Genetics and molecular biology - Lecture Notes, Study Materials and Important questions answers

Genetics and Molecular Biology Lecture Notes, Study Materials and Important questions answers

Subject : Genetics and Molecular Biology An Overview of Cell Structure and Function 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

Cell’s Need for Immense Amounts of Information - Answer (click here) Rudiments of Prokaryotic Cell Structure - Answer (click here) Rudiments of Eukaryotic Cell Structure - Answer (click here) Packing DNA into Cells - Answer (click here) Moving Molecules into or out of Cells - Answer (click here) Diffusion within the Small Volume of a Cell - Answer (click here) Exponentially Growing Populations - Answer (click here) Composition Change in Growing Cells - Answer (click here) Age Distribution in Populations of Growing Cell - Answer (click here)

Nucleic Acid and Chromosome Structure 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

The Regular Backbone of DNA - Answer (click here) Grooves in DNA and Helical Forms of DNA - Answer (click here) Dissociation and Reassociation of Base-paired Strands - Answer (click here) Reading Sequence Without Dissociating Strands - Answer (click here) Electrophoretic Fragment Separation - Answer (click here) Bent DNA Sequences - Answer (click here) Measurement of Helical Pitch - Answer (click here) Topological Considerations in DNA Structure - Answer (click here) Generating DNA with Superhelical Turns - Answer (click here) Measuring Superhelical Turns - Answer (click here) Determining Lk, Tw, and Wr in Hypothetical Structures - Answer (click here)

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

Altering Linking Number - Answer (click here) Biological Significance of Superhelical Turns - Answer (click here) The Linking Number Paradox of Nucleosomes - Answer (click here) General Chromosome Structure - Answer (click here) Southern Transfers to Locate Nucleosomes on Genes - Answer (click here)

17.

ARS Elements, Centromeres, and Telomeres - Answer (click here)

DNA Synthesis 1.

2.

DNA Synthesis - Answer (click here) Proofreading, Okazaki Fragments, and DNA Ligase - Enzymology Answer (click here)

3.

Detection and Basic Properties of DNA Polymerases - Enzymology Answer (click here)

4.

5.

6.

In vitro DNA Replication - Enzymology - Answer (click here) Error and Damage Correction - Enzymology - Answer (click here) DNA Replication Areas In Chromosomes - Physiological Aspects Answer (click here)

7.

Bidirectional Replication from E. coli Origins - Physiological Aspects Answer (click here)

8.

9.

The DNA Elongation Rate - Physiological Aspects - Answer (click here) Constancy of the E. coli DNA Elongation Rate - Physiological Aspects Answer (click here)

10.

11.

12.

Regulating Initiations - Physiological Aspects - Answer (click here) Gel Electrophoresis Assay of Eukaryotic Replication Origins Physiological Aspects - Answer (click here) How Fast Could DNA Be Replicated? - Physiological Aspects - Answer (click here)

RNA Polymerase and RNA Initiation 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

Measuring the Activity of RNA Polymerase - Answer (click here) Concentration of Free RNA Polymerase in Cells - Answer (click here) The RNA Polymerase in Escherichia coli - Answer (click here) Three RNA Polymerases in Eukaryotic Cells - Answer (click here) Multiple but Related Subunits in Polymerases - Answer (click here) Multiple Sigma Subunits - Answer (click here) Structure of Promoters - Answer (click here) Enhancers - Answer (click here) Enhancer-Binding Proteins - Answer (click here) DNA Looping in Regulating Promoter Activities - Answer (click here) Steps of the Initiation Process - Answer (click here) Measurement of Binding and Initiation Rates - Answer (click here) Relating Abortive Initiations to Binding and Initiating - Answer (click here) Roles of Auxiliary Transcription Factors - Answer (click here) Melted DNA Under RNA Polymerase - Answer (click here)

TranscriptionTermination and RNA Processing 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Polymerase Elongation Rate - Answer (click here) Transcription Termination at Specific Sites - Answer (click here) RNA Termination - Answer (click here) Processing Prokaryotic RNAs After Synthesis - Answer (click here) S1 Mapping to Locate 5’ and 3’ Ends of Transcripts - Answer (click here) Caps, Splices, Edits, and Poly-A Tails on Eukaryotic RNAs - Answer (click here)

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

The Discovery and Assay of RNA Splicing - Answer (click here) Involvement of the U1 snRNP Particle in Splicing - Answer (click here) Splicing Reactions and Complexes - Answer (click here) The Discovery of Self-Splicing RNAs - Answer (click here) A Common Mechanism for Splicing Reactions - Answer (click here) Other RNA Processing Reactions - Answer (click here)

Protein Structure 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Protein Structure - Answer (click here) The Amino Acids - Protein Structure - Answer (click here) Peptide Bond - Protein Structure - Answer (click here) Electrostatic Forces that Determine Protein Structure - Protein Structure - Answer (click here) Hydrogen Bonds and the Chelate Effect - Protein Structure - Answer (click here)

6.

7.

8.

9.

Hydrophobic Forces - Protein Structure - Answer (click here) Thermodynamic Considerations of Protein Structure - Answer (click here) Structures within Proteins - Answer (click here) Alpha Helix, Beta Sheet, and Beta Turn - Protein Structure - Answer (click here)

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

Calculation of Protein Tertiary Structure - Answer (click here) Secondary Structure Predictions - Protein Structure - Answer (click here) Structures of DNA-Binding Proteins - Answer (click here) Salt Effects on Protein-DNA Interactions - Answer (click here) Locating Specific Residue-Base Interactions - Protein Structure - Answer (click here)

Protein Synthesis 1.

2.

3.

Activation of Amino Acids During Protein Synthesis - Answer (click here) Fidelity of Aminoacylation - Protein Synthesis - Answer (click here) How Synthetases Identify the Correct tRNA Molecule - Answer (click here)

4.

5.

6.

7.

Decoding the Message - Protein Synthesis - Answer (click here) Base Pairing between Ribosomal RNA and Messenger - Answer (click here) Experimental Support for the Shine-Dalgarno Hypothesis - Protein Synthesis - Answer (click here) Eukaryotic Translation and the First AUG - Protein Synthesis - Answer (click here)

8.

Tricking the Translation Machinery into Initiating - Protein Synthesis Answer (click here)

9.

10.

11.

12.

Protein Elongation - Protein Synthesis - Answer (click here) Peptide Bond Formation - Protein Synthesis - Answer (click here) Translocation - Protein Synthesis - Answer (click here) Termination, Nonsense, and Suppression - Protein Synthesis - Answer (click here)

13.

Chaperones and Catalyzed Protein Folding - Protein Synthesis - Answer (click here)

14.

15.

16.

17.

Resolution of a Paradox - Protein Synthesis - Answer (click here) Messenger Instability - Protein Synthesis - Answer (click here) Protein Elongation Rates - Protein Synthesis - Answer (click here) Directing Proteins to Specific Cellular Sites - Protein Synthesis - Answer (click here)

18.

Verifying the Signal Peptide Model - Protein Synthesis - Answer (click here)

19.

The Signal Recognition Particle and Translocation - Protein Synthesis Answer (click here)

20.

Expectations for Ribosome Regulation - Protein Synthesis - Answer (click here)

21.

22.

23.

Proportionality of Ribosome Levels and Growth Rates - Protein Synthesis - Answer (click here) Regulation of Ribosome Synthesis - Protein Synthesis - Answer (click here) Balancing Synthesis of Ribosomal Components - Protein Synthesis Answer (click here)

Genetics 1.

2.

3.

4.

Genetics Mutations - Answer (click here) Point Mutations, Deletions, Insertions, and Damage - Answer (click here) Classical Genetics of Chromosomes - Answer (click here) Complementation, Cis, Trans, Dominant, and Recessive - Answer (click here)

5.

6.

7.

Mechanism of a trans Dominant Negative Mutation - Answer (click here) Genetic Recombination - Answer (click here) Genetics Mapping by Recombination Frequencies - Answer (click here)

8.

9.

10.

11.

Genetics: Mapping by Deletions - Answer (click here) Heteroduplexes and Genetic Recombination - Answer (click here) Genetics: Branch Migration and Isomerization - Answer (click here) Elements of Recombination in E. coli, RecA, RecBCD, and Chi - Answer (click here)

12.

13.

14.

15.

Genetic Systems - Answer (click here) Growing Cells for Genetics Experiments - Answer (click here) Testing Purified Cultures, Scoring - Answer (click here) Isolating Auxotrophs, Use of Mutagens and Replica Plating - Answer (click here)

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

Genetic Selections - Answer (click here) Mapping with Generalized Transducing Phage - Answer (click here) Principles of Bacterial Sex - Answer (click here) Elements of Yeast Genetics - Answer (click here) Elements of Drosophila Genetics - Answer (click here) Isolating Mutations in Muscle or Nerve in Drosophila - Answer (click here) Fate Mapping and Study of Tissue-Specific Gene Expression - Answer (click here)

Genetic Engineering and Recombinant DNA 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

Isolation of DNA - Answer (click here) Biology of Restriction Enzymes - Answer (click here) Cutting DNA with Restriction Enzymes - Answer (click here) Isolation of DNA Fragments - Answer (click here) Joining DNA Fragments - Answer (click here) Vectors: Selection and Autonomous DNA Replication - Answer (click here) Plasmid Vectors - Answer (click here) A Phage Vector for Bacteria - Answer (click here) Vectors for Higher Cells - Answer (click here) Putting DNA Back into Cells - Answer (click here) Cloning from RNA - Answer (click here) Plaque and Colony Hybridization for Clone Identification - Answer (click here)

13.

14.

15.

16.

Walking Along a Chromosome to Clone a Gene - Answer (click here) Arrest of Translation to Assay for DNA of a Gene - Answer (click here) Chemical DNA Sequencing - Answer (click here) Enzymatic DNA Sequencing - Answer (click here)

Advanced Genetic Engineering 1.

Finding Clones from a Known Amino Acid Sequence - Answer (click here)

2.

3.

Finding Clones Using Antibodies Against a Protein - Answer (click here) Southern, Northern, and Western Transfers - Genetic Engineering Answer (click here)

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Polymerase Chain Reaction - Answer (click here) Isolation of Rare Sequences Utilizing PCR - Answer (click here) Physical and Genetic Maps of Chromosomes - Answer (click here) Chromosome Mapping - Answer (click here) DNA Fingerprinting - Forensics - Answer (click here) Megabase Sequencing - Answer (click here) Footprinting, Premodification and Missing Contact Probing - Answer (click here)

11.

12.

13.

14.

Antisense RNA: Selective Gene Inactivation - Answer (click here) Hypersynthesis of Proteins - Answer (click here) Altering Cloned DNA by in vitro Mutagenesis - Answer (click here) Mutagenesis with Chemically Synthesized DNA - Answer (click here)

Repression and the lac Operon 1.

2.

Repression and the lac Operon - Answer (click here) Role of Inducer Analogs in the Study of the lac Operon - Answer (click here)

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

Proving lac Repressor is a Protein - Answer (click here) An Assay for lac Repressor - Answer (click here) Difficulty of Detecting Wild Type lac Repressor - Answer (click here) Detection and Purification of lac Repressor - Answer (click here) Repressor Binds to DNA: The Operator is DNA - Answer (click here) Migration Retardation Assay and DNA Looping - Repression and the lac Operon - Answer (click here) Isolation and Structure of Operator - Repression and the lac Operon Answer (click here)

10.

11.

12.

In vivo Affinity of Repressor for Operator - Answer (click here) DNA-binding Domain of lac Repressor - Answer (click here) A Mechanism for Induction - Repression and the lac Operon - Answer (click here)

Induction Repression and the araBAD Operon 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Sugar Arabinose and Arabinose Metabolism - Answer (click here) Genetics of the Arabinose System - Answer (click here) Detection and Isolation of AraC Protein - Answer (click here) Repression by AraC - Answer (click here) Regulating AraC Synthesis - Answer (click here)

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

Binding Sites of the ara Regulatory Proteins - Answer (click here) DNA Looping and Repression of araBAD - Answer (click here) In vivo Footprinting Demonstration of Looping - Answer (click here) How AraC Protein Loops and Unloops - Answer (click here) Why Looping is Biologically Sensible - Answer (click here) Why Positive Regulators are a Good Idea - Answer (click here)

Attenuation and the trp Operon 1.

2.

3.

Attenuation and the trp Operon - Answer (click here) Rapid Induction Capabilities of the trp Operon - Answer (click here) Serendipitous Discovery of trp Enzyme Hypersynthesis - Answer (click here)

4.

5.

6.

7.

Early Explorations of the Hypersynthesis - Answer (click here) trp Multiple Secondary Structures in trp Leader RNA - Answer (click here) Coupling Translation to Termination - Answer (click here) RNA Secondary Structure and the Attenuation Mechanism - Answer (click here)

8.

Other Attenuated Systems: Operons, Bacillus subtilis and HIV - Answer (click here)

Lambda Phage Genes and Regulatory Circuitry 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Physical Structure of Lambda - Answer (click here) Genetic Structure of Lambda - Answer (click here) Lysogeny and Immunity - Answer (click here) Lambda’s Relatives and Lambda Hybrids - Answer (click here) Lambda Adsorption to Cells - Answer (click here) Early Transcription of Genes N and Cro - Answer (click here) N Protein and Antitermination of Early Gene Transcription - Answer (click here)

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

Role of Cro Protein - Answer (click here) Initiating DNA Synthesis with the O and P Proteins - Answer (click here) Proteins Kil, γ, β, and Exo - Answer (click here) Q Protein and Late Protein Synthesis - Answer (click here) Lysis - Answer (click here) Chronology of Becoming a Lysogen - Answer (click here) Site for Cro Repression and CI Activation - Answer (click here) Cooperativity in Repressor Binding and its Measurement - Answer (click here)

16.

Need for and the Realization of Hair-Trigger Induction - Answer (click here)

17.

18.

Induction from the Lysogenic State - Answer (click here) Entropy, a Basis for Lambda Repressor Inactivation - Answer (click here)

Xenopus 5S RNA Synthesis 1.

2.

3.

Biology of 5S RNA Synthesis in Xenopus - Answer (click here) In vitro 5S RNA Synthesis - Answer (click here) TFIIIA Binding to the Middle of its Gene as Well as to RNA - Answer (click here)

4.

5.

Switching from Oocyte to Somatic 5S Synthesis - Answer (click here) Structure and Function of TFIIIA - Answer (click here)

Regulation of Mating Type in Yeast 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Regulation of Mating Type in Yeast - Answer (click here) Yeast Cell Cycle - Answer (click here) Mating Type Conversion in Saccharomyces cerevisiae - Answer (click here) Cloning the Mating Type Loci in Yeast - Answer (click here) Transfer of Mating Type Gene Copies to an Expression Site - Answer (click here)

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

Structure of the Mating Type Loci - Answer (click here) Expression and Recombination Paradoxes - Answer (click here) Silencing HML and HMR - Answer (click here) Isolation of Îą2 Protein - Answer (click here) Îą2 and MCM1 - Answer (click here) Sterile Mutants, Membrane Receptors and G Factors - Answer (click here) DNA Cleavage at the MAT Locus - Answer (click here) DNA Strand Inheritance and Switching in Fission Yeast - Answer (click here)

Genes Regulating Development 1.

2.

3.

4.

General Considerations on Signaling - Answer (click here) Outline of Early Drosophila Development - Answer (click here) Classical Embryology - Answer (click here) Using Genetics to Begin Study of Developmental Systems - Answer (click here)

5.

6.

Cloning Developmental Genes - Answer (click here) Enhancer Traps for Detecting and Cloning Developmental Genes Answer (click here)

7.

8.

Expression Patterns of Developmental Genes - Answer (click here) Similarities Among Developmental Genes - Answer (click here)

9.

Overall Model of Drosophila Early Development - Answer (click here)

Lambda Phage Integration and Excision 1.

2.

Mapping Integrated Lambda - Answer (click here) Simultaneous Deletion of Chromosomal and Lambda DNA - Answer (click here)

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

DNA Heteroduplexes Prove that Lambda Integrates - Answer (click here) Gene Order Permutation and the Campbell Model - Answer (click here) Isolation of Integration-Defective Mutants - Answer (click here) Isolation of Excision-Deficient Mutants - Answer (click here) Properties of the int and xis Gene Products - Answer (click here) Incorrect Excision and gal and bio Transducing Phage - Answer (click here) Transducing Phage Carrying Genes Other than gal and bio - Answer (click here)

10.

Use of Transducing Phage to Study Integration and Excision - Answer (click here)

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

The Double att Phage, att.squ - Answer (click here) Demonstrating Xis is Unstable - Answer (click here) Inhibition By a Downstream Element - Answer (click here) In vitro Assay of Integration and Excision - Answer (click here) Host Proteins Involved in Integration and Excision - Answer (click here) Structure of the att Regions - Answer (click here) Structure of the Intasome - Answer (click here) Holliday Structures and Branch Migration in Integration - Answer (click here)

Transposable Genetic Elements 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Transposable Genetic Elements - Answer (click here) IS Elements in Bacteria - Answer (click here) Structure and Properties of IS Elements - Answer (click here) Discovery of Tn Elements - Answer (click here) Structure and Properties of Tn Elements - Answer (click here) Inverting DNA Segments by Recombination, Flagellin Synthesis Answer (click here)

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

Mu Phage As a Giant Transposable Element - Answer (click here) An Invertible Segment of Mu Phage - Answer (click here) In vitro Transposition, Threading or Global Topology? - Answer (click here) Hopping by Tn10 - Answer (click here) Retrotransposons in Higher Cells - Answer (click here) An RNA Transposition Intermediate - Answer (click here)

13.

14.

P Elements and Transformation - Answer (click here) P Element Hopping by Chromosome Rescue - Answer (click here)

Generating Genetic Diversity 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

Generating Genetic Diversity: Antibodies - Answer (click here) Basic Adaptive Immune Response - Answer (click here) Telling the Difference Between Foreign and Self - Answer (click here) Number of Different Antibodies Produced - Answer (click here) Myelomas and Monoclonal Antibodies - Answer (click here) Structure of Antibodies - Answer (click here) Many Copies of V Genes and Only a Few C Genes - Answer (click here) J Regions - Generating Genetic Diversity: Antibodies - Answer (click here) D Regions in H Chains - Answer (click here) Induced Mutations and Antibody Diversity - Answer (click here) Class Switching of Heavy Chains - Answer (click here) Enhancers and Expression of Immunoglobulin Genes - Answer (click here) AIDS Virus - Answer (click here) Engineering Antibody Synthesis in Bacteria - Answer (click here) Assaying for Sequence Requirements of Gene Rearrangements - Answer (click here)

16.

Cloning the Recombinase - Answer (click here)

Biological Assembly Ribosomes and Lambda Phage 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

Biological Assembly, Ribosomes and Lambda Phage - Answer (click here) RNAse and Ribosomes - Answer (click here) Global Structure of Ribosomes - Answer (click here) Assembly of Ribosomes - Answer (click here) Experiments with in vitro Ribosome Assembly - Answer (click here) Determining Details of Local Ribosomal Structure - Answer (click here) Lambda Phage Assembly: General Aspects - Answer (click here) Geometry of Capsids - Answer (click here) Structure of the Lambda Particle - Answer (click here) Head Assembly Sequence and Host Proteins - Answer (click here) Packaging the DNA and Formation of the cos Ends - Answer (click here) Formation of the lambda Tail - Answer (click here) In vitro Packaging - Answer (click here)

Chemotaxis 1.

Chemotaxis - Answer (click here)

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Assaying Chemotaxis - Answer (click here) Fundamental Properties of Chemotaxis - Answer (click here) Genetics of Motility and Chemotaxis - Answer (click here) How Cells Swim - Answer (click here) Mechanism of Chemotaxis - Answer (click here) Energy for Chemotaxis - Answer (click here) Adaptation - Answer (click here) Methylation and Adaptation - Answer (click here) Phosphorylation and the Rapid Response - Answer (click here)

Oncogenesis Molecular Aspects 1.

2.

Bacterially Induced Tumors in Plants - Answer (click here) Transformation and Oncogenesis by Damaging the Chromosome Answer (click here)

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Identifying a Nucleotide Change Causing Cancer - Answer (click here) Retroviruses and Cancer - Answer (click here) Cellular Counterparts of Retroviral Oncogenes - Answer (click here) Identification of the src and sis Gene Products - Answer (click here) DNA Tumor Viruses - Answer (click here) Recessive Oncogenic Mutations, Tumor Suppressors - Answer (click here) ras-fos-jun Pathway - Answer (click here) Directions for Future Research in Molecular Biology - Answer (click here)