Living in Liminality SED MArch 2023

LIVING IN LIMINALITY

TRANSITIONS IN LABOR CAMPS OF SHARJAH

Ayushi Gupta

MArch Sustainable Environmental Design 2021-2023

Architectural Association School of Architecture

January 2023

ABSTRACT

Over the decades, transitional spaces, such as sikkas, courtyards, and liwan, have been a staple in Emirati culture. They often function as a microclimate modifier that improve the surrounding environment’s comfort conditions and create a socially active hub along with privacy and solitude. However, with the discovery of oil and technological advancement, contemporary housing in Sharjah has been stripped of these liminalities, relying mainly on mechanical cooling, creating a sharp distinction between the indoors and the outdoors, resulting in heat stress and thermal shock crisis.

This dissertation explores the revival of these transitional spaces through the lens of sustainable environmental design in labor camps in Sharjah. The migrant workers are more sensitive to these heat-related illnesses due to their prolonged exposure to harsh outdoor conditions during work hours. Therefore, it only seemed appropriate to test these vernacular strategies in the context of labor camps.

AUTHORSHIP DECLARATION FORM

AA SED Architectural Association Graduate School

Programme: MArch Sustainable Environment Design 2021-23

Submission: Dissertation

Paper Title: Living in Liminality | Transitions in Labor Camps of Sharjah

Number of Words: 12,345 (excluding footnotes and references)

Student Name: Ayushi Gupta

Declaration: “I certify that the contents of the document are entirely my own work and that any quotations or paraphrase from the published or unpublished work of other is duly acknowledge.”

Signature:

Date: 13th January 2023

CONTENTS

01 INTRODUCTION

Overview 4 Context 5 Research Methodology 6

02

THE INHABITANT

Demographics 10

Schedule 11 Spatiality and Geography 11 Labour Camps 12 Informal Transitional Spaces 16 Proposed Occupant Definition 18

03

CLIMATIC CONTEXT

Climate Data 22 Future Climate Scenario 28 Adaptive Comfort 28 Potential Passive Strategies 31

04 LITERATURE REVIEW

Vernacular Strategies 38 Built Precedents 44

05 THE URBAN CONTEXT

Impact of Urban Context on Built Form 58 Urban Canyons and Solar Heat Gains 60 Urban Form Development 63 Urban Form Analysis 63

06 THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Research Outline 72 Quantification of Jali 72 Daylight Analysis 75 Thermal Comfort Analysis 78

07 DESIGN APPLICATION

The Site 94 Masterplan Development 96 Design Brief 98

The Unit 100

Transitional Spaces 102

Design Performance 104

Living in Liminality 110

08 CONCLUSION

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my tutor, Joana Soares Goncalves, for her exceptional guidance and thoughtful supervision throughout this research.

I also owe an appreciation to the entire program staff at Architectural Association, including Simos Yannas, Paula Cadima, Nick Baker, Jorge Rodriguez Alvarez, Klaus Bode, Gustavo Brunelli, Byron Mardas, Herman Calleja, and Mariam Kapsali for their valuable feedback and input.

Special thanks to my friend Maitreya Dange for his constant support and help.

Lastly, I would be remiss in not mentioning my family for their unconditional support and love. I would not be where I am today without them.

“An architecture must be walked through and traversed. […] Thus, equipped with his own two eyes and looking straight ahead, our man walks about and changes position, applies himself to his pursuits, moving in the midst of a succession of architectural realities. He re-experiences the intense feeling that has come from that sequence of movements. This is so true that architecture can be judged as dead or living by the degree to which the rule of movement has been disregarded or brilliantly exploited.”

- Le Corbusier. Pierre Chase (1999).

INTRODUCTION TRANSITIONAL SPACES

1.1 Overview

Every day we cross several spatial boundaries, moving from one zone to the next, living in liminality. They are anthropological invariants found in every culture and every era. Like the notions of limits and borders, they express one of humanity’s fundamental relations to space (Sensual City Studio 2018).

Liminal spaces, also known as thresholds or transitional spaces, have been a staple part of Emirati culture since their inception in the 1960s. Most of their vernacular architecture consisted of houses of mud or coral built around an open central courtyard, a prototypical transitional space layered with additional series of transitional spaces ranging from narrow alleyways known as sikkas to shaded colonnades known as liwan (Foruzanmehr 2017).  Figure 1.1 illustrates these transition sequences through spatial delimitations and the body of the liminal spaces. They were designed to provide maximum privacy, protection from strangers, and adaptation to climatic conditions, enhancing the comfort levels of the surrounding spaces.

Figure 1.1 Transition sequences through spatial delimitations (A) and the body of threshold spaces (B) (Source: author)

However, since the discovery of oil more than thirty years ago, Sharjah has undergone a profound transformation, trading the modest vernacular homes with contemporary glazed construction, ousting the layers of transitional spaces that thermally segregate the indoors, and the outdoors. Moreover, the ever-growing dependence on mechanical cooling systems and air conditioning is making matters worse, acclimatizing indoor comfort

temperature well below 19°C, with the outdoor air temperature ranging between 40°C -50°C. This sudden change between the inside and the outside temperatures harms the body as it experiences heat stress when forced to go abruptly from a scorching environment into an air-conditioned one and vice versa. It can cause severe respiratory infections, breathing difficulties, and muscular spasms, among other conditions (Kannan 2012).

This thermal shock crisis poses a challenge for sustainable environmental practices to enhance occupants’ comfort, health, and well-being. Rather than experiencing a sudden temperature change, one should slowly adapt to this shift. This opens up the potential of how vernacular transitional spaces or a series of transitional spaces can be revived to help achieve this gradual change in indoor and outdoor temperatures while improving the comfort levels of the surrounding indoor areas.

1.2 Context

Sharjah is one of the most populous emirates and the cultural capital of the United Arab Emirates. Located at approximately 25.35oN and 55.42oE, it can be classified as a Hot Desert Climate (Köppen BWh) with extensively hot and humid summers and relatively warm winters.

In the last two decades, Sharjah has witnessed rapid financial and urban growth with an upsurge in construction activities. However, the small local Emirati population could not satisfy the labor demand for these economic activities and projects. Therefore, Sharjah began to host migrant construction worker populations as the demand for labor increased. As a result, these migrant populations grew significantly in the past decade and proved to be the most effective and efficient source of labor (Ali 2010).

Although ironically, the living condition of these migrant workers who built these sky-soaring structures in the first place is a bleak story of ignorance at its best and labor abuse at its worst. The labor camps are characteristically unsanitary and substandard, posing severe health hazards to the workers. Figures 1.2 illustrates and lists the issues of construction workers in labor camps. They are stripped of liminality, with a sharp distinction between the indoors and the outdoors. Moreover, the mandatory air conditioning at these camps, generally with a setpoint of 19°C, constructs a vast difference in the scorching outdoor and indoor temperatures, resulting in severe heat-related

Figure 1.2 Labor camps in Sharjah showcasing the issues and problems of migrant workers (Source: Google)

No Liminal Spaces | Thermal Shock

Underutilized Social Spaces

Inadequate Daylight and Natural Ventilation

illness among these workers. It is one of the most pressing issues concerning these workers since they have been reported to be more sensitive to sudden temperature variations due to high levels of heat exposure during working hours. More than 5,000 construction workers are brought in every month in summer into the emergency room for thermal-shock-related incidents in the UAE (Ali 2010). Mitigating this heat-stress crisis is, therefore, imperative. Passive cooling techniques and a series of transitional spaces can help achieve the required gradual change in indoor and outdoor temperatures to prevent any thermal shock incidences while reducing the dependency on air-conditioning.

This dissertation proposal, therefore, explores the revival of traditional, transitional spaces through the lens of sustainable environmental design in labor camps in Sharjah to enhance these workers’ comfort, health, and well-being.

1.3 Research Methodology

The dissertation is structured into three main scopes of research and intervention: the Inhabitant, the Urban Context, and the Built Form. These research scopes resemble a holistic solution varying from macro to micro scale due to the situation’s complexity.

The Inhabitant

The primary objective of this chapter (chapter 2) is to understand the inhabitants, construction workers, and their living conditions in labor camps in Sharjah, UAE. This includes a literature review of the various aspects of a worker’s life, ranging from demographics and schedules to programmatic and density requirements. This section establishes the proposed occupant definition and key design implications for the purposes of this dissertation.

The Urban Context

This chapter (chapter 5) explores the impact of the outdoors on the built environment. First, it identifies the main external climatic factors influencing indoor comfort: solar radiation, and conductive heat transfer through the building’s envelope, and then sets the urban strategies that can modify the microclimate and quantify their environmental benefits—further, an essential plan.

The Built Form

This chapter (chapter 6) explores transitional spaces such as the courtyard and Liwan (loggia) as a potential passive strategy to be adopted on the scale of the built environment. Also, the chapter explores possible architectural iterations that have been taken forward as guidelines in the design phase.

Every evening, the hundreds of thousands of young men who build Sharjah are bussed from their sites to a vast concrete wasteland an hour out of town, where they are quarantined away. Sonapur is a rubble-strewn patchwork of miles and miles of identical concrete buildings. Some 300,000 men live piled up here, in a place whose name in Hindi means “City of Gold”. There, workers have to share a tiny room between 6/8 people, their few belongings are hanged on the wall as there are no closets, they brush their teeth in the shower as there are no wash basin, the food as well is washed in the shower, water is not properly desalinated so workers get easily sick.

-Matilde Gattoni, a photojournalist who has spent a year documenting the living and working conditions of migrant construction workers in the UAE (2012).

02 THE INHABITANT

MIGRANT WORKERS OF SHARJAH

Understanding the lifestyle and environmental requirements of the inhabitant is vital to creating a pragmatic design. This chapter analyses the demographic trends of migrant construction workers and their living conditions in Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.

2.1 Demographics

A few decades ago, the Arabian Gulf was a vast desert, with regional trade at the city’s center and easy access to trading ports. However, for these economic activities and trade, migrant workers were needed to compensate for the sparse local population. And therefore, as the demand for labor increased, migrant populations grew significantly in Sharjah, proving to be the most effective and efficient source of laborers.

Figure 2.1 Demographic trends for labor workers in the UAE (Source: UAEMOE 2020)

Figure 2.1 shows the demographics of migrant workers in Sharjah. As noted, the Building and Construction sector is the most popular among workers, which can be attributed to higher wages across the industry. The sector had a total wage share of 11.8% in 2010 compared to 1.8% in the Community and Personal Services industry and 3.5% in the Hotel and Restaurant Industry. However, this figure has since dropped, with the construction industry representing about 10.7% of total wages in 2020. The total number employed in this sector is close to about 1.6 million compared to 0.2 million in the Community and Personal Services Industry and 0.59 million in the Hotel and Restaurant Industry (United Arab Emirates Ministry of Economy 2020).

In terms of diversity in Nationality, the migrant labor force consists of a vast

Figure 2.2 Daily schedule of day shift and night shift construction worker in Sharjah

number of South Asians. 27.5% of migrant laborers are from India, 12.7% from Pakistan, and 7.4% from Bangladesh. There are also migrant workers from other Arab countries and smaller minority groups from Western Europe and Africa (United Arab Emirates Ministry of Economy 2020).

There are notable features present in the age and sex distribution of the migrant labor population as well. For example, workers aged 15-24 have somewhat balanced sex ratios, with about 0.40 million female workers to 0.81 million male workers. In contrast, workers in the 24-54 age group have heavily skewed sex ratios, with about 4.83 million male workers to 1.47 million female workers. The construction industry draws most of its workers from this pool (United Arab Emirates Ministry of Economy 2020) and, therefore, would be the focus of this project.

2.2 Schedule

Construction workers in Sharjah generally work six days or even six and a half days a week. Based on their shift timings, they are usually grouped in eights or tens to share a room in the labor accommodations. Half of them work a morning shift at the site from 6 am to 6 pm and half the night shift from 6 am to 6 pm.

The day-shift workers rise before dawn to start work at 6 am and stop at 5:45 pm. They then make a 30-minute bus journey home, wait in a queue to shower, eat, and go to bed around 9 pm. The night-shift workers follow a similar schedule for the following 12 hours. On Fridays, they usually work half a day and spend the afternoon visiting the mosque for Jummah, “washing clothes, watching DVDs of Bollywood movies, calling home, playing cricket and shopping at a nearby supermarket catering to Asian workers” (Ali 2010). Figure 2.2 illustrates the daily schedule of the day-shift and night-shift workers.

2.3 Spatiality and Geography

As Sharjah evolved to a more cosmopolitan region in the early 2000s, the demographic imbalance became polarized at the expense of migrant workers. This divide was not only physical but also social and institutional. The migrant workers were dismissed from the city to live on their peripheries in industrial areas, and the government also tacitly supported this marginalization of migrant workers through legal codes. For instance, since 2006, government agencies in Sharjah prohibited migrant workers from living in family-designated areas. Instead, they were forced to live in industrial areas, surrounded and bound by districts and buildings dedicated to storage, logistics, and manufacturing (Ali 2010, 93). The map below of the significant labor camps in Dubai illustrates their side-lined position in the city.

Figure 2.3 Location of labor camps in the UAE (Source: Hamza 2015)

Although this geographical separation is more evident than social segregation, in interviews conducted by Bristol-Rhys (2012,77), it was found that most migrant workers perceive physical separation as a method of institutionalizing social exclusion. There are unspoken barriers to where these workers can and cannot go. For example, when Bristol-Rhys asked a worker to walk down to Corniche park, he responded, “no, no, that is too far, and it is also too difficult! The police watch you very closely down there; they do not want all of the men from the camps crowding the area” (Bristol-Rhys 2012, 77). These migrant workers do not understand the concept of public and feel uncomfortable going to these parks and other public spaces. They believe, “we are not people of the city; we live in the labor camp and are not public” (Bristol-Rhys 2012, 77).

2.4 Labour Camps

In stark contrast to the posh monoliths of human engineering and luxury in the UAE, the living condition of the migrant workers who built those sky-soaring structures in the first place is a bleak story of ignorance at its best and labor abuse at its worst. The main problems and issues these workers face while living in the labor camps are explained in the following section.

Density

Workers are forced, either economically or otherwise, to live in labor camps that are characteristically unsanitary, compact, and substandard. For instance, in Free Trade Zone and Al Sajaa, Sharjah’s two largest labor camps, the typical dwelling is a small room of 10 square meters, which sleeps as many as eight workers (Figure 2.5) (Moussalem and Abdelsalam 2018). This amounts to a meager 1.25 square meters per person. A series of formal and informal labor camps have been identified in Figure 2.5. The matrix analyzes and compares the current labor camp densities and programs to the Sharjah legislation laws and proposes a new and more reasonable density for the project.

Thermal Shock

Besides these unsanitary living conditions, migrant workers are also more prone to potential health problems, such as thermal shock. Due to high levels

Figure 2.4

Snippets from the day of construction workers in Sharjah (Source: Google)

Figure 2.5 Existing and proposed labor accomodation densities in Sharjah (Source: author; Moussalem and Abdelsalam 2018)

of heat exposure during working hours, they are more sensitive to temperature variations (Ali 2010). Regulations pertaining to labor accommodation by the UAE government require all labor camps to be air-conditioned, generally with a setpoint of 19oC. This law is in place to largely overcompensate for the ongoing heat-related incidents among workers in the UAE (Human Rights Watch 2018, 41). However, this ever-growing dependence on air conditioning is making matters worse for workers, with indoor comfort temperatures well below 20°C and outdoor air temperatures ranging between 40°C -50°C. This sudden change in temperatures, when forced to go abruptly from a scorching environment into an air-conditioned one and vice versa, harms the body as it experiences thermal shock. It can cause severe respiratory infections, breathing difficulties, and muscular spasms, among other conditions. Most labor camps are basic stacked units with no transitional spaces, as evident in the images in Figure 2.5

Mitigating this heat-stress crisis is imperative to enhance these workers’ comfort, health, and well-being. Rather than experiencing sudden temperature change, one should slowly adapt to this shift. This could be achieved through a series of transitional spaces common in the region’s vernacular architecture. They are discussed in further detail in Chapter 4.

Daylighting and Ventilation

The camps suffer from poor daylighting and ventilation because of small openings and windows that are usually blackened for privacy and security purposes. In addition, the small windows are generally fixed and not operable. Also, the constant air conditioning makes it impractical to open the windows throughout the day. As a result, the workers are forced to live in artificial environments, which reduces their health and productivity. Furthermore, with increased density and no natural ventilation, the rooms become so congested that indoor air quality deteriorates.

Lack of Social Spaces

Most labor camps lack dedicated amenities and social spaces. For instance, washing occurs in a yard next to the camp toilets. The camp blocks’ corridors and the in-between area are used to dry clothes, cook, or as gathering spaces. It is important to note that most workers are away from their families, so the community is vital to them. Therefore, social spaces become an essential programmatic requirement for the labor camps. There is a need to address these issues and use passive design and environmental strategies to improve the comfort and well-being of the migrant workers in these camps through the proposed design.

2.5 Informal Transitional Spaces

The industrial areas, where most of the labor camps are located, were initially planned as single-use zones for manufacturing and production. Due to this top-down approach, lacking shared communal and public spaces, the migrant workers have come to rely on informal urban adaptation that punctuates the inbetween spaces between built forms. For example, “ad-hoc volleyball courts and cricket pitches are constructed in empty lots, and second-hand upholstered furniture is gathered into make-shift outdoor living rooms in alleyways” (Ali 2010). Figure 2.6 shows the various forms of informal occupation of spaces between buildings and in empty lots for leisure activities by migrant workers residing in the labor camps in the industrial areas (Moussalem and Abdelsalam 2018). They lend a vibrant character to the otherwise bland neighborhood and ingrain liveability into the spaces.

Figure 2.6 Informal occupation of spaces between buildings and in empty lots for leisure activities by migrant workers residing in the industrial areas in Sharjah (Source: Moussalem and Abdelsalam 2018)

These informal transitional spaces that punctuate the in-betweens of industrial buildings can become a more meaningful network of areas for the migrant workers in the proposed design.

2.6 Proposed Occupant Definition

Based on the literature review and analysis, the following can be concluded:

• A considerable portion of the migrant worker population is males aged 25-54 years and employed in the building and construction industry. Therefore, this will be the target user for the proposed design.

• These workers sharing accommodation are grouped based on their staggered shift timings. This means that rooms will always be occupied throughout the day and would be a key consideration in designing the adaptability of the spaces for day and night occupation. In the morning, from 6 am to 6 pm by the night-shift worker and in the evening, from 6 pm to 6 am, by day-shift workers.

• The current densities in labor camps can vary from dense to sparse from camp to camp. The project proposes a medium-density camp with a reasonable area per person (Figure 2.5).

• Thermal shock, lack of natural ventilation, and daylight need to be addressed through passive design and environmental strategies to improve the comfort and well-being of the migrant workers in these camps.

• Due to social exclusion at the state level and lack of community spaces at the urban and built level, diverse and meaningful social spaces are programmatic essentials. These could be introduced in the project through various transitional spaces that could also resolve the issues mentioned in the point above.

• For the purposes of developing an effective design, three theoretical occupants are defined to represent migrant workers in labor camps. Figure 2.7 breaks down each theoretical occupant’s occupancy schedule and room layout requirements. This breakdown will later guide and inform the design decisions in chapter 7.

Figure 2.7 Breakdown of theoretical occupants, layouts and their occupancy schedules

“In practice ‘comfort’ has been operationally defined as the ‘absence of discomfort’. In other words, the engineering view of ideal comfort implies an absence of sensation, where a perfect thermal environment might be one that is never noticed at all. But this doesn’t leave much room for anything in between ‘neutrality’ and ‘misery’.”

- Brager and de Dear (2003).

CLIMATIC CONTEXT

SHARJAH, UAE

Sharjah is one of the most populous emirates and a cultural capital of the United Arab Emirates. Located at approximately 25.35°N and 55.42°E (Figure 3.1), it can be classified as a Hot Desert Climate (Köppen BWh). However, sharing a coastal stretch of the Persian Gulf on the north and the Gulf of Oman on the east, it can experience an above-nominal humidity level at specific periods of the year.

Figure 3.2 shows the climatic data of Sharjah obtained from the CBE Clima Tool, representing a 60-year average of the data files from 1956 to 2021. Based on the monthly variations of the dry bulb temperature of Sharjah, the annual cycle can be divided into three distinct periods – a four-month period of mild weather (December to March), a warm period (November and April), and a hot period (May to October) (Yannas 2008).

Figure 3.1 Location of Sharjah, UAE

3.1 Climate Data

Dry Bulb Temperature

Figure 3.2 illustrates monthly mean, minimum, and maximum dry-bulb temperatures, and wet-bulb temperatures for Sharjah. The annual cycle can be divided into three discrete periods, as mentioned before:

Hot Period | A period covering the months from May to October that can be very hot, with monthly mean dry-bulb temperatures above 30°C, reaching daily mean maximums of around 36°C in May and October and around 41°C in June, July, August, and September. These temperatures often exceed the upper

Figure 3.2 Summary and Graphical Representation of the Monthly Averages of Sharjah with Three Distinct Periods (Source: CBE Clima Tool 2021)

limit of thermal comfort (based on ASHRAE Standard 55-2017), indicating that there is a risk of overheating indoors and that natural daytime ventilation alone may not always be an adequate cooling strategy since outdoor temperatures can exceed acceptable comfort levels.

Warm Period | Two warm months (in comparison to the previous period), which are April and November, with monthly mean dry-bulb temperatures of 25-27°C. This period lends itself well to passive techniques, and outdoor spaces can be pleasantly comfortable if well-shaded and exposed to the breeze coming from the Gulf.

Mild Period | A mild-cool period of 4 months from December to March with monthly mean dry-bulb temperatures well within 18-23°C. This is the most comfortable period when no additional conditioning or tempering of the microclimate is required.

Occurrence Pattern

Figure 3.3 illustrates how many days per month in Sharjah reach certain maximum dry-bulb temperatures. For instance, from May to September, most days have maximum dry-bulb temperatures above 40°C, and especially July, it has almost all days where the maximum temperature exceeds 40°C.

Figure 3.3 Displaying how many Days in a Month in Sharjah reach Certain Temperatures (Source: CBE Clima Tool 2021)

Diurnal Temperature Swings

Figure 3.4 illustrates the difference between the monthly mean minimum and maximum dry-bulb temperature in Sharjah. It can be noted that nighttime temperatures are relatively low in comparison to daytime temperatures, with a large daily swing of 10-12K. As discussed in the previous chapters, it is essential to know these differences to make informed choices about the passive strategies that can be implemented during different occupant hours (day 6AM-6PM and night 6PM-6AM).

Figure 3.4 Diurnal Temperature Swings for Sharjah (Source: CBE Clima Tool 2021)

During the hot period (June-August), the high daily temperatures leave the nights reasonably warm. However, during the warm and mild period (October to April), the diurnal swing involves night-time ambient temperatures, varying from 14°C to 20°C, that are low enough for nocturnal convective cooling of

Figure 3.5 Wet Bulb Depression for Mild, Warm and Hot Period for Sharjah (Source: CBE Clima Tool 2021)

building structures. In addition, outdoor spaces such as roofs and courtyards could be used during those hours for resting and other activities.

Humidity

Since Sharjah is located between the coast of the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, the humidity levels are high during specific periods. The average relative humidity of 38-65% conceals reasonably high levels of absolute humidity in the hot period that rises to 14-17 g/kg from June to September (Figure 3.2). However, with the exception of these four months when the wetbulb temperature is too high, the temperature difference between the drybulb and wet-bulb (wet-bulb depression) reaches regular peaks of 10-15K during the daytime, suggesting potential for the use of evaporative cooling as a passive cooling strategy (Figure 3.5)

Table 3.1 Specific Humidity and Vapor Pressure for Sharjah (Source: Balakrishnan 2012)

From a physiological view, the potential for evaporative cooling can also be determined by the vapor pressure difference between the skin surface and ambient air during the three periods; the rate of evaporation from the body is directly proportional to the vapor pressure difference. Under comfortable conditions, when the skin temperature is 33°C, the vapor pressure of the skin is 37mmHg (Givoni 1976).

Comparing the actual vapor pressure in Table 3.1 to the skin vapor pressure at 33°C, evaporative cooling has a high potential during the warm and mild period (November to April) and a medium potential during May and Oct. However, it has a bleak potential from June to September as the vapor pressure of the saturated air exceeds that of skin in comfortable conditions (37mmHg (Balakrishnan 2012, 23).

Solar Radiation

Solar radiation (both direct and diffused) that strikes an unobstructed horizontal surface is high throughout the year in Sharjah (Figure 3.2), varying in the range of 3.5 to 7.2 kWh/m2. Simultaneously, the annual diffused solar radiation on an unobstructed horizontal surface composes around 41% of this global radiation, which is also high. Heat gains caused by solar radiation from the envelope have the highest impact on indoor temperatures, as discussed in Section 5.1. Therefore, it is essential to control and minimize the impact of solar radiation through form and other microclimatic designs to create the most suitable indoor setting.

Figure 3.6 Monthly Global Radiation Values on the Vertical Planes, Sharjah (Source: CBE Clima Tool 2021)

Figure 3.6 illustrates the total average monthly global horizontal solar radiation on unobstructed vertical planes in different orientations in Sharjah. While the east and west orientations receive almost twice the amount of solar radiation than the south orientation during the hot period (May to August), vertical planes facing North receive almost the same amount of global solar radiation as the south orientation in this period. This is because a north-facing plane receives direct solar radiation in the early hours of the morning and the late hours of the afternoon during this period. However, during the mild and warm periods, the south-facing planes receive the maximum radiation due to the sun’s altitude.

Figure 3.7 Cartesian Sun Chart for Sharjah overlaid with Global Horizontal Radiation (Source: CBE Clima Tool 2021)

Figure 3.8 Global and Diffuse Horizontal Illuminance for Sharjah (Source: CBE Clima Tool 2021)

The annual average of sunshine hours per day in Sharjah is approximately 9 hours during the mild and warm periods. However, in hot periods it can rise to 11 hours per day. The high solar intensity is due to the sky’s clearness and the high sun’s high altitude, which is almost perpendicular during the hot period (Figure 3.7).

Sky Illuminance

The sky luminance in Sharjah is high throughout the year, with the global luminance value ranging from 15 to 70 Klux in the mild period and 50 to 100 Klux in the hot period (Figure 3.8). About half of it results from diffuse illuminance from the sky vault. Therefore, according to Yannas (2008), under these circumstances, 1 to 2% of outdoor illuminance is more than enough to meet the daylight requirements for any indoor activities. Given the design brief and occupant definition, since the bedrooms will be used during the day by the occupants to rest and sleep, it is paramount to control the high luminance levels during the daytime.

Figure 3.9 Wind Rose for Mild, Warm and Hot Period for Sharjah (Source: CBE Clima Tool 2021)

Additionally, sky cover conditions in Sharjah vary slightly from one period to another. Although light clouds can appear during the mild period, the sky is mostly clear throughout the year. This can help to define the effectual glazing ratio and floor plan depth for the proposed typology.

Prevailing Winds

Figure 3.9 shows the frequency, wind direction, and wind speed for Sharjah. It indicates an average wind speed of 3.3 to 4.5m/s throughout the year, with the strongest winds coming from the North-West, in the direction of the Gulf, for most of the months. However, from July to September (the hot period), the predominant wind direction is recorded as North. These high wind velocities can relieve outdoor spaces and streets during the hot period and should be considered while determining the placement of openings to maximize natural ventilation.

3.2 Future Climate Scenario

Table 3.2 summarizes the climate data from Sharjah and other parts of the UAE under the A2 (most extreme) climate change scenario for 2050 and 2100. In this scenario, the annual mean average temperature will rise by 2.27°C (from 26.9°C to 29.2°C) by 2050 and 3.8°C (from 26.9°C to 30.7°C) by 2100.

Table 3.2 UAE Temperature Projections (Source: MOCCAE 2021)

During the hot period from June to September, the mean average daily temperature will reach 37.5°C with mean daily maximum temperatures of nearly 50°C. This ultimately translates to a far greater risk of a hotter, drier, and less predictable climate (Ministry of Climate Change and Environment 2021). Figure 3.10 further summarizes critical findings on other climate variables most relevant to the region. It is increasingly important to consider passive cooling strategies in the context of future climate change in Sharjah, UAE.

Figure 3.10 Summary of Modelled Projections for different climate properties in UAE (Source: MOCCAE 2021)

3.3 Adaptive Comfort

Indoor Thermal Comfort

Replicating the analysis of de Dear and Brager (1998) in the recent ASHRAE Global Thermal Comfort Database II illustrated that the relationship between

Table 3.3 Sharjah’s Indoor Comfort Band (Source: ASHRAE-55 2017)

comfort temperatures and outdoor conditions for naturally ventilated buildings is very similar to what was reported over twenty years ago on a smaller database (Parkinson, de Dear and Brager 2020). ASHRAE Standard 55-2017 Section 5.4 presents this adaptive comfort model and can be used to extrapolate the indoor comfort limits for occupant-controlled and naturally ventilated buildings in Sharjah.

Tn =17.8 + 0.31 Tm

Tn = Thermal neutrality (-2.5 to +2.5 for 90% acceptability)

Tm= Mean temperature of the hottest and coldest month

Table 3.3 presents monthly mean outdoor dry-bulb temperatures and the extrapolated indoor comfort temperatures for Sharjah.

This equation, however, is limited to a range of indoor operative temperatures

Figure 3.11 Distribution of Discomfort Hours ins Sharjah according to 5SOAM (yellow shade) and ASHRAE-55 (dashed line) (Source: Rivas et al. 2022)

between 21-28°C, corresponding to outdoor dry bulb temperatures between 10-33°C (de Dear and Brager 2001). In the case of Sharjah, when the outdoor air temperatures exceed 33°C in the hot period, several studies suggest that these higher temperatures in this region can be tolerated with additional air movement up to 1.2 m/s (with local control), extending the upper limit of the indoor adaptive comfort band to 33°C (ASHRAE Standard 55-2017). The additional air movement increases the evaporative capacity of the air and hence the cooling impact on the skin; an air speed of 0.5-1.2m/s can increase the comfort temperatures by 2-3°C (Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers [1997] 2005). However, beyond 1.2 m/s, the air movement may have a negative heating effect on the skin at higher indoor temperatures (Givoni 1994).

Another study by Nicol and Roaf (2017) proposes that the adaptive thermal comfort in naturally ventilated buildings with adaptive opportunities in warm

climates can be extended to 35°C; it is derived through numerous fieldworks at several naturally ventilated buildings across the globe. It suggests that the population in these locations is acclimatized, and they tend to adapt their behavior to increase their tolerance to hot conditions. Furthermore, preserving these higher indoor temperatures in Sharjah can actually benefit occupants by decreasing their feeling of “thermal shock,” as suggested by Yannas (2008). However, this can only be achieved by increasing the indoor temperatures (contrary to 19°C conditioned spaces), thereby reducing the temperature difference between indoor and outdoor environments.

Apart from this sharp boundary of comfort bands segregating comfort and discomfort, it is also essential to know the frequency and intensity of the discomfort occurrence to understand better the limits and severity of high temperatures in the region. 5SOAM method could be used to understand these recurrences of higher temperatures in Sharjah and differentiate between light and severe hours of discomfort (Rivas, Rodríguez-Álvarez, and García-Chávez 2022).

Further details about 5SOAM have been discussed in Appendix Section 4.2. Figure 3.11 illustrates the distribution of overheating hours in Sharjah, comparing the proposed comfort limit of 35°C and 5SOAM method (yellow shade) to the ASHRAE Standard 55-2017 (dashed line).

Outdoor Thermal Comfort

Thermal comfort in outdoor spaces is affected by physiological, behavioral, and environmental factors such as air temperature, movement, humidity, and solar radiation. In the context of Sharjah, the high air temperatures, and harsh solar radiation during the warm and hot periods of the year are the primary issues when looking at thermal stress in outdoor spaces. However, in the mild period, the solar radiation is rather pleasant, making the relatively cool

Figure 3.12 Psychometric Chart for Outdoor Comfort (Source: after Arens et al. 1986)

temperatures comfortable and enjoyable.

The psychometric chart illustrated in Figure 3.12 describes the extended limits of outdoor comfort during the hot period in Sharjah when the radiation levels and air velocity are considerably higher than indoor averages. Therefore, protecting outdoor spaces from direct solar radiation through shading and channeling cool breezes can be the primary strategies to adjust outdoor comfort. This chart is based on the paper “Thermal Comfort under an Extended Range of Environmental Conditions” by Arens, Gonzalez, and Berglund (1986) and is plotted for a clo value of 0.4 (summer clothing) and 1.3 MET (sedentary activity like slow walking). It is further overlaid with hourly values of dry-bulb temperature and relative humidity as points in three different colors based on the previously described periods of Sharjah (mild, warm, and hot) while assuming that air temperature equals the mean radiant temperature.

It is evident from Figure 3.12 that shading is essential to reduce thermal stress caused by direct solar radiation above 25°C. However, strategies beyond shading are required at higher temperatures. Additional air movement can help in the evaporation of moisture from the skin and provide a cooling effect, subsequently making the higher temperatures tolerable (Auliciems and Szokolay [1997] 2007). Wind speeds up to 2m/s can effectively alleviate thermal stress in outdoor spaces at temperatures up to 40°C, as corroborated by Thapar’s fieldwork in Dubai in 2008.

3.4 Potential Passive Strategies

A deep understanding of the climate of Sharjah and the three distinct periods allowed for a more profound study of the potential climatic adaptation of architectural and adaptive environmental strategies to be employed. In a hot climate like that of Sharjah, key strategies involve controlling heat gain by providing an appropriate building shell and avoiding penetration of solar radiation while also allowing reasonable daylighting levels and views. Furthermore, increased air movement via natural ventilation is vital for enhancing comfort during the day and cooling the interior thermal mass overnight.

This section briefly segregates the architectural and adaptive passive cooling strategies and evaluates their suitability and applicability throughout the year (Figure 3.13 and 3.14). While the architectural approach, such as form and thermal mass, is more robust and enduring, the adaptive approach recognizes that people are not passive about their thermal environment, acclimate themselves to the prevailing climatic conditions, and are willing to control it to secure comfort.

Architectural Strategies

3.14 Applicability of Architectural Strategies

Figure

Form

As solar radiation is the primary source of external heat gains in Sharjah, the geometry and material properties of the urban and built form are crucial to modify the solar radiation balance within the fabric. For example, the traditional compact courtyard form with narrow urban streets (sikkas) has the potential to provide a larger microclimatic footprint in comparison to other morphologies

in the region. Even the study by Thapar and Yannas (2008) suggested that the courtyard blocks, when compared to high-rise towers and mid-rise blocks, were the coolest, with the open courtyard itself as the coolest spot in hot climates like that of Sharjah. Furthermore, the courtyards, the sikkas, along with shaded colonnades, known as liwan, function as transitional spaces that can help achieve a gradual change between outdoor and indoor temperatures, mitigating the significant thermal shock that occupants experience while moving into and out of the buildings in Sharjah.

Chapters 4, 5, and 6 discuss in-depth the history, environmental performance, and design application of the compact courtyard form and other transitional spaces, including Liwan and Sikka, respectively.

Thermal Mass

Thermal mass is a suitable strategy for hot climates with a large diurnal temperature range like that of Sharjah. It can regulate the temperature of the space by controlling and delaying the heat transfer within the building during the day, while during the night-time, when the external air temperatures are relatively lower, the building interior can be cooled by night flushing. Furthermore, the utilization of thermal inertia through the insulation on the external surface of the wall can keep the internal spaces comfortable without (or with minimal) mechanical cooling systems during the hot periods in Sharjah. Traditional materials like sun-dried mud bricks and rammed earth, along with modest insulation levels, can provide the required thermal mass and time lag in Sharjah with their density and high specific heat capacity (Gourlis and Holzer 2022).

It is also essential to consider the color and texture of materials as dark, matte, and textured surfaces absorb and re-radiate more energy than light, smooth, reflective surfaces (Gourlis and Holzer 2022).

Adaptive Strategies

Comfort Ventilation and De-coupling

Comfort ventilation is one of the most common passive design solutions and is used to move fresh outdoor air through the interior spaces in order to remove heat and enhance human comfort. This strategy results in direct physiological cooling for the inhabitant. However, it is only applicable when the outdoor air temperature can provide the desired indoor temperature and is strictly according to the inhabitant’s preference. Givoni (1994) claims that the strategy can still apply when the air outside is warm, around 30°C but not when the outdoor average maximum temperature exceeds 32°C.

Therefore, comfort ventilation and the cool¬ing effects of elevated air speed could be applied during the warm (mornings and evenings) and the mild period from November to April, representing the period when the outdoor average maximum temperature does not exceed 32°C. Beyond this temperature, during the hot period, the indoors need to be de-coupled from the outdoors and selectively ventilated through mechanical fans for cooling. During the warm period, de-coupling is primarily required only during the afternoon (the warmest time of the day), while at other times, the coupling for increased ventilation is encouraged.

Night Cooling

This strategy can be a sensible approach to cool down any effective building structure with high thermal mass. Night flushing is deployed to get rid of the

Figure 3.14

Applicability of Adaptive Passive Strategies throughout the year.

heat stored in the mass during the daytime and to maintain indoor temperatures within a comfortable range for the next day (Givoni 1994).

In Sharjah, the mean temperatures vary from one period to another and differ from day to night. Figure 3.4 illustrates that the diurnal variation can exceed 8-10K in the region. The potential of night cooling as a passive strategy is apparent in the mild and warm periods and parts of hot periods (September to May) when the night dry bulb temperatures drop below the indoor operative temperature. The mean temperature drops to a minimum at night-time and goes below 20°C, especially during the mild period. However, this procedure might have bleak potential during July and August when the night-time minimum temperatures exceed 30°C.

Evaporative Cooling

Both direct and indirect evaporative cooling can be used as a potential cooling technique in Sharjah due to the yearly wet bulb depression that ranges from

8-14 K (Figure 3.2). This strategy has high potential from October to May due to the high wet bulb depression. However, during the hot period from June to September, when the wet bulb temperatures exceed 24ºC, it is impractical to use either direct or indirect evaporative cooling (Givoni 1994), as discussed in Section 3.1.

Historically, evaporative cooling has been a prominent part of the vernacular architecture of the UAE, including the wind towers or the malqaf that placed water at the air intake to create a comfortable interior climate. Even the mashrabiyas or the perforated screens operated on evaporative cooling. They were traditionally watered either manually or by the constantly seeping water from a porous water jar placed on the sill (Gourlis and Holzer 2022). Chapter 4, Section 4.1 further explores the various vernacular strategies employing evaporative cooling and their environmental performance and application.

Adaptive Shading

Controlling heat gain and avoiding penetration of solar radiation while allowing reasonable daylighting levels and views is critical in a hot climate like that of Sharjah. Shading devices can be beneficial in such cases, including but not limited to loggias, balconies, roof canopies (permanent and adaptive), and window shading screens. The most effective forms of protection are operable adaptive shading devices designed to suit the weather and the occupant’s need. Perforated screens, often known as mashrabiya, are a common adaptive shading element of vernacular architecture in the UAE, offering adequate protection against intense sunlight when required (Gourlis and Holzer 2022). Adaptive tensile structures are also a predominant feature of the vernacular architecture in the UAE. They can shade streets, courtyards, and roofs during the hot and warm period in Sharjah, especially in the afternoons when the high radiation rates reach daily peaks of almost 750Wh/m2. They can be withdrawn during the evenings and early mornings when the outdoors is within comfort range.

“[...] deliberately permanent rather than temporary, which is traditional rather than academic in its inspiration, which provides for the simple activities of ordinary people, their farms, and their simple industrial enterprises, which is strongly related to place and the climate, through the use of local building materials, but which represents design and building with thought and feeling rather than in a base or strictly utilitarian manner.”

-

Henry Glassie (2000)

04 LITERATURE REVIEW

VERNACULAR TRANSITIONAL SPACES

4.1 Vernacular Strategies

Unlike the built environment today, Emirati vernacular architecture was developed to adapt to the harsh desert climate. Traditional liminal spaces or series of these spaces, such as the Sikkas (narrow streets), courtyards, and Liwan (loggia), were deployed to achieve a gradual change in indoor and outdoor temperatures while improving the comfort levels of the surrounding indoor areas. This chapter discusses the different levels of vernacular transitional spaces, some other passive cooling strategies, and examples of successful precedents in similar climates.

Compact Form

Research demonstrates that vernacular compact urban forms can improve thermal conditions in hot, dry regions like Sharjah and other parts of the UAE (Elkhazindar, Kharrufa, Sahar N, and Arar 2022). Traditionally, the houses in these areas were closely grouped, with some sharing as many as three walls, creating shade for both the built form and the nearby pedestrian walkways (AlBahar 1990) (Figure 4.1). With its narrow and winding streets (Sikkas), it can effectively reduce intense solar radiation and block dust storms from entering the city by allowing them to pass over.

A recent study by Elkhazindar, Kharrufa, Sahar N, and Arar (2022) evaluated and compared six different densities in traditional and modern urban forms in the UAE concerning temperature and thermal comfort. The results revealed that the low-density vernacular urban form exhibited the lowest air temperature and maximum pedestrian comfort in August (the hottest month) due to its high height-to-width ratio and low density. The highest ambient temperature was observed in the sites with medium density and the lowest height/width ratio. The results of this study are further discussed in Appendix B.

Figure 4.1 The old town of Yazd with compact courtyard urban forms (Source: Foruzanmehr 2017)

These old towns also included plenty of covered outdoor public spaces, known as sabat, which provided an exciting interplay of light and shade along with

Figure 4.2 Shaded alleys, light wells, sabat (Source: Weber and Yannas 2014)

cool breezes that flowed through the narrow alleyways (Figure 4.2). Below the sabat, these regions also featured the m’qad, benches with double-height plastered steps, allowing people to gather and rest in a cool, shaded place (Willi Weber and Simos Yannas 2014).

Figure 4.3 Courtyard and Liwan (Source: Foruzanmehr 2017)

Courtyard and Liwan

Courtyards have been a prototypical transitional space in the Emirates community since its inception in the 1960s. Most of their vernacular architecture consisted of houses of mud or coral built around an open central courtyard (Figure 4.4). In addition, they adopted the layering of transitional spaces ranging from courtyards to shaded colonnades known as Liwan (Figure 4.3) to shield the impact of the outdoor climate on the indoors (Foruzanmehr 2017). They function as a microclimate regulator, enhancing the comfort levels of the surrounding spaces. Apart from the environmental aspect, the courtyard also contributed to the social factors crucial to the Arab society for various community activities along with privacy and solitude.

Yannas (2000) suggests that the thermal comfort in the courtyard results from surface temperatures, water bodies, vegetation, ambient air, and other microclimate modifiers. It largely depends on the aspect ratio, wind speeds, direction, and other factors.

Aspect Ratio

The courtyards aspect ratio is one of the most influential parameters for improving the microclimate of the surrounding indoor spaces. This section focuses on the geometrical part of the courtyard with the height-to-width ratio and consequent solar access on the thermal comfort of the courtyards. In

Sharjah’s hot desert climate (BWh), square courtyards are generally preferable to generate shadows on internal walls and avoid extreme heat stress along with wind-blown dust and sand. As evident in Figure 4.6, the courtyards with an aspect ratio (H/W) of 1 have better thermal performance than other narrow or wide courtyards. It allows for a circular whirlwind in the courtyard’s middle, creating a comfortable microclimate. These right proportions also help in the self-shading and shading of the adjoining facades, leading to a thermal lag. This potentially results in reduced heat gain and, thus, lower indoor temperatures (Bhargava 2018).

Figure 4.6 illustrates a comparison conducted by Yannas (2000) of the dimensionless temperature at three different vertical sections in a courtyard as a function of the H/W ratio. The curve shows that the minimum temperature occurs at the maximum intensity of the airflow vortex, which is found in a square-shaped courtyard with a H/W ratio of 1. This is because the air inside the courtyard is mixed well. In contrast, open courtyards with a H/W ratio of 0.1 have a lower dimensionless temperature, but it increases as the ratio increases to 0.3. In narrower courtyards with a H/W ratio greater than 1, the dimensionless temperature increases due to the decrease in intensity of the airflow vortex.

Figure 4.4 Traditional courtyard housing in Sharjah and courtyard effect (Source: Khalifa and Ibrahim 2019)

Vegetation

Vegetation holds a religious significance in UAE’s vernacular architecture apart from being a climate modifier. Every landscape form, ranging from grass to shrubs to trees, can mitigate heat stress and improve thermal comfort within the courtyard and the surrounding spaces in a specific capacity. They clean the air and lower the air temperature by providing shade, changing wind conditions, ventilating the buildings, and fending the courtyard against direct solar radiation. The watering of the plants and the transpiration also further assist in lowering the air temperature through evaporative cooling (Foruzanmehr 2017). For example, a study in a hot and arid zone, similar to Sharjah, comparing a paved, unshaded courtyard to a landscaped courtyard indicated the contribution of vegetation to improved thermal comfort (Figure 13). With shading by trees, the discomfort hours were reduced by over half, and when further combined with grass, both the shading mechanisms could yield comfortable conditions at all hours (Darvish, Eghbali, and Eghbali 2021).

In addition, the type, density, and geometry of vegetation are also crucial to determining the microclimate of the courtyard and, consequently, the indoor temperatures of the surrounding buildings. For instance, in the case of Sharjah, the local trees such as Ghaf (Prosopis cineraria), Samur (Acacia tortilis), and Garath provide more enhanced microclimate in the courtyard space and decreased annual cooling load when located near the internal thermal zones, lowering the temperature by almost 3oC (Figure 4.7) (Darvish, Eghbali, and Eghbali 2021). Therefore, vegetation and its optimal use in the courtyard can

Figure 4.5 ENVI output comparison of courtyard housing with and without trees (Source: Darvish et al. 2021)

considerably affect the microclimate and the energy efficiency of courtyard housing.

Figure 4.6 Graphic of the non dimensional temperature and flow patterns related to the depth ratio of the courtyard (Source: Rojas et al. 2012)

Thermal Mass

Emirati Houses were usually constructed with thick walls, employing thermal mass principles to minimize heat gain and limit glare and hot winds. These walls were usually 50 to 80 cm thick and were built with local materials such as mud bricks and coral stones (Figure 4.7) (Foruzanmehr 2017). They act as insulation against external heat and have high heat-retaining capacities, providing stable interior conditions desirable in hot climates.

Figure 4.6 Mud brick and coral stone walls in Old Sharjah Heritage Area (Source: Ibrahim 2017)

Due to their heat-retaining capacities, the thermal mass of the courtyard slows down the heat transfer process, creating a thermal lag. As a result, they absorb most of the heat received during the day slowly before passing it to the interiors during the night when the temperature drops, thus ensuring a thermally comfortable environment. In a recent study, vernacular courtyard housing in hot arid climates with high thermal mass demonstrated up to 27 percent building cooling benefits (St.Clair 2009).

However, while this can successfully mitigate daytime temperatures to an acceptable level, internal conditions at night could become uncomfortable due to the released heat during certain months. Fortunately, it could be resolved by combining these high thermal walls with high external or cavity insulation levels to insulate the interior further and even out the diurnal temperature range. They can also be cooled by natural and mechanical ventilation through wind towers (barjeel) in preparation for the next day (St.Clair 2009).

Openings and Fenestration

Figure 4.7 Mashrabiya and Olla (Source: Weber and Yannas 2014)

Traditional houses in the region were designed to be introverted, with most openings facing the central courtyard for daylight and ventilation (Dib 2013). Mashrabiyas and jaalis (wooden screens) were used as an additional layer to

these modest-sized openings to provide shade and protection from the sun and also to allow breezes to flow into the building for cooling purposes. They had specific perforation sizes and patterns to accelerate the airflow, which was then directed through a clay jar or olla filled with water (Figure 4.8). The water transpired through the pores of the jar, cooling the air and improving indoor thermal comfort. This system is the oldest and simplest form of evaporative cooling, in which outdoor air is brought directly into the water, cooling the air by converting sensible heat to latent heat (Gourlis and Holzer 2022).

Migration

One of the most intriguing and common ways of coping with the harsh climate of Sharjah was migration, a behavioral adaptation of the inhabitants. Due to the wide range of microclimatic conditions and environmental qualities provided by the traditional Emirati courtyard house, the inhabitants migrated through the house during the year and did so throughout the day as well.

For instance, in summer, they slept on the roof and spent the daytime moving around from the courtyard to the summer quarters to the basement, depending on the outdoor temperature and requirements. This pattern of movement allowed for flexibility in the functions of the house and the “interchangeability” of domestic labels (Al-Bahar 1990). However, Knowles (2006) suggests that this diurnal migration, or “internal nomadism” (Foruzanmehr 2017), does not change the boundaries of the space; instead, it carries one through doorways and around objects, which changes the perception of a space.

4.2 Built Precedents

Borujerdis House, Kashan

Location: Kashan, Iran

Co-ordinates: 33.97° N, 51.44° E

Architect: Ustad Ali Maryam

Design Strategy: Courtyard effect, natural ventilation, and evaporative cooling

Located in the hot desert region (BWh) of Kashan, Iran, the Borujerdis house is a two-story traditional middle eastern residence museum built in 1857 (Figure 4.8 and 4.9)

It is rotated 10o from the north-south direction to align perpendicularly to the regional wind direction (Figure 4.10). This is to maximize the wind flow within the building for passive cooling and natural ventilation during the summer (Soflaei, Shokouhian, and Soflaei 2017). Additionally, this project utilizes courtyards with an extensive fountain pool to provide thermal comfort and privacy to the inhabitants. The main structure is made of dried bricks, while straw and mud are used for the insulation.

Figure 4.8 Borujerdis house courtyard, Kashan (Source: Soflaei, Shokouhian, and Soflaei 2017)

Figure 4.9 Borujerdis house floor plans and sections (Source: Haji Ghasemi 1996)

The courtyard has a rectangular form with an area of 645 square meters and a 0.67 height-to-width ratio, typical of other vernacular courtyard houses in Iran. The linear water feature along the primary axis of the courtyard (10o of North-South) has a shallow depth to increase the surface area of the water in order to absorb maximum incident solar radiation and increase evaporative cooling, creating convective breezes throughout the house. In addition, green covers, including indigenous and drought-tolerant trees and plants, are used along the periphery of the courtyard to maximize shade in the indoor spaces, thereby reducing the indoor temperature, as discussed in Section 4.1 (Soflaei, Shokouhian, and Soflaei 2017). The water and landscape area allocated in the Borujerdis house in Kashan, Iran is 110.4 m2 and 180 m2, respectively. The right proportion of soiled, landscaped, and water area in relation to the courtyard can significantly increase the thermal comfort in the courtyard through increased evaporative cooling and adequate shading during the different seasons.

A recent study conducted some fieldwork and computational simulations to understand the thermal performance of the Borujerdis house in Kashan. A thermometer (Testo610) and laser distance meter (Leica D2) were positioned 1.5 m above ground in the courtyard for field studies. In summer, when the outdoor temperature varied from 30oC to 40oC, the instruments recorded an almost constant temperature of 28oC in the indoor spaces on the first floor (Cho and Mohammadzadeh 2013). As far as the simulations are concerned, Figure 4.11 summarizes the temperatures of the various zones of the house along with the temperature differences from the outdoors. For instance, zone 7 shows a significant temperature difference of up to 5.6oC, while zones 6 and 8 show a reduction of 5.2oC on average due to the natural ventilation and evaporative cooling from the courtyard (Cho and Mohammadzadeh 2013).

This thermal variation is potentially a result of the courtyard effect, although other factors like openings, thermal mass, and materiality might have also assisted in achieving this reduced temperature. The passive cooling techniques employed in this house and the climate are very similar to that of Sharjah. Hence, the same principles can also be utilized in the courtyard housing in Sharjah.

Figure 4.10 Orientation and rotation angle of the house and the courtyard (Source: Soflaei, Shokouhian, and Soflaei) 2017

Figure 4.11 Simulated zones and comparison of maximum temperatures with and without natural ventilation (Cho and Mohammadzadeh 2013)

Pearl Academy of Fashion, Jaipur

Location: Jaipur, India

Co-ordinates: 26.91° N, 75.78° E

Architect: Morphogenesis

Design Strategy: Courtyard effect, evaporative cooling, solar shading through Jaali screens and high thermal Mass

Although this particular case study is an educational institution, some of the passive principles used in this project can also extend to residential buildings in Sharjah. Moreover, the climate zone in both cases (Jaipur and Sharjah) are very similar: hot desert climate (BWh).

This project is built 4m below the ground consisting of two large curvilinear courtyards, water features, and Jaali (Figure 4.12). One of the courtyards has an aspect ratio of H/W>1, while the central courtyard has a ratio of H/W<1 (Rastogi and Bansal 2012). This partial earth sheltering assists in lowering temperatures by drawing air into the courtyards, which is further cooled by the water features through evaporative cooling. This cooled air is further drawn into the indoor spaces before escaping outside (Figure 4.13)

Figure 4.12 Pearl Academy of Fashion, Jaipur (Source: ArchDaily)

Figure 4.13 Conceptual section of the Pearl Academy (Source: ArchDaily)

The building consists of high thermal mass in the form of local Kota stone floors, white rendered walls, and earthenware pots roof that creates a thermal lag, reducing the heat absorption through the envelope of the building and hence, cooling the internal environment (Bhargava 2018). The Jaali on the outer façade also acts as a thermal buffer, shielding the indoor spaces from direct solar radiation (Figure 4.15). According to specific studies measuring the thermal performance of this building, these passive strategies, including the courtyards and the water feature, have resulted in significant temperature variation, with indoor temperatures ranging from 29oC to 30oC for 45oC outdoor temperatures (Rastogi and Bansal 2012). This is further reduced by using mechanical fans and added classroom ventilation. Furthermore, as part of the fieldwork by Swati Bhargava, 2017, data loggers were placed throughout the building at four specific spots for a typical summer week between April 11 and April 16 (Figure 25). With the outdoor temperatures varying from 43oC in day to 19oC at night, the indoor temperature differed by 9-10oC during the day, while courtyards experienced an additional reduction of 4-5oC due to vegetation (21.9% surface area of the site) and water features covering 3.7% surface area of the site (Figures 4.16) (Bhargava 2018).

The passive strategies in this building, specifically the courtyards, water features, and thermal mass, are a testament to the effectiveness of vernacular cooling methods and how they can be adopted in contemporary architecture. Drawing from this project, many residents in Sharjah could reduce their cooling load while maintaining optimum comfort levels.

Figure 4.16 Graph showing results from data loggers for April and energy consumption comparison (Source: Bhargava 2017)

Figure 4.15 Thermal analyis of Jali (Source: Bhargava 2017)

Figure 4.14 Pearl Academy courtyard with water feature and sunken belly (Source: ArchDaily)

Children Village / Rosenbaum + Aleph Zero

Location: Formoso do Araguaia, Brazil

Co-ordinates: 11.80° S, 49.52° W

Architect: Rosenbaum + Aleph Zero

Design Strategy: Courtyard effect, natural ventilation, solar shading through extended roof (creating a transitional space, loggia) and high thermal mass.

This project deals with the redevelopment of the rural school at Formoso do Araguaia, Brazil, which accommodates 540 students in approximately 23,000 m2 of built area (Hein Hsiao et al. 2021). The architecture is strongly influenced by the local savanna climate (Aw) (characterized by the alteration of hot and dry and hot and humid periods), with high air temperatures throughout the year and significant diurnal swings, especially in dry periods exceeding 10oC.

Three courtyards segregate the new organization, side by side, along with dormitories on the ground floor and classrooms, libraries, and other social spaces on the upper level. They are further shaded by a large roof structure, opening to the internal courtyards, slightly inclined and disconnected from the envelope, almost acting as a second cover and a transitional space (Liwan) (Figures 4.17, 4.18, and 4.19).

The courtyards favor cross ventilation and natural lighting in the indoor spaces, while at the same time, the large wooden roof, which covers the entire building complex, shades slabs and walls throughout the year. Furthermore, the large roof plan also protects the open living and communal spaces from the direct impact of solar radiation. Low environmental impact materials, such as unbaked adobe bricks made from local soil, clay, sand, and raw materials, are used similarly to the traditional houses in the region. They add thermal inertia to the internal environments to deal with high temperatures and diurnal swings (Hein Hsiao et al. 2021).

Figure 4.17 Children village, Formoso do Araguaia, Brazil (Source: ArchDaily)

Figure 4.18 Children village ground floor plan (Source: ArchDaily)

Figure 4.19 Children village section highlighting the wooden roof that covers the dormitory blocks and other uses, leaving the courtyard uncovered (Source: ArchDaily)

The computational simulations by Hein Hsiao et al. (2021) also demonstrate the potential of comfortable thermal and lighting conditions in the dormitory and their respective balconies throughout the year. For example, for a typical week of hot and dry conditions, operating temperature values in the internal spaces of the bedrooms were around 10oC below the external temperature, evidencing the influence of the thermal mass of the adobe walls, combined with natural ventilation and shading. The large roof, in particular, played a role in reducing solar gains, resulting in a difference of 3oC to 5oC in the bedrooms between the scenarios with and without the roof (Table 4.1) (Hein Hsiao et al. 2021).

The most significant impact of the large roof was seen in controlling daylight (avoiding glare). The analytical studies have shown that the cover has the potential to eliminate the occurrence of glare in all orientations, predominantly south orientation, which showcased the most discomfort hours without the cover, as illustrated in Figure 4.20 (Hein Hsiao et al. 2021).

In conclusion, the project highlights that thermal comfort conditions and acceptable levels of natural light are possible, even in extreme heat conditions and exposure to high levels of solar radiation, such as that of Sharjah (with external temperature values exceeding 40oC). It can be achieved through vernacular passive solutions suited to the local climate that is already known to reduce the thermal load of buildings, including shading, thermal mass, natural ventilation, and the introduction of transition zones.

Table 4.1 Annual percentage of hours inside and outside the thermal comfort zone in simulated environments (Source: Hein Hsiao et al. 2021)

Without wooden roof

With wooden roof

Figure 4.20 Illuminances calculated at the height of the work plane in the bedrooms and balconies of the central unit in Block A, for summer and winter solstices and equinoxes at 3 pm (Source: Hein Hsiao et al. 2021)

“A symbiotic relationship between buildings and the urban fabric they form and occupy is an essential condition for ecological urbanism.”

- Simos Yannas (2011)

THE URBAN CONTEXT ANALYTICAL WORK

5.1 Impact of Urban Context on Built Form

Environmental conditions are different for urban microclimates and surrounding rural areas. These varying microclimates within an urban area result from its heat and mass transfer balances (Yannas 2000). The energy balance is a result of several energy and heat inputs and outputs, including the incoming shortwave radiation (incident and reflected), the outgoing long-wave radiation from the surfaces to the sky, the heat stored within the fabric, the heat loss or gain through convection, and the generated heat from people, cars and machinery (Dib 2013). These energy balances can be influenced by careful urban design strategies to create a desired urban context. In their juxtaposition, geometrical configuration, and materiality, buildings can modify the microclimate, which eventually impacts their indoor environments.

Thermal Balance of Buildings

Since urban microclimates and the indoor environment of a building are a result of heat inputs and outputs; therefore, they can be considered as “thermal systems” which can be analyzed in steady state-conditions (Szokolay 2017):

Buildings Thermal Balance: Qi + Qc + Qs + Qv + Qe = delta S

Where Qi = internal heat gain,

Qc = conduction heat gain or loss,

Qs = solar heat gain, Qv = ventilation heat gain or loss,

Qe = evaporative heat loss.

This thermal balance is only achieved when all the heat outputs are equal to the heat inputs. If the sum is positive, the indoor temperature of the building will increase, and if the sum is negative, the building will cool down (Szokolay 2017). Furthermore, heat flow within a building is typically driven by two external climatic factors: air temperature and solar radiation (Szokolay 2017), which, as mentioned earlier, can be modified by careful microclimatic design.

Heat Inputs by Period

As the indoors’ preferred temperatures vary throughout the year depending on the outdoor conditions, it is crucial to define when and what environmental parameters affect the building’s thermal balance. This will allow creating a microclimatic design to control those specific parameters.

The environmental parameters illustrated by Table 5.1 were used to determine the steady state of heat flows through the envelope of one of the labor rooms, as laid out in Chapter 2. The investigation was done for the mild, warm, and hot periods. Each period is represented by a single day with an average dry bulb temperature for the whole period. The comparative analysis specifies the unit’s parameters (area, U-values, and window-to-wall ratio) as specified in the Estidama (It is a building design methodology for constructing and operating

Table 5.1 Building thermal balance input data

Figure

5.1 Heat gains and losses of an abstract unit in the mild, warm and hot period in Sharjah

buildings and communities more sustainably in the UAE) (Figure 5.1).

In the case of the mild and warm period (Figure. 5.1), all the processes of heat flow through the unit’s envelope are sources of heat gain, except the building envelope in the mild period. The most significant parameter is solar radiation from both glazed and opaque surfaces. It has the highest impact on the heat gain within the unit.

In the hot period (Figure. 5.1), the most significant external heat gain contributor is conductive heat gains through the building envelope. They are a result of the large difference between the preferred indoor and external dry bulb temperatures.

The following section investigates the microclimatic strategy of urban canyons, also a transitional space that could be adopted to reduce heat gains caused by solar radiation. At the same time, chapter 6 will explore strategies to reduce heat gains through conduction (Figure 5.2).

5.2 Urban Canyons and Solar Heat Gains

As solar radiation is the primary source of external heat gains for the mild and warm period in Sharjah, the two main urban design factors that can modify the solar radiation balance within an urban context are explored in this section: aspect ratio and the orientation of urban canyons. They can affect the thermal environment of the adjacent indoor spaces in two ways: one is by either providing shade or sun in those urban canyons, which eventually affects their thermal behavior and that of the adjacent indoor spaces; the second is that the urban canyons can specify the direct solar exposure of the adjacent buildings (Yannas 2000).

Urban canyons are geometrically defined by two parameters: The orientation of their major and minor axis and their height-to-width ratio (H/W). Figure. 5.3 represents a comparative analysis between urban canyons for major and minor axis for different orientations and H/W ratios. For the major axis, N-S and NW-SE orientation are analyzed for H/W ratios 1 and 2. For the minor axis, perpendicular to the major axis, E-W and NE-SW orientation are analyzed for H/W ratios 2 and 4. These orientations and H/W ratios are based on recent

Figure 5.2 Illustration of the heat exchange processes in the street canyon

Figure 5.3 Sun Path Diagrams of Major and Minor Urban Canyons

Figure 5.4 Monthly Average Solar Radiation received by the ground of Major and Minor Urban Canyons

Figure 5.5 Monthly Average Solar Radiation received by the wall of Major and Minor Urban Canyons

studies of urban morphology in the UAE by Elkhazindar, Kharrufa, Sahar N, and Arar (2022). They suggest that the major axis should be aligned to N-S and NW-SE to benefit from increased wind flow (the predominant direction of the wind in Sharjah is North and North-West). In all cases, the reflectance of the surfaces of the canyon is 0.6, which represents a light-colored finish (Szokolay 2017). The comparison was made by calculating the amount of average monthly incidents and reflected solar radiation on the ground and walls of the canyons.

Orientation and Height-to-Width Ratio

As illustrated by Figure 5.4, for the major axis, NS urban canyon with H/W ratio=2 represents the case when maximum ground protection is achieved in the hotter period (May-September). For the minor axis, although EW urban canyon H/W ratio=4 receives slightly higher solar radiation on the ground than the NE-SW canyon during the hot period, on average, it is better performing throughout the year.

When comparing the amount of average monthly solar radiation (incident and reflected) on the walls of the canyons (Figure 5.5); for the major axis, H/W ratio=1, walls that are facing East-West (meaning NS canyon) will receive less amount of direct solar radiation in the hotter period (May-September) in comparison to walls of NW-SE canyon. However, for H/W ratio=2, walls of both NS and NW-SE canyons receive the same amount of solar radiation. This is because when the space between buildings is narrower, orientation becomes less important when comparing the amount of average monthly solar radiation received by the grounds and walls of the canyons.

For the minor axis, the walls of the EW canyon for both H/W ratios 2 and 4 receive less amount of solar radiation during the hot period in comparison to the NE-SW canyon. The walls of EW canyon, H/W ratio=4, represent the case where the least amount of radiation is received throughout the year.

Conclusions

This comparative analysis has illustrated that for a major axis urban canyon, NS orientation with a H/W ratio=2 will provide the maximum direct solar radiation protection for the ground and wall surfaces of the canyon throughout the year. For the minor axis, EW orientation with H/W ratio=4 are better performing. Figure 5.6 illustrates the total solar radiation received on the ground for all the cases discussed previously.

Figure 5.6 Total solar radiation received by the ground of urban canyons in various orientations and H/W ratios

Figure 5.8 Wind analysis for various staggering depths (Source: Autodesk CFD)

5.3 Urban Form Development.

Based on the programmatic and density requirements illustrated in Chapter 2 and the urban canyon analysis in the previous section, a nine-block urban form is specified for urban context analysis. It is only used as a prototype for ease of analysis since it tests blocks facing all orientations and the urban adjacency. It could be used as a basis to design a larger urban context for labor camps in chapter 7.

Figure 5.7 illustrates the methodological development of the urban form and how it will alter the various environmental factors that will eventually affect the urban microclimate and thermal balance of buildings.

To determine the extent of staggering in order to achieve maximum wind flow through the canyons, wind analysis for six variations ranging from 3 to 15m was simulated (Figure 5.8). Staggering by 6m produced the optimum results with an average wind speed of 2m/s in the canyons. Beyond 6m, staggering reducing the wind speeds.

5.4 Urban Form Analysis

UTCI, a comprehensive index for describing the physiological comfort of the human body, was used to analyze the various streets and the public square for the previously determined urban form. Three times of the day, morning (0800), afternoon (1400), and night (2000) in the mild, warm and hot periods were studied. Figure 5.12 illustrates the UTCI studies without shade, and Figure 5.10 illustrate the resultant temperatures in an arbitrary NS and EW canyon and public square without shade. Each period is represented by a single day with an average dry bulb temperature for the whole period.

During the mild period, all three urban spaces experience no thermal stress, except for the central public square during the afternoons. During the warm period, only during the afternoons, when the solar radiation and dry-bulb temperatures are high, the canyons might experience slight stress, while the public square has higher resultant temperatures. For the hot period, all the

Figure 5.7 Urban Form Development

Figure 5.10 Resultant temperatures in the public square, NS and EW canyon without shade in mild, warm and hot period

Figure 5.11 Resultant temperatures in the public square, NS and EW canyon with shade at certain times in mild, warm and hot period

Figure 5.12 UTCI studies for the urban context and public square without shade

Figure 5.13 UTCI studies for the urban context and public square with shade at certain times (marked in black)

spaces experience high levels of heat stress. The resultant temperatures are above the outdoor dry bulb temperatures, with the public square peaking at 47OC in the afternoons. Additional shading is required during these periods to minimize the impact of high levels of direct solar radiation.

I-mesh, a recycled shading material, is proposed. It has low thermal conductivity and density compared to other shading materials listed in Table 5.2. It could be used as an adaptive measure, which shades the canyons and public squares during the day and retracts during the night for convective cooling (Figure 5.9)

Figure 5.13 and Figure 5.11 illustrate the impact of shading at required times (marked in black) in the canyons and public squares. There is a significant reduction in the UTCI and resultant temperatures, although the canyons and public square during afternoons in the hot period still experience moderate levels of thermal stress. Using smaller and semi-private courtyards within each block would be favorable during these times. They are analyzed in the following chapter.

Table 5.2 Thermal properties of various shading materials (Source: i-Mesh 2020)

Figure 5.9 Adaptive i-Mesh shading at the Dubai Expo 2020 (Source: i-Mesh 2020)

“Instead, these new transitions must be thought of as sequences of ambiences to be revealed and of opportunities to be seized-with a view to tending to occupants’ needs and accompanying them at every step of their trajectory. They must create a sense of surprise, rhythm and playfulness, enabling users to rediscover a human dimension in disembodied worlds.”

- Sensual City Studio (2018)

THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT ANALYTICAL WORK

6.1 Research Outline

This chapter further deals with the built form, one prototypical unit within the proposed urban context, to further inform the design and the layers of transitional spaces within, such as the more intimate private courtyards, liwans, jali, verandahs, and entrances to the unit.

The first step is establishing the depth, size, and perforation ratio of transitional devices such as jali and liwan

Daylight analysis is then undertaken to determine the impact of these jalis and liwan on illuminance levels in the bedrooms in labor camps in all orientations. Additional daylight studies for adaptive measures such as blinds are also conducted to determine the varying illuminance levels and air flow rates within the rooms.

Lastly, the thermal performance of these rooms is analyzed for the hot period (worst case) by applying the findings and passive strategies studied in the previous chapters. The results are then implemented to design a more comprehensive proposal for labor camps in Chapter 7.

Step 0: Proposed labor camp room in existing labor camps with WWR 35% (Estidama)

Step 1: Proposed labor camp room in proposed Urban Context with Jali | Free running

Step 2: Addition of Thermal Mass

Step 3: Addition of Liwan

Step 4: Decoupling during the day and Fan Driven Ventilation

Step 5: Varying Orientations

6.2 Quantification of Jaali

Jali is a vernacular architectural feature that reduces heat gain within the building by deflecting sunlight but allowing daylight. The traditional use of jali and evaporative cooling has been discussed in Chapter 4.

This chapter will further analyze the role of a perforated jali as a complete replacement for glazing units and windows. In order to decouple, blinds and shutters have been proposed, which provide an adaptive opportunity to control the illuminance levels and airflow rates based on the desired comfort levels at different times of the day and the year, along with required privacy (Figure 6.8).

Based on previous studies by Swati Bhargava (Bhargava 2018), the environmental performance of the jali in this context can been quantified.

Figure 6.1 Quantifying parameters for the design of the Jali. A: Depth = 55mm, B: Thermal Mass (Source: Bhargava 2018)

Bhargava, in her research, has identified that the depth and opening of the jali are essential factors that determine the screen’s airflow rates and shading capabilities. It was found that to block the harsh solar radiation while allowing increased ventilation rate and filtered natural daylight, a jali with 60% horizontal perforations of 80mm x 80mm size is successful (Figure 6.1). The jali thickness should be 100mm based on the solar angles during solstices and equinoxes in Sharjah. The proposed jali designs are based on the above parameters. The jali is 1000mm wide and 3000 mm in height for labor rooms (Figure 6.3) The configuration of jali has been varied to adapt to varying programmatic requirements of different spaces (Figure 6.4).

Figure 6.2 Effect of Evaporative Cooling on Screens (Source: Bhargava 2018)

Evaporative cooling

Perforations are also given at the top section of the jali to allow for constant minimum airflow to maintain the indoor air quality within the rooms. The perforated screen would be equipped with a drip channel running through the top, allowing water to wet the screens during peak summer months and afternoons in warm and mild periods. With evaporative cooling, the surface temperature of the screens reduces by 6-7K, while the temperature of the air surrounding the jali, up to 1m, also reduces by 2.5K (Figure 6.4) (Bhargava 2018).

Figure 6.3 Elements of the perforated jali designed for the project

Figure 6.4 Different configurations of the jali design for different programmatic spaces

Figure 6.5 Sun angles determining the depth of Liwan

6.3 Daylight Analysis

This daylighting analysis aims to study the impact of replacing glazing units and windows with jali regarding illuminance levels in labor rooms. The analysis is carried out for the summer period, the 21st of June at 1200pm, when shading is required the most.

The room’s size is in accordance with the defined requirements and layouts suggested in Chapter 2 and is tested within the confines of the proposed urban context defined in Chapter 5.

Moving ahead, four scenarios were tested with varying WWR from 100% to 35% ( as per Estidama standards) and the subsequent addition of a 2m deep liwan followed by replacing the glazing unit with a jali screen. The depth of the liwan was determined based on solar angles on solstices and equinoxes in Sharjah (Figure 6.5). Glare is considered above 2000 lux as per Estidama standards.

The results (Figure 6.6) show that the four chosen parameters successfully achieve visual comfort inside the rooms while reducing glare. The last case is also then studied in varying orientations (Figure 6.7). Results show similar illuminance levels in all orientations. This is probably because orientation doesn’t make much difference when the form is compact. It was also established in Chapter 5.

As per the programmatic requirement, since there will always be one person occupying the room, especially the night-shift worker sleeping during the day, it was essential to provide adaptive control over illuminance levels. Therefore, blinds and shutters were introduced that could be shut entirely (rotated at 60O) to decouple the room from the outdoors while providing minimum daylight and airflow. They could also be rotated to 30O, partially or entirely drawn per the occupant’s requirement. The jali could also be further slid open to increase the natural ventilation rate. Figure 6.8 analyzes the daylight performance and airflow rates of various configuration of jali and blinds

Figure 6.6 Daylight analysis for south-facing bedroom in proposed context.

Figure 6.7 Daylight analysis for all orientations with jali in proposed context.

Figure 6.8 Daylight and airflow analysis for south-facing bedroom in proposed context.

6.4 Thermal Comfort Analysis

Step 0 | Base Case

A base case in the form of a standard room in the existing labor camp context has been established. The requirements and context have been derived from the existing labor camp analysis in Chapter 2. The room is west facing and is airconditioned at a setpoint of 19OC. The WWR has been assumed to be 35% per the Estidama standards. The glazings are fixed and do not allow the adaptive opportunity for natural ventilation.

Standard construction of a reinforced single-leaf CMU wall with single-glazed windows, typical of constructions in the UAE, has been considered.

According to Figure 6.10 During the hot period, the average operative temperature within the room is around 19oC due to the air conditioning. However, in the free-running scenario, the indoor spaces are 6.4oC lower than the outdoors, reaching up to 37oC. Table 6.1 Model input parameters

Figure 6.9 Step 0: Proposed labor camp room in existing labor camps with WWR 35% (Estidama)

Figure 6.10 Graph showing thermal comfort for base case in typical hot period

Step 1 | Proposed labor camp room in proposed Urban Context with Jali

The room is now placed in the proposed compact courtyard form, and the glazing unit is replaced with the proposed terracotta jali. It is a west-facing unit along the narrow E-W canyon and is free running. Also the number of occupants has been reduced to 2 as per the proposed density (Chapter 2).

It can be seen that the temperature difference between Step 0 and Step 1 is 3.1oC (Figure 6.12). The temperature has dropped closer to the comfort band. This can be attributed to the reduction in solar gains due to the form and the jali. However, further intervention is required to increase the comfort levels within these rooms.

Table 6.2 Model input parameters

Figure 6.11 Step 1: Proposed labor camp room in proposed urban context with jali

Figure 6.12 Graph showing thermal comfort for Step 1 in typical hot period

Step 2 | Addition of Thermal Mass

In Chapter 5, it was concluded that apart from solar gain, conductive heat gain through the building envelope was one of the primary factors that needed to be addressed. Therefore, thermal mass in the form of two-layer compressed earth blocks with mineral wool insulation has been proposed (Goodhew and Griffiths 2005) (Figure 6.13). The vernacular use of these materials has been discussed in Chapter 4.

The resultant graph (Figure 6.16) shows a further temperature drop of 4.7OC from the base case due to a change in the construction materials and the addition of thermal mass.

Additionally, thermal mass in the form of filler slab with earthen pots has been proposed for the roof for the upper floors. The thermal results for the upper floors are in Appendix D.

Figure 6.13 Addition of thermal mass (Source: Goodhew and Griffiths 2005)

Table 6.3 Model input parameters

Figure 6.15 Step 2: Addition of thermal mass

Figure 6.16 Graph showing thermal comfort for Step 2 in typical hot period

Step 3 | Addition of Liwan

A shaded colonnade of 2m depth is introduced to reduce solar gains further. It is in accordance with the sun angles as determined in previous sections. It functions as a transitional space and microclimate modifier.

It is observed in Figure 6.18, that by adding liwan, the temperature further drops by 5.5OC from the base case and is almost within the comfort band, except for peaking during the afternoons when the outdoor dry-bulb temperatures and solar radiation levels are high.

Table 6.4 Model input parameters

Figure 6.17 Step 3: Addition of liwan

Figure 6.18 Graph showing thermal comfort for Step 3 in typical hot period.

Step 4 | Decoupling during the day and Fan Driven Ventilation

As discussed in the climate section, the large variation in day and night temperatures offer the potential for night ventilation in buildings to cool down the temperature using thermal mass. However, during the day, when the outdoor temperatures and solar radiation is high, the rooms can be decoupled using shutters and further cooled using ceiling fans. Based on research, they have the potential to reduce the indoor temperature by 2-3OC (Babich et al. 2017).

The results in Figure 6.21 show a further decrease of 6.4OC from the base case and are well within the comfort zone.

Figure 6.19 Fan driven ventilation and cooling effect of fans (Source: Babich et al. 2017)

Table 6.5 Model input parameters

Figure 6.20 Step 4: Decoupling and fan driven ventilation during the day and night ventilation during the night

Figure 6.21 Graph showing thermal comfort for Step 4 in typical hot period.

Step 5 | Varying Orientations

Finally, the varying urban adjacencies are considered to study the difference in the performance of the rooms based on their orientation and location within the urban context. The previous analysis was for west-facing rooms adjacent to the minor axis EW canyon. Now rooms sharing adjacency to the major axis NS canyon and the open public square are considered. As expected, indoor temperatures and solar exposure also increased with an increase in openness. However, despite the variations, rooms in the proposed orientations fall in the comfort zone for most of this period with an extended adaptive comfort band as discussed in Section 3.3, Chapter 3. Figure 6.24 demonstrates the increase in annual comfort hours in the proposed rooms with each progressive step and strategy.

Conclusion

The analytical work justifies the literature review undertaken earlier by showing the success of the compact courtyard typology, jali, liwan, and thermal mass in mitigating solar heat gain while maintaining adequate daylight. These strategies could now be used to define and develop the built form. It has been illustrated in Figure 6.25 Table 6.6 Model input parameters

Figure 6.22 Step 5: Varying orientations

Figure 6.23 Graph showing thermal comfort for Step 5 in typical hot period.

Figure 6.24 Annual comfort hours of the proposed labor camp room illustrating the benefits obtained from various microclimatic and passive strategies

Figure 6.25 Built form development

“.., the simple bodily experience of thermal qualities is sensed as a metaphor for the more abstract meanings represented by a place: the comfort, the delight, the social affinity, each reinforcing the overall significance of the place in people’s lives..”

- Lisa Heschong (1979)

07 DESIGN APPLICATION

LIVING IN LIMINALITY

7.1 The Site

As discussed in Chapter 2, migrant workers are both socially and geographically segregated from the city center. Therefore, the outskirts of Sharjah, next to the upcoming industrial area Al Sajaa Oasis has been considered a potential site. The site is North-South oriented, one of the region’s largest industrial zones, and part of Sharjah’s economic diversification master plan. Moreover, it is located in close proximity to Sharjah International Airport, Emirates Road highway, and Al Hamriya Port (Moussalem and Abdelsalam 2018). Currently, a host to several plots used for industrial purposes, as indicated in Figure 7.1, Al Sajaa plans to develop several entertainment and shopping centers to provide retail outlets, banks, and other services for the workers living in the new industrial area, making it an ideal for proposed labor camp community (Moussalem and Abdelsalam 2018).

Besides adjacency, the proposed site also offers splendid views of the desert to the north and an opportunity to create an entire community for these workers (Figure 7.2). However, to the south, the views are predominantly dictated by the industries of Al Sajaa, which are not desired (Figure 7.3).

Figure

Figure 7.1 Site context

Figure 7.3 Views to the industrial area

7.2 Views to the desert

7.2 Masterplan Development

Based on the site conditions and the urban planning strategies discussed in Chapter 5, a master plan for migrant worker accommodations has been developed.

• The major axis urban canyon (H/W ratio=2) is oriented NS, and the minor axis urban canyon (H/W ratio=4) is oriented EW.

• The buildings on the south are 4-5 stories and higher than the buildings on the north, which are mainly two stories. This is to increase wind flow from the north within the streets.

• Several public squares have been introduced to host a variety of social spaces ranging from mosques to cricket grounds to markets. Additionally, a community center for the labor-run charity, Adopt-a-Camp, is integrated into the plan. It teaches laborers “English lessons as well as their rights as migrant workers” (Lopez 2014).

• A central souq that interconnects all the blocks to the market square along with overhanging sabats throughout the neighborhood has been introduced. Souqs are a traditional Emirati market street with various stalls for local handicrafts and food that bring together a range of liminal experiences varying with light and shadow.

• Lastly, private verandahs have been incorporated and oriented to provide views of the desert or the public squares.

Although geographically segregated, the intention behind this master plan is to create a socially inclusive community for migrant workers away from their families and home. It is rich in sensorial and thermal experiences, varying with the several transitional spaces within these camps, a changing rhythm of narrow to wide sikkas, sabats, courtyards, public squares, verandahs, and liwans

7.3 Design Brief

The project’s brief aspires to meet the set of objectives derived from the nature of the current situation of the labor camps (Chapter 2), with the spectrum of transitional spaces as passive strategies that have been developed and translated into a design proposal. The main focus of this project is the health and well-being of migrant workers in Sharjah, which can be achieved through the following:

Liminal Spaces

Integrating liminal spaces can create a symbiotic relationship between buildings and their surrounding environment (Chapter 5) and a temperature gradient, thereby reducing thermal shock among workers. As a by-product, it can generate a wide variety of communal semi-outdoor to outdoor spaces that could be adapted to any program based on the user’s needs and external conditions.

Visual Delight

Windows in existing labor camps are often blackened and fixed to reduce glare. Unfortunately, this creates an artificial environment within the room with no natural daylight, natural ventilation, or outdoor views. A visual connection can be established by introducing a jali system while minimizing glare and maintaining a constant airflow within the room for good indoor air quality.

Adaptive Opportunities

Often, workers cannot control the surroundings that their hiring agencies and employers predefine. However, by providing adaptive opportunities such as the movement of jali and variations in blinds or even shading of the roofs and courtyards, they can alter the impact of environmental factors and achieve the desired level of comfort.

Figure 7.5 illustrates the various programs, their areas, and their location within the built context.

Figure 7.5 Zoning and programmatic distribution in a unit

7.4 The Unit

Architectural drawings (Figure 7.7) of a single unit represent the design development in this section.

Ground Floor is the courtyard’s main floor level. It comprises single bedrooms for supervisors and technicians and shared bath facilities. In addition, it includes amenities like a prayer room, laundry room, and storage. The kitchen and the dining area are north-facing rooms on this level. The more considerable heat gains from the various equipment in these rooms are balanced out through their orientation as they receive the least amount of solar radiation. Also, the amenities facing the public square could be adapted to commercial outlets catering to the square’s economic activities square, when required.

First Floor is the shared room network. Also at this level is the open living area which functions as a sabat at the pedestrian level and upper levels as a connector to other units. It could be opened up and closed based on the programmatic requirements. Private verandas on this floor are placed in such a manner that they are always facing the desert or the public squares. It provides a place of respite with visual delight. In addition, the roof provides an external space that the inhabitants can use as an open bedroom for stargazing in the milder period.

The Section illustrates the interplay between the various transitional spaces ranging from courtyard and liwan at the built form level to sabat at the street (sikka) level.

Figure 7.6 Various materials used in the unit

Figure 7.6 illustrates the various materials used throughout the unit, such as terracotta for the screen. It is a tactile, local material providing a cooling effect when sprayed with water in the scorching heat.

Figure 7.7 Architectural drawings of a unit; from the top, ground floor plan, first floor plan and section

7.5 Transitional Spaces

Liminal spaces are one of the primary elements of this project. They take the workers through various experiences, both thermally and visually, in their journey from the construction site to their bedrooms. Figure 7.8, based on the seven chronicles by Sensual City Studio (2018), reimagines the day-shift and night-shift workers’ journey with thresholds at the center of their everyday life. The upper half of the circle represents the ambient qualities and sensory experiences of each threshold as traversed by the day-shift worker from the bus ride from the construction site to their bedrooms. The lower circle represents the journey of the night-shift worker.

Figure 7.9 visualizes the interplay of light and shadow and the quality of these spaces through the gaze of the worker as he traverses these series of transitional spaces, from the NS canyon to the public square to the narrow EW canyon to the shaded entrance to the building, the courtyard, and finally to the liwan.

The graphs in Figure 7.9 also show how gradually the temperature reduces in all the periods from one transition the another, acclimatizing the workers and thereby reducing the potential of thermal shock.

Figure 7.8 Transitional spaces and related experiences

Figure 7.9 Transitional spaces and their resultant temperatures during different periods.

7.6 Design Performance

The following graphs show the thermal performance of bedrooms in all orientations and adjacencies, along with the dining room in hot (Figure 7.10), warm (Figure 7.11), and mild periods (Figure 7.12). All the spaces are well within the comfort range with the various passive strategies discussed and analyzed in the previous sections. Therefore, the requirement for air conditioning has been completely eliminated in the proposed design.

Also, the comfort levels of the private courtyard, the verandahs, and the roofs are analyzed in this section. Three times of the day, morning (0800), afternoon (1400), and night (2000) in the mild, warm and hot periods are studied. Figure 7.15 illustrates the UTCI studies without shade, and Figure 7.13 illustrates the resultant temperatures in the verandahs and courtyards without shade. Each period is represented by a single day with an average dry bulb temperature for the whole period.

During the mild period, all three outdoor spaces experience no thermal stress. They can be used throughout the day without any shade. During the warm period, only during the afternoons, when the solar radiation and dry-bulb temperatures are high, the roof and verandahs might experience heat stress, while the courtyard would be comfortable. For the hot period, the roof and verandah experience high levels of heat stress throughout the day, while the courtyard only during mornings and afternoons. The resultant temperatures during these periods are above the outdoor dry bulb temperatures, with the verandahs peaking at 47OC in the afternoons. Additional shading is required during these periods to minimize the impact of high levels of direct solar radiation.

Like the public square (Chapter 5), adaptive shading could be used in these spaces. Figure 7.16 and Figure 7.14 illustrate the impact of shading at required times (marked in black) in the courtyard, verandahs, and roof. Again, there is a significant reduction in the UTCI and resultant temperatures, although, during afternoons in the hot period, these spaces might still experience moderate levels of thermal stress. Therefore, indoor spaces might be beneficial during these times.

Figure 7.10 Thermal analysis hot period

Figure 7.11 Thermal analysis warm period

Figure 7.12 Thermal analysis mild period

Figure 7.13 Resultant temperatures without shade

Figure 7.14 Resultant temperatures with shade

Figure 7.15 UTCI of outdoor spaces without shade in a unit

Figure 7.16 UTCI of outdoor spaces with a shade in a unit

7.7 Living in Liminality

The main objective of the undertaken research was to develop a design that seizes the opportunities in different adaptations of liminal spaces in each season, improving the quality of life of the migrant workers and providing them with varied experiences. Therefore, this section visualizes how each of these spaces would be occupied by the workers during different times of the day in different periods.

Mild Period

As demonstrated earlier in the climatic analysis (Chapter 3), the Mild period stretches from December to March. In this period, the average temperatures are mild (18-23°C), creating the perfect environmental setting for outdoor living.

Figure 7.17 In the morning, the night-shift workers, returning from their shift, can enjoy their breakfast and tea on the verandah while basking in the view of the desert. While the outdoor air temperature (Tout) at this hour is about 17°C, the UTCI at the verandah is 16.35°C.

Figure 7.18 At lunchtime, the workers at the labor camp can enjoy their lunch in the semi-open lounge space that interconnects the various units in the urban context and interact with workers from other units. While the outdoor air temperature (Tout) at this hour is about 23.6°C, the operative temperature is 20.1°C.

Figure 7.19 During the night, the inhabitants can relax and wind down on the roof under a vibrant starlit sky. The outdoor air temperature is at a comfortable 20.9°C while the UTCI at the roof is around 19.6°C.

Time: 6AM

Tout: 17OC

GH: 98 W/m2

UTCI= 16.36OC

Time: 2PM

Tout: 23.6OC

GH: 626 W/m2

Time: 8PM

Tout: 20.9OC

GH: 0 W/m2

Figure 7.18 Afternoon lunch in the lounge

Figure 7.19 Evening stargazing at the roof

Figure 7.17 Early morning watching the sunrise at the verandah

Warm Period

As stated in the climatic analysis (Chapter 3), the warm period is experienced in April and November. The average temperatures in this period are 25-27°C, and the outdoor spaces can be pleasantly comfortable if well-shaded and exposed to the breeze from the Gulf.

Figure 7.20 The workers can get occupied in their morning routines through the well-shaded liwans and open courtyards while enjoying the warm glow of the early morning sun. The outdoor air temperature is around 19°C, while the UTCI is 17.32°C in the central courtyard and about 16.8°C in the hallways.

Figure 7.21 In the afternoon, the workers can enjoy fruitful community time in the spacious public square, where they can buy the daily essentials as well as indulge themselves in a quick game of cricket. The outdoor air temperature is around 31°C while the UTCI is 29.3°C.

Figure 7.22 At night, the inhabitants can take refuge in their cozy quarters while allowing the cool evening breeze to ventilate the heat out of their rooms. The outdoor air temperature is 25.2°C while the operative temperature is a comfortable 27.2°C

Time: 6AM

Tout: 19OC

GH: 67 W/m2

Time: 2PM

Tout: 31OC

GH: 681 W/m2

Time: 8PM

Tout: 25.2OC

GH: 0 W/m2

Figure 7.21 Afternoons at the public square

Figure 7.22 Respite in the night in the bedroom

Figure 7.20 Early morning breakfast in the courtyard

Hot Period

As mentioned in the climatic analysis (Chapter 3), the hot period is experienced from May to October. The average temperatures in this period are above 30°C with average total radiation 7.4kWh/m2.

Figure 7.23 In the morning, the migrant laborers can enjoy the cooling effect of the shade in the courtyard while getting ready for their day. The outdoor temperatures in the morning are around 30.3°C, with the UTCI in the courtyard at 28.18°C and the liwans at 27.2°C.

Figure 7.24 During lunchtime, the night shift workers can get their days to rest inside their rooms without depending on air conditioning units to keep them comfortable. The rooms can be decoupled from the outdoors through shutters, and ceiling fans can be used for cooling the room. The outdoor temperature is high, around 40.9°C, while the operative temperature inside the room is a relatively comfortable 30°C.

Figure 7.25 At nighttime, the workers can relax in their rooms’ privacy, which can be further opened up for increased ventilation. The outdoor temperature is around 36.1°C, while the operative temperature is at 29.3°C.

Time: 6AM

Tout: 30.3OC

GH: 199 W/m2

Time: 6AM

Tout: 40.9OC

GH: 848 W/m2

Time: 6AM

Tout: 36.1OC

GH: 0 W/m2

Figure 7.24 Resting during the afternoons in the bedroom

Figure 7.25 Respite in the night in the bedroom

Figure 7.23 Early morning breakfast in the shaded courtyard

CONCLUSION

This dissertation aims to revive traditional liminal spaces through the lens of sustainable environmental design in labor camps. They provide experiential diversity, temperature gradient, and the flexibility to adapt the spaces to any program based on the user’s needs and external conditions. Moreover, they function as a microclimate modifier that improves the surrounding environment’s comfort conditions, creates a socially dynamic hub, and provides privacy and seclusion.

The growing concern over the thermal shock crisis and social exclusion among migrant workers in Sharjah concludes this project with a relatively pragmatic interpretation of a community living designed using various climate-responsive vernacular strategies with liminality at the center. Literature review, climate analysis, and the study of inhabitants all provide starting points for designing this environmentally responsive labor camp.

The study on the ‘Urban Context’ and the modification of urban canyons demonstrates the possibility of reducing the effect of solar radiation in Sharjah by embracing simple orientation strategies, aspect ratio, and additional daytime shading through sabat. Integrating the canyon (sikka) as a transitional space in the urban form development, staggering the units, and varying the heights create a symbiotic relationship between the buildings and their surrounding environment. It highlights the importance of transitional spaces and context in forming peoples’ thermal expectations and helping their acclimatization process.

Further on, the built form, supported by the series of liminal spaces typical in Sharjah’s architecture, namely the courtyard and liwan, promotes a close connection between the indoors and the outdoors, blurring the sharp distinction between the two. Along with thermal mass, they can reduce conductive heat gains, which is the largest source of discomfort in Sharjah in the hottest period. Furthermore, the jali with shutters that replace the glazing units altogether provides a more adaptive opportunity to control one’s environment, whether in terms of daylight or thermal comfort. This palette of diverse spatial and environmental qualities allows the inhabitants to define their boundaries within their living units. Furthermore, due to the wide range of microclimatic conditions, the new proposal provides, the occupants can migrate through the house during the year and the day. For instance, in the mild period, they can sleep on the roof stargazing while spending the daytime moving around from the courtyard to the open lounge, depending on the outdoor temperature and requirements. This internal nomadism changes not only the standardized label of the spaces but also the user’s perception of their usability.

By adopting this multi-level approach of liminal spaces and incorporating a range of passive strategies as design tools, it was possible to create a community for the migrant workers that replaced the mechanically cooled monotonous sealed camps with a free space that varied with each season and each day, providing better environmental qualities and most importantly health and well-being for the workers.

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APPENDIX A

The 5 Step Overheating Assessment Method

5-SOAM is based on 5-step hourly subdivision criteria to assess the intensity and frequency of overheating in a sensitive manner. The method divides overheating temperatures depending on how far they are from the upper comfort limit. Each criterion could be described as follows:

1. Number of hours above 0.1K. The total amount of hours where temperature is strictly above comfort but less than 1°K. The number of hours may represent in a rigorous way time outside of the comfort limit but not an overheating problem since a temperature change of less than 1°K is almost imperceptible to the body.

2. Number of hours above 1°K. The total amount of hours where temperature is one whole degree or more above comfort but less than 2°K. This specific distance from the upper comfort limit is taken as a starting point since sensitive subjects would start feeling thermal stress, although it would still not represent a problem or a significant thermal stress.

3. Number of hours >2°K. The total amount of hours where the temperature is 2°K or more above comfort limit, but less than 3°K. This is where thermal stress is already manifested, and something should be done to regain comfort.

4. Number of hours >3°K. The total amount of hours where the temperature is three degrees or more above comfort but less than 4°K. This is where thermal stress is clearly present, but still it is possible to be solve and re-gain comfort.

5. Number of hours >4°K. The total amount of hours where the temperature is four degrees or more above comfort. The last step before severe overheating where conditions may still be bearable for the less sensitive subjects.

Once the overheating hours corresponding to a reading or a simulation result are distributed across the five division method, it is possible to appreciate the frequency of overheating hours, as well as their distance from the upper comfort limit (Zepeda-Rivas, Rodríguez-Álvarez, and García-Chávez 2022).

APPENDIX B

Analysis of Various Urban Forms in the UAE

Urban characteristics, air temperature and wind distribution for six neighborhoods in UAE (Source: Elkhazindar, Kharrufa, and Arar 2022)

APPENDIX C

Ecooler Screen (Evaporative Cooling)

Cooling abilities of ecooler screen, water evaporative system (Source: Faggal 2015)

APPENDIX D

Thermal Analysis for First Floor in Hot Period

APPENDIX E

Thermal Analysis for First Floor in Warm Period

APPENDIX F

Thermal Analysis for First Floor in Mild Period

APPENDIX G

Filler Slab First Floor Roof