjunction with English Heritage and the University of York Department of Archaeology, funded by the Arts Humanity Research Council and supervised by Dr Megan Leyland and Professor John Schofield.

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M. University of Hawaii Press https://doi.org/10.1515/9780824862992-005 English Heritage. (n.d.). Cell Block Graffiti at Richmond Castle. Available at: https://www.english-heritage.org. uk/visit/places/richmond-castle/richmond-graffiti/cell-blockgraffiti/ [Accessed 04 June 2021]. Farran, S. & Smith, R. (2021) Graffiti in a Time of Covid-19: Spray Paint and the Law, King’s Law Journal, 32:1, 84-95, DOI: 10.1080/09615768.2021.1891612 Fleming, J. (2001) Graffiti and the Writing Arts of Early Modern England. Reaktion Books. Goodall, J. (2016). Richmond Castle and Easby Abbey. English Heritage Guidebooks. ‘Graffiti’ (2020). in Online Etymology Dictionary, Online Etymology Dictionary [Online]. Available at: https://www.etymonline.com/word/graffiti [Accessed 02.03.20]. Ismail, K. A. (2008). Pudu Jail’s Graffiti: Aesthetics Beyond the Walls of the Prison Cells, Proceedings of ISEA2008 https://isea-archives.siggraph.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/ISEA2008_Proceedings. pdf#page=248 Kale, S (2020). ‘I feel she was abandoned’: The Life and Terrible Death of Belly Mujinga.[Online]. The Guardian. Last updated 25 August 2020. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/society/2020/aug/25/ifeel-she-was-abandoned-the-life-and-terribledeath-of-belly-mujinga [Accessed 04 June 2021]. Kramer, R. (2016). ‘New York City’s moral panic over graffiti: normalising neoliberal penality and paving the way for growth machines’ in Routledge Handbook of Graffiti and Street Art edited by Jeffrey Ian Ross. Oxon: Routledge. Mersie, A. (2020). Spray it, don’t say it: Kenya graffiti artists spread health message [Online]. Reuters. Last updated: 24 April 2020. Available at: https://www.thejakartapost.com/life/2020/04/24/spray-it-dont-sayit-kenya-graffiti-artists-spreadhealth-message.html [Accessed 6 June 2021]. McAtackney, L. (2016). Graffiti Revelations and the Changing Meanings of Kilmainham Gaol in (post) Colonial Ireland. International Journal of Historical Archaeology. 20 (3): 492-505. doi: 10.1007/s10761016-0355-4. McDonald, F. (2013). The Popular History of Graffiti: From the Ancient Past to the Present. New York: Skyhorse Publishing. Mitman, T. (2020). Coronavirus murals: inside the world of pandemic-inspired street art. The Conversation. Last updated: 8 May 2020. Available at: https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-murals-inside-theworld-of-pandemic-inspired-street-art-138487 [Accessed 03 June 2021]. Nassar, T. (2020). Amid pandemic, Israel jails more Palestinian children. [Online]. The Electronica Intifada. Last updated 23 April 2020. Available at: https://electronicintifada.net/blogs/tamara-nassar/amid-pandemic-israel-jails-more-palestinian-children [Accessed 06 June 2021]. Partington, R. (2021). Most people in the UK did not work from home in 2020, says ONS. [Online]. The Guardian. Last updated: 17 May 2021. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/may/17/homeworking-doubled-during-uk-covidpandemic-last-year-mostly-in-london [Accessed 05 June 2021]. Peden, A. J. (2001). The Graffiti of Pharaonic Egypt: Scope and Roles of Informal Writings (c. 3100-332 B.C.). Leiden: Brill. Palmer, D. (1997). In the Anonymity of a Murmur: Graffiti and the Construction of the Past at Fremantle Pris-

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Castle Conference Research Poster

Wajdi Atwah

Impacts Employability Prospects

10,000

20,000

30,000

40,000

50,000

Stagnant/ Downward Mobility

DEVELOPING DIALOGUE

Low Social Class Origins

25-29

30 - 34

35 and over

low in Social, Cultural & Economic Capital

21-24

Low Tariff Universities

2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

Decline in UG Mature Male Applicants 2010-2020 1

Normal Mode of Education U N I V E R S I T I E S

Privileged Class

High Tariff Universities rich in Social, Cultural & Economic Capital

18% of Senior Civil Service low social class origin 3

48% MPs recruited from private schools 2

71% of military forces attended private schools 2

72% of Senior Civil Service from affluent backgrounds 3

Positive Employability Prospects

Upward Mobility

Education has become a form of power enjoyed by the privileged, instead of one that liberates the disadvantaged.

Hinna Abid (habid1@sheffield.ac.uk) School of Education University of Sheffield

Dominant Groups in Society

78% of bar mentored at Oxbridge 2

Privileged Mode of Education

Aiming to establish better practice in universities through a participatory approach, bringing in the voices of mature male students, their realities & challenges, in the problem solving strategy.

Mature Male Students

My research explores the role that class plays in the progression of mature male students in HE and beyond.

Durham Castle Conference

Education & Power: Class & Its Privilege

Hinna Abid Castle Conference Research Poster Page 107

Journal Acknowledgements This journal is the result of the hard work of

journal from idealistic ambition to publication:

many people. Thank you first and foremost to

Dr Ellen Crabtree and Prof Wendy Powers in

Hannah Ellis, the Castle MCR Academic Com-

College Office; the 2020-21 MCR Academic

mittee Graphics and Design Lead, who has put

Committee; Lydia Atkins, the 2021-22 Academic

an enormous amount of time, effort, and style

Officer, and the new Academic Committee.

into this project over many months. It’s fair to say that without Hannah, this journal wouldn’t

A huge thank you to all of those who contributed

exist at all, let alone as beautifully presented as

their work to the journal. It has been a wonder-

it is.

ful and thought-provoking experience reading your research and it’s a great feeling to see it in

Thank you also to the team of sub-editors, Vicky

(digital) print. I have certainly learned a lot about

Fawcett, Sophie Courtiaud, and Ryan O’Shea,

fields of study of which I knew very little which

for the hours spent rooting out double spaces and

is one of the central aims of the project. I hope

errant commas.

that others will find reading the journal as enjoyable and enriching as I have editing it.

I’m very grateful as well to all those who have thrown their support and creativity behind this Back Cover Image: Sophie Draper

Aidan Bracebridge

Page 110

Every effort has been made to ensure all written and visual material published in this journal is done so with the owners’ permission. If you believe that your copyright has been infringed in any way by any material published in this journal please get in touch at academic.castlemcr@durham.ac.uk.