BAVUAL The African Heritage Magazine Winter 2024 by BIRKETT COMMUNICATIONS, INC.

RHYTHM ISSUE

THE AFRICAN HERITAGE MAGAZINE

BAVUAL WINTER 2024

THE EVOLUTION OF BLACK MUSIC OUT OF AFRICA AND INTO THE CULTURE OF AMERICA

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IN THIS ISSUE

18 22 10 My Take

I Received The Greatest Gift of All

The Drift

Predictions: Were we right in 2023? What we foresee in 2024

True Grit Yusef Salaam, vindicated Central Park Five defendant, is now a successful New York City politician and defender of the defenseless

Famous Winters The NAACP at 115: A Storied Record of Civil and Human Rights Achievements

The Times U.S. Supreme Court Kills Affirmative Action, Voting Rights; Harvard’s Black Female President Becomes Culture War Martyr, Two Abortion Horror Stories

African Faces of the World Ethiopian Jews: Their Struggle for Acceptance in Their Religion and in Israel

Destinations

Best Places for Blacks to Visit - and Live; 1st of 2 Parts

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IN THIS ISSUE

36 82 32 History in Cartoons The Struggle of African Americans, From Slavery to Today

COVER: The Evolution of Black Music

Educate Yourself

Centuries in the Making, From Roots in Africa to Reggae and Hip-Hop

The Origin of the Israel-Hamas War, and Why True Peace Is the Ultimate Challenge

The Hustle

Madam C.J. Walker: Pioneer, Business Genius and Enduring Symbol of Hope and Possibility; What We Can Learn From Her

Jocks How and Why Basketball Became the Sport of Black America

Roll of Honor Eight Worthy Men and Women - Lions in Their Own Time

Benediction “Can Hate Ever Become Peace?” by R. Wayne Branch, PhD

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SECOND ANNIVERSARY ISSUE

BAVUAL

THE AFRICAN HERITAGE MAGAZINE

Bavual Vol. 3 Issue 1 Winter 2024

Editorial Earl A. Birkett Editor Rick D. Bowers Deputy Editor Stephen G. Hall, PhD, Special Editor Associate Editor Kristen Jones Design & Illustrations Debasish Sarma Editorial Advisor Myeshia C. Babers, PhD

BAVUAL: Swahili for "power, strength, force"

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THE COVER: Jazz Trio by Justin Bua

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BAVUAL WINTER 2024 | 5

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My Take I Received

The Greatest Gift of All In 2004, I developed a case of Type 2 diabetes. I had always considered myself healthy and active; however, I was admittedly overweight - at times very overweight - and I did eat a lot of junk food, especially large bottles of soda. So, on reflection, developing diabetes shouldn’t have been too surprising. I stayed four days in the hospital to lower my blood sugar, which was over 1000, and was given insulin until it was lowered to an acceptable level (which btw is 70-120). Henceforth, I was supposed to take insulin to control the diabetes, but, feeling good, I stopped the injections a couple of years in. Everything seemed fine until I turned 50 in 2010, when I noticed some difficulty in climbing stairs. I assumed it was advancing age until the following year when, in less than two weeks, my health completely collapsed. I didn’t know it, but my organs were shutting down. One night, I was admitted to the hospital; it was the beginning of a medical nightmare, now in its 13th year, that got progressively worse. The lengthy hospital stays turned into extensive rehab in nursing homes. I was briefly immobile but recovered, thank goodness, but at a huge cost. First, I was diagnosed with endstage renal failure in both my kidneys and placed on dialysis in 2015. A year later, my left leg below the knee was amputated in order to save my life, followed in 2017 by my right leg btk. Things looked grim until November of last year when, after eight years, I was finally placed on the donor list for a kidney transplant. Because of the length of time on dialysis, I was given priority placement. Only two weeks later, after having turned down the first kidney (timing and nerves), I accepted a kidney from a deceased donor, a 34year-old woman who had just died from a heroin overdose. The operation was astonishingly simple although surreal.

signs indicate that the new kidney has not been rejected and is working fine despite some initial fatigue. I am left with this strange feeling mixed with gratitude that I will live with for the rest of my life knowing that someone else’s organ is inside me. I hope you will never need to endure what I have experienced, but if you do, be strong. Also, consider being an organ donor to someone in need.

As I write this, some seven weeks have passed. All BAVUAL WINTER 2024 | 7

You can sign up to be a donor at organdonor.gov

The Drift

Predictions Looking Back: 2023 How did BAVUAL do on last year’s forecast? “Critical issues for African Americans - raising the minimum wage, child care, mortality, voting rights, healthcare and criminal justice among others - will likely continue to be ignored in a House of Representatives and a Supreme Court controlled by Trump-leaning, far right Republicans. Real progress on these issues may be more possible after the results of the 2024 election are known, when another opportunity for a progressive agenda could present itself.” Nailed it. This year’s Congress, controlled by largely MAGA Republicans, passed the lowest number of bills in its history, and none to improve the lives of any American. They could barely nominate a speaker. As for the Supreme Court, they gutted affirmative action and proved that they can be sold to the highest bidder - or even for pocket change. “A number of economists are predicting a recession brought on by out-of-control inflation in 2023.” Never happened. In fact, the GDP grew by 3.3%, inflation dropped from over 8% to about 3%, and unemployment is at a 50-year low; black unemployment is at a record low! “Home ownership is increasingly elusive due to prohibitive sale prices, high mortgage interest rates and stagnant wages.” Never more true. You now need an annual income well over six figures to afford to buy a house. You even need roommates to rent a decent apartment. “Lurking above all is climate change, which threatens to permanently alter the landscape and financial structure of many nations beyond the U.S. for the worse...” No progress whatsoever. In fact, oil drilling in the U.S. is at record levels. “Probably not since the 1960s has racism against blacks and other minorities been so universal and blatant. What used to be hidden in code words is openly expressed, mainly by extremist Republican politicians and media personalities who have stoked their more gullible followers...” Speaks for itself. America is now a nation of the sane and the insane split almost down the middle.

Looking Ahead: 2024 Based on the events of 2023, BAVUAL foresees the following for the year: The November election will be close - although it shouldn’t be. Under President Joe Biden, 2023 was a good year for the U.S. economy: GDP growth at 3.3%, unemployment at 3.7% including a record low 5.2% for blacks (4.7% for black men); inflation down to 3.1% vs. over 8% the previous year; the poverty rate fell by a point to 11.6%; the average price of gas dropped 50 cents to $3.49/gallon (in many places, it is well below $3); and legislation proposed by Biden and passed by a Democratic Congress boosted infrastructure projects and a return of the chip industry to the U.S. Yet Donald Trump, a man mired in 91 felony indictments in three states and D.C. that if convicted could send him to prison for decades, not to mention civil judgments for sexual assault and fraud, and who promises to replace democracy with a dictatorship if elected, is currently tied or slightly ahead of Biden in national polls. One reason is Trump appears to be cutting into support for Biden among black voters, especially black men, who bizarrely see the amoral racist and lifelong con man as an aspirational role model of sorts. Despite this, Biden, whose support will likely rally in the fall, should easily prevail in the popular vote and pull out a win in the decisive Electoral College, though one much narrower than in 2020. As for Congress, the House will flip from Republican to Democratic and the Senate will be tied 50-50, with Vice President Kamala Harris again being the deciding vote. African Americans should expect more erosion of rights hard-earned over three generations. Expect more books banned and efforts to rewrite black history by white supremacists, who will also increase their attacks on blacks in a pivotal election.

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True Grit

Yusef Salaam His Triumph Over Injustice

By Stephen G. Hall, PhD The old adage from Martin Luther King Jr. — “The arc of the moral universe is long, but it bends toward justice” — is often doubted. However, in the case of Yusef Salaam, it proves to be an accurate description of his life and current reality. Salaam has overcome a rape conviction, lengthy imprisonment, and job discrimination to emerge as an elected official. This journey has by no means been easy. However, as the title of his autobiography — Better, Not Bitter — demonstrates, he has used his determination and faith to rise above his circumstances, assert his innocence, and live “on purpose in the pursuit of racial justice.” His story is nothing short of miraculous and is truly an example of how an individual can successfully confront the most pernicious problems facing black communities in our contemporary moment and emerge victorious. Born to a single mother, Sharonne Salaam, in 1974, Salaam’s life would take a drastic turn during his teenage years. In 1989, Salaam, Korey Wise, Kevin Richardson, Antron McCray and Raymond Santana were falsely accused of raping Trisha Meili, a white woman jogging alone in Central Park. Just 15 at the time of the incident, Salaam became known as one of The Central Park Five. These five teenagers were arrested by the New York City Police and were subjected to beatings and torture,

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denied food and water, and lacked access to counsel. Salaam and the other defendants confessed to assaulting the jogger. Although the teens eventually retracted their statements, it was too late. This crime occurred against the backdrop of a national debate about the so-called “wilding” behavior of black teenagers. The situation was further exacerbated by the actions of Donald Trump, then a New York businessman and socialite, who took out newspaper ads calling for the death penalty for the five defendants. The five teenagers were convicted in 1990. Salaam’s conviction was upheld twice on appeal — once by the Appellate Division and again by the Court of Appeals of the State of New York in 1993. He was imprisoned until 1997. In 2002, however, a confession by Matias Reyes, a serial rapist, and DNA results indicated that the five teenagers had not committed the crime. The five teenagers were exonerated and brought a civil rights lawsuit against the City of New York in which they cited malicious prosecution, racial discrimination and emotional distress. The lawsuit was settled for $41 million in 2014. After his release in 1997, Salaam secured employment as a construction worker in an apartment complex in Harlem but was subsequently fired after the company discovered his identity. He also did a short stint at Weill Cornell Medicine and served on the board of the Innocence Project.

THE CENTRAL PARK FIVE (SALAAM IS TOP RIGHT) In 2007, Salaam met and married his wife, Sanovia. He became a father to her three children and also had three daughters from his first marriage. The Salaam’s decided to raise their children in Stockbridge, Georgia. Salaam spent his time traveling the country talking about racial justice and began to consider running for New York City Council. The idea took shape after a visit from Keith Wright, the New York Democratic leader, in 2022. Salaam not only ran but defeated two veteran candidates. He took the oath of office using the same Quran he cradled during his trial and throughout his incarceration. In an interesting twist of events, Salaam is set to chair the council committee overseeing the NYPD.

AFTER CLOSE TO 35 YEARS, SALAAM GOT HIS VINDICATION OVER TRUMP

New York City Councilman Yusef Salaam, ex-Central Park Five defendant

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Famous Winters February 12, 1909

The NAACP AT 115 By Kristen Jones What started out as a movement for equality among African Americans has grown for more than 100 years into what we now know as the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). The NAACP was formed in 1909 and set out to advance justice for African Americans living in the United States. The organization was partly birthed from the Niagara Movement, a movement of African American intellectuals that was founded in 1905 at Niagara Falls by such prominent men as W.E.B. Du Bois and William Monroe Trotter. The movement was dedicated to obtaining civil rights for African Americans. In 1909, the Niagara Movement was hampered by a lack of funds, and many members (including Du Bois) joined the newly founded NAACP. Seven members of the Niagara Movement also joined the new organization’s board of directors. Although the two organizations shared membership and overlapped for a time until the Niagara Movement disbanded in 1910, they were separate organizations. Historically, the Niagara Movement is considered to have had a more radical platform than the NAACP. The Niagara Movement was formed exclusively by African Americans, while the NAACP was formed in New York City by white and black activists, partially in response to the ongoing violence against black Americans around the country and partially in response to the 1908 Springfield race riot in Illinois. During that event, two black men being held in a Springfield jail for alleged crimes against white people were surreptitiously transferred to a jail in another city, spurring a white mob to burn down 40 homes in Springfield’s black residential district, ransack local businesses, and murder two blacks.

In February 1915, director D. W. Griffith premiered The Birth of a Nation in Los Angeles. Based on Thomas Dixon’s novel, The Clansman, the film presented Reconstruction from the viewpoint of the Confederacy, glorifying the Ku Klux Klan and vilifying blacks as brutes, buffoons and rapists. Griffith combined cinematic innovations with mass appeal to produce the film industry’s first extravaganza. The NAACP launched a nationwide campaign to expose the film’s distorted history and halt its showing. Although the campaign did not stop whites from seeing the film in record numbers, in some cities, the most offensive scenes were cut, and in others, the entire film was banned. At one time, the NAACP was in talks regarding a name change. The organization had hired Royal Nash, a writer who had formerly led the NAACP Northern California branch, as secretary (1916– 1917) to succeed May Childs Nerney. Nash thought the name of the NAACP too cumbersome to use. In a memorandum, he suggested other names for the organization in the “spirit of the New Abolitionists,” such as The Garrison Association, The Wendell Phillips Association, and The Lincoln Association. No action was taken, however, after Nash left the NAACP in 1917 to join the army. The topic was put to rest, and the name remained the same. The NAACP’s founding members included white progressives Mary White Ovington, Henry Moskowitz, William English Walling and Oswald Garrison Villard, along with such African Americans as W.E.B. Du Bois, Ida B. Wells, Archibald Grimke and Mary Church Terrell. Key figures in the movement are W.E.B. Du Bois, Mary White Ovington, Moorfield Storey and Ida

1960s NAACP Civil Rights Protest 12 | BAVUAL WINTER 2024

B. Wells. Over the years, leaders of the organization have included Thurgood Marshall and Roy Wilkins. The organization’s mission in the 21st century is "to ensure the political, educational, social, and economic equality of rights of all persons and to eliminate race-based discrimination." Its national initiatives include political lobbying, publicity efforts, and litigation strategies developed by its legal team. In the NAACP’s early decades, its anti-lynching campaign was central to its agenda. During the civil rights era in the 1950s and 1960s, the group won major legal victories. The NAACP-led Leadership Conference on Civil Rights, a coalition of civil rights organizations, spearheaded the drive to win passage of the major civil rights legislation of the era: the Civil Rights Act of 1957; the Civil Rights Act of 1964; the Voting Rights Act of 1965; and the Fair Housing Act of 1968. The NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, founded as a part of the NAACP in 1940, litigated the landmark Supreme Court case Brown vs. Board of Education mandating the desegregation of public schools in 1954, as well as a case permitting affirmative action in college admissions decades later. NOTE: In 1957, the Legal Defense Fund (LDF) was completely separated from the NAACP and given its own independent board and staff. Although LDF was originally meant to operate in accordance with NAACP policy, after 1961, serious disputes emerged between the two organizations. These disputes ultimately led the NAACP to create its own internal legal department, while LDF continued to operate and score significant legal victories as an independent organization.

SOME OF THE NAACP’S FOUNDERS NAACP IMAGE AWARDS Every year since 1967, the NAACP has presented its Image Awards to honor outstanding performances in film, television, theatre, music and literature. The over 40 categories of the Image Awards are voted on by the NAACP members. Honorary awards (similar to the Academy Honorary Award) have also been included, such as the President's Award, the Chairman's Award, the Entertainer of the Year, the Activist of the Year, and the Hall of Fame Award.

As the NAACP turns 115 years old this year with its president and CEO Derrick Johnson, we can look for its voice to grow louder on issues such as climate change, the student debt crisis, and the ongoing response to the pandemic, while keeping voting rights and criminal justice reform at the forefront of its priorities. The nation’s oldest civil rights organization has undergone a restructuring to reflect a membership and leadership that is trending younger, to people in their mid-30s. As a result, it is adding endeavors such as producing TV streaming content for CBS. It wants the legacy to be as well recognized as it has been in the past, while continuing to fight for equality and justice for African Americans. The NAACP is working to secure a future where everyone can exercise their civil and human rights in every aspect of life, including education, health, criminal justice, and the environment, without discrimination.

DERRICK JOHNSON, NAACP PRESIDENT AND CEO SINCE 2020

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The Times MIXED RIGHTS VERDICTS U.S. SUPREME COURT SQUELCHES AFFIRMATIVE ACTION BUT AIDS VOTING RIGHTS A setback and a gain for black rights and equity In 2023, the 6-3 conservative majority on the U.S. Supreme Court, now in its third year, continued their assault on diversity, equity and inclusion while occasionally throwing a small bone to the underdog minority. Nowhere was this truer than in two court cases where they figuratively split the baby in their two decisions, Students for Fair Admission v. Harvard (and its companion case, Students for Fair Admission v. University of North Carolina) and Allen v. Milligan. On June 29, the Supreme Court found that Harvard and the University of North Carolina's admissions policy, popularly known as affirmative action, violated the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment. The decision reversed decades of precedent upheld over the years by narrow court majorities that included Republican-appointed justices. It could end the ability of colleges and universities — public and private — to do what most say they still need to do: consider race as one of many factors in deciding which of the qualified applicants is to be admitted.

At issue are affirmative action programs at the the University of North Carolina, which until the 1950s did not admit Black students, and Harvard

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University, which was the model for the Supreme Court's 1978 decision declaring that colleges and universities may consider race as one of many factors, from the applicant's geographical and family background, to their special talents in science, math, athletics, and even whether the applicant is the child of the school's alumni. The two cases overlap. Because UNC is a state school, the question is whether its affirmative-action program violates the 14th Amendment's guarantee to equal protection of the law. And even though Harvard is a private institution, it still is covered by federal anti-discrimination laws because it accepts federal money for a wide variety of programs. The cases were argued in October 2022.

Those wishing to see the glass as half full on race gains could cite Allen v. Milligan, decided on June 8, in which the Court ruled against Alabama's defense of an electoral map drawn by the

state's Republican-dominated legislature. By a vote of 5-4, a coalition of liberal and conservative justices essentially upheld the court's 1986 decision requiring that in states where voting is racially polarized, the legislature must create the maximum number of majority-black or near-majorityblack congressional districts, using traditional redistricting criteria. More than a quarter of the state's population is African American, but in only one of seven districts do minority voters have a realistic chance of electing the candidate of their choice. Black voters are either concentrated in that district so they are a supermajority there or spread out across the remaining six districts so that their voting power is diluted. It's a practice known as packing and cracking. Chief Justice John Roberts, a longtime critic of the Voting Rights Act, this time voted with the court's three liberals, along with Justice Brett Kavanaugh, a conservative.

THE TRIALS OF HARVARD’S CLAUDINE GAY First black female president is a victim of the culture war The ongoing right-wing culture war against DEI claimed two prominent victims in academia in 2023: Liz Magill, female president of the University of Pennsylvania, and Harvard University's first black and second female president, Claudine Gay, who both resigned following a firestorm of criticism including backlash for how they has handled antisemitism on campus and, in Gay’s case, accusations of plagiarism in her academic work. When Gay announced her resignation, her critics celebrated a major victory — another university president had left their job following a fateful congressional hearing on antisemitism in December during which Rep. Elise Stefanik (R-NY), a Harvard graduate, excoriated (some say smeared) the two university leaders, as well as MIT president Sally Kornbluth, who has yet to resign. Harvard had initially stood beside Gay. Her ouster shows that public outrage can help affect change even at the highest levels of the nation's most prestigious institutions. "This is not a decision I came to easily," Gay wrote in a statement. "But, after consultation with members of the (Harvard) Corporation, it has become clear that it is in the best interests of Harvard for me to resign so that our community can navigate this moment of extraordinary challenge with a focus on the institution rather than any individual."

Meanwhile, Gay's defenders say public outrage can be fickle and racist — and that people of color are particularly vulnerable. Here's what to know about the extended controversy and why it matters. Who is Claudine Gay? Gay’s resignation makes her sixmonth term as president the shortest of any in Harvard's history. She became president after serving as a dean for Harvard's Faculty of Arts and Sciences. She first came to the university in 2006 as a government professor. Gay, 53, received her PhD from Harvard in 1998, and her dissertation won the Toppan Prize for best dissertation in political science. She also previously taught at Stanford University. How did we get here? Gay began her term as Harvard’s 30th president in July 2023. After an influx of reports of antisemitism and Islamophobia on college campuses nationwide since October 7, university leaders including Gay and University of Pennsylvania President Liz Magill faced growing pressure to respond to concerns about Jewish students' safety.

Gay's response to a line of questioning from Stefanik during

her testimony before a House Committee on Education and the Workforce on antisemitism on college campuses prompted outrage. Asked by Stefanik whether calls for the genocide of Jews violate Harvard’s rules of bullying and harassment, Gay responded, “It can be, depending on the context.” “Antisemitic speech when it crosses into conduct that amounts to bullying, harassment, intimidation — that is actionable conduct, and we do take action,” Gay said. Critics faulted Gay for not giving a simple "yes." Responding to plagiarism charges, Harvard's initial review of some of Gay's work found instances of “duplicative language" but that Gay's work didn't rise to the level of misconduct. Some Jewish groups said her resignation matters because it means she was held accountable for her remarks. Gay’s supporters say the resignation matters because it shows how vulnerable people of color can be to accusations tinged with racism. They cite rhetoric that claimed Gay had gotten the job in large part because she is a black woman as particularly concerning.

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TWO ABORTION HORROR STORIES PLAGUE POST-ROE AMERICA Kate Cox and Brittany Watts in a multiracial fight for women’s choice Ever since the Supreme Court‘s 2022 decision on Roe v. Wade ended a woman’s right to an abortion after 49 years, all women have had their healthcare placed in jeopardy in Republican red states; this is especially true for black woman, who often do not have the financial resources to seek out prenatal treatment in more empathetic, so-called blue Democratic states. At no point has this been more apparent than in the case of Kate Cox and Brittany Watts. Cox, a Texas woman fled her home state to obtain an abortion after Texas’ top court ruled in December that she cannot terminate her nonviable pregnancy despite risks to her life and future fertility. The Kate Cox Case Cox, a 31-year-old mother of two young children, sued to obtain an abortion after learning that her 20-week-old fetus has trisomy 18, a fatal chromosomal condition, as well as other health issues, including a spinal abnormality. Doctors informed Cox and her husband “there was virtually no chance that their baby would survive to birth or long afterwards”, according to court filings. Continuing the pregnancy would pose grave risks to Cox’s life and would probably jeopardize her future fertility.

the procedure. Earlier this month, Cox filed an emergency lawsuit asking a judge to allow her OB-GYN to provide an abortion without threat of prosecution. Texas’ harsh anti-abortion state law technically includes exceptions for cases of medical emergencies, but Texas doctors have said that the exceptions are too vague and force them to wait until their patients get sick enough to intervene.

A D&E (dilation and evacuation) procedure would have been the best medical option for her health, but doctors in the state who might have provided it feared prosecution under Texas’ criminal abortion ban. (Texas doctors accused of violating the state’s abortion law face up to $100,000 in fines or even life in prison.) After a lower court judge ruled in favor of Cox, the Texas attorney general, Ken Paxton, a Republican, threatened to punish any doctor who provided an abortion to Cox.

Paxton and his office filed an Still, Cox was unable to obtain an abortion in Texas because of appeal with the state’s top court. the state’s strict laws prohibiting The Republican-stacked Texas state supreme court sided with

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Paxton, blocking Cox from obtaining an abortion in her home state. Her attorneys have since announced that, after the protracted legal battle, Cox fled Texas to obtain the procedure out of state. The Brittany Watts Case Equally egregious, if not more so, is the experience of Watts, an Ohio woman, who suffered a miscarriage of her 22week-old fetus while sitting on a toilet in her house. The Trumbull County prosecutor’s office sought a grand jury indictment against Watts for abuse of a corpse, contending that after she miscarried, she flushed and scooped out the toilet, then left the house, leaving the 22-week-old fetus, whom her doctors said was nonviable and life-threatening, lodged in the pipes. A visit to the local Catholic hospital after the event led to a nurse turning her in to the police and the prosecutor seeking charges. Her attorney told the judge that Watts had no criminal record and was being "demonized for something that goes on every day." An autopsy determined the fetus died in utero and identified "no recent injuries." Evidently, the grand jury agreed, declining to return an indictment. The implications for pregnant women receiving reproductive healthcare access remain.

African Faces of the World

Ethiopia’s Jews

Their Long Struggle For Acceptance In The Wider Jewish World 18 | BAVUAL WINTER 2024

By Kristen Jones For perhaps more than three thousand years, Ethiopia has been home to groups of people who have either Jewish ancestry or practice Judaism as a religion. According to one of several Ethiopian Jewish traditions regarding their origin, in about the 10th century BCE, the Queen of Sheba’s son Menelik was born in Ethiopia. When he later visited his father, King Solomon, in Jerusalem, the tradition goes, Solomon told him to spread the Jewish faith in God to the Ethiopians and gave him a Torah scroll to teach them. In contrast to this origin story, many among the Ethiopian Jews instead believe that they are descended from the Israelite tribe of Dan, which fled the civil war in the Kingdom of Israel after King Solomon’s death. More Jews are thought to have arrived in Ethiopia between the first and sixth centuries, coming as artisans and merchants from other countries, sometimes to escape religious persecution. It was once believed that these Jews, who became known as the Beta Israel (translated as The House of Israel), were a part of one big group. However, further research has shown, that they were different and fragmented, both physically and religiously. There was often little to no contact between the communities, each village appointed its own spiritual and secular leaders, and there was no leadership to unite them. Being set apart from Jewish communities elsewhere, the Beta Israel developed some of their own religious practices, which some consider unique and not typically “Jewish.”

Over time, Ethiopia’s Jews developed a unique culture influenced by Judaism and Ethiopian traditions in isolation from other Jewish groups. Offshoots of these groups include the Beta Abraham and the Falash Mura, Ethiopian Jews who were converted to Christianity, some of whom have reverted to Judaism.

Discovered by Other Jews In 1435, Elijah of Ferrara recounted meeting an Ethiopian Jew in Jerusalem in a letter to his children. The man told him of the ongoing conflict of his nation with the Christian Abyssinians; he relayed some of the principles of his faith, which, Ferrara concluded, balanced between Karaite and Rabbinical Judaism.

Over the centuries, Ethiopia’s Jews have faced immense challenges, including religious persecution, discrimination, oppression and violence. Despite these hardships, many have maintained their Jewish identity and community.

One of the first-known Ethiopian Jews to travel to Jerusalem was Daniel ben Hamdya in 1855. He made the trip mostly on foot and met with rabbis there, who recognized him and his community as Jewish.

The earliest recorded mention of the Beta Israel comes from the Royal Chronicle of Emperor Amda Seyon, who sent troops to pacify the northwest provinces of Semien, Tselemt, Tsegede and Wegara where the Beta Israel had been gaining prominence. He sent troops there to fight people "like Jews."

Starting in the late 1850s, Protestant missionaries from Europe began trying to convert members of the Beta Israel community to Christianity, and these converts are now known as “Falash Mura.”

At times, the Beta Israel were treated fairly by the Ethiopian monarchy, while at other times, they faced religious persecution. Many fellow Ethiopians referred to the Beta Israel as “falasha,” which is a derogatory name meaning “outsider.” In the early 15th century, the Christian emperor of the time forced many Jews to be baptized as Christians or lose ownership of their land.

The Christian effort to convert these Jews caught the attention of Jews in Europe, and several European rabbis recognized their Jewishness. As a result, the Jewish scholar Joseph Halevy was sent to Ethiopia in 1868 to learn more about Ethiopian Jews. A university professor who studied religious communities, Halevy was the first Ashkenazi Jew and scholar to visit the Ethiopian Jewish community, and he provided information about them through his writing. He was very moved by the Ethiopian Jews’ plight and became a strong advocate for them.

One example of this is an order of Jewish Ethiopian monks in the 15th century who adopted a more organized approach of religious practice. It included new religious prayers and literature and new laws of religious purity. These monks set out to strengthen the community’s religious identity while resisting Christian conversion. BAVUAL WINTER 2024 | 19

He described their following of the Hebrew Bible; their laws of purity concerning birth, death and menstruation; their observance of Shabbat; their practices such as respecting elders, receiving visitors, and visiting those in mourning; and how they kept their Torah (which they called “Orit”) covered in colorful cloths in houses of prayer or the homes of their “kessims,” or priests. Doubts About Their Jewishness Once the larger Jewish world learned about Ethiopia’s Jews, some Jews questioned whether the Ethiopians were really Jews. Whether these doubts were a result of racism or differences of opinion about the necessary criteria for being a Jew is debatable. However, in 1908, chief rabbis from more than 40 nations signed a letter to the Ethiopian Jewish community recognizing their Jewishness and encouraging them to hold steadfast to the Torah. These rabbis were from several European countries, North America, and the Yishuv.

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Later, in 1921, Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook, the first Ashkenazi chief rabbi of the British Mandate and the spiritual father of the Religious Zionist movement, wrote a letter proclaiming that Ethiopian Jews were Jews and that it was a mitzvah incumbent upon all Jews to bring them home as brothers and sisters. When the State of Israel was declared in 1948, Emperor Haile Selassie refused to allow the nation’s Jews to emigrate to the new country. However, since the early 1950s, The Jewish Agency has assisted more than 90,000 Ethiopians with their migration there. While Rabbi Ovadiah Yosef ruled in 1973 to the effect that Ethiopian Jews should indeed be considered Jews, as noted earlier, he was not the first rabbi to do so. Even as far back as the 16th century—about 400 years before Yosef’s ruling—Rabbi David ibn Zimra, aka the Radbaz, recognized them as Jews.

Between the late 1970s and the mid1990s, a series of covert and open operations executed by the Israeli government brought to Israel more than 35,000 Ethiopian Jews. Today, the Israeli community of Jews of Ethiopian descent numbers more than 160,000, of whom about 73,000 were born in Israel. In 2012, an Ethiopian-born Israeli, Belaynesh Zevadia, was appointed Israeli ambassador to Ethiopia. Yet, even decades later, Ethiopian Jews’ integration into Israeli society is partial, and too often, they are not treated as equals. Israeli Discrimination Israeli society has a long history of discrimination against various groups such as Russian immigrants, Jews from Arab countries, Palestinians, and even ultra-Orthodox Jews. Ethiopian Jews in Israel have therefore often felt unwelcome by some of their fellow Jews and Israelis. Instead, some Jews and Israelis look at Ethiopian Israelis as not equal to others in the nation, and the State of Israel still has a long way to go before they become truly equal citizens.

Strengthening Their Bonds The ongoing debate about their Jewishness (or lack thereof) and the discrimination they face have in some ways strengthened the connection of these Ethiopian Israelis to each other and their desire for a better future.

Many Ethiopian Israelis live on the edge of a society that struggles with scarce resources and unemployment, making it harder for them to be fully included. As relative newcomers to the nation, they also experience the highest poverty rate among the Jewish community. Even worse, they have also had to deal with a higher rate of problems with the law, including stops by the police, arrests, and seeing members of their community killed by the police. It is such struggles with poverty, discrimination, and even racism that have led to protests by Ethiopian Israelis and more conflicts with the police.

In Israel today, Ethiopian Jews still celebrate Sigd, an Ethiopian Jewish festival they have practiced for centuries, which commemorates the giving of the Torah. On this holiday, community members would traditionally fast, climb the highest mountain in the area, and listen to the kessim chant passages of the Hebrew Bible, particularly the Book of Nehemiah. In the afternoon, they would descend, break their fast, and rejoice in their renewed acceptance of the Orit. Practicing this festival in Israel today helps bring attention to Ethiopian Jews in their new nation and establish them more strongly there, while also helping them maintain their connection to their shared past.

Some feel that Israel is not as fair for nonwhite Israelis and Jews as it is for those who have lighter skin—a problem that some argue lends credence to accusations that the nation is a settlercolonial project with elements of white supremacy. So, why has it been hard and why is it still difficult for some Israelis and Jews to accept Ethiopian Israelis and Jews? Why has it taken years of struggle to try get universal support and recognition for them? Since being Jewish is not a matter of race alone, Jews can be found almost everywhere in the world and are of many races and colors. In a religious sense, Jews are a people defined by the covenant they made with God at Mount Sinai. Therefore, in some people’s opinion, any Ethiopian who the Israeli Rabbinate says is Jewish is fully Jewish—as Jewish as Moses, Miriam, David or Esther.

THE AREA OF JEWISH SETTLEMENT IN ETHIOPIA

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Destinations

10 BEST PLACES ABROAD FOR BLACKS TO VISIT - AND LIVE 1ST OF 2 PARTS

Are you a Black American ready to move abroad?

By Parker Diakite Published in TravelNoire.com, April 21, 2021

As we get to the other side of the pandemic, one trend that will likely stay is flexibility. Both companies and people who are self-employed will likely adopt a hybrid work model where essentially they can work from anywhere in the world. Given that with the racial tension and turmoil that still taunts the Black community, many travelers of color are ready to experience life outside the U.S. as they prioritize safety and overall well-being. Considering a move? Here are the top 10 destinations for Black travelers looking to relocate abroad:

Medellín, Colombia Medellín has grown tremendously in popularity over the last few years. It’s an exciting city that offers a lot to do. There’s an active nightlife scene, a thriving Black expat community, and it’s also an affordable option for expats.

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Lisbon, Portugal Lisbon is often described as a vibrant city with scenery that’s unlike any other place you will find. The views of the colorful houses combined with its iconic seven hills—as the yellow and red trams roll through neighborhoods—are simply iconic and make the perfect postcard. Lisbon is rich in diversity and culture and a place where Black expats thrive.

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Belize City, Belize Moving to Belize will be one of the best decisions you’ve made. From its beaches to rain forests, Belize is a country of diverse natural beauty, so you will never get bored, and the cost of living is still considered low. What Black travelers will especially love about Belize is that there is significant Black history and culture, so you will feel welcomed. According to research from Hampton University, Belize has the highest percentage population of African descent of any Central American nation. For a taste of Afro-Belizean food, try “bile up.” It’s a Belizean creole dish with boiled eggs, fish or pigtails with plantain, yams, and tomato sauce.

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Dakar, Senegal Senegal is a great destination for Black travelers looking to move to a place where they can reconnect with their ancestors. What’s so exciting about Senegal is that there’s a rich history to learn about the past, but so much happening in the future that will put you in the right place at the right time. Senegal will also soon be home to a futuristic city that many call a “real-life Wakanda” after musical artist and mogul Akon announced plans to build a city that will serve as a “safe haven” for descendants of the diaspora looking to flee racial injustice.

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Limón, Costa Rica Limón is probably the last place you considered in Costa Rica, but there’s a lot of potential as an up-and-coming expat destination. If your goal is to get away to a place that remains untouched, consider Limón. A third of the population identifies as Afro-Costa Rican. There you can discover the Afro-Caribbean culture, food, and music. It’s far less touristy but a good place to live if you want the coastal and Caribbean vibe without the crowds—for now. When you’re there, keep in mind that Black History Month is celebrated in August. August was chosen to commemorate the First International Convention of the Negro Peoples of the World, which concluded with a ceremony in Madison Square Garden on August 31, 1920. 26 | BAVUAL WINTER 2024

Accra, Ghana Accra is known for its welcoming vibe, especially when locals find out you’re from somewhere else and decided to “come home.” In fact, you will feel safe and welcome from the moment you arrive. As life becomes more threatening to Black people in America, many have chosen and are talking about moving to Ghana to put racism behind them. There are more than 3,000 African Americans living in Accra, according to Al Jazeera. While it’s true, the grass isn’t always greener on the other side, many Black Americans will tell you they feel safe and free in Ghana. It’s a reason why Stevie Wonder, Dave Chappelle, and so many other celebrities are looking to relocate or buy a second home in Ghana.

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Panama City, Panama No one wants to leave America and be uncomfortable somewhere else. That’s why we present to you Panama City, Panama. Panama is known for its lively carnival culture, beaches, and nightlife scene that includes a mix of friendly locals, expats, and tourists from around the world. But the most important thing, as a Black traveler, is you will feel welcome. Panama City is also a great place to live comfortably for less than $1,100 per month.

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Bangkok, Thailand Speaking of safety, Thailand is a place where you don’t have to worry about your safety as a Black traveler. You will have access to some of the most beautiful white-sand beaches, breathtaking scenery, mouth-watering cuisine, and more. You can be in the moment, and not fear for your life just by existing.

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Barcelona, Spain Spain has one of the lowest costs of living in Western Europe. When you combine that with the fact that there’s a successful and thriving expat community, Barcelona is a great place for those of you considering relocating. As the capital of Catalonia, Barcelona is the perfect place that offers something for everyone, including Black singles or families. We want to be transparent about Spain as it’s controversial, and depending on where you are in the region, it gets mixed reviews. Some people say the further south you get, the more anti-Black it gets, yet, other expats have enjoyed and embraced their stay. Just be mindful.

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Montreal, Canada Montreal is a great option for people looking for a culturally rich experience but not interested in going too far. And the best part? Canada is ranked high for being one of the most multicultural countries in the world. Montreal is an [underrated] foodie city that has the highest number of restaurants per capita in Canada, according to Geos Montreal. With its strong African and Caribbean culture, there’s no doubt that you will find diversity in the culinary scene, and you will be welcomed by locals.

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History in Cartoons

The 400-Year Journey From Slavery to the Present

As part of its observance of Black History Month in February, BAVUAL presents its selection of drawings and cartoons that highlight the experience of blacks in American history. These selections are among the most iconic depictions of pre-Civil War slavery, the suspicions and contempt of whites against newly freed blacks during postwar Reconstruction, the racist indignities of Jim Crow segregation, the horror that was lynching, the ugly racial stereotypes, the struggles of even the most patriotic and qualified to be accepted as equal to whites, and the ongoing fight to overcome the repeating cycle of degradation from the past. These artists are to be commended for their gift and unwavering hope for a better future.

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YOUR AD SHOULD BE HERE CONTACT EARL A. BIRKETT 212-419-5831 eab@bavual.com

ARTWORK BY TYLE L. JACKSON

Compiled by Earl A. Birkett from multiple articles

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Realize it or not, the early African American experience set the blueprint for music across the United States. Indeed, across much of the English-speaking world. Spanning a diverse range of genres, from ragtime to jazz, funk and hip-hop, black American music has steadfastly influenced recording artists throughout the 20th century and beyond. Africans brought their own cultures and way of life to the Americas. As enslaved Africans, they participated in African rituals and music-making events. They told stories, sang, danced, played African and African-derived instruments, and, more broadly, celebrated life as they had done in Africa. In North America, their introduction to European culture and music came from

production back then was not as simple as hitting Save and Share. Instead, a singer recorded sound waves on wax phonograph cylinders. Running several cylinders at once, a singer could make three or four recordings simultaneously. To succeed the way he did, Johnson would have had to sing the same song 50 or more times a day. He even held at least one recording session at Thomas Edison’s laboratory in New Jersey. Later came Mamie Smith, the first African American blues artist to make recordings. In 1920, she made history when her song, “Crazy Blues,” sold over one million copies in a year. You can hear lilting, longing vocals that are synonymous with the blues style. Mamie Smith set the stage for

many artists have covered the song, including Frank Sinatra. Similarly, during this time, black singer Ethel Waters recorded “Stormy Weather.” Once again, it was picked up by another group that changed the lyrics before being covered by household names like Sinatra and Judy Garland. As the 20th century progressed, so did Black music’s influence. Motown (originating in Detroit) was a new genre encapsulating uplifting music through a deeper development of soul and jazz. Michael Jackson and The Jackson 5, Marvin Gaye, Stevie Wonder, Aretha Franklin, Diana Ross and countless others defined this post-civil rights era. During the ’60s and ’70s, hundreds of hit songs were released. They had

THE THE EVOLUTION EVOLUTION OF OF BLACK BLACK MUSIC MUSIC THE EVOLUTION OF BLACK MUSIC participating in or witnessing the religious and social activities of slaveholders, which they reinterpreted to conform to their own cultural practices and musical values through processes of adaption and resistance. As freed people, blacks and their descendants continued to create new and distinctive styles of black music in the tradition of African music-making that defined their unique African American identity. Black music’s influence emerged far earlier than many realize, with the earliest recorded commercial music. In the late 19th century, formerly enslaved George W. Johnson was one of the first people to record music using the phonograph. He had a flair for it — by the mid-1890s, Johnson was producing the United States’ bestselling songs. His achievement was all the greater because mass-

Bessie Smith—no relation—to become the bestselling blues artist of the ’20s and ’30s. As recorded music became more accessible, so did the influence of black recording artists. In 1933, black guitarist and singer Lead Belly recorded the American folk standard, “Goodnight, Irene.” While the song was a staple in his live performances, it didn’t gain popularity in the charts until after his death in 1950. The white American folk band, The Weavers, subsequently recorded a version of the song. It became a national hit, charting Billboard for 25 weeks, peaking at No. 1 for 13 weeks. The Weavers omitted some of Lead Belly’s lyrics, with Time magazine labeling it a “dehydrated” and “prettied up” version of the original. The Weavers’ lyrics are the ones that are now generally used, and

catchy beats, lyrics and vocal styles. Many are still widely played today. It was during this time that the critique of “whitewashing” black music arose. Of course, this same critique feeds into the development of pop music as we now know it. Black music continues to heavily influence the industry. Quickwitted lyrics, synth drums and samples from existing records are just a few of the characteristics found in critically acclaimed ’90s-’00s commercial black music. The availability of in-home digital audio workstation software, microphones and studio setups has made recording and producing music more accessible than ever. We see this shift with platforms like Soundcloud, which gives experimenting artists the freedom and opportunity to upload their work for free. BAVUAL WINTER 2024 | 37

AFRICAN ROOTS

DRUMS ARE A MAINSTAY OF AFRICAN MUSIC

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Historically, music in West and Central Africa, the homeland of the enslaved, is performed by individuals and groups. Serving many functions, it records the people’s history, including responses to their social, political and economic realities. It also accompanies all essential recreational, occupational and ritualized activities. When organized as a social event, musicmaking involves the participation of the entire community to which dance is central. Without making distinctions between “performers” and “audience,” community members engage in singing, dancing, clapping hands, and playing percussive instruments, namely drums. During the voyage from Africa, known as the Middle Passage, ship captains unshackled their captives and forced them to exercise by singing and dancing to the accompaniment of African instruments—drums and the banjar/banjer/banjor/banjoe (related to the halam and the kora, early forms of the banjo) that they had brought aboard the ships. The preservation of African culture in the United States, especially in the South, remained largely intact among the enslaved masses until the early 1800s. Music accompanied events of everyday life, from work to social, recreational and ritualized activities. The level of engagement with African culture varied according to the conditions of enslavement. African American slaves sang field hollers while they were working. Usually one person would say a line, then everyone would respond to it with the following

AFRICAN MUSICIAN PERFORMING ON DRUM

line. These are called call and response songs. The tempo of the song often depended on the speed of the work being done. Slaves would sing about the hardships they had endured, or, if they were African-born, what they missed from home. This was a way for slaves to bond over common hardships. Africans situated on small farms in the South and North, for

example, were in constant contact with slaveholders, unlike those residing on large farms and plantations. The former lived in their homes or nearby and worked beside them on farms, in kitchens, and in stores, and whites expected them to conform to their culture. Away from whites in their private spaces, especially on the weekends and holidays, however, blacks continued to participate in African ritual and recreational activities. They

“In Africa, music is central to all aspects of social life in multifarious ways. From lullabies to life-cycle events; from storytelling and games to social criticism; from agricultural pursuits, fishing, hunting, to kingship; from harvest to annual festivals, musical performances express a wide range of emotions, embodied experience, and social values.” KWASI AMPENE, PERFORMER & ETHNOMUSICOLOGIST

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worshiped their African gods, commemorated their ancestors and the dead, conjured rain in dry seasons, and celebrated holidays as they had done in their homeland. The most noticeable feature common to these activities was dance, to which the white clergy objected. They interpreted the African style of dancing and other cultural expressions as being incompatible to the teachings of Christianity as well as Euro-American standards of decorum. Determined to eradicate this African way of life and to create an alternative, the clergy in the New England colonies suggested or required by law that slaveholders provide the enslaved with religious instruction. Christian education included psalm and hymn singing, in the belief that the enslaved would substitute this repertoire for their own. Such instruction did little to change the cultural orientation of the enslaved masses. In addition to persisting in traditions of African origin, they transformed festive activities of the Europeans into African-styled celebrations. Blacks, for example, Africanized the Colonial Election Day held in New England from around 17501850—the day when white communities elected their governors and community leaders. Reformulated as “Lection Day,” they elected their own kings and governors. Dressed in elaborate outfits, blacks mocked the celebration that featured a parade, singing, dancing, and playing African and European instruments but in a distinctly African style. Similarly, their observance of the 19th century Pinkster Day, a holiday of Dutch origin, centered on dancing, drumming and singing. An observer identified an eel-pot drum as the main instrument that accompanied the dancing. Over the rhythms, the drummer 40 | BAVUAL WINTER 2024

SLAVES’ CHORES WERE OFTEN PERFORMED TO SINGING AND DANCING

repeated “hi-a-bomba, bomba, bomba.” Early in the 19th century, three major events led to modifications in the cultural practices of the enslaved Africans, eventually giving rise to a recognizably African American culture. (1) The passage of legislation in 1808 banned the importation of Africans to North America. Over time, the greatly reduced numbers of Africans coming into the United States dramatically curtailed the reinforcement of indigenous African practices. (2) Legislation enacted in the 1700s, but largely enforced in the 1800s, barred blacks from playing drums and other “loud” instruments such as horns. This ban on African instruments led to substitutions with homemade and European instruments played in an African style. (3) The 19th century revival movement, known as the Second Great Awakening (1800–1840), influenced the religious conversion of a significant number of freed and enslaved Africans. Revival services, organized as large camp meetings, appealed to both free and enslaved Africans. The loosely structured service

and the emotional delivery style of white evangelists generated a kind of fervor and unrestrained expression that resonated with blacks. Although thousands eventually converted to Christianity, they did so on their own terms by reinterpreting Christian principles and practices through the lens of African belief and cultural systems and through their experiences as enslaved people. This African approach to religious expression became more pronounced when blacks conducted their own services. Whereas some religious activities were sanctioned by whites, others were held in secret places in the woods known as “brush arbors” or “hush arbors.” Changing the character of the Christian service, blacks engaged in a dialogue with the preacher by interjecting utterances of “Oh, Lawd!” “Hallelujah,” “de Lord, my God,” etc.; physical responses of tossing heads, waving and clapping hands, stomping feet, and other gestures affirmed the sacredness of the occasion. Interspersed throughout this ritual was spontaneous singing that accompanied a religious dance, later known as the “ring shout.”

The songs created from the improvised singing became known as negro spirituals. (Spirituals were a gospel style of music started by African Americans after conversion to Christianity. After the service at church, there would be singing and dancing. The main difference between spirituals and gospel music is that spirituals are folk songs and often the credit of writing goes to a community, instead of one author. These songs often relate to bondage in the Bible.) This African approach to music-

The Underground Railroad (UGRR) helped slaves to run to a free country. A fugitive could use several ways. First, they had to walk at night, using hand lights and moonlight. When needed, they walked (“waded”) in water, so that dogs could not smell their tracks. Second, they jumped into a chariot, where they could hide and ride away. These chariots stopped at some “stations,” but this word could mean any place where slaves had to go for being taken in charge. So, negro spirituals such as “Wade in the Water,” “The Gospel Train” and “Swing Low, Sweet Chariot”

ragtime, the first genre of postemancipation black popular music to appear in print, encountered similar challenges. Just after 1865, most African Americans did not want to remember the songs they sung in the hard days of slavery. This means that even when ordinary people sang negro spirituals, they were not proud to do so. In the 1890s, Holiness and Sanctified churches appeared, one of which was the Church of God in Christ. In these churches, the influence of African traditions was in evidence. These churches

“Music has always been integral to the African American struggle for freedom.” BERNICE JOHNSON REAGON, SINGER & CIVIL RIGHTS ACTIVIST

making also defined the character of the leisure activities of the enslaved. Charles Ball, former enslaved African in South Carolina, recalls: “[On Saturday night] our quarter knew but little quiet . . . singing, playing on the banjo, and dancing occupied nearly the whole community until the break of day. Those who were too old to take any part in our active pleasures beat time with their hands or recited stories of former times . . . in Africa.”

directly refer to the UGRR. The emancipation of the enslaved in 1865 brought about many changes in their lives and music. Their improvised expressions became accessible in written form when white song collectors began transcribing their songs for study. The editors of the first published collection of spirituals and secular songs, Slave Songs of the United States (1867), however, acknowledged their inability to capture the improvised character of these songs on the score. Three decades later, the transcribers of

were heirs to shouts, handclapping, foot-stomping and jubilee songs, like they were in plantation “praise houses.” At the same time, some composers arranged negro spirituals in a new way, which was similar to European classical music. Some artists, mainly choruses, went abroad (in Europe and Africa) and sang negro spirituals. At the same time, ministers such as Charles A. Tindley in Philadelphia and their churches sang exciting church songs that they copyrighted. Continued on page 74

ENJOYING MUSIC WAS A POPULAR PASTIME

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RAGTIME

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EARLY RAGTIME BAND WITH JAMES SCOTT (SECOND FROM RIGHT)

Ragtime emerged in the 1880s as an improvised form of piano music and became widely popular in the mainstream. The music’s danceable rhythms, familiar harmonies and the ABA form caught the attention of whites, especially the middle class. Printed versions became in demand in the 1890s, prompting transcribers to simplify its complex rhythms. As a commodity for mass dissemination, the printed version represented a superficial rendition of ragtime’s syncopated improvisational style, which changed the organic character of the music. Retaining the improvisatory style of ragtime, Tom Turpin was the first African American to publish his composition “Harlem Rag” (1897). Similarly, and two years later, African American Scott Joplin published his “Maple Leaf Rag” (1899) that he recorded on a piano roll in 1916. Comparing the rhythmic component of black and European music, theorist Earl Stewart explains that nearly every traditional Western classical style employs syncopation; in African American music, it virtually defines (author’s italics ) style as illustrated in ragtime. Syncopation is the shifting of accent from standard European stressed beats to atypical stress points in the measure. Like African music, syncopation results from the stratification or layering of rhythms. Stewart explains that in ragtime, the bass played by the left hand occurs on the beat and is generally a non-syncopated layer. The harmony is introduced on the second part of each beat and is, therefore, a syncopated layer. The melody is highly syncopated and moves at twice the speed of the harmony. This layering of different

Scott Joplin

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rhythmic structures and the resulting syncopation also characterizes early jazz, swing in Count Basie’s “One O’Clock Jump,” gospel in Aretha Franklin’s “Old Landmark,” and funk in Tom Browne’s “Funkin’ for Jamaica.” RAGTIME’S GREATEST There are many musicians that have made a significant impact on American music, but not many people know about the ragtime composers. These men and women of color created some of the most memorable melodies in American history.

JELLY ROLL MORTON

JAMES P. JOHNSON

Scott Joplin (1868-1916) Joplin had one of the shortest careers in ragtime history, yet he is affectionately known by many as the King of Ragtime. Joplin, a Texan, traveled throughout the United States, making money as a piano teacher, with a number of students going on to become famous ragtime artists themselves, including Arthur Marshall and Scott Hayden (who we’ll look at later). He is most well known for composing “The Entertainer” and “The Maple Leaf Rag,” which is probably the most famous rag of all time and sold 75,000 copies of sheet music in the first six months alone. Jelly Roll Morton (1890-1941) Born Ferdinand Joseph Lemoth, Morton, was born in New Orleans, Louisiana, with his family being part of the Creole community. He had a tough upbringing and began playing the piano in brothels at the age of 14, earning him the nickname Jelly Roll Morton. In the early 1900s, Jelly Roll started touring the South in minstrel shows, and by 1920, he was composing in Hollywood and Chicago. “Wolverine Blues” was one of his most famous pieces during this period.

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ARTHUR MARSHALL

EUBIE BLAKE

In the late 1920s and 1930s, his career took off in New York, including his “King Porter Stomp,” which became Benny Goodman’s first real hit. James P. Johnson (1894-1955) Johnson, one of the pivotal figures in American music, was born in New Jersey, though he spent his formative years immersed in New York City’s vibrant music culture. He was an admirer of the esteemed Scott Joplin, and he himself emerged as a household name on the East Coast, gaining widespread popularity as a ragtime pianist. Among his array of notable works, “Harlem Strut” and “Carolina Shout” hold a special place and continue to be celebrated for their timeless appeal. Eubie Blake (1887-1983) James Hubert “Eubie” Blake, a significant figure in the annals of ragtime music, was born in Baltimore, Maryland.

SCOTT HAYDEN At an early age, Blake started to pen the melody for his now-iconic composition, “Charleston Rag,” which he had conceived many years prior. This piece marked the beginning of his prolific career as a composer. His later career saw remarkable success, particularly with his 1969 album The Eighty-Six Years of Eubie Blake. His fame led to numerous appearances on popular television shows .

Summer Breeze,” “March and Two Step” and “On the Pike March.” Scott Joplin introduced Scott to music publisher John Stark, who would go on to publish many of his compositions, including the celebrated “Frog Legs Rag.” Scott never lost his passion for music, continuing to teach, compose, and lead an eight-member band until his death.

JAMES SCOTT

TOM TURPIN

Scott Hayden (1882-1915) Hayden, a native Missourian, began his musical journey in high school when he, alongside Arthur Marshall, became a student of the famed ragtime composer Scott Joplin. This bond deepened when Hayden lived with the Joplin family for some time and was further strengthened when Hayden’s sister-in-law married Joplin.

FATS WALLER Arthur Marshall (1881-1968) Born in Missouri in 1881, Arthur Owen Marshall was introduced to the world of ragtime music at an early age. At just 15, he had the unique opportunity of hosting Scott Joplin in his hometown of Sedalia, with Joplin staying with his family. Marshall, along with his friend Scott Hayden, became protégés of Joplin, learning the intricacies of ragtime music. His collaborations with Joplin were noteworthy, with their joint effort “Swipsey Cake Walk” standing out as a significant piece. Although Marshall announced his retirement from music in 1917, his passion for ragtime led him back to participate in various ragtime revivals later in his life.

Hayden’s life was cut short due to tuberculosis. However, despite his short career and personal hardships, he made significant contributions to ragtime music. His collaborations with Joplin resulted in well-regarded pieces such as “Something Doing” and “Kismet Rag.” In addition to his collaborations, Hayden also composed solo works. Among these was “Pear Blossoms,” a piece he sadly never managed to complete. Although his life was filled with challenges, Hayden’s influence on ragtime music is indisputable. James Scott (1885-1938) Born to former slaves in Missouri, James Sylvester Scott began his musical journey in unlikely circumstances. While working at a music store, the shop owner, who heard him play the piano, started publishing his work, leading to the creation of notable pieces like “A

Tom Turpin (1871-1922) Born in Savannah, Georgia, in the early 1870s, Georgia-born Thomas Million John Turpin left an indelible mark on the landscape of ragtime music. His composition “Harlem Rag,” composed in the 1890s, is believed to be the first rag published by an African American musician. He later composed and published renowned rags such as “Ragtime Nightmare” and “St. Louis Rag,” Fats Waller (1904-1943) Born in New York City, Thomas Wright “Fats” Waller was a musical prodigy. By 6 years old, he was already playing piano; by 10, he was playing the organ. By the time he was 16, he had already composed his first rag. His initial works included tunes such as “Muscle Shoals Blues” and “Birmingham Blues.” Waller’s success continued to grow, and in 1935, his composition “A Little Bit Independent” claimed the top spot on Your Hit Parade for two whole weeks. Despite his sudden death from pneumonia at age 39, Waller’s musical career was full of remarkable achievements. He was in the midst of a cross-country tour, and his hit song “Early to Bed” was enjoying a successful run on Broadway. Waller’s contributions to music, particularly in the realm of ragtime and jazz, continue to be celebrated and enjoyed.

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Music wouldn’t be what it is today without the African American invention of jazz. Originating in New Orleans, jazz developed the feel of blues and ragtime swing. Structured with call and response phrases, polyrhythms (multiple rhythms occurring simultaneously) and quick improvisations, jazz swept the nation. Different parts of the country latched onto various aspects of the sound.

LOUIS ARMSTRONG

A hallmark of New Orleans music, still best-known for the brass band ensemble, were instruments such as the trumpet, trombone and tuba. It was from New Orleans that Kid Ory’s Original Creole Jazz Band emerged. Touring from Los Angeles to New York City during the ’20s Prohibition era, it became one of the first jazz improvisations on his original bands to produce recordings. themes into strongly colored, finely balanced compositions. Jazz at this time included improvised solos, which in the The tradition of composing playing of Louis Armstrong continued through later phases of (trumpet) and others, led to the jazz, in the work of Thelonious Monk, development of the Chicago style in John Lewis, George Russell and the later 1920s. Larger ensembles others. Bebop, or bop, was the first started up, often using written important postwar style. Its orchestrations. The style of jazz principal developers were Charlie known as swing was followed by Parker (alto saxophone) and John groups led by Fletcher Henderson Birks "Dizzy" Gillespie (trumpet). (with scores by Don Redman), Paul Their improvisations on chord Whiteman (with Bix Beiderbecke), changes played against Chick Webb, Jimmie Lunceford and unpredictable accents and Bennie Moten. A regular rhythm and the contrasting sounds of the band sections characterize swing. Swing culminated in the music of groups led by Count Basie, Benny Goodman, Artie Shaw, and the Dorsey brothers. Through the activities of such men as Art Tatum (piano), Roy Eldridge (trumpet), and Lester Young (tenor saxophone), solo improvisation grew in influence during this period. Add to this the insertion of voice (in particular) Billie Holiday and Ella Fitzgerald, generally considered the greatest singers in the history of jazz. One of the most important late swing musicians was Duke Ellington, who, like Morton in the New Orleans style, shaped his musicians'

multifaceted cross-rhythms and had a new intensity. Cool jazz, some of which, like the playing of Stan Getz (tenor saxophone) and the ensembles of Cannonball Adderley (saxophone), arose from Lester Young's music and developed partially as a reaction against bebop. Other post-bop developments included the music of Lennie Tristano (piano), the Modern Jazz Quartet, Gil Evans, Miles Davis (trumpet), and others. A less formal type of group interaction was

DUKE ELLINGTON

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evident in such bands as those of Horace Silver and Art Blakey, together with a stronger emphasis on the blues and greater prominence for the drums in a music that was called hard bop. As jazz continued to evolve, inventiveness by Russell, Tristano, and Charles Mingus added even more variations of both rhythms and melody. Davis introduced modal jazz in his recording “Kind of Blue” (1959). In the late 1950s and '60s, Ornette Coleman (alto saxophone), John Coltrane, Albert Ayler (tenor saxophone), and others developed a new emotional intensity in their playing, rejecting conventional jazz harmonies and melodies in favor of screeches, wails, and soaring cascades of notes played against irregular but driving rhythmic backups. This highly influential style became known as free jazz.

In moving away from European influences, jazz attained by Don Cherry, Don Ellis and others inserted fusions with the music of other cultures, especially the music of India and the Arab world. A counter-tendency during the 1970s was the use of technology, particularly rhythmic ones, taken from rock. This led jazz musicians to experiment with electronic instruments. The most successful was Miles Davis' later bands, Weather Report, Return to Forever, and the Mahavishnu Orchestra. A different trend resulted in an unaccompanied improvisation by melody instruments. The tradition of the free jazz of the ’60s was carried on by pianist Cecil Taylor and groups such as the Art Ensemble of Chicago into the ’80s. This techno-based jazz style is also called fusion - a popular form of music developed in the ’70s. Its

main characteristics are drumming styles and instrumentation of rock music, going with improvisation with a strong emphasis on electronic instruments and dance rhythms. Although various jazz musicians began to include at least some jazzrock in their performances and recordings no matter what their basic style, a few who made significant contributions before the 1970s also created original styles within jazz-rock as well, notably former Miles Davis associates pianist-composers Herbie Hancock, Chick Corea and Joe Zawinul; saxophonist-composer Wayne Shorter; and guitarist John McLaughlin. This style gained one of the largest jazz audiences since the swing era ended in the mid-1940s. As with swing-era big bands, those jazz-rock groups presenting the least improvisation tended to enjoy the most acclaim. The style

JOHN COLTRANE

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was also known as "crossover" because music sales crossed from the jazz market to the popular music market. Jazz-rock provided a new musical vocabulary stemming in part from that offered by John Coltrane and sometimes from modern concert music and rock. To this day, jazz remains everevolving, with tradition firmly established by composers, singers, and players who understand its history while embracing jazz’s base of continuous evolution. Some of those carrying the torch are Wynton Marsalis, Roy Hargrove, Terence Blanchard, Marcus Roberts, Bobby McFerrin and others. Jazz (as a cultural expression) has greatly influenced society. It remains on the outskirts of the public eye of contemporary American recognition and acceptance. This is consistent with its black origins and mentoring.

JAZZ GREATS There is an abundance of great talent in the jazz genre, way too many to cite in one issue. Instead, BAVUAL profiles a cross-section of black artists who represent the best of each era of jazz. They are: Louis Armstrong Louis “Satchmo” Armstrong is one of the most instrumental figures in jazz. Armstrong was a superstar, long before Andy Warhol popularized the phrase. Pops visited more countries around the world than any of his contemporaries, at a time when foreign travel by musicians was headline news; the fact that Louis Armstrong was a jazzman makes his achievements remarkable. As a black man – very definitely born on the wrong side of the tracks – it makes his achievements unique. And as Miles Davis said, “You can’t play anything on a horn that Louis hasn’t played.”

The man who became known the world over as “Satchmo” was an ambassador for joy and happiness. His trumpet, his smile, his laugh and his willingness to “live for that audience” all helped make him a 20th century icon. He was also a trumpet player of outstanding skill whose technical expertise and the genius of his musical imagination made him the model for virtually every jazz musician from the late 1920s to the outbreak of World War 2 and beyond. The documentary maker, Ken Burns in his series on Jazz said, “Armstrong is to music what Einstein is to physics and the Wright Brothers are to travel.”

Ellington is acknowledged as the greatest composer in jazz, and his innovative arrangements featured his piano playing against a rich, deep sound played by the brilliant musicians of his orchestra. Over five hundred of the best jazz players in the world passed through his ranks; rarely was anyone fired because he only hired the best.

As you would expect from someone who was recording for so long, Louis Armstrong has an enormous catalogue and it’s full of great music. Knowing where to start is the thing. For the best introduction to his long career, check out Louis – The Best of Louis Armstrong or the 4 CD set, Ambassador of Jazz, which includes some recently discovered unreleased material and an hourlong interview with Satchmo that is riveting. His albums with Ella Fitzgerald, Ella & Louis and Ella & Louis Again, define what it is to perform a jazz duet. Equally, Louis Armstrong Meets Oscar Peterson is another exercise in brilliance.

Ella’s catalogue is vast, but if you are looking for somewhere to start, then check out Ella Fitzgerald Gold, which includes many definitive performances. Both the Ella Fitzgerald Sings The Cole Porter Songbook (1956) and Ella Fitzgerald Sings The Rodgers And Hart Songbook (1957) are quintessential recordings without which no jazz collection is complete. There are other wonderful albums in her catalogue including Ella and Basie, Whisper Not or, for a live album, Mack The Knife, The Complete Ella in Berlin. To round out an introduction to her fabulous style, her collaboration with Louis Armstrong on the Porgy and Bess album is another that should be in every music lover’s collection.

When Louis Armstrong was asked to define jazz, he said, “Jazz is what I play for a living.” Few people have earned their living while giving so much to so many. His innate understanding of his instrument and how to combine his musicianship with his vocals, all topped off with his big personality, make him irresistible to millions of people around the world.

Ella Fitzgerald She was simply the best woman that sang jazz or any other kind of music – one of the most loved by fans across the world.

ELLA FITZGERALD

Duke Ellington Duke Ellington was one of the greatest composers of the 20th century. He wrote wonderful, popular music and songs, extended jazz works, suites as well as sacred music. Versatility was what the Duke was all about – he was the Renaissance man of jazz. Duke

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Billie Holiday Lady Day was a brilliant singer, a great lyrical interpreter. She took chances and lived life hard. She could swing, she could swoon, she moaned low, she was elegant, and she was a soul singer before the phrase was coined. She was one of the greatest jazz vocalists of all time – if not the greatest.

MILES DAVIS

BILLIE HOLIDAY

John Coltrane Coltrane was a saxophonist/ composer who stands as one of the greatest jazz artists in history, famous for A Love Supreme and Giant Steps. Ask anyone who claims not to be a jazz fan to name a jazz musician, and more will probably name John Coltrane than just about any other. His reputation has justly spread far and wide, and his music is deserving of the widest possible audience. Whether it is a beautifully controlled ballad or his more avant-garde material, ’Trane offers listeners the kind of inspired playing and composing that has few equals.

but more importantly, he was a genius, a man that changed the course of jazz history.

CHARLIE “BIRD” PARKER

Thelonious Monk Thelonious Monk was one of the most revered pianists in jazz, with a peerless career that showcased his improvisational style.

Charlie Parker The man they nicknamed “Bird” was one of the most important figures in the development of jazz and in particular bebop.

Miles Davis Miles Davis is one of the most influential figures in jazz and popular music, with an expansive career featuring classic albums such as Kind of Blue, On the Corner, A Tribute to Jack Johnson and Bitches’ Brew.

His was a thoughtful kind of jazz; the fact that he was a saxophonist unrestricted by arrangements made him the master of improvisation. Bird was also a troubled man, with drugs and drink at the heart of his problems,

He was a man of contradictions, sometimes angry and arrogant, and on other occasions generous and introspective. He was also a genius who discovered and encouraged others. His haunting tone and constantly changing

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style allowed him to become involved in just about anything and everything that happened in modern jazz. His unique playing style, with its voice-like quality and tone that was almost free of vibrato, could sometimes be melancholy, at others times assertive. It helped to make him the model for generations of jazz musicians and for jazz lovers the world over. Miles Davis defined cool.

What was different about Monk was that he utilized the entire keyboard of the piano, every black note, every white note. He even used silence to create a kind of music that had never been heard before. Some have argued that it was his ability to have both the simple and the complex together in the same piece; others feel that it is his humor; while others are certain that it’s his chord construction that is what Monk’s music is all about.

THELONIOUS MONK

Oscar Peterson The Grammy-winning jazz pianist from Montreal was referred to as the “Maharaja of the keyboard” by Duke Ellington. Oscar Peterson is one of the most recorded jazz artists in history. His brilliance at the keyboard has been an inspiration for countless pianists who heard him in their formative or later years. His abilities as both a bandleader and an accompanist helped in creating his momentous recorded legacy, but it is his genius for getting inside a song that makes his piano playing so special.

Herbie Hancock Hancock’s music is often melodic and accessible, and he possesses a unique creative blend of jazz, blues, and modern classical music that creates soundscapes that are fascinating to explore.

One of the great experimenters in the field of jazz, Herbie Hancock is among the few of that genre’s musicians to build a reputation with fans of other forms of music and in particular rock music. He was one of the first jazz musicians to experiment with the use of synthesizers as well as funk music. He has won 14 Grammy awards, an Oscar, and a string of other awards from around the world. His 2007 tribute album River: The Joni Letters won the 2008 Grammy Award for Album of the Year, only the second jazz album ever to win the award after Getz/Gilberto in 1965. In addition, Hancock’s music can often be heard as the soundtrack to quite a few Hollywood films, such as 1974's Death Wish.

HERBIE HANCOCK

OSCAR PETERSON

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THE BLUES

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Blues music is an American popular music form derived from the music of enslaved Africans, black Americans, and sharecroppers in the mid-19th century. In the early 20th century, the blues entered the mainstream consciousness, thanks to musicians such as W.C. Handy and Ma Rainey, as well as father-son archivists John and Alan Lomax. Traditional blues music is often characterized by emotive lyrics, guitar-driven accompaniment, and a 12-bar AAB song form that blues musicians can embellish as they wish. Blues bands and solo artists can play the style of music on acoustic or electric instruments. While the roots of blues music definitively draw from the black American tradition, artists of all races play contemporary blues. The genre has inspired many genres, from jazz to rock to hip-hop.

Much of the early blues tradition began in the Mississippi Delta, where formerly enslaved people

W.C. HANDY

and their descendants worked as sharecroppers. Blues has its origins in the late 1800s. The spirituals, work songs, and "field hollers" of the time served as popular music within this community. Over the latter decades of the 19th century, these melodies inspired a new genre unto itself. The blues was born in the 1910s. It began to enter popular music in the first decade of the 20th century. Memphis was an early hub for the musical style, hosting artists such as Memphis Minnie and W.C. Handy (who paid homage to the city in his composition "Memphis Blues"). Handy composed "St. Louis Blues" in recognition of another ascendant blues city. Juke joints helped popularize the genre. During this era, juke joints (a blues lounge in an informal setting) popped up in Southern towns and cities. As the Great Migration of Black Americans

blossomed from the 1910s–1930s, juke joints became popular in cities such as Chicago, Detroit, Philadelphia and New York. Women played an important role in advancing the blues. Among the stars of the genre were vocalists Bessie Smith (deemed "Empress of the Blues"), Mamie Smith, and Ma Rainey, who recorded major hits with Louis Armstrong. Blues artists were prolific in the mid-20th century. Bluesmen such as B.B. King, Bo Diddley, Lead Belly and John Lee Hooker drew large crowds throughout the United States and Europe. This, in turn, inspired new genres of music including soul, rock and roll, and subgenres of jazz. Rhythm and blues music (R&B) directly names blues as one of its jumping off points. Today, nearly all popular music genres in Western music can trace at least some of their harmonic language to the blues. GREAT BLUES ARTISTS BAVUAL profiles 13 blues singers and musicians who have attained distinction in the genre. Since blues is a crossover to several other genres, including jazz, soul and rock and roll, it should be noted that several of these artists have also performed in or influenced these genres. W.C. Handy Widely known as the “Father of the Blues,” Handy is recognized as one of the leaders in popularizing blues music. Born William Christopher Handy in Alabama, he worked during the period of transition from ragtime to jazz. Drawing on the vocal blues melodies of African American folklore, he added harmonizations to his orchestral arrangements. His work helped develop the conception of the blues as a harmonic framework within which to

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improvise. With his “The Memphis Blues” (published 1912) and especially his “St. Louis Blues” (1914), he introduced a melancholic element, achieved chiefly by use of the “blue” or slightly flattened seventh tone of the scale, which was characteristic of African American folk music. Muddy Waters The blues singer-songwriter is often referred to as “The Father of Chicago Blues,” known for songs such as “Hoochie Coochie Man” and “I’m Ready.” Bandleader, songwriter, guitarist, singer, song interpreter and the prime mover of the Chicago electric blues scene, Muddy hailed from the Mississippi Delta, like almost all the great electric bluesmen of the post-war era. As the man who claimed that “The blues had a baby, and they named it rock and roll,” he certainly had a point, and his reputation among young white wannabe blues musicians was second to none.

B.B. KING age of 5 and soon became the star of her church choir. In 1954, the 16year-old girl was discovered by the musician John Otis and recorded her first single that same year. She soon signed with Modern Records and began a string of hit records through the latter half of the 1950s. Her career success would continue until the 21st century with an album titled Matriarch of the Blues.

John Lee Hooker Born in Mississippi, Hooker learned his love of music at his stepfather’s knee as a boy. In his early 20s, he moved north to Detroit and played blues for local house parties and small dive bars. These performances netted him some local fans and caught the attention of Bernard Besman, a producer for Sensation Records. From then on, Hooker would enjoy a long, illustrious career as a successful blues musician. At 72, Hooker released the most successful album of his career. In 1997, he was inducted into the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame.

JOHN LEE HOOKER

ETTA JAMES

MUDDY WATERS

B.B. King Born Riley B. King, singer and guitarist B.B. King (he adopted the name as a catchy radio moniker) got his start in Mississippi on a plantation. At 22, King hitched a ride to Memphis to launch his musical career, which began to take off in 1948. By the mid-’50s, King was touring nationally. Over the next decade, his prestige would only continue to grow. He was inducted into the Blues Hall of Fame in 1984 and the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame three years later. Etta James Los Angeles-born Jamesetta Hawkins started vocal lessons at the

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Robert Johnson Johnson influenced everyone from Muddy Waters to The Rolling Stones and shaped the future of rock and roll. One of the first inductees into the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame, Johnson (1911-1938) was a legendary blues musician, whose influence spanned multiple generations and genres. A brilliant guitarist and master storyteller, his songs – and the intrigue surrounding his short life and death – have made for a unique legacy.

Buddy Guy Guy was born in Louisiana to a sharecropping family out of Lettsworth. At 7, Guy crafted a makeshift guitar out of wood, two strings, and his mother’s hairpins. By the time he was 21, he took a real guitar to Chicago and joined up with other heavy hitters such as Howlin’ Wolf and Muddy Waters. He has maintained a legendary career ever since. In 2012, he was awarded the Kennedy Center Honor to celebrate his lifetime contribution to American culture. He also published a memoir that same year that became a bestseller.

BUDDY GUY

ROBERT JOHNSON

Big Mama Thornton

Born Willie Mae Thornton to a Baptist minister in rural Alabama, Big Mama Thornton started life as a singer in her father’s congregation. Her mother died when Thornton was only 14, and she left home soon after to pursue a career in music. In 1953, her first single, “Hound Dog,” was released and topped the R&B charts for nearly two months. It sold 2 million copies across the U.S. and brought her a new level of fame and recognition. Thornton continued making albums into the 70s.

the age of 8, a genuine child prodigy. He played at parties and gatherings around Texas until the early ’30s when he settled in Houston, though he still toured the state as a traveling musician. He would stay in the city all through the 1940s and ’50s. He experienced a resurgence of popularity in 1959 caused by a rising folk music scene in America.

BIG MAMA THORNTON LIGHTNIN’ HOPKINS Howlin’ Wolf Misssisssippi-born Chester Arthur Burnett, better known by his stage name Howlin' Wolf, was at the forefront of transforming acoustic Delta blues into electric Chicago blues, and over a four-decade career, recorded blues, rhythm and blues, rock and roll, and psychedelic Memphis Slim rock. He is regarded as one of the John Peter Chatman - he adopted most influential blues musicians of the stage name Memphis Slim later - all time. was introduced to blues at a young HOWLIN’ WOLF age. The Memphis native moved to Chicago to pursue his dream career as a musician and quickly found himself shoulder to shoulder with some of the world’s most respected blues musicians. He released his first hit single in the early 1940s, “Beer Drinkin’ Woman.” Slim would go on to release more than 500 recordings during his career.

MEMPHIS SLIM

Lightnin’ Hopkins Sam Hopkins , born to a sharecropping family in Texas, started playing in a blues band at

Albert King Albert King, aka Albert Nelson, was born on a cotton plantation in Mississippi, but later moved to Gary, Indiana, where he played drums for Jimmy Reed, one of the most popular blues musicians of the era. He also went to St. Louis where he churned out a handful of hit songs such as “Don’t Throw Your Love on Me So Strong” and “That’s What the Blues Is All About.” By the mid-’60s, King was wildly popular and would remain so for the rest of his life.

ALBERT KING

Mamie Smith Smith was born Mamie Robinson in Cincinnati, Ohio, and got her showbiz start early as a vaudeville dancer and continued touring well into her teens. At age 20, she had settled in Harlem, and within five years her career was beginning to take off. She recorded a song called “Crazy Blues,” which is widely considered to be the firstever recorded blues song. Mamie was successful for the rest of her days. She performed in shows and movies up until she died in 1946.

MAMIE SMITH

Each one of these superstars did their part to shape and define blues music as we know it today. They are but a fraction of the many singers and musicians who have made an enduring contribution to this uniquely American style of music, the immediate precursor to the genre known as rock and roll.

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ROCK AND ROLL/POP

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BLACK MUSICIANS INSPIRE ROCK AND ROLL

Rock and roll is a style of popular music that emerged from America in the 1950s. It has its roots in various African American styles of music, such as blues, jazz and gospel, and in country music. It was first played by African American musicians primarily for other African Americans, particularly in the South, but was soon co-opted by white musicians and audiences as it spread nationally and became the music of choice for a generation. There were many technological developments during this era. Audiences could listen to rock and roll musicians on the radio and increasingly watch them on television. Mass production of 45 rpm vinyl records, or singles, meant that music could be bought cheaply and easily.

FATS DOMINO

The introduction of the electric guitar was a key development in the sound of rock and roll. Teenage culture started to develop in the 1950s. Rock and roll was the first style of music to appeal to the new young audience. It was often disapproved of by the older generation and thus represented a sense of youthful rebellion that would only increase during the turbulent 1960s and early 1970s. Teenagers could identify with rock and roll songs. Lyrics were about subjects such as young love, school, parents and cars. Rock and roll songs allowed young people an opportunity to express their emotions and experiences. Rock and roll songs were meant for dancing to. They had fast tempos, simple time and syncopated rhythms in the melody.

The actual birth of rock and roll was in the early ’50s in a time of racial strife. Legally enforced segregation was being challenged, and the Supreme Court often ruled against it. There were protests happening. In its infancy, for a brief time, racial issues disappeared when there was music that blurred the lines beyond recognition. The heart of rock and roll is R&B, but there were a lot of other influences as well. Jazz, country, gospel, bluegrass and other genres also contributed to the creation of rock and roll. Rock and roll did indeed come out of R&B, but by the end of the ’50s, it had its own unique style and was something different from R&B.

It is true that most of the early rock and roll hits were written by black rhythm and blues artists. Segregation ruled. There was “black” music and “white” music. Studios recorded both black and white artists. There were several black musicians making a very nice living playing music, just as white artists were. They officially traveled in different circles, but there was a lot of mixing. Some radio stations catered to one or the other. Some played both, and most teenagers liked both “black” and “white” music. (Teenagers were the first “consumers” of rock and roll, and it was the first genre of music that targeted a specific age group.)

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Although rock music was born in a time of racial segregation, the common belief that white people “stole” rock music from black people is not entirely accurate. White marketers and teenagers popularized rock music as never before and took it to new heights, but the genre was always a collaborative effort by black and white musicians. "Rock-and-roll performers like Ray Charles and Chuck Berry were fans of and strongly influenced by country music. Black performers regularly performed songs by white songwriters like Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller. Some even covered country hits—especially at King records, where African-American producer Henry Glover oversaw both R&B and country divisions. Rock and roll wasn't black music, and it wasn't white music; it was an integrated form drawing from other integrated forms including country, country blues, R&B, boogie woogie, jump blues, Western swing, and more. America's pop-music marketing categories are often shamefully segregated, but the music itself has never been." -- The Atlantic, “Getting Elvis's Legacy Right”

Without black-created genres like gospel, jazz and blues, we wouldn't have rock. But without European folk music, we wouldn't have rock either. And without many of the instruments brought from various parts of the world (namely guitar, bass guitar, piano, electronic keyboards and drums), genres like rock, jazz, blues and folk wouldn't have evolved the way they did. ROCK AND ROLL GREATS Among black artists who contributed to the development of rock music: Fats Domino Antoine Dominique Domino Jr., better known as Fats Domino, a pianist and singer-songwriter, was one of the pioneers and stars of rock and roll music. He was 58 | BAVUAL WINTER 2024

born in New Orleans, Louisiana, to a performing career spanned more French Creole family. He learned to than 60 years. play the piano from his brother-inLITTLE RICHARD law and started performing in clubs as a teenager. He signed to Imperial Records in 1949 and recorded "The Fat Man," which is considered by many to be the first rock and roll song ever, and later earned widespread fame with tracks like "Ain't That a Shame" (1955) and "Blueberry Hill" (1956). He sold more than 65 million records and had 35 records in the U.S. Billboard Top 40. Chuck Berry Sister Rosetta Tharpe John Lennon once said that if you Despite still being largely unknown renamed rock and roll, you might even today, Sister Rosetta was as well call it “Chuck Berry.” The perhaps the very first rock star– legendary rocker is the genre’s she invented being a rock star. first true guitar hero; his fiery Tharpe began as a gospel musician, licks and leads made the but with her fondness for the instrument the defining sound of electric guitar, which she helped to rock during an era when many popularize, she crossed over into rockers still played piano. And something unprecedented. every rock guitarist has borrowed Legends such as Chuck Berry, from his playing style. He Johnny Cash and even Elvis were pioneered stage theaters with greatly inspired by Sister Rosetta. signature trademarks like his duck walk. The St. Louis native, who was also part Native American, churned out hits like “Maybellene,” (1955),“Roll Over Beethoven” (1956), “School Day” (1957), “Rock and Roll Music” (1957), “Sweet Little Sixteen” (1958), “Johnny B. Goode” (1958), and “Reelin’ and Rockin’” (1958). SISTER ROSETTA THARPE Berry’s sole No. 1 hit was “My Little Richard Ding-A-Ling” (1972). His vivid A rock and roll pioneer and musical descriptions of consumer culture icon, Little Richard’s distinctive and teenage life, the distinctive brand of high-energy rock and roll sounds he coaxed from his guitar, helped define the genre and and the rhythmic and melodic influenced everyone from virtuosity of his piano player contemporaries like Jerry Lee Lewis (Johnny Johnson) made Berry’s and Fats Domino to disciples like songs staples in the repertoire of the Beatles and Elton John. Born almost every rock and roll band. Richard Wayne Penniman in Macon, Constantly harassed by Georgia, the self-described authorities for his saucy lyrics, “architect of rock androll” was Berry served a prison term after known for such hits as “Rip It Up,” being convicted of the Mann Act “Long Tall Sally,” “Ready Teddy,” after to two racially charged “Good Golly, Miss Molly,” and trials. Like Little Richard, he “Send Me Some Lovin’,” among enjoyed a decadeslong others. Little Richard’s colorful performing career. BAVUAL WINTER 2024 | 3

JIMI HENDRIX

CHUCK BERRY Bo Diddley One of rock and roll’s most revered pioneers, Bo Diddley, a Chicagoan, became famous for his reverb-heavy guitar sound and his famous “Bo Diddley beat.” His brag-filled signature song “Bo Diddley” is as cocky as a rapper’s freestyle, and his Africaninfluenced beat can be heard throughout popular music to this day.

BO DIDDLEY

Jimi Hendrix The greatest rock guitarist of all time, the left-handed genius reinvented the way players approached the instrument. Additionally, he was one of the greatest songwriters of the rock era and was an innovator in studio production and technique. In only three years of recording, he forever altered guitar playing and recording. A true legend, Hendrix, who was from Seattle, Washington, began his musical career after service as an Army paratrooper. He was the composer of a classic repertoire of songs ranging from ferocious

rockers to delicate, complex ballads. He also was the most charismatic in-concert performer of his generation (he once set his guitar on fire onstage). Moreover, he was a visionary who collapsed the genre boundaries of rock, soul, blues, and jazz and an iconic figure whose appeal linked the concerns of white hippies and black revolutionaries by clothing black anger in the colorful costumes of London’s Carnaby Street. Hendrix was one of the most memorable performers at the Woodstock Music Festival in 1969.

eclectic form of funk music that drew on science fiction, outlandish fashion, psychedelia and surreal humor. He also launched a solo career in 1982 and influenced 1990s hip-hop and G-funk. He has recorded over 40 R&B hit singles and three platinum albums. He has also produced records for other bands, such the Red Hot Chili Peppers.

GEORGE CLINTON

George Clinton The North Carolina-born musician, singer, songwriter, bandleader and record producer is widely considered one of the forefathers of funk music, a branch of rock. He led the Parliament-Funkadelic collective, which recorded under the band names Parliament and Funkadelic, and developed an influential and

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Tina Turner She’s arguably the definitive female rock vocalist. In the ’60s, Tina’s raspy, throaty singing and sexuallycharged stage presence paved the way for aggressive female rockers like Janis Joplin and Chrissy Hynde. And she was one of the biggest chart-toppers of the 1980s. The native Tennessean was almost as noted for her turbulent marriage to stage partner Ike Turner (documented in the film What’s Love Got To Do With It, based on her signature song) as for her incredible performances.

PRINCE

TINA TURNER

JIMWARREN.COM RICK JAMES

Rick James The super freak. The inventor of punk-funk. Yet history has kinda let this pioneer of brittle, bruising goodtime groove slip from its memory. It’s hard to imagine nowadays, but he even had a huge influence over Prince – so Rick James said, anyway. (Repeatedly!) That bravado is what Prince made him great. And it’s perhaps While he has dabbled in many what made his life so full of ups and genres throughout his amazing downs, mainly due to drug career, there’s no denying that addiction. The onetime Buffal street The Purple One is among the singer had a finger in many pies, greatest rock artists in the history creating or inspiring hits like “All of the genre. His classic period Night Long,” “Behind the Groove” features some of the most and “U Can’t Touch This.” James definitive music of the 1980s and ruled in his own right, with the ’90s, and he influenced rock, pop, massive hit “Super Freak” and the funk and dance music like no one follow-up, “Give It To Me Baby,” in else of his era. the early 1980s. 60 | BAVUAL WINTER 2024

Born in Minnesota, his real name was Prince Rogers Nelson, but during his musical career, he was known by several aliases: Prince, the Artist, the Artist Formerly Known as Prince, and even just a symbol. Mirrored by correspondingly intense music, Prince’s lyrics often address sexuality and desire with frankness and imagination. Much of his work, in its lyrics and imagery, struggles with the constriction of social conventions and categories. As one of his biographers put it, “The whole thrust of Prince’s art can be understood in terms of a desire to escape the social identities thrust upon him by simple virtue of his being small, black and male.” There is also a strong religious impulse in some of his music, sometimes fused into a kind of sacred erotic experience that has roots in African American churches. Disdainful of the large record companies, he sought to record and release his music on his own labels, Paisley Park and NPG. He was inducted into the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame in 2004.

MICHAEL JACKSON AND BEYONCÉ: THE KING AND QUEEN OF POP Michael Jackson—singer, songwriter and dancer—was the most popular entertainer in the world in the early and mid-1980s and was dubbed the “King of Pop.” Reared in Gary, Indiana, in one of the most acclaimed musical families of the rock era, Jackson was the youngest and most talented of five brothers (the others being Jackie, Tito, Jermaine and Marlon), whom his father, Joseph, shaped into a dazzling group of child stars known as The Jackson 5. Protégés of Berry Gordy, founder of Motown Records, and sporting the loudest fashions, the largest Afros, the snappiest choreography, and a youthful, soulful exuberance, The Jackson 5 became an immediate success, scoring four consecutive No. 1 pop hits in the 1970s. (Their sister Janet Jackson embarked on her own successful singing career in the early 1980s.) Michael’s solo career began in 1979 with the Quincy Jonesproduced Off the Wall, which became the bestselling album of the year and eventually sold 20 million copies.

signature single for USA for Africa, an all-star project aimed at famine relief. Further solo albums—Bad (1987), which produced five charttopping hits (among them the title song and “Man in the Mirror”), and Dangerous (1991), much of which was produced by New Jack Swing sensation Teddy Riley—solidified Jackson’s dominance of pop music. In 2001, he was inducted into the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame; The Jackson 5 were inducted in 1997. Beyoncé—singer, songwriter and businesswoman—has been dubbed as "Queen Bey." A prominent and highly influential cultural figure of the 21st century, she has been recognized for her artistry and performances, with Rolling Stone naming her one of the greatest vocalists of all time. Beyoncé Giselle Knowles, a Houston native, first rose to fame in the late 1990s as a member of the R&B girl group Destiny's Child, one of the bestselling girl groups of all time. (She and her sister Solange Knowles, a singer and backup dancer for Destiny‘s Child, are the first sisters to have both had No. 1 solo albums.) She then recorded three solo albums— B'Day (2006), I Am... Sasha Fierce (2008) and 4 (2011)—all of which reached No. 1 in the U.S.

After creating her own management company, Parkwood Entertainment, Beyoncé achieved critical acclaim for the experimental visual albums Beyoncé (2013) and Lemonade (2016), which explored themes such as feminism and womanism. With her queer-inspired dance album Renaissance (2022), she became the first solo artist to have their first seven studio albums debut at No. 1 in the U.S. Her collaborative music ventures include Everything Is Love (2018), an album with her husband and rapper JAY-Z, released as the Carters, and the musical film Black Is King (2020), inspired by the music of the film soundtrack oThe Lion King: The Gift (2019). Homecoming: The Live Album (2019), which documents her 2018 Coachella performance, has been heralded as a historic live album for its tribute to multiple generations of black music. Having sold 200 million records worldwide, Beyoncé is one of the bestselling music artists of all time. Her many accolades—including a record 32 Grammy Awards—are in sum more than any other artist in the music industry. She is the most successful black touring act in history. Time included her as one of the 100 women who defined the 21st century.

Jones also produced his next album, Thriller (1984), a tour de force that featured an array of guest stars and elevated him to worldwide superstardom. Thriller captured a slew of awards, including a record-setting eight Grammys; remained on the charts for more than two years; and sold more than 40 million copies, long holding the distinction of being the bestselling album in history. In 1985, Jackson and Lionel Richie co-wrote “We Are the World,” the BAVUAL WINTER 2024 | 61

GOSPEL/SOUL

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THE BIRTH OF GOSPEL Music became a way of bonding for African American churches. The Second Great Awakening introduced gospel music. Gospel music was a way of lamenting about the trials of slavery through relating to stories of bondage and slavery in the Old Testament.

THOMAS A. DORSEY

The Black Renaissance had some influence on the way of singing and interpreting negro spirituals. First, the historical meaning of these songs was put forward. Then, singers were pushed to be more educated. For example, in the early 20th century, boys used to sing negro spirituals in schoolyards. Their way of singing was not sophisticated. But educators thought that negro spirituals are musical pieces, which must be interpreted as such. New groups were formed, such as the Highway QC’s (QC: Quincy College), and sung harmonized negro spirituals. This constant improvement of negro spirituals gave birth to another type of Christian songs. These were inspired by the Bible (mainly the Gospel) and related to the daily life. Thomas A. Dorsey was the first who composed such new songs. He called them gospel songs, but some people say “Dorseys.” He is considered as being the Father of Gospel Music. It is of interest to see that, during this period, African Americans began to leave the South and went North. Then, gospel songs were more and more popular in Northern towns, such as Chicago. Between 1915 and 1925, many African American singers, such as Paul Robeson, performed either at church, on stage, or even in movies, when negro spirituals were considered mainly as traditional songs. In the late 1930s, Sister Rosetta Tharpe dared sing gospel songs in a nightclub. This was the very start of singing gospel songs in

many kinds of places: churches, theaters, concert halls. The number of quartets was high at that time. At the same time, some preachers and their congregations were also famous; some of them recorded negro spirituals and gospel songs. Ministers, such as James Cleveland, made tours with their choruses in the United States and abroad. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, before and during rallies for civil rights, demonstrators sang negro spirituals. For example, “We Shall Overcome” and “This Little Light of Mine” were popular.

JAMES CLEVELAND

The first Martin Luther King Jr. Day was celebrated in 1985, and it became a national holiday in 1992. This event is a milestone in the history of African Americans. It shows that the African American community is a part of the U.S. nation. This day is included near the month when black history is celebrated through various events. Since that first King’s Day, negro spirituals have been considered part of the American heritage and are often included in the programs of events reminding about black history. It appears that today everyone may perform gospel music in the United States. The main issue is to know how to improve the African American integrity in singing negro spirituals and other Christian songs.

Gospel singer Mahalia Jackson, is widely considered one of the most influential vocalists of the 20th century. With a career spanning 40 years, Jackson was integral to the development and spread of gospel blues in black churches throughout the U.S.

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SOUL: GOSPEL’S STEPCHILD

Soul is a gospel-influenced African American popular music style that evolved out of rhythm and blues in urban areas beginning in the late 1950s. Its passionate vocalizing, powerful rhythms, and honest lyrics spoke directly to a generation of young African Americans, and soul music became synonymous with the social and political developments affecting them. Soul became popular as a distinctive style during the 1960s and peaked in popularity in the mid-1970s. Its rise paralleled that of the Civil Rights and the Black Power movements, acting as the “soundtrack” for the ascension of black pride during these turbulent years. As such, the music can’t be separated from the prevailing mood at the time, and vice versa. As the momentum of the 1950s Civil Rights Movement continued to build in the 1960s, black college students rejected the nonviolent and integrationist approach advocated by civil rights leaders. In 1966, as an alternative, they embraced the black nationalist ideology of Malcolm X. Under the rubric of Black Power and led by Kwame Ture (aka Stokley Carmichael) proponents of this ideology promoted national black unity, black pride, and selfdetermination. Their activism grew into a political movement to which black people assigned social and cultural meanings described as “soul.” The term became associated with a range of black cultural productions such as music, dance, visual art, food, fashion, natural hairstyles, a nonverbal communication style, and a unique language style of inner-city street talk and slang. With its roots in gospel music and the broader black church culture,

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soul music captured the spirit, emotions and chaos of the 1960s civil unrest that continued into the early 1970s. GREAT SOUL ARTISTS

James Brown The central progenitor of funk music and a major figure of 20th century music, James Brown is referred to by various honorific nicknames, some of which include "The Hardest-Working Man in Show Business," "Godfather of Soul," "Mr. Dynamite," and "Soul Brother No. 1." In a career that lasted more than 50 years, he influenced the development of several music genres. He also became noted for songs of social commentary, including the 1968 hit "Say It Loud – I'm Black and I'm Proud." Brown recorded and released 17 singles that reached No. 1 on the Billboard R&B charts. He also holds the record for the most singles listed on the Billboard Hot 100 chart that did not reach No. 1. Brown was one of the first 10 inductees into the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame at its inaugural induction in New York in 1986.

JAMES BROWN Aretha Franklin Referred to as the "Queen of Soul," Rolling Stone twice named her as the greatest singer of all time. With global sales of over 75 million records, Franklin is one of the world's bestselling music artists. She won 18 Grammy Awards (out of 44 nominations), including the first eight awards

given for Best Female R&B Vocal Performance (1968–1975), a Grammy Awards Living Legend honor, and a Lifetime Achievement Award. She was also awarded the National Medal of Arts and the Presidential Medal of Freedom. In 1987, she became the first female artist to be inducted into the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame.

ARETHA FRANKLIN

Sam Cooke Considered one of the most influential soul artists of all time, Cooke is commonly referred to as the "King of Soul" for his distinctive vocals, pioneering contributions to the genre, and significance in popular music. During his eight-year career, Cooke released 29 singles that charted in the Top 40 of the Billboard Pop Singles chart, as well as 20 singles in the Top Ten of Billboard's Black Singles chart. In 1964, Cooke was shot and killed by the manager of a motel in Los Angeles. After an inquest and investigation, the courts ruled Cooke's death to be a justifiable homicide. His family has since questioned the circumstances of his death.

SAM COOKE

THE MOTOWN SOUND For many music fans, the Motown Sound is the defining sound of 1960s pop, R&B and soul music. The distinctive musical style—all tambourines, driving bass lines, and gospel-influenced vocal harmonies—became synonymous with Motown Records, the Detroit studio founded by Berry Gordy in 1958 where the songs were recorded by the stars who sang them. It also launched dozens of musical careers, including Diana Ross, Stevie Wonder and The Jackson 5, and changed pop music history. Otis Redding Redding is regarded as one of the greatest singer-songwriters in the history of American popular music and a seminal artist in soul and R&B music. Nicknamed "The King of Soul," his style of singing gained inspiration from the gospel music that preceded it. His singing style then influenced many other soul artists. Shortly before his death in a plane crash in 1967, Redding wrote and recorded his iconic "(Sittin' On) The Dock of the Bay" with Steve Cropper. The song became the first posthumous No. 1 record on both the Billboard Hot 100 and R&B charts.

singers in history and was often referred to by contemporaries as "The Genius." Charles, who was blinded during childhood, possibly due to glaucoma, pioneered the soul music genre during the 1950s by combining blues, jazz, rhythm and blues, and gospel styles and contributed to the integration of country music, rhythm and blues, and pop music during the 1960s. While he was with ABC Records, Charles became one of the first black musicians to be granted artistic control by a mainstream record company. His 1960 hit "Georgia on My Mind" was the first of his three career No. 1 hits on the Billboard Hot 100. Frank Sinatra called Ray Charles "the only true genius in show business," although Charles downplayed this notion. He was one of the inaugural inductees at the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame in 1986.

RAY CHARLES

Marvin Gaye The singer and songwriter helped to shape the sound of Motown in the 1960s, first as an in-house session player and later as a solo artist with a string of successes, earning him the nicknames "Prince of Motown" and "Prince of Soul." Gaye's Motown songs include "Ain't That Peculiar," "How Sweet It Is (To Be Loved by You)," and "I Heard It Through the Grapevine." He became one of the first artists in Motown to break away from the reins of a production company. His later recordings influenced several contemporary R&B subgenres, such as quiet storm and neo soul. Shot and killed by his father Marvin Gaye Sr., the incident was a national sensation in 1984. Since his death, Gaye’s stature as one of the legends of the music industry has only increased, earning him much deserved recognition for his talent.

MARVIN GAYE

OTIS REDDING Ray Charles Ray Charles Robinson Sr., aka Ray Charles, singer, songwriter and pianist, is regarded as one of the most iconic and influential

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OPERA/COUNTRY

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People of African descent have long been involved in "classical music"— as creators, interpreters, performers and entrepreneurs. A number of well-known black singers —from William Warfield to Jessye Norman—have made their mark in the rarefied world of opera. So it's no surprise that even in the age of hip-hop, young African Americans are a growing presence on opera stages around the world. OPERA’S GREAT BLACK IMPRESARIOS Paul Robeson Blessed with an unmistakable bassbaritone voice. Robeson first found major success in the 1928 London premiere of Show Boat, after which “Ol’ Man River” became his signature song.

painfully denied the right to perform at Constitution Hall because of her color. Outraged by the decision, First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt spoke up, and Anderson was eventually permitted to perform at the Lincoln Memorial, where she famously sang “My country tis of thee.” When she was 58, she broke the color barrier by making her debut at the Met, playing Ulrica in Verdi’s A Masked Ball.

MARIAN ANDERSON

PAUL ROBESON

Jessye Norman New York’s Met Opera called her “one of the great sopranos of the past half-century.” One of the rare black opera singers to achieve worldwide fame, Norman performed in the best opera houses and with the best orchestras throughout the world, including at La Scala with the great Berlin Phil.

William Warfield The great American bass-baritone (his rendition of “Ol’ Man River” in 1951's Show Boat is unforgettable) was famous, besides his great talent, for his marriage to the soprano Leontyne Price, with whom he recorded an acclaimed album of selections from Porgy and Bess.

WILLIAM WARFIELD

JESSYE NORMAN Marian Anderson African American contralto Marian Anderson’s extraordinary musical range spread from lieder, to opera, to spirituals. In 1939, Anderson was

Leontyne Price The lyric soprano is among the first African American opera stars to have achieved international success. In May 1960, Price made her first appearance at Milan’s La Scala as Aida in Verdi’s great opera —the first African American to sing solo in the hallowed walls of Italy’s most prestigious opera house.

LEONTYNE PRICE

Pretty Yende Yende, a soprano, has shot to fame at lightning speed. The South African made her debut at La Scala in the role of Musetta in Puccini’s La bohème. The year after (2013), Yende had her international breakthrough at the Met. Today, she’s one of the genre’s most exciting stars. Denyce Graves Graves is an opera star of the highest renown. The American mezzo, who performs around the world with the greatest orchestras, made her Royal Opera House debut in 1994 as Carmen. She does an exquisite “Habanera” with her expressive voice and wonderfully dynamic stage presence. Listening to her version, it would almost seem that Bizet wrote it for Graves alone. Willard White Jamaican-born, British bassbaritone Sir Willard White is one of the most respected opera stars of the last 40 years. His rich, velvety voice and magnetic stage presence have taken him to the world’s most prestigious opera venues, performing alongside the top orchestras. Lawrence Brownlee Brownlee is an international tenor at the top of his game. He has been called “one of the world’s leading bel canto stars” (The Guardian), and the sparkling clarity of his higher register is renowned in opera houses worldwide.

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AFRICAN AMERICANS’ MARK ON COUNTRY MUSIC El Watson, Tarter & Gay, and the Tennessee Chocolate Drops played on early country music recording sessions in East Tennessee (though their songs were categorized at the time as “race records” rather than “hillbilly records”). Lesley Riddle worked with A.P. Carter as they traveled around Southern Appalachia to collect songs for The Carter Family to perform and record. He also taught them several songs, including “The Cannon Ball,” and his guitar playing influenced Maybelle Carter’s guitar style. Elizabeth Cotten, guitarist and banjo player, was an important influence in American folk music; her connection to the Seeger family, especially Mike Seeger, played an important role in her amazing musical talent being recognized and celebrated. Her style and repertoire – based on earlier African American music and instrumental traditions and delivered in her unique lefthanded playing – impacted a variety of musicians who followed her. Honored as a National Heritage Fellow in 1984 and winner of a Grammy at the age of 90, the Smithsonian recognized her as a “living treasure” before her passing in 1987. DeFord Bailey, a talented harmonica player, was the first African American artist to perform on the stage of the Grand Ole Opry in Nashville in the 1920s. Bailey was nicknamed “The Harmonica Wizard” by George Hay. These early African American performers gave way to later musicians who have made their own mark on country and old-time music. Charley Pride, once a Negro League professional baseball

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player, rose to fame in the late 1960s and early 1970s. He became a very popular country music star and is one of only three black members of the Grand Ole Opry. “All I Have to Offer You (Is Me)” was his first No. 1 hit. Dom Flemons and Rhiannon Giddens are founding members of the Carolina Chocolate Drops, an important black string band; they now have thriving solo careers. Both artists use their music to illuminate African American histories. In 2018, Flemons released an album focused on black cowboys through Smithsonian Folkways. He chose to feature “Lonesome Old River Blues,” a song originally recorded by Roy Acuff and the Crazy Tennesseans in the 1930s, on this album in order to illuminate the influence of African American traditions on early country music. Giddens’ musical output has consistently helped tell the story of the black experience, and she recently led an all-female banjo “supergroup” called Our Native Daughters that shares African American histories and stories from the female perspective. Her version of “Freedom Highway,” a 1964 Civil Rights protest song, is taken from her second solo studio album and features fellow artist Bhi Bhiman. Texas-born Charley Crockett is a blues, country and Americana singer-songwriter with 15 albums under his belt, starting with 2015’s A Stolen Jewel through to his 2021 release Music City USA. Crockett has been steadily gaining popularity and is an established part of authentic roots music’s current youth movement. Also having appeared at the Bristol Rhythm & Roots Reunion, Crockett has garnered a faithful local fanbase. The track “Jamestown Ferry” is a mid-tempo honky-tonk number from 2017.

CHARLEY PRIDE

CHARLEY CROCKETT ELIZABETH COTTEN

DEFORD BAILEY DOM FLEMONS RHIANNON GIDDENS

REGGAE/HIP-HOP

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Reggae is a unique form of rock music that originated in Jamaica and has its roots in a number of other musical styles. You can hear the influence of traditional Jamaican music as well as American rhythm and blues, which would have been easily picked up in Jamaica in the early days of radio.

BOB MARLEY

Music has always had a big role in the lives of Jamaican people. The roots of traditional Jamaican music can be traced back to African music due to a number of Jamaicans who are descendants of Africans brought to the West Indies to work as slaves on sugar plantations. There were three main musical styles that influenced reggae. Mento: this style of Jamaican folk music was popular in the 1950s. Like calypso, it is strophic in form and has light-hearted lyrics accompanied by offbeat chords on guitar and banjo. Ska: a fast dance style with offbeat chords that emerged in the late 1950s. The lyrics tended to be about serious social issues. Folk elements of mento were mixed with the electric guitars and horn sections of rhythm and blues. Rocksteady: a slower style from the mid 1960s that followed on from ska. It featured a loud, repeated melody on bass guitar called a riff. The offbeat chords were emphasized, and the lyrics were often political in nature. Reggae emerged in the late 1960s and can be identified by: time signature of 4/4, with heavy accent placed on the 2nd and 4th beats of the bar strophic form – a repeated verse and chorus typical rock lineup – vocals, backing vocals, electric guitars, bass guitar and drum kit prominent riff played on bass guitar simple chord sequences reference to Rastafari, a religion that emerged in Jamaica in the 1930s

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REGGAE’S BOB MARLEY CHANGES EVERYTHING Bob Marley was the greatest reggae musician to have come out of Jamaica. He was an innovator, who combined Jamaican rhythms with rock and African American rhythm and blues. In the 1970s, Bob Marley became an international pop star. His reggae rhythms motivated thousands of musicians throughout the world. But Bob Marley was not only concerned with music. His lyrics spoke about social injustice and became anthems to many fans. It’s essential to mention the ideology of the Rastafari (also known as Rastafarianism) to adequately understand Bob Marley’s music. Rastafari is an Abrahamic religious and political movement created by blacks in Jamaica, the descendants of African slaves. They believe that

Africa is the birthplace of Mankind and that Emperor Haile Selassie I (Ethiopia) was a 20th century manifestation of God, who led the path toward righteousness and is therefore worthy of reverence. Jamaican Rastafarianism accepts the use of marijuana as a sacrament and aid to meditation. Rastafarianism has gained widespread exposure in the Western world with followers in North America, Europe and Africa. The contribution to music of Marley and his band The Wailers irrefutably increased the visibility of Jamaican music worldwide. Marley became known as a Rastafarian icon, and he infused his music with a sense of spirituality. He is also considered a global symbol of Jamaican music, culture and identity and was controversial in his outspoken support for democratic social reforms.

HIP-HOP: MUSIC’S LAST GREAT BLACK INNOVATION Hip-hop, also known as rapping, is a style of vocal delivery that is key to rap and hip-hop music. A rapper, also known as an MC, must be able to rap in time with a steady beat. Rap focuses on rhythm as opposed to melody or harmony. A rapper will improvise, or “freestyle,” lyrics in time with an accompaniment. Rap originated in the Bronx in New York in the 1970s. Its vocal roots lie in a Jamaican technique called ‘toasting’ - a cross between chanting and talking performed by Jamaican MCs. Rappers first rose to fame for their harsh yet realistic depiction of inner city life but have received criticism for their frequent use of the n-word and emphasis on violence, female exploitation and rampant materialism. LEADING RAPPERS N.W.A. N.W.A (an abbreviation for Niggaz Wit Attitudes, eye dialect for Niggas With Attitudes) was a hip-hop group formed in Compton, California, active from 1987-1991. They were among the earliest and most significant popularizers and controversial figures of the gangsta rap subgenre, and the group is widely considered one of the greatest and most influential groups in the history of hip-hop music. They endured controversy owing to

their music's explicit lyrics, which many viewed as misogynistic or homophobic, as well as to its glorification of drugs and crime. The group was subsequently banned from many mainstream American radio stations. In spite of this, they have sold over 10 million units in the United States alone. Drawing on its members' own experiences of racism and excessive policing, N.W.A. made inherently political music. N.W.A.'s consistent criticisms of institutional racism within the American police significantly contributed to the political awareness and involvement of American youth against racism and still serve as examples of resistance to neoliberalism. The original lineup consisted of Arabian Prince, Dr. Dre, Eazy-E and Ice Cube, with DJ Yella and MC Ren joining later that year. Run-DMC (D.M.C.) Originally from Hollis, Queens, New York City, and formed in 1983 by Joseph Simmons, Darryl McDaniels and Jason Mizell, Run-DMC is regarded as one of the most influential acts in the history of hiphop culture and especially one of the most famous hip-hop acts of the 1980s. The group was among the first to pioneer new-school hip-hop music and helped usher in the golden age of hip-hop. The group was among the first to highlight the importance of the MC and DJ relationship and the first to achieve a gold record (1984), a platinum record (1986) and a multi-platinum record (1988). Run-DMC's "Walk This Way" became one of the

best-known songs in both hip-hop and rock. Theirs was the first hiphop act to have their music videos broadcast on MTV, appear on American Bandstand, be on the cover of Rolling Stone, perform at Live Aid, and be nominated for a Grammy Award.

RUN-DMC Tupac Shakur He is widely considered one of the most influential and successful rappers of all time. Shakur is among the bestselling music artists, having sold more than 75 million records worldwide. Much of Shakur's music has been noted for addressing contemporary social issues that plagued inner cities. With the release of his debut album 2Pacalypse Now in 1991, he became a central figure in West Coast hiphop for his conscious rap lyrics. His diamond-certified album All Eyez on Me (1996), the first double-length album in hip-hop history, abandoned his introspective lyrics for volatile gangsta rap. Heavily involved in the growing East Coast– West Coast hip-hop rivalry, Shakur, on September 7, 1996, was shot four times by an unidentified assailant in a drive-by shooting in Las Vegas; he died six days later.

TUPAC SHAKUR

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The Notorious B.I.G./Biggie Smalls Born Christopher George Latore Wallace in Brooklyn, New York, Biggie was rooted in East Coast hiphop and particularly gangsta rap and is widely considered one of the greatest rappers ever. He became known for his distinctive laid-back lyrical delivery, offsetting the lyrics' often-grim content. Wallace’s career spanned only four years, but during that time, he received widespread critical acclaim, especially for his debut album Ready to Die (1994), which included his signature songs "Juicy" and "Big Poppa." The album made him the central figure in East Coast hip-hop and restored New York's visibility at a time when West Coast hip-hop was dominating hiphop music. He led his protégé group Junior M.A.F.I.A., a team of himself and longtime friends, including Lil' Kim, to chart success. In 1996, while recording his second album, Biggie became ensnarled in the escalating East Coast–West Coast hip-hop feud. Following Tupac Shakur's murder in a drive-by shooting in Las Vegas in September 1996, speculations of involvement in Shakur's murder by Wallace circulated as a result of his public feud with Shakur. On March 9, 1997, six months after Shakur's murder, Wallace was murdered by an unidentified assailant in a drive-by shooting while visiting Los Angeles. With three posthumous albums released, Wallace has certified sales of over 28 million copies in the U.S. Rolling Stone, Billboard and The Source have named him the greatest rapper of all time.

JAY-Z

Kanye West One of the world's bestselling music artists with 160 million records sold, West has won 24 Grammy Awards, the joint 10th-most of all time and most awarded for any hip-hop artist jointly with JAY-Z. West's first six solo albums—The College Dropout (2004), Late Registration (2005), Graduation (2007), 808s & Heartbreak (2008), My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy (2010), and Yeezus (2013)—were included on Rolling Stone's 2020 500 Greatest Albums of All Time list with the same publication naming him one of the 100 Greatest Songwriters of All Time. Time named him one of the 100 most influential people in the world in 2005 and 2015. West's outspoken views have received significant media coverage. In October 2022, he was widely condemned and lost many sponsors and partnerships after making a series of antisemitic statements, including praising Adolf Hitler and denying the Holocaust.

BIGGIE SMALLS

KANYE “YE” WEST

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JAY-Z Shawn Corey Carter, known by his stage name JAY-Z, is a rapper, record producer and entrepreneur. He is known for his involvement in the creative and commercial success of numerous artists and was named the greatest rapper of all time by Billboard and Vibe in 2023. He is also the founder and chairman of entertainment company Roc Nation and was the president and chief executive officer of Def Jam Recordings from 2004 to 2007. JAY-Z began his musical career in the late 1980s; he co-founded the record label Roc-A-Fella Records in 1994 and released his debut studio album Reasonable Doubt in 1996, which was met with critical praise. He went on to release 12 more albums to further acclaim and commercial success. He released the collaborative albums Watch the Throne with Kanye West in 2011 and Everything Is Love with his wife Beyoncé in 2018. He holds the record for the most No. 1 albums (14) of any solo artist on the Billboard 200. Through his business ventures, JAY-Z became the first hip-hop billionaire in 2019. As of 2024, he is the wealthiest musical artist in the world with a net worth of $2.5 billion. One of the world's bestselling music artists with 140 million records sold, he has won 24 Grammy Awards, the 10th-most of all time and most awarded for any hip-hop artist jointly with Kanye West. He was the first rapper to be inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame and the first solo living rapper inducted into the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame.

Nicki Minaj Trinidadian-born Onika Tanya MarajPetty, known professionally as Nicki Minaj, is often referred to as the "Queen of Rap” and is known for her musical versatility, animated rap flow, alter egos, and influence in popular music. In 2022, she earned her first solo No. 1 with "Super Freaky Girl." Minaj is one of the bestselling music artists, with more than 100 million records sold worldwide. Billboard ranked her as the top-selling female rapper of the 2010s and one of the greatest rappers of all time. She has 23 top 10 singles in the U.S., the most for any female rapper, with six of those being solo songs. Minaj is also the first and only female rapper to have three No. 1 albums on the Billboard 200 chart. In 2016, Time included her on their annual list of the 100 most influential people in the world. Throughout her career, Minaj's outspoken views, social media disputes and fan base have received significant media coverage.

NICKI MINAJ

XXXTentacion Jahseh Dwayne Ricardo Onfroy, known professionally as XXXTentacion, a controversial figure due to his widely publicized legal troubles, nevertheless gained a cult following among his young fan base during his short career with his depression- and alienation-themed music. Critics and fans often credit him for his musical versatility, with his music exploring emo, trap, trap metal, nu metal, indie rock, lo-fi, hiphop, R&B and punk rock.

LI’L WAYNE

He is considered to be a leading figure in the establishment of the emo rap and SoundCloud rap genres, which garnered mainstream attention during the mid-to-late 2010s. He began writing music after being released from a juvenile detention center and soon started his music career on SoundCloud in 2013, employing styles and techniques that were unconventional in rap music such as distortion and heavy guitar-backed instrumentals, drawing inspiration from third-wave emo and grunge. His second album, ? (2018), debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard 200 and is certified quintuple platinum in the U.S. Its lead single, "Sad!," posthumously reached No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100, had amassed more than 1.3 billion views on YouTube and 1.7 billion streams on Spotify by November 2021, and was certified diamond by the RIAA in August 2021. His history of legal issues and alleged violence have been described by some as defining his legacy, while others have criticized the media's portrayal of him, arguing that his perceived improvements in character later in life have made his legacy into a tale of the power of second chances and redemption. On June 18, 2018, XXXTentacion, age 20, was murdered when he was shot near a motorcycle dealership in Deerfield Beach, Florida. The attackers fled the scene in an SUV after stealing his Louis Vuitton bag containing $50,000 in cash. Four suspects were arrested and charged with first-degree murder among other charges.

XXXTentacion has RIAA-certified sales of 61 million units in the U.S. and BPI-certified sales of over 7 million units in the UK, bringing his total to 68 million certified records sold in the two countries.

XXXTENTACION

Li’l Wayne Dwayne Michael Carter Jr., known professionally as Li’l Wayne, is regarded as one of the most influential hip-hop artists of his generation and is often mentioned among the greatest rappers of all time. Wayne's career began in 1995, when he was signed by rapper Birdman to his record label Cash Money Records, becoming the youngest member of the label at age 11. Wayne has sold over 120 million records worldwide, including more than 25 million albums and 92 million digital tracks in the United States, making him one of the world's bestselling music artists. On September 27, 2012, he became the first male artist to surpass Elvis Presley with the most entries on the Billboard Hot 100, with 109 songs. Wayne founded his own record label, Young Money Entertainment, in 2005, which has signed artists including Drake, Tyga and Nicki Minaj.

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Continued from page 41 After emancipation, some blacks took advantage of opportunities for formal training in European classical music. They then began transforming black vernacular or folk idioms into concert and urban performance styles. These changes reveal the ways blacks retained a perspective on an African past, negotiated their dual African and American identities, and engaged with social and cultural change over five centuries. The negro spiritual was the first African genre to be arranged for the concert stage. The printed score reveals the intersection of African American and Western classical music and how black composersarrangers dealt with their opposing musical values and aesthetic practices. The European influence is apparent in the vocal aesthetic and formal stage presentation. Reconciling musical difference is achieved in the juxtaposition of European four-part harmony and the African-derived call and response structure, syncopation, polyrhythms, melodic and textural repetition, and linguistic dialect of the black vernacular styles. The generation of African American composers born after emancipation and formally trained etched their racial identity onto Western classical music. Inspired by the movement towards an American school of composition, they tapped into the spiritual, work songs, blues, and other black vernacular genres for source material—melodies, rhythms, call and response structures, and timbral devices—for their orchestral works, chamber works, and compositions for solo instruments as well as oratorio and opera. Composers born between the Harlem Renaissance and World War II further Africanized European forms by adding jazz to the list of source materials as did David Baker in his Jazz Suite for Clarinet and Symphony Orchestra: Three Ethnic Dances. Those born during and after the Civil Rights and the Black Power

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eras, turned to jazz, gospel, rock, funk, hip-hop, and other contemporary forms as illustrated in William Banfield’s Symphony No. 6: “Four Songs for Five American Voices” and Haitian American Daniel Bernard Roumain’s (DBR) Symphony for The Dance Floor. Similar to the interactive relationship between musicians and dancers in African music-making, musicians of African American popular music often create in conjunction with the movements of social dancers. Songwriter-arranger Jesse Stone, African American resident songwriter-arranger at Atlantic Records (1950s through early 1960s), developed an R&B combo style based on the Cuban rumba dance rhythms of black teenagers he witnessed in Louisiana. Stone assigned this rhythm to the bass (sometimes doubled on horns). The resulting African-based musical style became so recognizable in the 1950s that it became known as the “Atlantic Sound” heard in Ruth Brown’s “5-10-15 Hours” (1952). Similarly, the movements of a dancer in a rural Tennessee club inspired the rhythms and lyrics for Rufus Thomas’ R&B hit song “Walking the Dog” (1963). The song’s widespread popularity led to Thomas recording similar dance songs—“Do the Funky Chicken” (1969) and “Do the Funky Penguin” (1971). Marshall Jones, bass player for the Ohio Players, created the bass line for “Skin Tight” (1974) by getting in sync with the flowing hips and other movements of dancers as was the case for Zapp’s “Dance Floor” (1982). This informal collaboration in all genres of black music attests to the centrality of dance to African American music and music throughout the African diaspora. The African communal approach to music-making is heard in the call and response and repetitive chorus structures that prevail in all genres of African American music. Call and response facilitates a musical dialogue between soloists and the choir (gospel); instrumentalists and instrumentalists (different sections in big bands and jazz and R&B combos); singers and instrumentalists (funk bands and

vocal groups); and singers and guitar or harmonica (blues). The call and response structure provides freedom for lead vocalists to personalize their interpretation of songs. As mentioned earlier, the Western notation system proved insufficient in capturing the performance aesthetic of black music. In the preface of Slave Songs of the United States, the compilers wrote: “The odd turns made in the throat, and the curious rhythmic effect produced by single voices chiming in at different irregular intervals, seem almost impossible to place on the score.” As in Africa and unlike standard European musical practice, vocalists personalize their performance by weaving a range of improvisatory devices (melismas, varying vocal timbres to produce “groans,” “slides,” “moans,” “shouts” and “screams”) into the melody; manipulating the pitch and rhythm; and making extensive use of repetition. This improvisatory aesthetic contrasts with that associated with the European vocal aesthetic that values a straightforward melody with limited embellishment. This aesthetic difference is illustrated in the interpretation of the recording “Bridge Over Troubled Water” by Simon & Garfunkel and Aretha Franklin. Imitating the sounds of vocalists, instrumentalists “make their instruments talk” by alternating traditional embouchures and playing techniques associated with European instruments. Instrumentalists also use soundalternating devices such as mutes, bottle necks, Leslie speakers (associated with organs), synthesizers, talk boxes, and autotune to produce vocal effects. Experienced both as collective and individual expression, African American music-making displays a shared set of African-derived cultural values and aesthetic practices that distinguish African American music from that of European cultures.

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Educate Yourself

Origin of the

Israel-Hamas War

By Stephen G. Hall, PhD Published at historianspeaks.org (November 11 & 19, 2023) 76 | BAVUAL WINTER 2024

The current conflict in Israel, the Gaza Strip and the West Bank is part of a long-standing struggle for selfdetermination, autonomy and independence for the Palestinian people. A conflict with origins in the late 19th and early 20th centuries now dominates the headlines in the 21st century. During the 19th century, the area now known as Palestine, which includes modern-day Israel, was inhabited by Arabs (Palestinians). It was controlled by the Ottoman Empire. This remained the case until the early 20th century. The aftermath of World War I led to the reconfiguration of geopolitical boundaries. The collapse of the Ottoman Empire wrought changes for the Palestinian people. The British occupied Palestine. Jewish groups known as Zionists, those who believed that Jews were the rightful inheritors of Palestine, lobbied the British to institute the Balfour Declaration in 1917. The Balfour Declaration declared a homeland for Jews in Palestine and was criticized for its failure to consider the desires of the Palestinians who occupied the land.

In the interwar years ( 1929-1939), thousands of Jews settled in the area known as Palestine. These settlements led to constant conflict between Jews and Arabs. This situation was exacerbated by World War II and the Holocaust, the systematic extermination of European Jewry between 1939 and 1945. Jews emigrated to Palestine in large numbers following World War II. Some of the immigration was facilitated by the Jewish Resistance movement, which played an active role in challenging British policies in the region. Given the fractious nature of the situation, the newly formed United Nations (1945) entered the fray. The UN formed a Special Committee on Palestine. The committee proposed after two years that within

the current borders of Palestine, an Arab and a Jewish state and the city of Jerusalem should be established. The plan provided for the realization of the mandate no later than October 1, 1948.

As the British prepared to evacuate the region, fighting between Arabs and Jews intensified. This situation was further complicated by Israel's Declaration of Independence on May 14, 1948, one day before the British mandate ended. These actions BAVUAL WINTER 2024 | 77

led to the 1948 Arab-Israeli War in which four Arab nations (Jordan, Syria, Egypt and Iraq) attacked Israel. The conflict led to a major forced relocation of Arabs as they fled major population centers such as Haifa and Jaffa. This led to a major refugee problem. More than 800,000 Arabs were displaced. Arabs refer to these events as the Nakba, or disaster.

Perhaps one of the most important developments was the creation of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in 1964. The PLO used armed means to secure the liberation of Palestine. It was anti-Zionist and called for self-determination and the right of return for Palestinians. In its early history, the PLO attacked Israel to achieve its goals. This led to their expulsion to Jordan. Infighting in Jordan led to the PLO's expulsion to Lebanon. From their base in Lebanon, the PLO launched attacks against Israel.

The end of the war led to Israel's expansion beyond the borders of the proposed Jewish state and into the boundaries of the Palestinian state. The West Bank and Gaza Strip were occupied by Egypt and In 1973, the Yom Kippur War occurred. This was a Transjordan (current Jordan). Subsequent conflicts well-planned attack by Egypt and Syria against such as the Six Day War (1967) led to Israel's decisive Israel. Although the Egyptians and Syrians made defeat of Arab forces and acquisition of the West headway to start, Israel slowly gained the upper Bank from Jordan and the Gaza Strip from Egypt. hand. The settlement obtained between Israel and her Arab neighbors paved the way for the Camp 78 | BAVUAL WINTER 2024

David Accords (1979). These agreements settled the 30-year conflict between Egypt and Israel. In 1974, the Ten Point Program was enacted by the PLO, which among other things included the denial of UN Security Council Resolution 242, the denial of the State of Israel, the demand for the return of all Palestinian refugees, and the establishment of an Arab-Palestinian state in Palestine according to the pre-1948 boundaries. The statement was important because it acknowledged the use of other means in addition to force - diplomatic, political, economic, etc. It also suggested the establishment of a Palestinian National Authority.

Although the Camp David Accords improved the relationship betweeen Israel and Egypt, it did little to address the Palestinian question. These unresolved issues led to an uprising among Palestinians in the West Bank and Gaza. This was known as the First Intifada. The Oslo I Accords mediated the conflict by establishing a framework for Palestinian selfgovernance in the West Bank and Gaza Strip and mutual recognition of the PLO and the Israeli government. In 1995, the Oslo II agreement expanded on the first agreement, adding provisions that mandated the complete withdrawal of Israel from six cities and 450 towns in the West Bank.

RABIN, CLINTON AND ARAFAT, 1995

The Second Intifada, or uprising, began in September 2000 after Ariel Sharon, then Israel’s foreign minister, visited the Temple Mount, a holy site for both Jews and Muslims. The intifada lasted until 2005 and involved violent clashes, suicide bombings, and military operations that resulted in thousands of deaths and injuries on both sides.

SADAT, CARTER AND BEGIN AT CAMP DAVID, 1979

SECOND INTIFADA, 2000-2005

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The Camp David summit in July 2000 and the Clinton parameters in December 2000 were efforts by U.S. President Bill Clinton to broker a final peace agreement based on the 1993 Oslo Accords. The talks failed to reach a consensus on the core issues of Jerusalem, refugees, borders and security.

Palestinians and improve Israel’s security and international standing. However, it also created a power vacuum in Gaza that was filled by Hamas, a militant Islamist group that opposes Israel’s existence.

BARAK, CLINTON AND ARAFAT AT CAMP DAVID, 2000

HAMAS MILITANTS

The Mitchell report in May 2001 was produced by a U.S.-led committee that investigated the causes of the violence and recommended steps to end it, such as a ceasefire, confidencebuilding measures, and a return to negotiations. The roadmap for peace in June 2002 was a plan proposed by the Quartet (the United States, the European Union, Russia, and the United Nations) that outlined a phased approach to achieve a two-state solution by 2005. The plan called for an end to violence, political reforms, Israeli withdrawal from Palestinian territories, and final status negotiations.

SHARON, BUSH AND ABBAS, 2003 The Gaza disengagement in August 2005 was a unilateral decision by Israel to withdraw its troops and settlers from the Gaza Strip and four settlements in the northern West Bank. The move was intended to reduce friction with the

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The Hamas takeover of Gaza in June 2007 was a violent coup that ousted the Fatah-led Palestinian Authority (PA) from the coastal enclave. Hamas and Fatah are the two main Palestinian factions that have been in conflict since the 2006 legislative elections, which Hamas won. The split between the two groups has created a political and territorial division between the Gaza Strip and the West Bank, where the PA still maintains limited control. The Israeli wars with Hamas in 2008-2009, 2012, 2014 and 2023 were triggered by rocket attacks from Gaza, border clashes and assassinations. The wars involved Israeli airstrikes, ground incursions, and naval blockades on Gaza, as well as rocket and mortar fire from Hamas and other militant groups on Israeli towns and cities. The wars caused heavy casualties, displacement and damage on both sides, as well as international condemnation and humanitarian crises. The Arab Spring in 2011 was a wave of popular uprisings that swept across the Middle East and North Africa, challenging authoritarian regimes and demanding political and social reforms. The Arab Spring had an impact on the IsraeliPalestinian conflict, as it reshaped regional dynamics, alliances and threats. For example, it led to the overthrow of Egypt’s Hosni Mubarak, a key mediator between Israel and Hamas, and the rise of the Muslim Brotherhood, a supporter of Hamas. It also sparked a civil war in Syria, a close ally of Iran and Hezbollah, two of Israel’s main adversaries.

KEY PLAYERS

The UN recognition of Palestine in 2012 was a diplomatic initiative by the PA to seek international recognition and support for its statehood bid. The PA applied for full UN membership in 2011 but faced a U.S. veto in the Security Council. In 2012, the PA successfully obtained a non-member observer state status in the General Assembly, which gave it access to some UN agencies and treaties. Israel and the United States opposed the move, arguing that it undermined the peace process and violated previous agreements. The Abraham Accords in 2020 were a series of normalization agreements between Israel and four Arab countries: the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Sudan and Morocco. The agreements were brokered by the United States and marked a historic shift in the region, as they ended the decades-long Arab boycott of Israel and established diplomatic, economic and security ties. The agreements also reflected a common concern over Iran’s nuclear and regional ambitions, as well as a desire to diversify the Arab countries’ foreign relations. The Palestinians rejected the agreements, accusing the Arab countries of betraying their cause and undermining their leverage. These are some of the major events and developments that have shaped the Palestinian conflict. The conflict remains unresolved and volatile, as both sides continue to face political, security and humanitarian challenges. The prospects for a lasting peace depend on the willingness and ability of the parties to address the root causes of the conflict and the role of the international community in facilitating and supporting a negotiated solution.

BOMBED-OUT GAZA WAR AND PEACE WILL BE DECIDED BY ISRAELI PRIME MINISTER BENJAMIN NETANYAHU (TOP), HAMAS (SECOND BELOW), HEZBOLLAH (THIRD BELOW) AND PRESIDENT BIDEN (BOTTOM). SECONDARY PLAYERS COULD INCLUDE THE SURROUNDING COUNTRIES OF JORDAN, LEBANON, EGYPT, YEMEN, SYRIA AND IRAN.

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The Hustle

The Rise of

Madam C.J. Walker

Becoming the First Female Self-Made Millionaire* in the U.S. Despite a Humble Beginning hair goods and preparations.”

By Rick Bowers Born in 1867 to former slaves in Louisiana. Orphaned when she was 7 after her parents died of yellow fever.

We can assume that she had a strong work ethic, unbelievable determination, persistence, a mind for business, a commitment to excellence, and grit. Perhaps one of the most important reasons, however, was her ability to recognize a need for a product and produce it.

Raised in a time of enormous prejudice and discrimination against black people and women. When she was in her 30s, she began losing her hair, perhaps Faced with many challenges in life due to the use of the harmful with seemingly no prospects for a hair-care products of the time. better future. Importantly, however, she realized that this was a common That’s how the woman who was problem for black women that born Sarah Breedlove and who needed a solution. After trying would later rebrand herself as various products to solve the Madam C.J. Walker started out. problem, none proved successful. Then, she started Still, she would go on to unexpected experimenting to find the great success with the business she solution herself. founded, The Walker Manufacturing Co., which produced hair-care Once she developed a solution products and cosmetics targeted to that worked in 1905, she began black women. As a result of her making the product in her tub. efforts, she would become the first She sold the product by giving female self-made millionaire in the free demonstrations, selling it to U.S.* neighbors and friends, and then

by traveling and going door-todoor. With some success, she built a factory to produce her own products and hired other black women to sell the products “I am a woman who came from the around the country before later cotton fields of the South,” she said. expanding to selling them in “From there, I was promoted to the other countries. (Yes, before washtub. From there, I was email marketing, social media promoted to the cook kitchen. And ads, lead magnets, inbound from there, I promoted myself into marketing, blogging, funnels and the business of manufacturing

advanced copywriting techniques, that was one of the ways people made sales.) She also used a now tried-and-true way to develop superior products: testing. Although at first, she tested her products on her daughter and herself, today we would use more sophisticated testing methods. Still her testing was important to her success. Not much could have ruined the demand for her products faster than causing her customers to lose their hair—or worse. As one of the great business successes of all times, genders and races, Walker was smart enough to ensure that didn't happen. Potential business founders today would be wise to learn from Walker's business knowledge and practices if they want to achieve success in their chosen field.

But how? How can someone overcome so much and still reach such a high level of success?

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* Some say that Walker wasn’t quite a millionaire, but she was close enough that she’s recognized as such by Guinness World Records.

BAVUAL WINTER 2024 | 83

The rewards of success: Walker in the driver’s seat, a rarity for a woman of the period, regardless of color

Here are a few more important tips based on Walker’s mammoth success: 1. Find a niche and focus on it, becoming the go-to business for that market. When many black women thought of hair-care products, you can bet they thought of Madam C.J. Walker. 2. Know and understand your market, and fill the needs that aren’t being properly served. Walker certainly knew and understood hers. 3. Be willing to invest in yourself, using your own money when necessary. "I got my start by giving myself a start," Walker said. She supported her business by borrowing money and then reinvested her profits in her business. 4. Be willing to take risks. 5. Persist against challenges and setbacks.

6. Adapt as needed. 7. Stubbornly pursue your dream. 8. Know when to grow and get help. While Walker started out selling her products door-todoor herself, she later recruited and trained other black women to sell the products. These women became known as “Walker agents” and opened the door for faster growth. 9. Focus on customer service, and build relationships with your customer base. 10. Seek out advisers, mentors and employees to help guide you. Because of her lack of education, Walker identified others who could help her and also hired people who could strengthen the areas in her business where she was weak. 11. Constantly improve yourself and your products or services. Walker continuously strove to

Villa Lewaro: Walker’s Pride and Joy Villa Lewaro, built by Madam C.J. Walker in 1918, is a 34-room, 20,000square-foot mansion located at Fargo Lane and North Broadway in Irvington, New York. The estate is situated near the residence of the Franklin D. Roosevelt family on the Hudson River. Walker hired Vertner Tandy, the first African American architect in New York, to build the mansion.

Constructed at a cost of $250,000, Villa Lewaro was furnished lavishly. It included a Louis XV-style music room that contained an Estey pipe organ with speaker ducts, among other rare items. The white neighbors, upon discovering the estate belonged to Walker, were shocked, saying it was impossible for black people to own a property so lavish. The name, Villa Lewaro, was coined by the famous Italian tenor Enrico Caruso from the first two letters of each word in her daughter’s name, Lelia Walker Roberts later known as A’Lelia Walker, whom he met while visiting during its construction. Having gone through several public and private ownerships (it is currently a private residence), the estate was finally added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2014. National Trust for Historic Preservation

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improve her grammar, writing and speaking, as well as her products and processes. 12. Promote your business and yourself. In addition to selling her products door-to-door herself, Walker developed a mailorder business and advertised in black newspapers. 13. Believe in yourself and your abilities. 14. Help others. Walker wanted to help other black people succeed, not just herself. She hired thousands of black women to sell her products, providing them a business opportunity at a time when it was rare for women to have more than low-level jobs, especially black women. Just as importantly, she paid these women very well compared to what they would have been making in other jobs. In addition, she provided scholarships, gave to charities, and supported black organizations such as the NAACP. While these tips don't mention any of the high-tech, megamarketing trends and capabilities we see today, the principles of business are still largely the same. By taking advantage of these important tips for success, we too may be able to take our businesses and organizations to a higher level. And one last word from one of the greatest business successes ever: “My advice to everyone expecting to go into business is to hit often and hit hard; in other words, strike with all your might.”

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Jocks

Basketball Jones How and Why Blacks Became Attracted to the Hoops

86 | BAVUAL WINTER 2024

As a team sport, basketball has been transformed by the presence of African Americans. This story has progressed with the cultural, political, and social changes in the United States for more than 100 years. The game was created in 1891, and by 1898, the game was played professionally in Trenton, New Jersey. It was not until 1902 that the first African American played basketball in an organized white league. Harry "Bucky" Lew became the first Black to play in a professional basketball game when he played for Lowell (vs. Marlboro) of the New England Basketball League in 1902. After one season with Lowell, Lew played the next few seasons with Haverhill, where he developed into a defensive player and a set shooter. After the league disbanded in 1906, Lew organized his team and played for another 20 seasons.

Eastern club teams in New York, New Jersey, Washington, D.C., and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, astonished crowds. Two of the most famous African American club teams were the Harlem Renaissance Big Five (known as the Rens) and the Savoy Big Five (now known as the Harlem Globetrotters).

HARLEM RENAISSANCE BIG FIVE

SAVOY BIG FIVE

HARRY “BUCKY” LEW

In the late 1930s, Bill Jones played for Toledo of the National Basketball League, a forerunner to the NBA. Collectively, Blacks entered the ranks of professional players (the NBA) in the 1950s. Since then, it has become one of the world's most popular and exciting games. Black players in the NBA have helped to transform the game into a billion-dollar industry. The game culture has become important as fashion, with logos of American professional teams found on clothing the world over. But with the elegance and power of black athleticism capturing the respect and admiration of the world, for years, it was isolated as segregation split America along racial lines. Some of the earliest all-black club teams were the Smart Set Athletic Club of Brooklyn, New York, the St. Christopher's Club of New Jersey, and the Loendi Club from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, which produced high-scoring, action-packed games.

The Rens dominated for 16 years; between 1923 and 1939, they won more than 1,500 games and lost fewer than 240. In 1937, the National Basketball League (NBL) began. This was a professional basketball league in the United States. Three Great Lakes area corporations created the league, General Electric, Firestone, and Goodyear, comprised of small-market and corporate teams. It eventually merged to become the NBA. After Chuck Cooper joined the Boston Celtics in 1950, becoming the first African American to play in the NBA, blacks took what was once a highly mechanical and rigid game they developed into a forum for self-expression. Bill Russell and Wilt Chamberlain, who stood close to 7 ft tall, elevated the game with their thunderous slam-dunks and graceful lay-ups. In college, Russell led the University of California at San Francisco to two national titles and helped lead the Boston Celtics to nine NBA titles as a professional. Chamberlain played for 14 years in the NBA (19591973) and was an all-star for 13 years. He set a single-game scoring record in 1962 when he scored 100 points against the New York Knickerbockers. BAVUAL WINTER 2024 | 87

Chamberlain amassed more than 31,000 points and 23,000 rebounds during his career, second only to Kareem Abdul-Jabbar.

BILL RUSSELL

While Russell and Chamberlain set new standards for the position of center, players such as Elgin Baylor and Oscar Robertson introduced speed and agility to the NBA. Baylor led the Los Angeles Lakers to the 1968 finals and scored 71 points in a single game. Robertson played on the 1960 goldmedal-winning U.S. Olympic basketball team, became an all-star in the NBA, and had almost 10,000 assists during his career. Still, the most dramatic effect of integration on the game was an increase in players from urban environments. These men played what some call street basketball. The influence of this style was most obvious during the 1970s, with several players from urban backgrounds. Earl "The Pearl" Monroe, Julius "Dr. J" Erving, and Kareem Abdul-Jabbar pushed the game to a faster pace and higher scoring.

EARL “THE PEARL” MONROE

WILT CHAMBERLAIN

Monroe, a classy dribbler, and a great passer, was named rookie of the year after his first season with the Baltimore Bullets. Julius Erving led the New York Nets of the American Basketball Association (ABA) to consecutive titles in 1974 and 1975 before joining the Philadelphia 76ers in the NBA. As Erving was known, Dr. J was one of the most creative players in the league. Abdul-Jabbar, a conscientious and innovative athlete, easily dunked the ball over his opponents and developed a new, virtually unstoppable move known as the Sky-Hook. He helped lead the Los Angeles Lakers to five NBA titles during his 25-year career and set the standard for contemporary centers to this day. Other standouts of this era included Willis Reed, who played with a broken leg during the seventh 88 | BAVUAL WINTER 2024

time. His energy, enthusiasm, and last-minute heroics produced six NBA crowns for Chicago before he retired in 1998.

“DR. J” JULIUS ERVING

Currently, the game is poised to extend geographically, and teams may come from the Far East, Europe, and South America. Familiar names like Damian, Embid, Curry, LeBron, Durrant, Paul, Giannis, and others are “Star” players. The youth movement of Ja Morant, Trae Young, Anthony Edwards, Devin Booker, and others continues a trend of younger and younger players turning professional. The history of American basketball tells a compelling story about athletic competition in a nation struggling to live up to its ideals of freedom and democracy through business.

MAGIC JOHNSON

KAREEM ABDUL-JABBAR

game of the 1970 NBA finals, his teammate Walt Frazier, and Elvin Hayes of the Washington Bullets. They were also products of street basketball. Together they helped to bring new energy, excitement, and confidence to professional basketball. By the late 1980s, basketball stardom belonged to players such as Magic Johnson and Michael Jordan. Johnson left college after his sophomore year to join the Los Angeles Lakers and, during his rookie season, played a pivotal role as the Lakers closed the season as NBA champions. Jordan also left college early to join the Chicago Bulls. Many describe him as the best basketball player of all

LEBRON JAMES RAISES HIS FIST IN THE AIR WHILE KNEELING WITH HIS FELLOW PLAYERS FOR THE NATIONAL ANTHEM AT THE OPENING 2020-21 SEASON GAME

BAVUAL WINTER 2024 | 89

Segregation forced Black basketball players to develop a unique game that is distinctly urban, relentlessly innovative, and always stylistic. Today pro basketball is about the head fake and the swagger, the finger roll, the skyhook, and the stepback three; it's about the jump shot and the crossover dribble. It has seen players use more of the top of the backboard with underarm layups too. It still requires movement without the ball and being a team player. The sport requires more athleticism as men have become stronger. Basketball is also about wearing the latest shoes and having the nicest haircut, Short or Curley Blowout, dreds, beards or braids, Mohawk or Textured High Top. It is about playing the game above the rim and using all the backboards. Also, it is not just whether or not points are scored, but how they are scored and the game is played. Basketball has been transformed by the presence of Blacks and is an indicator of the cultural, political, and social changes in the United States.

MICHAEL JORDAN AKA “AIR JORDAN”

LEBRON JAMES AKA “KING JAMES”

After the 2020 George Floyd murder, the league has tried to not support the oppression from American law enforcement in Black communities. In 2021 Dallas Mavericks owner Mark Cuban said not playing the national anthem at the team's home game was the product of ongoing conversations with community members who felt the tradition "did not fully represent them." In response, the NBA reiterated its long-standing policy that "all teams will play the national anthem." The Covid 19 pandemic and its variants disrupted their season quite a bit, with players and staff testing positive and some refusing to get vaccinated. The 2021-2022-2023 seasons seem to be closer to normal.

From aaregistry.org Published February 19, 2023

THE NEXT GREAT B-BALLER?

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Roll of Honor

DO YOU HAVE A NOMINEE FOR THE ROLL OF HONOR? LET US KNOW: EAB@BAVUAL.COM

Dedicated to the Memory of Earl Birkett, 1922-2014 Queenie Birkett, 1923-2023

Lions in Winter Shirley Chisholm

SHIRLEY ANITA ST. HILL CHISHOLM (1924-2005) Educator and Politician / USA ACHIEVEMENTS First black woman to be elected to the United States Congress; Democrat representing the 12 District in Bedford-Stuyvesant, Brooklyn, New York City. Coined the phrase “Unbought and Unbossed.” First black and first woman to seek a major-party presidential nomination, 1972. New York State Assemblywoman, 1965-1968. Lifelong social justice warrior. BACKGROUND Born in Brooklyn, New York City. Parents were immigrants from the West Indies. Graduated Brooklyn College, 1946; Columbia Teachers College, MA, 1951. Married Conrad O. Chisholm, 1949. Authority on child and day care.

Frank Wills

FRANK WILLS (1948-2005) Security Guard and Patriot / USA

ACHIEVEMENTS Best known for his role in foiling the June 17, 1972, break-in at the Democratic National Committee inside the Watergate complex in Washington, DC. Then 24, Wills called the police after discovering that locks at the complex had been tampered with. Five men were arrested inside the Democratic headquarters, which they had planned to bug. The arrests triggered the Watergate scandal and eventually the resignation of President Richard M. Nixon in 1974. BACKGROUND Born in Savannah, Georgia. Traveled to Washington, DC, and worked at a few hotels before landing a job as a security guard at the Watergate hotel.

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Charlayne Hunter-Gault

CHARLAYNE HUNTER-GAULT (BORN 1942) Journalist / USA

ACHIEVEMENTS Hunter and Hamilton Holmes were the first African American students to attend the University of Georgia. Foreign correspondent for National Public Radio, CNN, and the Public Broadcasting Service. BACKGROUND Born in Due West, South Carolina. Father was a regimental chaplain, U.S. Army. Only black student at an Army school in Alaska, where her father was stationed. Despite meeting the qualifications to transfer to the University of Georgia, she and Holmes were rejected every quarter due to the fact that there was no room for them in the dorms, but transfer students in similar situations were admitted. This led to court case Holmes v. Danner, in which the registrar of the university, Walter Danner, was the defendant. After winning the case, Holmes and Hunter became the first two African American students to enroll in the University of Georgia on January 9, 1961. Hunter graduated in 1963 with a BA in journalism.

Hiram R. Revels

HIRAM RHODES REVELS (1827-1901) Minister and Politician / USA

ACHIEVEMENTS Republican U.S. Senator from Mississippi, 1870-1871, during Reconstruction. Minister at a Methodist Episcopal Church, Natchez, Mississippi, where he founded schools for black children. Served as a chaplain in the United States Army during the Civil War; took part in the Battle of Vicksburg (Mississippi). First president of Alcorn Agricultural and Mechanical College (now Alcorn State University), an HBCU in Claiborne County, Mississippi. BACKGROUND Born free in Fayetteville, North Carolina, to free people of color, with ancestors who had been free since before the American Revolution. Of African American, European and Native American ancestry. Father was a Baptist preacher. Graduated from Knox College, Galesburg, Illinois. Former member, African Methodist Episcopal Church.

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Patrice Lumumba

PATRICE EMERY LUMUMBA (1925-1961) Politician and Independence Leader / Congo ACHIEVEMENTS Served as the first prime minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (then known as the Republic of the Congo) from June until September 1960, following the May 1960 election. After a coup, he was captured and killed by Belgian separatists. Leader of the Congolese National Movement (MNC) from 1958 -1961. Ideologically an African nationalist and pan-Africanist, he played a significant role in the transformation of the Congo from a colony of Belgium into an independent republic. Seen as a martyr for the pan-African movement. BACKGROUND Born in the Belgian Congo. Educated at Catholic and Protestant primary schools and the government post office training school, where he passed the one-year course with distinction. Spoke Tetela, French, Lingala, Swahili and Tshiluba.

Steve Biko

BANTU STEPHEN BIKO (1946-1977) Anti-Apartheid Activist / South Africa

ACHIEVEMENTS At the forefront of a grassroots anti-apartheid campaign known as the Black Consciousness Movement during the late 1960s and 1970s. Developed the view that to avoid white domination, black people had to organize independently. To this end, he became a leading figure in the creation of the South African Students' Organisation (SASO) in 1968. Campaigned for an end to apartheid and the transition of South Africa toward universal suffrage and a socialist economy. Popularized the slogan "Black Is Beautiful." BACKGROUND Born in Tarkastad, Eastern Cape, South Africa. Studied at St. Francis College, a Catholic boarding school in Mariannhill, Natal; the college had a liberal political culture, where he developed his political consciousness. Entered the University of Natal Medical School, 1966. Beaten to death by state security officers.

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Anna Murray Douglass

ANNA MURRAY DOUGLASS (1813-1882) Abolitionist / USA

ACHIEVEMENTS Took an active role in the Boston Female Anti-Slavery Society. Established a headquarters for the Underground Railroad from her home in Rochester, New York, providing food, board and clean linen for fugitive slaves on their way to Canada. First wife of American social reformer and statesman Frederick Douglass, from 1838 to her death. BACKGROUND Born in Denton, Maryland. Unlike her seven older brothers and sisters, who were born in slavery, Anna Murray and her younger four siblings were born free, her parents having been manumitted just a month before her birth. Established herself as a laundress and housekeeper at 17, which led to her meeting Douglass.

Charles Caldwell

CHARLES CALDWELL (c. 1831-1875) Politician / USA

ACHIEVEMENTS A prominent Mississippi Republican during the Reconstruction era who spent his political career advocating for increased racial equality in the state. Elected as one of five black men to the Mississippi Senate, 1869; voted for both the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments as well as additional measures to bring racial and gender equality to the state. Resisted a wave of anti-Republican and anti-black violence that spread through Mississippi as antiReconstruction Democrats were determined to reclaim the state legislature. Shot and killed by an assassin. BACKGROUND Believed to have been born in 1831, although the exact details of his birth and childhood are unknown. Born into slavery and as an adult worked as a blacksmith in Clinton, a small town outside of Jackson, Mississippi. Fired on by the possibly deranged son of a highly respected white judge, Caldwell returned fire, killing the young man. He was tried for murder and acquitted, underscoring the legal rights that Reconstruction granted to freed people.

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Benediction

By R. Wayne Branch, PhD Published in Our Human Family, November 28, 2023

African Americans have chosen to be aspirational in pursuit of freedom from oppression and injustice, as opposed to resorting to terrorism and deconstructionist thinking. Hate Is Personal I’ve lived with hate all my life, as is true for far too many people all over the world. My first breath was taken in color-based segregation. A pigmentocracy, if you will; a country where a person’s rights and freedoms depended upon their skin color. The hospital didn’t allow “colored people” to receive care. It was only because my father was an orderly there that they permitted my birth — in the basement. I was ten when the movie Parent Trap came to Charleston, West Virginia. I begged my mom to take me to see it. Before she agreed, however, she called the theater to find out if they let in “Negroes.” Even at that age, I knew she was embarrassed. That she had to ask if we could go where my white friends went freely has stayed with me for a long time. My first race-based beat-down came when I was sucker punched by a white boy while my white friends did nothing to protect or support me. His racist taunts, and those of his friends, left me on the ground — alone — not knowing who I could count on in fights motivated by racial hatred. Other fights would come, I knew. My attitude, by then, grew defiant. No matter the odds. I have been the recipient of hate mail and racist epithets spewed like punches for most of my life. Whether shouted from cars, spoken with righteous indignation to my face, written in anonymous letters, or confronting me with not-too-subtle hints that I did not belong, hate came from out of nowhere, aimed at more than flesh and bone. But after a vote of no confidence that the head of the faculty union could not deny had racial motivation,

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I finally said, “Enough!” And left the country of my birth, fleeing from racial hatred. Denial Is the Enemy Emmett Till’s mother, Mamie Till-Mobley, is an icon of courage we can emulate when there’s seemingly no model to be had. Her demands for an open casket funeral to show the world her son, beaten beyond recognition, put on display what hate for hate’s sake can do. Her belief, perhaps, was that bearing witness to hate is the only way God’s grace can heal the wounds hate inflicts and comfort those who know not what to do when hate has caused such pain.

Facing hate has been the way forward for African Americans. Though too often, the strength required to do so finds no safe haven. For our enslaved ancestors, finding strength to endure the results of hate had to happen either in secret or in isolation. Worship, learning, reading, and gathering were often illegal and too often punishable by lashings, rape, dismemberment, or death. Our homes have been terrorized; our communities burned; our churches bombed, well into the 1960s. However, as Poet Laureate Maya Angelou wrote, You may write me down in history With your bitter, twisted lies, You may trod me in the very dirt But still, like dust, I’ll rise. “We shall overcome . . . ” might be the anthem for many; standing up against racist rants, derogatory disregard, institutionalized discrimination, biased treatment, and threats in places where safety and security are supposed to be the charge has been, and is, the pathway to overcoming. Let’s be clear though: facing hate has meant taking beatings, subjecting ourselves to abuse, and worse. We have done so, most willingly, because we believe not just in the anthem but in the ideals this democracy and its Declaration of Independence espouse: We hold these truths to be self-evident that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. Success Is the Better Revenge In the book, The Spook Who Sat Beside the Door (Sam Greenlee, 1969), the central character, Dan Freeman, turns his hate into revenge. He applies what he learned about guerrilla warfare, subversion, and spying while becoming the CIA’s first Black officer, to mount a war against those who advantaged themselves by, and continued to benefit from, genocide, colonization, and the enslavement of millions. The novel tapped into many people’s revenge fantasies. A war to end African American suffering at the hands of white people — the same energy, to change oppressed lives not of their making, that gives rise to many terrorists’ attacks these days. Nat Turner’s revolt, in 1831, was the last organized terrorist attack against the chattel enslavement system that was then the law of the land. Instead, African Americans have chosen to be aspirational in pursuit of freedom from oppression and injustice. As opposed to terrorism and deconstructionist thinking, African Americans have, as a collective, largely focused on systems and institutions that further hate and racial injustice.

Instead of revenge and hateful attacks on hatedriven people or their kinships, struggles against racist hate have been, and are, motivated by James Madison’s belief in a more perfect union. A belief also espoused by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr’s philosophical embrace of the Beloved Community: Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. popularized the term during his lifetime of activism and imbued it with new meaning, fueled by his faith that such a community was, in fact, possible. But he always acknowledged that realizing his vision would involve systems of law, education, infrastructure, health care, and municipal reform — no one sector, much less one person, could create it in isolation. (Achieving King’s Beloved Community, Harvard Graduate School of Education, 2019) Being aspirational has meant heeding Dr. King’s calls for practical action. Writing laws, creating systems, and working within institutions have been long, arduous, and costly battles waged for substantive change. Non-violent protests, while working within political organizations and governance structures, have cost lives and meant suffering. Directing attention to injustices and holding the nation accountable to its ideals has caused many stress beyond repair. Yet, this is who African Americans have been for centuries — aspirational! How else could people who overcame centuries-old tribal differences come to embrace a country they (literally!) slaved to create while being told they’d never own? A country, that despite others’ best efforts to bar access, African Americans own in a way many do not want to understand. Own, not just in bloodshed, babies birthed, and land, but more due to a deeply spiritual belief in ideals not yet realized.

About the Author R. Wayne Branch is a social psychologist. global nomad, and former college faculty and president. “Mental health/wellness, education/training, social justice, relationships and DEI inspire my writing.”

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SPRING 2024 FAITH ISSUE

JESUS IS BLACK

AND WHY IT DOESN’T MATTER