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CHAPTER TWO
DESIGNING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
research-before-theory, can be illustrated by a statement from Robert Merton (1968, p. 103): f
It is my central thesis that empirical research goes far beyond the passive role of verifying and testing theory; it does more than confirm or refute hypotheses. Research plays an active role: it performs at least four major functions, which help shape the development of theory. It initiates, it reformulates, it deflects, and it clarifies theory. In other words, research may suggest new problems for theory, require theoretical innovation, refine existing theories, or serve to vary past theoretical assumptions. The approach offered in this book views theory-before-research and research-before-theory as highly compatible. Often, methods texts and courses describe the research enterprise as a linear progression. In this progression, you begin with an idea, gather theoretical information, design a research plan, identify a means for data collection, analyze the data, and report findings. This may be diagramed as follows:
t
1
J
1 Idea -• Theory1 « II*
1 ^
19
• Design -
Data Collection —• Analysis —»*• Findings
j
^
-<*
-*• —•<
To simplify following individual elements of this model as they are discussed, let's redefine the stages slightly, as follows: DataCollect Literature i°n Analysis Idea -*~ _, . —*~ Design —*and —• and -*• Dissemination Review „ . . . „. ,. Organization Findings
As shown here, you begin with some rough idea for a research study. The next stage in this process is to begin thinking and reading about this topical idea. This is accomplished as you begin the literature review.
Idea -> Theory -> Design -> Data Collection -> Analysis -> Findings For the most part, this orientation resembles the theory-before-research model. But it could also be drawn as the research-before-theory model: Idea -> Design -» Data Collection -» Theory ->Analysis -» Findings In either case, you have the feeling that each of these components is a distinct and separate successive stage, that you first derive an idea and then move on to either theory or design and so forth. In essence, it seems that you complete various necessary tasks of each stage and then move forward, leaving the completed state behind. In this chapter, I argue for a different model for the research enterprise, a model that encompasses both the research-before-theory and theory-beforeresearch models. This is possible because the proposed approach is conceived as spiraling rather than linear in its progression. In the proposed approach, you begin with an idea, gather theoretical information, reconsider and refine your idea, begin to examine possible designs, reexamine theoretical assumptions, and refine these theoretical assumptions and perhaps even your original or refined idea. Thus, with every two steps forward, you take a step or two backward before proceeding any further. What results is no longer a linear progression in a single, forward direction. Rather, you are spiraling forward, never actually leaving any stage behind completely. This spiraling approach may be drawn as follows:
LITERATURE REVIEW After developing a rough idea for research, you begin to examine how others have already thought about and researched the topic. Let's say an idea for some research begins with an interest in alcohol use by male college students. You might formulate a rough question for research, such as: What is the relationship between college and drinking among American males? This rough statement already shows elements of refinement. It has been limited to consideration of only American males. The next step is to visit the library to get started on a literature review. To begin, you can consult any of a number of available cumulative indexes. These indexes contain many thousands of journal and monograph references, indexed by both authors' names and subject topics. In some cases, you will find these as bound texts in the reference section of the library. In other cases, these indexes may be computer based and require both some assistance and a small charge to use. In many larger public libraries and in a growing number of colleges and universities, these cumulative indexes have been placed in CD-ROM format. K you have never used one of these indexes or are unfamiliar with the use of computers, you might want to consult the reference librarian at your library. The next task is to begin to think creatively about cryptic subject topics related to your rough research idea or question and to search for these topics in