INTERVIEW
SANDRA FLUNGER
about Swiss team preparation for Milano
Cortina 2026
PERFORMANCE
“Coaching the female biathlete”
KERRY MCGAWLEY & GURO STRØM SOLLI
PHYSIOLOGY SKIING
“Altitude preparations”
RUNE KJØSEN TALSNES & ØYVIND SANDBAKK
“The impact of pole length on performance”
DAGMARA GERASIMUK
IBU Development Director
As we look forward to the 2026 Winter Olympics in Milano Cortina, in our 2nd issue of Journal of Biathlon Coaching, we focus on using the latest scientific research and innovative training methods to excel in biathlon shooting and skiing. Miikka Köykkä identified an aiming strategies framework of biathlon standing shooting which can help create more individualised technical drills and cues for biathletes, supporting their development. Recent studies underscore the critical importance of upper body strength, particularly in techniques like double poling (DP). Per-Øyvind Torvik‘s research demonstrates among other topics that longer poles in DP can reduce oxygen consumption and improve efficiency, enabling skiers to maintain better posture and generate greater force.
Complementing physical preparations for high-altitude competitions, such as those in Anterselva at around 1600 meters above sea level, demands meticulous preparation. Researchers Rune Kjøsen Talsnes and Øyvind Sandbakk recommend 10-14 days of acclimatisation at competition altitude and regular high-altitude training camps. Integrating these altitude strategies with systematic athlete monitoring, as emphasised by Øyvind Karlsson, is essential for optimising training outcomes and preventing injuries. By analysing load measures and athlete well-being, coaches can tailor programs to individual needs.
The unique physiological and psychological challenges faced by female athletes, such as hormonal cycles, and the impacts of puberty and pregnancy, necessitate gender-specific coaching strategies. Kerry McGawley and Guro Strøm Solli highlight the benefits of addressing these factors through tailored training approaches. The interview with Sandra Flunger emphasises the importance of maintaining athlete health and building a robust team, particularly in a small team setup. Looking ahead to the World Championships and the Olympics, Flunger stresses the importance of high-altitude camps to enhance aerobic and strength endurance.
This comprehensive approach, blending rigorous science with practical application, promises to propel athletes to excel on the world stage.
PUBLISHER
INTERNATIONAL BIATHLON UNION (IBU)
Sonystrasse 20, 5081 Anif b. Salzburg, Austria
Telephone: +43-662-855050, www.biathlonworld.com
The IBU is an association according to Austrian law, seated in Anif b. Salzburg and registered in the Austrian Central Register of Associations with the ZVR number: 291698201.
IBU PRESIDENT Olle Dahlin
IBU VICE PRESIDENT Jiri Hamza
SECRETARY GENERAL Max Cobb
EDITOR Gerold Sattlecker
PROOFREADING JTA-Design
PICTURES Christian Manzoni, IBU Photopool, Adobe Stock
ARTWORK JTA-Design, Stefan Sporrer, dzign Rudolph Fischer
GEROLD SATTLECKER Head of the IBU Academy
The Journal of Biathlon Coaching is an integral component of the IBU Academy‘s strategy to enhance the education of coaches and athletes. Alongside the coach education program, regular webinars, and biathlon knowledge available on the e-learning platform „Learning Suite,“ the journal serves as a crucial resource for the biathlon community, offering updates and insights from international experts. In addition to academic perspectives, the journal‘s authors provide practical recommendations for coaches on applying these findings to their training and competition processes. The articles in the second issue are particularly valuable, offering essential information for preparing for the upcoming World Championships in Lenzerheide 2025 and the Olympics in Milano Cortina 2026, thus supporting biathlon coaches in their planning for these major events.
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PERFORMANCE
Coaching the female biathlete
KERRY MCGAWLEY a & GURO STRØM SOLLI b
a Swedish Winter Sports Research Center, Department of Health Sciences,Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden;
b Department of Sport Science and Physical Education, Nord University, Bodø
Should you be using different coaching strategies and training programs with your female and male biathletes?
Yes, we think so, at least in some ways. Of course, basic training principles apply to both sexes/ genders and coaches need to adjust for individual requirements. However, due to differences in competition demands, physiology, psychology, interpersonal and social factors, female-specific characteristics need to be considered when coaching girls and women.
COACHING THE YOUNG FEMALE BIATHLETE
The adolescent period is characterized by a variety of physical, nutritional, psychological, and social challenges that female biathletes are faced with. Realistic performance expectations, individual training and fuelling adjustments, educational initiatives, a supportive environment, and a focus on enjoyment are important, especially as drop outs from sport is more common among girls versus boys during adolescence. It is fundamental that coaches are aware of the multifaceted changes and challenges that face young female biathletes to ensure their healthy and sustainable development as they pursue athletic careers and peak performance.
From the onset of puberty, significant increases in the female sex hormones estrogen and progesterone lead to changes in young women’s body composition (e.g., increased fat mass) and hormonal variations throughout the menstrual cycle. These pubertal changes, coupled with significant increases in testosterone in boys, lead to noticeable sex differences in athletic performance from the age of 14 years upwards (Tønnessen et al., 2015). Young female athletes often experience a temporary stagnation or decline in endurance performance during their pubertal years and these sex-based differences in biological and performance development suggest that adolescent girls might benefit from different types of training stimuli and support compared to their male counterparts.
Recommendations for Coaches
• A specific focus on fundamental movements: to develop sport-specific techniques as the body dimensions and body composition of young female athletes change through puberty, thereby altering their center of gravity and movement mechanics.
• Plyometric and resistance training: to enhance bone health (optimal nutrition is also crucial for this to occur) and to develop upper-body lean mass, since women naturally develop a lower proportion of upper-body muscle mass compared to men.
• A high degree of training individualization: due to young female athletes developing at different rates; by manipulating intensity, duration, exercise modes and/or terrain the risk of overtraining or injury is reduced, and performance developments are optimized.
• Monitor training execution: to ensure that specified training targets are achieved, especially in mixed-sex training groups where girls may work relatively harder to keep up with boys or cover the same undulating terrain as boys at higher relative intensities.
• Communication and education around breast health: to help young female athletes obtain the information and advice they need to ensure appropriate bra fit and optimal breast support as they mature physically.
ACCOUNTING FOR HORMONAL CYCLES WHEN COACHING FEMALE BIATHLETES
In a recent study of eumenorrheic female endurance athletes, laboratory-based measures of endurance performance (e.g., submaximal oxygen uptake, work economy, peak oxygen uptake, time-to-exhaustion and 30-s power output) did not differ when comparing the early follicular, ovulatory and mid-luteal phases of the menstrual cycle (Taylor et al., 2024).
The general research consensus is that neither strength nor endurance performance are significantly different between phases of the menstrual/hormonal contraceptive cycle. However, many female athletes experience symptoms
that affect training, performance, and health. Therefore, an individualized approach to managing female athletes’ hormonal cycles is recommended.
Hormonal cycle-related symptoms can be positive (e.g., increased motivation and focus), especially during the ovulatory phase (mid cycle), or negative (e.g., mood disturbances, fatigue, and physical pain), especially before and during menstruation (bleeding). At the same time as experiencing negative symptoms (i.e., before and during menstruation), competitive female biathletes also perceive their fitness and performance to be worse (Solli et al., 2019). Therefore, helping individual female athletes to manage their hormonal-related symptoms is a crucial part of optimizing physical and mental performance and health.
Figure 1. Hormonal events and phases in a eumenorrheic 28-day menstrual cycle. Adapted from McNulty at al. and Farage et al.
PERFORMANCE
Recommendations for Coaches
• Open up the conversation: by creating opportunities and a safe environment for athlete-coach discussions about menstrual health and contraception, while recognizing that an athlete’s willingness to talk will vary depending on their age, personality, cultural background, etc.
• Educate, educate, educate: to improve knowledge about menstrual health and contraception, which will facilitate discussions between athletes, coaches, and practitioners, and provide a basis for managing individual symptoms and experiences.
• Encourage tracking and monitoring of cycles and symptoms: so that each female athlete can develop a personal database of information. Also encourage the athletes to share this information with you, their coach, to help support their training, performance and overall health. There are several apps available for daily cycle tracking (e.g., FitrWoman, Flo, Clue, etc.).
• Modify training/competition schedules when necessary: for athletes who are affected by hormonal cycle symptoms (e.g., pain and/or heavy bleeding) by adapting or postponing high-intensity sessions, rearranging competition schedules, etc.
• Be aware of potential menstrual health issues: as menstrual dysfunctions (e.g., amenorrhea, anovulation, a luteal phase defect or oligomenorrhea) are more prevalent in endurance sports where leanness is correlated to performance.
COACHING THROUGH PREGNANCY AND MOTHERHOOD
Numerous Olympic athletes have successfully balanced motherhood with athletic careers, proving that world-class performance is achievable after pregnancy. However, the biopsychosocial challenges associated with pregnancy and motherhood are important to understand if we are to successfully support our female athletes and ensure that they are afforded the same career opportunities as male athletes. Firstly, and perhaps most importantly, pregnant athletes must adjust their training to account for maternal and fetal health. Elite endurance athletes have successfully maintained high training volumes during pregnancy, but this requires modifications to exercise modes (e.g., less running), intensities (e.g., less high-intensity training) and environmental conditions (e.g., avoiding heat and altitude). Combining perceived exertion with heart rate is recommended to monitor exercise intensity during pregnancy. Increasing energy intake is also crucial during pregnancy to meet the caloric needs of mother and baby.
Postpartum endurance athletes must tailor their training and competition schedules to accommodate recovery and childcare demands, including irregular sleep patterns. Breastfeeding, which is recommended for at least six months, is not typically affected by high training volumes or intensities if the mother meets the increased nutritional demands. Sufficient energy availability is crucial for bone health too, as the risk of stress fractures is higher postpartum. Sundgot-Borgen et al. (2019) reported that 70–80% of elite athletes achieve pre-pregnancy training volumes by three months, but the speed of recovery depends on factors such as pre-pregnancy training status, delivery method, childbirth complications, mother and baby health, core and pelvic floor strength, sport type, breastfeeding, and support systems (Bø et al., 2017).
Recommendations for Coaches
• When prescribing training through pregnancy: gradually reduce volume and intensity, alter exercise modes (to more lowimpact/low-risk training) and carefully monitor high-intensity training.
• Avoid high-intensity training and training in heat/altitude: as reduced blood flow and oxygen delivery can be harmful to the fetus; low to moderate-intensity training in temperate conditions is generally safe.
• Adapt training during pregnancy: to safeguard the mother and baby by individualizing training adjustments in consultation with medical professionals, ensuring careful monitoring of both maternal and fetal health.
• Throughout the postpartum period: work patiently and supportively with the athlete and her network to manage the complex physical, psychological, social, and practical changes that occur after childbirth.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR: KERRY MCGAWLEY
Kerry McGawley is a professor in sports science at Mid Sweden University, an applied researcher at the Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre and the senior manager of the female athlete team at Orreco. Kerry is passionate about supporting and developing women in sport and much of her research is conducted in collaboration with national and international sports federations. In line with her research focus, Kerry leads on a M.Sc. program in Sports Performance and Athlete Health.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR: GURO STRØM SOLLI
Guro Strøm Solli is an Associate professor at Nord University in Norway, Faculty of Education and Arts, Department of Sports Science and Physical Education. She is the Head of the research group on Performance Development in Cross- Country Skiing and Biathlon and has been a National Team athlete in cross-country skiing.
References: Bø, K., Artal, R., Barakat, R., Brown, W.J., Davies, G.A.L., Dooley, M., Evenson, K.R., Haakstad, L.A.H., Kayser, B., Kinnunen, T.I., Larsen, K., Mottola, M.F., Ny gaard, I., Van Poppel, M., Stuge, B., Khan, K.M., & IOC Medical Commission. (2017b). Exercise and pregnancy in recreational and elite athletes: 2016/17 evidence summary from the ioc expert group meeting, Lausanne. Part 3-exercise in the postpartum period. British Journal of Sports Medicine 51, 1516-1525.
Solli, G.S., Sandbakk, S.B., Noordhof, D., Ihalainen, J., & Sandbakk, Ø. (2019). Changes in self-reported physical fitness, performance, and side-effects across the phases of the menstrual cycle among competitive endurance athletes. International Journal of Sports Physiology & Performance 15, 1324-1333. Sundgot-Borgen, J., Sundgot-Borgen, C., Myklebust, G., Sølvberg, N., & Torstveit, M.K. (2019). Elite athletes get pregnant, have healthy babies and return to sport early postpartum. British Association of Sport & Exercise Medicine Journal 5, e000652.
Taylor, M.Y., Osborne, J.O., Topranin, V.M., Engseth, T.P., Solli, G.S., Valsdottir, D., Andersson, E., Øistuen, G.F., Flatby, I., Welde, B., Morseth, B., Haugen, T., Sandbakk, Ø., Noordhof, D.A. (2024). Menstrual cycle phase has no influence on performance-determining variables in endurance-trained athletes: The FENDURA project. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise Epub ahead of print.
INTERVIEW
Sandra Flunger speaks about Swiss Team Preparation for Milano Cortina 2026
GEROLD SATTLECKER
Sandra Flunger is one of a few female coaches in the Biathlon World Cup. From 2013 to 2016, she coached the Women´s National Team of Austria. In 2018, Flunger became the Women´s Head Coach in Switzerland. With Selina Gasparin, Lena Häcki & Co., Flunger achieved numerous top results in the World Cup, at World Championships, and at Olympic Games.
In our interview, Sandra Flunger speaks about the preparation of Team Switzerland for the home World Championships in Lenzerheide and the Olympic Games in Antholz. She also talks about her role as a female coach in the male-dominated World Cup circuit.
1.If you reflect on the past season, what made this winter special and where do you see the main challenges?
You know, we had quite a good season the year before. Our goal was to keep the level and maybe make a little step forward from this past season, and I would say, it went well, especially with Lena Häcki-Groß. She made the biggest step and we‘re very glad about this. We have a small team and we don‘t have that many athletes on both the men‘s and women‘s sides. So, the main focus for us is always to stay healthy during preparation and to compete on a good level with the whole team. We cannot replace a lot of athletes with younger athletes, especially as we have a little gap behind our World Cup team. The goal for the next year is to build up a new generation. But, I think we had no big issues on the women‘s side, just some small ones. You always have these kinds of problems. But the whole season was stable, I would say, throughout the whole team, with some highlights from Lena. She did really well and had some outstanding competitions.
2.If we speak about the upcoming season, what are your main goals for the preparation period and where do you see the highlights in terms of camps and focus areas?
You know, we have our home World Championships this year in Lenzerheide. Due to that, we try to regularly do preparation camps in Lenzerheide. We‘ve had good development of the
infrastructure there, so our roller track is quite good now, and we try to do a lot of camps in Lenzerheide. But we‘re also going to different places, especially for shooting development. It‘s all about the last meters before the shooting range, so you need to find other shooting ranges and tracks. But I think, for all federations, the main goal for the next two years, especially with the World Champs in Lenzerheide and the Olympics in Antholz, is to find solutions or camps at a higher altitude. For us, it‘s Lenzerheide as the main training center to work in this direction. I think it‘s always a goal to level up aerobic endurance hours, always in a smart way, and it depends a bit on where athletes are coming from. Another goal is to level up our strength endurance because we think that with the fluor ban, this would be more important.
3.It is only 21 months to the next Olympics in Antholz – how does this affect your preparation for the upcoming summer? You know, as a coach, you‘re always thinking in four-year periods. We have Antholz in our minds, but the main focus now is on the next season. I would say that next year´s preparation will not be that different from this season because both highlight competitions are at a higher altitude. I think on the training side, it won´t be much different – only if you‘re analyzing the season and you find some things to improve. But I think the overall planning will be nearly the same. And of course,
IBU Development Department, Head of IBU Academy
we will try to have a good preparation camp in Antholz next summer. This summer, I think it‘s not that perfect because they have some construction work to do in the stadium there. But next summer, I think nearly the whole biathlon community will be there for a pre-camp.
4.When we talk about long-term planning, when did your focus on the Olympics 2026 start?
Two years ago, we had some changes in our coaching staff. We had, I would say, a bad Olympic Games in Beijing, and our main goal is to do it better four years later. We were sitting together to make some plans in order to be better prepared for this highlight event. Our main goal in the first two years was just to make steps forward and to have good competitions in every World Cup race. This went well in the last two years. In our planning, it was always in our minds to find the best or even perfect locations for training camps at an altitude of about 1700 meters. For us, it‘s a bit easier than for other nations like Norwegians or Swedes, because our athletes are living at an altitude of about 1400 meters. So, they train at a quite high altitude throughout the year and they don‘t directly recognize it and this is a big advantage. We also try to find locations a little bit outside of Switzerland at the same level. And I think nearly the whole biathlon family will have some camps in Lenzerheide.
5.When we talk about shooting, which is also a main part of our sport, where is your main focus considering the World Championships 2025 and the Olympics 2026?
In the past few years, we were working on the basics of shooting because we had some errors to correct, and I think the athletes are very stable at this point now. The next step will be to focus more on shooting under high physical load. We will try to stress athletes a little bit more and make combo training with shooting a little bit over the competition level. When the basics are in place, like we have now in our teams, you must find solutions to challenge your athletes. It‘s always about hitting the targets and it‘s important to combine both skiing and shooting at a high level.
6.What is your role as a coach when we speak about athletes and their expectations for the World Championships and the Olympics? How do you take the pressure off them?
I think it‘s all about fun because as an athlete you have it once in a lifetime to compete in World Champs at home. We know that there will be a lot of family around our athletes. I experienced this in Hochfilzen 2017. It´s something special, but if you always keep the fun in your mind, it will be a big thing!
7.What are the main goals for Team Switzerland for the upcoming season, the home World Championships, and then later for the Olympics in 2026?
For us coaches, the most important thing is that our athletes are healthy and in good shape at the beginning of the World Champs. I‘m not so happy to talk about medals, as there has never been a World Championship medal for Switzerland so far. Of course, it‘s a goal to win a medal, but we all know that it‘s not that easy. There are a lot of nations and a lot of good athletes around the world, and they all have the same goal. But we were very close last season in Nove Mesto with the mixed relay and we know that we have our chances when we show our best races. We also know that we cannot compensate for too many misses. And we also need a little bit of luck (laughs).
8.How is it to be one of only a few female coaches in the World Cup?
For me, as a private person, it doesn‘t really matter, because I‘m just trying to do my job as well as I can. But, sometimes I would wish that there were a few more women on my side. Because I think especially for young girls, it would be great to have more role models to see that you can also work as a coach maybe in the future. And I think that will help that young athletes also choose this way and think about becoming a coach in the future. But as I said, I never had problems with my male colleagues, they are really friendly and kind to me, so I feel quite good in the World Cup circuit.
Click here to watch the full interview with Sandra Flunger.
„In our planning, it was always in our minds to find the best or even perfect locations for training camps at an altitude of about 1700 meters. For us, it‘s Lenzerheide as the main training center to work in this direction. We also try to find locations a little bit outside of Switzerland at the same level“
PHYSIOLOGY
Altitude preparations for the biathlon events at the Olympics Milano Cortina 2026
ØYVIND SANDBAKK a & RUNE KJØSEN TALSNES b
a Center for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway;
b Department of Sport Science and Physical Education, Nord University, Bodø
At the 2026 Winter Olympics in Milano-Cortina, the biathlon events will be held in Anterselva (Antholz Biathlon Arena) at an altitude of ~1600 meter above sea level. Based on available research literature and “best-practice” approaches, the current article provides the following recommendations for altitude preparations in connection with the Olympic biathlon events:
INTRODUCTION
Olympic biathlon is a challenging winter endurance sport consisting of two components, cross-country skiing, and rifle shooting. Competitions include 7.5-20 km (~20–50 min) of skiing in varied terrain while carrying a ~3.5 kg rifle with 2–4 included breaks performing 5-shot series of shooting in the prone or standing position. Penalty distance or time is added for each target that is missed and the biathlete with the shortest overall time (and/or being first over the finish-line) wins the competition (Laaksonen et al., 2018). In order to optimize their cross-country skiing and shooting performance, biathlete’s must distribute their energy (pacing strategy) optimally, in which maintenance of speed throughout the competition has been shown beneficial in the sprint and individual time-trial events (Luchsinger et al., 2019; Skattebo & Losnegard, 2018) while mass-start events require complementary tactical skills (Laaksonen et al., 2018). Accordingly, biathlon is a complex sport that in addition to high aerobic energy turnover, efficient skiing technique and tactical expertise, requires rapid and accurate shooting performed after intense exercise (Laaksonen et al., 2018).
At the upcoming 2026 Winter Olympics in Milano-Cortina, the biathlon events will be held in Anterselva (Antholz Biathlon Arena) at an altitude of ~1600 m, which is higher than most
biathlon events in the World-cup (Lunghi et al., 2019), but comparable to the last Winter Olympics in Beijing 2022 (Sandbakk et al., 2021). Accordingly, coaches and athletes must design effective altitude preparation strategies, both over the last year and in the final weeks preparing for the Olympics. The partial pressures of oxygen in the atmosphere are considerably lower at this altitude leading to reduced arterial blood saturation and oxygen delivery to working muscles (Burtscher et al., 2018). Biathlon events at this altitude are therefore not only influence cross-country skiing performance, but the shooting performance due to increased ventilation during shooting (Lunghi et al., 2019) and possibly the risk of fatigue accumulation. In addition, the ~30 seconds breaks spent on shooting in biathlon lead to a start-and-stop practice during competitions that might be physiologically more challenging at this altitude (Laaksonen et al., 2018).
Based on these demands, the current article provides recommendations for altitude preparations in connection with the biathlon events at the upcoming Olympics MilanoCortina 2026. Note that some parts of this paper are built on a more extensive article on preparations for the Beijing 2022 Olympics (Sandbakk et al., 2021). The current article will cover the aspects of altitude acclimatization strategies, training, and recovery for maintaining health at altitude, competition and pacing strategies at altitude, and the role of simulated altitude.
BIATHLON PERFORMANCE AT ALTITUDE
Increasing altitude leads to decreased atmospheric pressure and thereby reduced partial pressure of oxygen (hypoxia) (Burtscher et al., 2018). Accordingly, the arterial blood will be less saturated with oxygen compared to sea level leading to less oxygen delivery to working muscles (Burtscher et al., 2018). Therefore, athletes’ maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) decreases linearly by an average of 6.3% per 1000 m increase in altitude (Wehrlin & Hallén, 2006)., which has substantial influence on endurance performance (Burtscher et al., 2018). Therefore, both the cross-country skiing and shooting components of biathlon are influenced by increasing altitude in both men and women (Lunghi et al., 2019). Moreover, there are reasons to expect that biathlon events at altitude are influence the performance of sea-level natives more than their altitude native counterparts (Lundby & Calbet, 2016). For example, it has been demonstrated that altitude natives in professional road cycling have smaller performance reductions compared to sea-level natives (lowlanders) with increasing altitude, particularly at altitudes >1500 m (Mateo-March et al., 2022).
ALTITUDE TRAINING AND ACCLIMATIZATION STRATEGIES
Altitude training has long traditions and is a common practice among elite endurance athletes, including biathletes (Burtscher et al., 2018; Mujika et al., 2019; Schmitt et al., 2021). The extent to which altitude training may enhance sea-level performance beyond doing the same training at or near sea level is still widely debated in the research literature (Millet & Brocherie, 2020; Siebenmann & Dempsey, 2020). However, this article will primarily discuss training at altitude for optimal acclimatization and endurance performance at low- to moderate altitudes (e.g. ~1200-1800 m). In connection with altitude acclimatization, several short- and long-term physiological adaptations occur. The increased production of red blood cells and a higher total haemoglobin mass have been studied most extensively (Chapman et al., 2014). However, this response normally occurs following at least 2-3 weeks of altitude exposure (Chapman et al., 2014) and altitude exposure involves other physiological adaptations, including increased ventilation, both during rest and exercise (Burtscher et al., 2018; Raberin et al., 2024). In this context, it has been speculated that women have a greater reduction in arterial blood saturation due to a lower ventilatory response at altitude than men, although sex-differences (including the role of menstrual cycle phase in women) in response to altitude are only poorly investigated in the research literature (Raberin et al., 2024).
The optimal acclimatization strategy for altitude events depends on the altitude at which the events are to be held, as well as individual experience with altitude, including if athletes are altitude or sea-level natives. Schuler et al. (2007) exposed 8 elite road cyclists to 2340 me and found 12.8% and 25.8% reductions in VO2max and performance (time to exhaustion test) on day 1 compared to sea level. Both VO2max and performance improved gradually during the first 14 days, with only minor improvement observed thereafter. Therefore, this study concluded that 14 days of acclimatization to events at this altitude is needed in endurance athletes (Schuler et al., 2007). It should however be noted that acclimatization to lower altitudes has been examined less extensively, although it seems likely that this would take less time (Burtscher et al., 2018; Chapman et al., 2013). Despite the sparse research literature presently available, we would recommend that athletes acclimatize at the altitude of the events for at least 10 days and, optimally, two weeks prior to the first event. Although longer periods of acclimatization might be regarded as more optimal, logistics, costs, and practical circumstances often lead to acclimatization for only 4-7 days. An alternative strategy is to travel from sea level to altitude immediately before the event („fly-in and fly-out“ approach), with the aim of reducing the acute negative effects of altitude exposure (Burtscher et al., 2018; Foss et al., 2017). However, this is regarded less effective than acclimatization for 10-14 (Burtscher et al., 2018; Chapman et al., 2013), and therefore, appears to be irrelevant in the context of the 2026 Olympics, including multiple events over the course of two weeks.
The next question concerns living altitude to be optimally acclimatized for these events. Chapman et al. (2016) studied four groups of distance runners allocated into four different living altitudes (1780, 2085, 2454 and 2800 m) and tested their running performance on day 5, 12, 19 and 26 at 1780 m altitude. Here, athletes living at the competition altitude (1780 m)demonstrated the lowest performance reductions relative to sea level compared to athletes living higher. Still, many athletes perform the initial acclimatization prior to competition at an altitude higher than the events to maximize erythropoiesis (increases in red blood cell production) before a tapering period with more emphasize on speed/intensity at the altitude of the event (Chapman et al., 2013). During the initial period of acclimatization to higher altitudes, much of the training is at relatively low speeds. Therefore, during the tapering period, it would be advisable to conduct one or more competitionspecific sessions of training at a higher speed/intensity including shooting.
PHYSIOLOGY
TRAINING AND RECOVERY AT ALTITUDE
The experience of training and competing at altitude will be essential to optimize both the cross-country skiing and shooting component of biathlon in the 2026 Olympics. Important factors influencing the training and recovery process as well as the actual performance optimization must be learned and developed at relevant altitude (Mujika et al., 2019). Biathletes who are altitude natives, as well as biathletes who are highly experienced with training and competing at altitude may have an advantage in the preparations for these events. Best practice experience also indicates that athletes may improve their ability to adapt to altitude by repeated altitude camps through faster physiological adaptations together with more experience on how to optimize training and performance in that environment. For example, in connection with the altitude events in Salt Lake City 2002 and Beijing Olympics 2022, many of the most successful athletes implemented systematic use of altitude training consisting of 60-100 days at altitude distributed over 4-5 camps during the last year(s) before the Olympics. In addition, the camps must be conducted at locations where it is possible to both perform (roller) skiing and shooting, in order to conduct biathlon-specific sessions with sufficient training quality. An example of how systematic altitude training can be implemented in the annual training program of biathletes (particularly sea-level natives) the last year, including the final weeks of acclimatization prior to the 2026 Olympics, are presented in Figure 1-2.
Optimizing the acclimatization and training process at altitude while maintaining good health depends on various factors such as the nutrition, sleep, recovery, and management of training load (Mujika et al., 2019). The importance of nutrition for successful altitude acclimatization is becoming more and more evident (Stellingwerff et al., 2019). Although more
evidence-based recommendations are required, it appears that special awareness of enhanced utilization of carbohydrates and requirement for protein is needed (Stellingwerff et al., 2019). Furthermore, the increased ventilation at altitudes leads to greater loss of water, thereby posing a higher risk for dehydration (Stellingwerff et al., 2019). Particular attention should also be paid to optimal energy and iron availability, which exerts a crucial influence on the increases in red blood cell volume (Stellingwerff et al., 2019). The combined stress loads of training and hypoxia may also increase the risk of illness, maladaptation, overreaching and/or overtraining (Bergeron et al., 2012). In addition, athletes often report reduced sleep quality when exposed to hypoxia (Bergeron et al., 2012). However, the risk of these negative effects can be minimized by appropriate preparation, periodization, monitoring and management of the biathletes training and stress loads during altitude acclimatization (Mujika et al., 2019).
COMPETITION AND PACING STRATEGIES
Besides the physiological aspects of acclimatization, biathletes must have gained necessary experience through enough competitions and training sessions at relevant altitudes in the year(s) preceding the Olympics. Here, optimizing warmup protocols and pacing strategies, as well as technique and tactics, are important (Sandbakk et al., 2021). The biathlete’s distribution of energy (pacing strategy) is particularly important, and predominantly in the sprint and individual events performed as time trials. It has been demonstrated that the most common pacing pattern in the sprint event is “J-shaped” with a relatively fast first lap followed by a slower second lap before the standing shooting and thereafter a faster last lap (Luchsinger et al., 2019; Skattebo & Losnegard, 2018).
Figure 1. An example of how systematic altitude training can be implemented in the annual training program of biathletes the last year leading up to the biathlon events at the 2026 Olympics in Milano Cortina. The program is particularly relevant for (but not limited to) sea-level natives.
Figure 2. An example of a training program the final weeks before the biathlon events at the 2026 Olympics in Milano Cortina. The program is particularly relevant for (but not limited to) sea-level natives. LIT, low-intensity training; MIT, moderate-intensity training; HIT, high-intensity training.
An optimal pacing strategy is required to optimize both the cross-country skiing and shooting component of biathlon, and it has recently also been demonstrated that highly trained biathletes with a fast-start pacing pattern improves performance by pacing more evenly (Losnegard et al., 2023). In this context, the use of sensor technology such as competition analyses using high-accuracy global navigation satellite systems and laser-shooting analyses should help biathletes in understanding the optimal pacing strategy and „calibrate“ the relationship between their perceived and actual intensity of exercise at altitude.
SIMULATED ALTITUDE
Considering the logistics and costs associated with travel to terrestrial altitude, simulated altitude (i.e. intermittent hypoxia) by using different commercially available products might be considered as an alternative or complementary strategy in
the preparations towards the 2026 Olympics (Chapman et al., 2013; Sandbakk et al., 2021). This may include intermittent hypoxic exposure with or without exercise during the months preceding the Olympics, but also in the last weeks of altitude acclimatization. Although only sparsely investigated scientifically, it is assumed that intermittent use of simulated altitude could help to mitigate performance reductions traveling from sea-level to altitude, thereby increasing the total time at altitude (hypoxic dose) and allowing for training with higher external speeds or power outputs when arriving at terrestrial altitude (Chapman et al., 2013; Sandbakk et al., 2021).
Specifically, the use of intermittent hypoxia at rest (e.g. 8-12 hours per day in a nitrogen tent) might serve as a potential method to increase the hypoxic ventilatory response before traveling to altitude although mostly studied in the context of higher altitudes (>4000 m) and the prevention of acute mountain sickness (Burtscher et al., 2008).
PHYSIOLOGY
Whether this response translates into actual performance benefits when competing in endurance events at altitude are poorly understood in the research literature (Chapman et al., 2013). However, the use of different protocols of intermittent hypoxia during exercise while preparing for altitude events seems more promising since some studies have demonstrated positive performance effects in hypoxia compared to control groups performing the same training without hypoxic exposure (Chapman et al., 2013). Here, different protocols of hypoxic training (e.g. 2-3 weeks with 2-5 sessions of 30-90 min hypoxic exposure) seem to assist altitude acclimatization and performance during subsequent performance tests in hypoxic conditions (Chapman et al., 2013; Dufour et al., 2006; Roels et al., 2007).
Although possibilities to use simulated altitude exists, there is a common agreement in the research literature that optimal acclimatization is achieved by living and training at terrestrial altitude similar to the actual events taking place (Chapman et
Summary and Recommendations
al., 2013; Sandbakk et al., 2021). However, simulated altitude, using both intermittent hypoxia with or without exercise might be complementary to terrestrial altitude and therefore integrated into the preparations towards the 2026 Olympics. For example, as a pre-acclimatization strategy at sea level before traveling to altitude camps or as a strategy to maintain altitude adaptations following altitude when returning to sea level. However, a detailed analysis of the cost-benefits of such methods, and particularly intermittent hypoxia at rest for each individual biathlete should be taken due to the potential negative effects on sleep and recovery.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors sincerely thank Roger Grubben for his experience and expertise, which contributed significantly to the practical applications of this work through his important inputs to the manuscript.
Based on available research literature and “best-practice” approaches, the current article provides the following recommendations for altitude preparations in connection with the 2026 Olympic biathlon events:
• The competition altitude of ~1600 m is higher than most biathlon events, leading to reduced partial pressure of oxygen, arterial blood saturation and oxygen delivery to working muscles, influencing both the cross-country skiing, and shooting component of biathlon.
• In the final preparations, 10-14 days at the competition altitude (~1600 m) seem to be the most effective strategy to optimize performance. An alternative strategy involves 2-3 weeks of training >2000 m, followed by 7-10 days of tapering at the competition altitude (~1600 m).
• Extensive experience of training (>60 days annually) and competitions at or above the competition altitude (~1600 m) are recommended during the last year(s) prior to the Olympics. This is particularly important for (but not limited to) sea-level natives to optimize and individualize strategies for both altitude acclimatization and competition execution.
• Maintaining good health of the biathletes in connection with altitude training and acclimatization is essential for performance optimization. Particular attention should be given to the role of nutritional intake and sleep, as well as adequate monitoring and management of training load.
• Both the cross-country skiing and shooting performance are influenced by the biathletes distribution of energy (pacing strategy) during competition which is likely even more crucial at altitude. Therefore, individualized pacing strategies that are optimal for this altitude and particularly in the sprint and individual event performed as time trials are required.
• Simulated altitude using intermittent hypoxia with or without exercise can be considered as a complementary pre-acclimatization strategy in the altitude preparations towards the Olympics.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR: ØYVIND SANDBAKK
Øyvind Sandbakk is a professor at the School of Sport Science, UiT - The Arctic University of Norway, and Sports Director at Norges Toppidrettsgymnas (NTG). He was previously a professor at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology, director of the Centre for Elite Sports Research, and has served as head of research and development at the Norwegian Top Sport Centre (Olympiatoppen).
ABOUT THE AUTHOR: RUNE KJØSEN TALSNES
Rune Kjøsen Talsnes is a Postdoctoral Fellow at the Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Centre for Elite Sports Research in Norway. His research includes different endurance sports with particular emphasis on endurance training in general, overtraining, altitude training, sex differences and female athletes. Rune also works as a consultant in testing of endurance athletes at the Norwegian Top Sport Centre (Olympiatoppen).
References: Burtscher, M., Niedermeier, M., Burtscher, J., Pesta, D., Suchy, J., & Strasser, B. (2018). Preparation for Endurance Competitions at Altitude: Physiological, Psychological, Dietary and Coaching Aspects. A Narrative Review. Front Physiol, 9, 1504. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2018.01504
Chapman, R. F., Laymon, A. S., & Levine, B. D. (2013). Timing of arrival and pre-acclimatization strategies for the endurance athlete competing at moderate to high altitudes. High Alt Med Biol, 14(4), 319-324. https://doi.org/10.1089/ham.2013.1022
Sandbakk, Ø., Solli, G. S., Talsnes, R. K., & Holmberg, H.-C. (2021). Preparing for the Nordic Skiing Events at the Beijing Olympics in 2022: Evidence-Based Recommendations and Unanswered Questions. Journal of Science in Sport and Exercise, 3(3), 257-269. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42978-021-00113-5
MONITORING
Athlete monitoring - the foundation for informed decision-making
ØYVIND KARLSSON
Swedish Winter SportsResearch Centre, Department of Health Sciences, Mid SwedenUniversity, Östersund, Sweden
Athlete monitoring is considered essential for optimizing training and protecting the health of athletes. It involves the collection of a wide range of variables related to both training and competition, as well as non-training-related variables such as recovery, health, travel, and general well-being. The overarching goal of athlete monitoring is to facilitate informed decisions that can improve the training process and ultimately enhance performance. While a plethora of methods are available, choosing the ones appropriate for your specific context is key to succeeding with athlete monitoring over time.
INTRODUCTION
Careful organization and management of an athlete‘s training and recovery processes are essential to facilitate positive adaptations that improve performance. Excessive training loads or insufficient recovery, or a combination of both, may hinder the positive adaptations to training, potentially compromising athletic performance and health through injuries and illness or conditions such as non-functional overreaching or the overtraining syndrome. Athlete monitoring can be a valuable tool to ensure that the prescribed training induces the desired effects on performance and health outcomes. In this text, I will cover the basics of athlete monitoring and key factors for successfully implementing and maintaining an athlete monitoring program.
WHAT IS ATHLETE MONITORING?
Athlete monitoring can be defined as the ongoing, systematic collection and analysis of information about an athlete and their training process (Timmerman et al., 2024). A successful athlete monitoring program can help us maximize the positive effects of training, such as improved fitness and increased readiness while at the same time minimizing the negative effects such as excessive fatigue, injury and illness by facilitating informed decisions about the training process. While there is agreement that athlete monitoring is essential to optimize the training and protect the health of athletes there is currently no agreement on the most suitable approach. Due to the diverse range of settings in which athlete monitoring is carried out, it is important to consider the specific context and tailor the choice of methods accordingly. Factors such as level of performance, availability of resources and team culture should be considered when selecting tools, as well as the specific objectives of the monitoring. Box 1 summarizes some key questions to ask yourself before implementing an athlete monitoring program.
Key questions
• Why do I want to monitor my athletes (e.g., performance optimization, injury and/or illness prevention)?
• Which measures should be used (e.g., heart rate, lactate, questionnaires, medical notes)?
• Who should record the data (e.g., the athlete, coach, medical team)?
• How often should athlete monitoring data be collected (e.g., every session, daily, weekly, monthly)?
• For how long should the monitoring continue (e.g., training camp, training phase, season, career)?
• When and how should feedback be provided (e.g., daily, weekly, face-to-face, app)?
• Do I have the necessary resources to implement an athlete monitoring program (e.g., time, personnel, finances, knowledge)?
CORE COMPONENTS OF AN ATHLETE MONITORING PROGRAM
At the core of every athlete monitoring program is quantifying the training load – after all, training is our main instrument to improve performance. Typically, training load is divided into external and internal load measures. External load measures quantify what the athlete has done, independent of the athlete’s internal responses. Measures of external load include training or competition time, type of training or competition activity, power output, speed, and distance. Internal load measures quantify the athlete’s physiological and psychological response to the external load. Typically, internal load measures are divided into objective (e.g., heart rate and lactate) and subjective measures (e.g., rating of perceived exertion, perceived stress, and perceived recovery). Using a combination of external and internal measures, and internal subjective load measures in addition to measures of athlete well-being and readiness, provides a solid foundation for understanding how the athlete is coping with the current training and informs day-to-day decisions about adjustments to the training program. However, it is also important to recognize that training load is not an isolated variable; other intrinsic and extrinsic factors, such as age, sex, family situation, travels, and environmental factors, can affect how the athlete responds to the training program.
THE ATHLETE MONITORING CYCLE
The athlete monitoring cycle, proposed by Gabbett and colleagues (2017), is a step-by-step approach for interpreting athlete monitoring data from multiple sources to inform the ongoing training process, from one training session or competition to the next. By assessing measures of external load, internal load, perceptual well-being, and the athlete’s readiness to train or compete in combination, informed decisions about training adjustments can be made.
The first step in the athlete monitoring cycle is to evaluate the relationship between external load (i.e., the activities performed by the athlete) and internal load (i.e., the athlete‘s physiological response to these activities). If an athlete exhibits a higher-thanusual internal load in response to a specific external load – such as an elevated heart rate at a given power output – adjustments to the external load in future training sessions may be necessary.
The second step involves evaluating load measures alongside an assessment of the athlete‘s perceptual well-being. This provides additional insight into how the athlete is coping with their current training regimen. High training loads are not the only factors that can impact an athlete’s well-being. Other sources of stress, such as family situations, work, school, or studies, may also influence how they respond to training.
Finally, the third step involves evaluating the athlete’s perceptual well-being alongside a subjective or objective assessment of their readiness to train or compete. Based on this evaluation, the athlete may be deemed ready for another training session or competition, the next session might need adjustments, or they may require additional recovery or further mental and/or physical preparation before the next session or event. For further details about the athlete monitoring cycle, see Gabbett et al. (2017).
MONITORING
INJURY AND ILLNESS MONITORING
Injury and illness monitoring is a crucial component of an athlete monitoring program, and fundamental for protecting athlete health and optimizing performance (Bahr et al. 2020). Generally, when recording injuries or illnesses, the event should be documented in as much detail as possible, given the information available and the expertise of the individual reporting. Ideally, this task should be performed by a medical professional. However, this is not always feasible. When injury data is reported by athletes or non-medical staff, it is recommended to limit the reporting to the body area, as their descriptions of tissue type and pathology are often unreliable. Similarly, when athletes or non-clinical recorders, such as coaching staff, are asked to record illness data, they should focus on documenting symptoms rather than attempting to provide a specific diagnosis.
Recommendations for Coaches
If you don’t have access to a medical team or doctor, a suitable approach might be: to get the athlete to record:
• The day of the injury or the day of the first symptoms of an illness.
• Body area/location in case of an injury or basic symptoms of an illness.
• Some measure of severity, for example, full par ticipation, modified training, or unavailable for training and competition.
• Day of full return to training and competition.
For further guidelines on implementing and carrying out injury and illness monitoring, please refer to the International Olympic Committee‘s consensus statement: methods for recording and reporting of epidemiological data on injury and illness in sport (Bahr et al., 2020).
Taken together, a well-executed athlete monitoring program can be instrumental in optimizing training outcomes and safeguarding athlete health. By systematically integrating data from multiple sources, athlete monitoring can facilitate informed decision-making, ultimately improving the training process. However, the diversity of contexts necessitates thoughtful selection and adaptation of monitoring methods. In Box 2 I have provided some practical recommendations on how to get you started with your own athlete monitoring program.
Recommendations for Coaches
• Start simple: Begin with a few straightforward measures suited to your context. Simple and consistent is better than complex and impractical. You can always add new measures as your experience and expertise grow.
• Choose relevant measures: Select measures and tools that are well-suited to your sport and aligned with your monitoring goals. In addition, the tools and measures should be valid and reliable for your athlete group.
• Frequency of monitoring: To be valuable in the training process, the monitoring should be ongoing and performed frequently enough to facilitate acute adjustments in the training. However, you should always minimize the burden on your athletes. Hence periodizing the monitoring might be a suitable approach.
• Feedback strategy: Make sure you have a feedback strategy from the get-go. Timely and actionable feedback is essential for athlete buy-in and the long-term success of your athlete monitoring program.
• Individualized approach: Athlete monitoring should always be carried out on an individual level. The same training session can elicit diverse responses in different athletes and even within the same athlete, depending on factors such as training status, current well-being, and genetic differences.
• Multi-faceted approach: As there is no single marker that can accurately identify the training response or when an athlete has entered a maladaptive state, and thus the risk of illness or injury, a combination of specific and relevant measures to the nature of biathlon should be used.
• Reporting of injuries and illness: When injury and illness data are reported by athletes themselves or non-medical staff (like coaching staff or physical trainers), the reporting should be limited to body area and symptoms.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR: ØYVIND KARLSSON
Dr. Øyvind Karlsson works as a researcher at the Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre at Mid Sweden University in Östersund, Sweden. His research revolves around the monitoring of training, performance, and health in elite winter sports athletes. Additionally, he works as an embedded sports scientist with Ski Team Sweden Cross-Country Skiing.
References: Bahr R, Clarsen B, Derman W, Dvorak J, Emery CA, Finch CF, Hägglund M, Junge A, Kemp S, Khan KM, Marshall SW, Meeuwisse W, Mountjoy M, Orchard JW, Pluim B, Quarrie KL, Reider B, Schwellnus M, Soligard T, Stokes KA, Timpka T, Verhagen E, Bindra A, Budgett R, Engebretsen L, Erdener U, Chamari K. International Olympic Committee consensus statement: methods for recording and reporting of epidemiological data on injury and illness in sport 2020 (including STROBE Extension for Sport Injury and Illness Surveillance (STROBE-SIIS)). Br J Sports Med. 2020 Apr;54(7):372-389. doi: 10.1136/ bjsports-2019-101969
Gabbett TJ, Nassis GP, Oetter E, Pretorius J, Johnston N, Medina D, Rodas G, Myslinski T, Howells D, Beard A, Ryan A. The athlete monitoring cycle: a practical guide to interpreting and applying training monitoring data. Br J Sports Med. 2017 Oct;51(20):1451-1452. doi: 10.1136/bjsports-2016-097298
Timmerman WP, Abbiss CR, Lawler NG, Stanley M, Raynor AJ. Athlete monitoring perspectives of sports coaches and support staff: A scoping review. Int. J. Sports Sci. Coach. 2024 May. doi: 10.1177/17479541241247131
SKIING
The impact of pole length on the performance
PER-ØYVIND TORVIK
Department of Sports Science and Physical Education, Nord University, Meråker, Norway,
In cross-country skiing, the selection of appropriate pole and ski lengths is crucial for optimal performance. This study examines the preferences and practices among elite skiers regarding pole and ski lengths, highlighting gender differences and performance implications. The analysis covers both classical and skating styles, offering insights into the impact of equipment choices on skiing efficiency. Additionally, the study identifies a gap between industry recommendations and actual practices among skiers.
UPPER BODY PERFORMANCE IN DOUBLE POLING
Double poling (DP) and G3 technique in cross-country skiing heavily relies on upper body strength and endurance. Ground reaction force production in DP is primarily generated by the upper body, necessitating significant aerobic power and specific endurance training. The upper body has a unique physiological profile compared to the legs, with a higher proportion of type II muscle fibers, fewer blood capillaries, and oxidative enzymes, affecting its oxygen extraction and utilization capabilities.
Elite skiers exhibit a high VO2max/VO2peak ratio of 95%, with performance improvements linked to better technique, strength, and endurance in the upper body. Despite varied training strategies, achieving a 100% VO2 leg/upper body ratio remains elusive. Research and experiences from Ski-classic skiers suggest that high-volume, low-intensity training (LIT) can enhance upper body endurance.
POLE LENGTH MANIPULATION
The impact of pole length on skiing performance, especially in DP, is significant. Longer poles enhance efficiency and performance on snow, though their effects on skating are less studied. In skating, poles are typically about 20 cm shorter than the skier‘s height, but regulations allow poles up to body height, indicating a wider range of pole lengths compared to classical skiing. Both male and female skiers use DP even on uphill sections, suggesting potential benefits of longer poles in skating techniques, particularly the G3 skating sub-technique.
Longer poles in DP offer advantages such as reduced oxygen cost, minimized vertical displacement of the center of mass (CoM), longer poling time, a more upright body position, and a more effective posture. These factors lead to greater propulsive force and efficient use of the upper body. However, the benefits and potential disadvantages of longer poles in skating require further investigation.
Study I
Title: The Effects of Sub‐Technique and Pole Length on Classic Roller Skiing Performance and Physiological Responses at Steep Uphill Inclination
Authors: Torvik, P-Ø., Persson, J., & van den Tillaar, R. (2021)
Journal: Journal of Human Kinetics
Key Findings:
1. Heart rate and oxygen uptake: There are significant differences in heart rate and oxygen uptake across the conditions.
2. Longer poles: Double poling (DP) with longer poles consistently resulted in lower oxygen uptake compared to shorter poles across all inclines (7-13%).
3. Diagonal stride (DS): DS exhibited lower oxygen uptake than DP with short poles on inclines steeper than 9%.
4. Inclination: Heart rate was notably lower during DS and DP with long poles from 10% inclination onwards compared to other DP conditions.
Study II
Title: The Effect of Pole Length on Physiological and Perceptual Responses During G3 Roller Ski Skating on Uphill Terrain
Authors: Torvik, P-Ø., Heimburg, E. D. V., Sende, T., & Welde, B. (2019)
Journal: Plos One
Key Findings:
1. Superiority of Longer Poles: Longer poles were superior to self-selected and shorter poles in the G3 skating technique, particularly on steep uphill terrain, improving skiing efficiency and lowering oxygen consumption and heart rate.
2. Postural Adjustments: Longer poles facilitated a more upright posture with reduced vertical displacement of the CoM, optimizing muscle engagement and force production.
3. Cycle Characteristics: Unlike in DP, cycle characteristics in G3 skating showed no significant differences between self-selected and longer poles.
4. Performance Across Intensities: At high speeds and steep inclines, longer poles reduced oxygen cost and improved gross efficiency.
5. Subjective Feedback: Skiers did not report significant differences in perceived exertion between using longer poles and self-selected poles.
Figure 1. Protocol for Study 2 with 3 different inclinations and speeds.
SKIING
Study III
Title: Pole Length Influences Performance During On-Snow Skating in Female Cross-Country Skiers
Authors: Torvik, P-Ø., van den Tillaar, R., Bostad, G., & Sandbakk, Ø. (2021)
Journal: Journal of Science in Sport and Exercise
Key Findings:
1. Performance Improvement: Longer poles (7.5 cm longer than self-selected) improved performance, particularly in the initial 200 meters and the longest uphill section of the track.
2. Utilization of G3 Technique: Greater use of the G3 skating technique was reported with longer poles during uphill sections, facilitating a more upright posture and reduced CoM displacement.
3. No Disadvantage in Final Sprint: No disadvantage was observed with longer poles in the final sprint.
4. Perceived Exertion: Participants reported better feelings and improved skiing technique perception with longer poles.
5. Challenges: Some skiers faced challenges with longer poles during specific race sections, such as a short steep uphill.
Study IV
Title: Choice of Pole and Ski Lengths Among Elite CrossCountry Skiers: The Influence of Sex and Performance Level
Authors: Torvik, P-Ø., van den Tillaar, R., Sandbakk, Ø. (2021)
Journal: Frontiers in Sports and Active Living
Key Findings:
1. Pole Lengths in Classical Style: Elite skiers use poles close to the maximum length allowed by FIS regulations. Men tend to use slightly longer poles than women.
2. Pole Lengths in Skating Style: Pole lengths are generally around 90% of body height for both men and women. A small percentage use poles 92-94% of body height.
3. Ski Lengths: Women tend to use longer skis relative to their body height compared to men.
4. Gender Differences and Performance: Men are more aware of the advantages of longer poles in DP. Female skiers also benefit from longer poles, as indicated by correlations between pole length and sprint performance.
5. Industry Recommendations: There is a discrepancy between optimal pole lengths identified in research and those commonly used by skiers.
CONCLUSION
Studies I-IV collectively provide compelling evidence regarding the benefits of longer pole lengths in both classical and skating styles of cross-country skiing. Here are the key conclusions drawn from these studies:
Superiority of Longer Poles
Longer poles consistently outperformed self-selected and shorter poles in terms of performance metrics such as time to exhaustion (TTE), oxygen cost, heart rate, and overall efficiency. This superiority was observed in both double poling (DP) and the G3 skating technique, whether on roller skis or on-snow.
Performance Benefits
The performance benefits of longer poles were most pronounced in uphill sections. Longer poles were associated with altered kinematics, including reduced vertical displacement of the center of mass (CoM) and improved mechanical efficiency. These changes contributed to reduced oxygen cost and better utilization of upper body strength.
Gender Differences
Female skiers also benefited from longer poles in on-snow skating. The improvements were evident in both initial acceleration and during the longest uphill sections of races.
These benefits were achieved without significantly altering physiological parameters, suggesting that longer poles enhance perceived performance and reduce perceived exertion.
Kinematic Adjustments
The use of longer poles facilitated a more upright posture and reduced forward fall during skiing, which contributed to lower energy expenditure in stabilization muscles and improved overall efficiency. This was particularly noticeable in the G3 skating technique, where longer poles supported a greater knee angle in the lowest position, further optimizing performance.
Practical Implications
The findings from these studies indicate that elite skiers, both male and female, tend to maximize pole length within the FIS regulations in classic skiing. In skating, pole lengths are closer to industry recommendations, showing a trend towards optimal pole use based on body height.
Future Directions
Future research could explore the specific biomechanical adjustments associated with longer poles, including detailed kinematic analysis and their impact on muscle activation patterns. Additionally, studies focusing on the psychological and technical adaptations required for optimal use of longer poles in various competitive contexts could provide further insights.
In summary, these studies collectively highlight the performance benefits of longer poles in cross-country skiing across different techniques and terrains. These findings are crucial for coaches, athletes, and equipment manufacturers seeking to optimize skiing efficiency and competitive outcomes
ABOUT THE AUTHOR: PER-ØYVIND TORVIK
Per-Øyvind Torvik works at Nord University in Meråker, specializing in Sports Science studies. His students are exclusively cross-country skiers, biathletes, and skimo athletes, with a curriculum tailored to their needs. Per-Øyvind Torvik completed his PhD in 2022, focusing on cross-country skiing, including physiology, training, equipment, and biomechanics. He has taught at high school, college, and university levels and has conducted training in military, sports clubs, and ski federations in Norway, Slovenia, and Austria.
References: Torvik, P. Ø., Persson, J., & van den Tillaar, R. (2021). The Effects of Sub‐Technique and Pole Length on Classic Roller Skiing Performance and Physiological Responses at Steep Uphill Inclination. Journal of Human Kinetics, 77(1), 97-105.
Torvik, P. Ø., Heimburg, E. D. V., Sende, T., & Welde, B. (2019). The effect of pole length on physiological and perceptual responses during G3 roller ski skating on uphill terrain. PLoS One, 14(2), e0211550.
Torvik, P. Ø., van den Tillaar, R., Bostad, G., & Sandbakk, Ø. (2021). Pole length influences performance during on-snow skating in female cross-country skiers. Journal of Science in Sport and Exercise, 3, 348-354.
SHOOTING
O ptimising biathlon standing shooting: insights into aiming strategies
MIIKA KÖYKKÄ
Finnish Institute of High Performance Sport KIHU, Jyväskylä, Finland; Neuromuscular Research Centre, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
The aiming strategy framework
In the aiming strategy framework, biathletes are classified based on their target approach behaviour.
Some biathletes use a hold strategy, where they stabilise their aim inside the hit area for a short hold period after having approached the target. In contrast, others use a timing strategy, where they approach the target straightforwardly and pull the trigger while the aim is still moving toward the centre, without fully stabilising the aim.
These strategies can be identified by recording the aiming point trajectory during shooting with devices like Noptel or Scatt and examining the distance-time profiles of the approaches right before triggering (Figure 1). It is best to examine multiple 5-shot sets rather than individual shots to identify trends. Computing and visualising the mean distance-time profile from many shots can be helpful. This approach was demonstrated in a study conducted a couple of years ago, describing the framework in biathlon standing shooting. The study was done in collaboration with the Sports Technology Unit of University of Jyväskylä (Vuokatti, Finland), Finnish Institute of High Performance Sport KIHU (Jyväskylä, Finland) and Mid Sweden University (Östersund, Sweden).
Having a framework for this phenomenon can enhance understanding of the technical requirements of biathlon standing shooting, both in research and practice. It can help create more individualised technical drills and cues for biathletes, supporting their development.
KEY TECHNICAL FACTORS IN BIATHLON STANDING SHOOTING
Various studies have shown that some basic technical factors are crucial in biathlon standing shooting:
• Hold stability: The ability to stabilise aiming point movement before triggering.
• Aiming accuracy: The ability to consistently aim at the centre.
• Cleanness of triggering: The ability to avoid causing additional movement to the aiming point during the final triggering phase.
• Timing of triggering: The ability to time the triggering at the best possible aiming picture.
Additionally, if the shooting posture is unstable, controlling movements of the aiming point becomes extremely challenging. Studies have shown that postural sway deteriorates shooting performance and decreases aiming point stability.
1. Typical distance-time profiles of biathletes using a hold-based and a timing-based approach.
However, the initial study describing the framework showed that key factors in biathlon standing shooting differ between biathletes using distinct strategies (Figure 2). Those using a hold-based approach benefit from having a stable hold well inside the hit area and being able to consistently aim at the centre, emphasising hold stability and aiming accuracy. In contrast, biathletes with a timing-based approach benefit from being able to time the triggering so that the shot is executed at the best possible aiming picture. Additionally, they should approach straightforwardly with reasonable aiming point velocity and minimising it right before triggering.
Regardless of the strategy, the study showed that all biathletes need to have the aiming point under control before triggering. However, it should be quantified differently based on the strategy, and the timing of triggering is not as important in “holders”. Recent research from the same research group further indicates that hold stability during a static hold (no intention to trigger) is important too, regardless of aiming strategy. Additionally, neither of the two studies observed differences in shooting performance between “holders” and “timers”. Thus, the ability to hold the aiming point still reflects a biathlete’s control over aiming point movements, but both strategies can be successfully implemented in standing shooting.
IMPLEMENTATION OF THE AIMING STRATEGY FRAMEWORK IN SHOOTING TRAINING
For a biathlete, having a clear technical routine forms the foundation of their shooting technical training. The approach is a part of that routine and often linked to other key events, like breathing and applying pressure on the trigger to execute the shot. Understanding what the biathlete is trying to do while shooting helps a coach support their development.
Biathletes using a hold-based approach may want to focus on improving their ability to stabilise the hold and automate the routine to trigger after a brief stabilisation period. Key supplementary exercises could include static hold training with different variations and approaches towards a target and focusing on stopping the aiming point movement.
Figure
SHOOTING
Figure 2. Key performance-related factors in biathletes using a hold-based and a timing-based approach.
However, even in a hold strategy, it should still be biathlon shooting. Practical experience has shown that extensively lengthening the hold duration can rather deteriorate than improve stability, especially when holding breath under high physical exertion. Thus, it is important that a biathlete employing a hold-like approach learns to trigger just after the stabilisation. If they fail to stabilise quickly enough or if the aiming picture is not good enough, it’s likely best to re-approach the target and try again after a new breathing cycle.
“Timers” may want to practice straightforward approaches, decelerating towards the target and triggering while the aim is inside but still moving towards the centre. Key supplementary exercises could include following a line with the aim and using accelerations and decelerations to improve task-specific control over aiming point movements. Additionally, practising good timing by using a support under the rifle to make control
easier and focusing on triggering when the aim is inside but still moving towards the centre would help them identify the correct aiming picture for triggering.
Control is essential when using the timing strategy—“throwing“ the aim in and quickly pulling the trigger is not effective. Hence, using the timing strategy should not be a compensatory action for inadequate static holding ability. It may also be advisable to bring the aim close to the target while still breathing, then approach while holding breath. Less experienced standing shooters employing the timing strategy often start approaching far from the target, especially for the first shot. This easily leads to prolonged breath-holding and uncontrolled approaches and should be avoided.
Succeeding in something unpractised is unlikely. For example, switching to holding after a failed timing-based approach rarely works, unless it has been practiced. Additionally, most biathletes perform a significant proportion of shooting without or with light physical stress, and the technique used in those sessions should correspond to the technique in races and harder sessions. Practice has shown that employing a completely different approach strategy in light and high intensity sessions makes things difficult, as the number of repetitions with the other strategy will always be much lower than with the other.
Science is usually done by comparing two extremes to each other to understand a certain phenomenon. In practice, aiming strategy is rather a continuum than two extremes, and athletes
likely use everything in between. A skilled biathlete can adapt purposefully based on internal (readiness to perform, level of exhaustion, heaviness of breathing, nervousness, etc.) or external (wind, light, temperature, spectators, etc.) conditions. Initially, it may be best to stick to what feels the most natural for an athlete and learn to adapt as skill level and understanding increase.
The suggested strategy-specific exercises can indeed work with any strategy, as they aim to improve the shooter’s general standing shooting-specific skills. However, it is beneficial to have a desired, practiced technical routine in mind. This approach allows even the experienced athlete to execute a consistent technique while remaining adaptable to varying conditions.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR: MIIKA KÖYKKÄ
Miika Köykkä is a sports scientist working at the Finnish Institute of High-Performance Sport KIHU (Jyväskylä, Finland) and the Sports Technology Unit of the Faculty of Sports and Health Sciences at the University of Jyväskylä (Vuokatti, Finland). His work mainly focuses on supporting Finnish elite sports in his specialty area, sports biomechanics, with particular emphasis on track and field and shooting sports. He has conducted extensive research on the technical analysis of biathlon shooting. Miika has also been actively involved in biathlon as a coach for over a decade, having worked for many years with the Finnish federation and multiple individuals as a personal coach.
References: Köykkä M, Ihalainen S, Linnamo V, Ruotsalainen K, Häkkinen K, Laaksonen MS. Aiming strategy affects performance related factors in biathlon standing shooting. Scand J Med Sci Sport. 2021; 31: 573–585. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.13864
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