SPring 1992 Vol 5 n°11

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ARGENTINA

TESOL '1~'"

Spring'92

vei.s

Argentina Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages

Teaching lssues The TESOL Quarterly publishes brief commentaries on aspects of English language teaching.

For this issue, we asked two educators to address the following question: Under what circumstances, if any, should formal grammar instr~ion take place?

Edited by Sandra McKay San Francisco State University Formal Grammar Instruction An Educator Comments ...

Marianne Celce-Murcia University of California, Los Angeles To frame this discussion, two clarifications are in order.

First, 1 will be addressing grammar instruction only with the ESL context in mind. For the EFL context, a somewhat different answer is needed. Second, 1 would highlight m underl in assum n that working towards gramma~ical accuracy does no mean sacrificingfluency; grammatical competence is_ nne componen of communicative competence . -the other be..LngsQciolinguistic competence, discou e competence, and strategic competeñCe (Canale, 1981> •

What do we mean b "formal rammar instruction"?

For some this means the teacher lecturing about grammar or preparing the students for a test like the TOEFL (Test of English as a Second Language>; for others perhaps it evokes an image of the teacher answering learners' questions about grammar or carrying out a correction activity

Such perspectives entail too narrow a view of "formal grammar instruction". For me, an learn" activity thal: focuses the learner' s attent ion on the form of a messáge (ideally, in the context of the meaning and function of the message) constitutes formal grammar instruction.

Such attention focusing can, of course, be done both deductively and inductively.

It can be done by a teacher or a tutor; it can belPart_ of an initial presentation, a practice activity, or a follow-up error-correction session. Any such instruction is more effective if it IS discourse-based and context-based than if it is sentence-based and context-free.

Given this broad view of formal grammar instruction, one must still consider the learner's age, proficiency level, and ultimate objectives in studying a second language in order to answer the question of when to teach grammar

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Teaching Issues p. 1 6th Annual ARTE SOL Convention lydia Stack •..•. .p. 3 A Personal E)(perience .p , 4 Interest Section. .p. 5 In Memorian: Robert Di Pietro. .p , 6 Ask the ATN . • • • .p.13 literature in ESl • .p.18 Calendar of Events.

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ENGLlSH BOOKS IN BUENOS AIRES ...?

VIAMONTE 2052 OF COURSE ... !

6th ANNUAL ARTESOL CONVENTION October 2-3, 1992 LYDIA ST AC.K TESOL PAST PRESIDENT Key-Note Lydia Stack is ESL Departrnent Head at Ne"vCOtnerHigh School in San Francisco, California USA. Ne"vcorner High School offers a one year transitional prograrn lor itnrnigrant and refugee students W'bo are ne"W" to the United States and need to leam Enalish priOf"to 20ing to a rnainstreatn high school. She is involved in curricubun "W"ritingand in teacher trainlng and she has been a consultant and presenter in various countries. She is co-author of 'WordWays Garneboards, Cubes and Cards", and a ne",' book, "Voices in Literature", She is currently Pan Pt--esident of TESOL

PRESENTATIONS 1. LECTURF.: Title: WlL'\. T MY STUDENTS lLAVE TAUGHT ME: TEACHER AS RESEARCHER Research in the area of teacher as researcher h~ ernphasized that ,,,·hen teachers talce the time to reftect on the processes in their claSSt"OOU1S and share that infOf"O'lationsysternatically ",'ith coUeagues,valuable insights are realized, This presenta tion "vill describe ho",,' to introduce a Writer's Worlcshop to ESL students and -w-illexplore sOflle insights and understandings gained by reflection uPOfl students and theit ..

-worlcthrough the Teacher Inquiry eroup.

Speaker2, WORKSHOP #1: Title: WRITERS' WORKSHOP Donald Graves, Ll.Icy Callcinsand Nancy At-w-eUhave all "W"rittenabout Writers' \\1or-kshop, a process approach for teaching "W"ritingin English as a second language classrOOflls.Students -w-hoare given an opportunity to -w-rite for a real audience often find their -w-rlting talces on ne-w dirnensions. This presentation -willfocus on one -w-ayto introduce Writers' Workshop to sec::ondlanguage l••.mers. Sarnples of student -w-rlting,as -w-eU as sorna practlcal sunestions on ho"W" to irnplernent this -w-riting process "W"ill be shared, 3. WORKSHOP#2 Title: UTERA TURE FOR SECOND LANGUAGELEARNERS There are rnany reasons "vhy students be~efit frorn stl.ldying literature frorn their o"W"n and others' cultures and this is especially true for second language learners. Literature provides genuine content fot..students to study and the study of lit.erature encourages t.alking and active probletn solving. Literature provides high quality fuodels for teaching language ·st.rl.lctures and voc.a.b1.l1ary and tit.e.-ature serves as a stirnulus for rnovetnent into -w-riting.Exploring rnulticultural titerature prOfllOtes a"W"arenessof other -w-aysof life and understanding of one's o-w-ncultW"8.

The present.er ,vill offer t.he part.icipant.s gl.lidelines for choosing literature, suggestions fOf"dlscussing thernes in Uterature, and strategies to use -w-itbstudents -when introducing rnulticulturalliterature.

The presenter -w-illsho-w-ho-w-pieces of literature can be Usad as exernplars for -w-ritingand student -w-riting -w-Ul be sbared.

""A PERSONAL by

Mdnica Pugliese collaboration!

is an ARTESOl

What would you have done if you had been teaching English as a Foreign language for ayer fourteen years and were suddenly confronted with a class of a hundred students who needed to be taught reading comprehension of technical texts?

That was a challenge.And 1 just love challenges.

1 was appointed lecturer (Prof.

Adjunta) of English 11, Reading Comprehension at the UNCPBA <Tand il ).

My class was made up of Systems Engineers, students who needed the tools to be able to read and understand texts related to their field.

In teaching English as a Foreign language, 1 was used to giving my students all the input they needed to "acquire" the language as they had their mother tongue.

1 talked to them in English and encouvaged them to communicate with me and their classmates in English, even though they might make mistakes. No Spanish was used in class.

TESOL'93 Atlanta

Mbni.ca

EXPERIENCE"" Pug1i.ese

Member from Tandil.

Mdnica

However, my new students had different needs.

They had to be given the elements to read and understand technical texts.

They were not expected to communicate in English in any way.

My class would have to be delivered in Spanish.

This was quite a task for someone who had even "thought" in English during the class period for ~o many years.

1 designed a syllabus, which 1 considered suitable for my group, bearing in mind that my students were acquainted with the terminology they would encounter.

First, they had to "brush up" on their English -most of them had studied the language during the secondary school years and some of them had even had private classes.

After this, and having provided a good number of exercises to check comprehensionL 1 went on to the next step: 1 had to teach my students HOW to understand a text without overusing the dictionary.

1 gave them some hints

thank you

for

your

to do this.

1 told them to look for: titles and sub titles.

- type of printing. figures (cardinal and ordinal numbers).

- diagrams and charts.

- transparent words.

The first texts appealed to their eyes: they were colorful advertisements on computers, terminals, parallel devices and other elements.

The exercises consisted of the following: 1Finding the main idea.

2Solving True/False exercises.

3- locating information.

4- Finding synonyms and antonyms.

5- Building family of words.

After a short period, they were able to read and understand texts of increasing length and difficulty.

By the end of the year, 1 felt my students could rely on their own skills to read and understand technical English texts, something that should help them throughout their professional career.

The Twenty-Seventh Annual Convention and Exposition of

Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc. April13 to April17, 1993 Atlanta Hilton and Radisson Hotel Atlanta Atlanta, Georgia U.S.A.

From. TESOL MATTERS

Interoctions

Humanistic teaching in the second-language classroom

by Robert J. Baldwin A pilot study was made by this writer during the Spring quartcr of 1991 al UCLA Extensi贸n 's American Language Cerner (ALC), an Intensivo English Prograrn aimed at the college preparatory needs of adult ESL leamers. The goals of the study were twofold: (1) to develop and administer a qucstionnaire, idenlifying instructors who consider themselves 10 be humanistic educators and (2) to survey a random sampling of studcnts of humanistic teachers to gauge their opinions as to the value of humanistic teaching, particularly as it relates 10 increasing second-Ianguage (L2) proficiency.

The qucstionnaire was developed by reviewing the literature on psychotherapy, education, and second-Ianguage acquisition. Individuals of particular value as resources for tenets and principles of humanistic teaching include Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow, and Cecil Patterson. However, thc mostvaluable single rcsource for humanistic leaching in the L2' classroorn was Gertrudc Moscowitz's (J 985) Caring and Sharing in the Foreign Language Classroom.

Moscowitz outlines the bcliefs and principIes that govern humanistic teaching as a preface to the main body of the work: a sourcebook of 120 humanistic exerciscs which can be used in the L2 classroom to assist students in discovering themsclves, their values, and feelings as well as those of their classmares. The tenets and principIes of humanistic teaching, as revcalcd by Moscowitz and others, which were incorporated in the questionnaire include: 1. For leaming to be s'ignificani, feelings must be recognized and put to use; 2. Significant learning is discovered for oncself; 3. Having hcalthy relationships with other classmatcs is conducive to leaming; 4. Learning more about oneself is a motivating factor in leaming; and 5. Increasing one's self-esteem enhances Icarning.

Once completed, the questionnaire was administered to several of the ALC's faculty. Although all demonstrated by their responses humanistic leanings or sympathies, only one instructor appeared to cmbrace humanistic teaching fully and to employ hurnanistic teaching techniques in his cJass on a daily basis. One of this subject's most striking, representative responscs on the questionnaire was in agreernent with the staternent, "Human beings want to actualize their potcntial." He declared: "My studcnts consistently show grcater interest in learning when the learning involves the mystery of who they are, what thcir mission in life is, and what their strengths and weaknesses are."

The student survey consisted of two parts: (1) a scaled response asking the subjects to "strongly agree" (=1) or "strongly disagree" (=5) with eleven statemcnts and (2) four open-ended questions designed to elicit the students' opinions of thcir teacher and the cJass. The survey was adrninistcred lo five advanced ESL students who were

studying grammar and writing under the instructor identified as "humanistic." Responses to both sections of the SUfvey reflected overwhelmingly positive feelings for the instructor and his teaching rnethods; this positiveness was also seen in the students' attitudes toward English as well as toward each other. Al! five responded with "1" or "2" to the following statements found in Part A of the instrument: "Because of my teacher's class/teaching methods: my study habits have improved; l'm more comfortable speaking English; I'm more comfortable writing English; I'm more accepting and understanding of my classmates and other people; 1feel better about myself." Al! disagreed or strongly disagreed with the statements, "Because of my teacher's class/teaching rnethods, 1am discouraged from studying more English" and "This class was too liberal/easy-going and not strict enough." Perhaps the most striking finding from a pedagogical view was that all the subjects agreed or strongly agreed with the statements, "1 leamed more English from this teacher than from my other teachers at ALC" and "1 feel more comfortable in this teacher's class than in any other class at ALC." In the openended section of the survey, one student wrote: "As a teacher, X is the best that I've ever hado ... He treats his students as friends, accepting us as we are [and] not judging anybody."

To conclude, the pilot study demonstrated, based on feedback from students, that humanistic teaching practices fiave a marked effect upon both the emotional and academic development of such 'students. Emotionally, they appear to benefit by experiencing an increase in their self-esteem as well as esteem for their c1assmates. In addition, there is the affcctivc benefit of increased motivation due to the fact that , students in humanistic c1assrooms leam more about themselves=-their feelings, values, and uttitudes=-and thus find relevance in the course con tent. However, by its very nature, this study was extremely limited in scope. Clcarly, other humanistic teachers necd to be identified and their classroom practiccs described. Many more students nced to be surveyed. For those among us who are comfortable only with the inclusion of "hard" data, studies nced to be conducted which compare the test scores of students in "regular" classrooms with those in humanistic ones. Finally, more needs to be written about humanistic teaching, and the appearance this year of Earl Stevick's (1991) Humanism in Language Teaching is 'an encouraging signo lt goes without saying that the problems of low self-esteem and motivation among our students continues to exist as evidenced by high drop-out rates and low test scores.

Humanistic teaching might be the key to showing our students that education can be dceply meaningful and enriching, both affectively as well as cognitively.

(NOTE: Instructors and other individuals interested in a complete report of this study may contact Robcrt Baldwin c/o The American.Language Center, 1100 S. Grand Ave., Los Angeles, CA 90015.

References Moscovitz, (1985). Caring and sharing the ESL classroom.

Rowley, MA: Newsbury House Stevick, E. (1991). Humanism in language teaching, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Roben Baldwin is an Instructor al the American Language Center, UCLA Extension, CA.

IN MEMORIAN

ROBERT DI PIETRO 1932-1991

By Louis Arena Robert Joseph Di Pietro, Senior Professor of Linguistics at the University_of Delaw~re, passed away on December 20, 1991 Qt lung canc~r.

Di Pietro taught linguistics at Georgetown University from 1961 to 1978. He joined the faculty of the University of Delaware in 1978 as Chairman and Professor of the Department of Language and Literature.

He was a founder of the current Department of Linguistics in 19857 and that year was named Senior Lingulstic Professpr.

Di Pietro is the author of Strategic Interaction, an interactive method of teaching and learning foreign languages.

He published over 300 articles in the field of language teaching and applied linguistics and is the author of Language Structures in Contrast, 2nd ed i t i on , 1978 (published in Japanese, Italian, and Spanish), Language as Human Creation, 1978, and Strategic Interaction: Learning Languages through Scenarios, 1978.

In 1982, Di Pietro produced a film which contained demonstrations of the Strategic Interaction method.

The film, produced

by USIS, is entitled "Yau Can Take It Wlth You".

He was Georgetown Univertisy's first Andrew Mellan Distinguished Lecturer in Language and Lingulstics, from 1975 to 1977.

He also studied group interaction and group psychotherapy at the Washington Psychoanalytic Institute and at Sto Ellzabeth Hospital in Washington De, both of which assisted him in his new method for teaching foreign languages interactively.

In 1977, Di Pietro was knighted Cavaliere Ufficiale d'Italia by the Italian Government for his contributions to Italian linguistics.

Di Pietro's most recent, co-authored book, American Voices, was introduced at the TESOL Conference in Vancouver, British Columbia, in March 1992.

Di Pietro was a member of the Board of Directors of the National Italian-American Foundation from 1979, and of the American University in Rome from 1983.

He was a member of the Modern Language Association, the American Association of Applied Linguistics, Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, the Linguistics Association of Canada and the United States (a founder and president 1989-90), Societa Italiana di Linguistica, The American Association of Teachers of Italian1 and the American Anthropology Association, among others.

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formally in a satisfactory manner.

Research in second language acquisition (for a summary, see LarsenFreeman & Long, 1990) indicates that generally only young, prepubescent learners, and then only those with good access to native-speaking peers and sufficiently rich and varied native speaker input, can -in absence of formal grammar instructionlearn a foreign or second language with nativelike proficiency and accuracy.

Postpubescent adolescents and adults need to pay some attention to the form of the target language. If they do not, they ultimately develop an incomplete and imperfect interlanguage that reflects learning problems such as negative transfer from the native language, simplification, overgeneralization, erroneous rule formation, and so forth (see Richards, 1974). Indeed, Higgs and Clifford (1982) argue from their years of experience at the Foreign Service Institute that adults who learn a foreign language without any formal grammar instruction during the basic language learning stage can never achieve high proficiency in the target language.

Such learners may become fluent, but in terms of their ¡g~ammatical development, they plateau at an intermediate or low-intermediate level and are unable to progress even if they are provided with formal grammar instruction at a later time .

The research of Cummins (1979), among others, tells us that immigrant school-age children can learn basic interpersonal oral communication skills in a second language within a few years.

However, it takes them up to 7 years (and sometimes even up to 10 when additional factors are considered; cf. Collier, 1989) to acquire the second language literacy skills needed to achieve academic parity with native speakers.

This suggests that in optimal second language learning, the spoken language and the written language are different; it is easier to learn to unders d imi speak a sec languagetOr basic oral communicatlon han 1 is to learn to read and write i~ this lan uage for academic purposes.

Grammar, likewise, seems o be more crueial 1 advanced profieiency is desired and a high level of literaey is required.

MeGirt's (1984) study supports this distinction between spoken and written lanquaqe by showing that nonnative ESL students at the University of California, Los Angeles, many with 7 or more years of residence in the U.S. and virtually no accent in their speech, still tend to make signifieantly more morphosyntaetic errors in their aeademie writing than do native speakers (i.e., 7 errors per 100 words vs. 1 error per 100 words).

Sixty percent of the ESL students McGirt studied had acceptable writing from the point of view of

organization and logie.

However, only 20% were rated as overall aeeeptable writers; faulty grammar made the writing of the other 40% unacceptable to the eomposition faculty.

When a similar population of ESL students at the University of California, Davis (i.e., students who had a high rate of faulty grammar and other problems in their writing) was surveyed and interviewed by Sehwabe (1989), she found that most had never received any grammar instruction (i.e., they were not provided with the rules of English grammar) or grammar correction on their written work while in middle school or senior high school.

Thus even under optimal environmental conditions (i.e., when the learners are using the seeond language to learn eontent and to interact with native speakers), the grammar needed for acceptable academic writing is not well acquired in the total absenee of any feedback or formal grammar instruction. Fortunately, Frodesen (1991), and others offer ESL teachers suggestions on how to effectively provide contextualized instruction in grammar as one eomponent of a writing course for nonnative speakers.

Before concluding, 1 must point out that grammar instruction earrie out _ for its own sake, totally divorced from activities that involve using it as a resource to convey meaning is as

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irresponsible and counterproductive as not teach ing gr ammar a t a 11.The challenge foir language teachers is to develop effective ways of focusing learner attention on form at critical moments whil~ learners are using the second ~anguage for purposeful_co~muniL4~i~~ especially written communication.

This is not easy, but it is necessary if one is teaching postpubescent learners who need to achieve a high level of proficiency for professional or academic purposes, especially if ~he learners need to become reasonably effective and accurate writers in their language.

Grammatical accuracy is important because it marks a second language learner as competent; it helps open academic, social, and economic doors for them.

Ves, there are definitely circumstances where formal grammar instruction is necessary.

And there are also circumstances where it is not, for example, with learners who want to acquire only basic, rudimentary oral communication such as older immigrants, or preliterate immigrants who want a hands-on job, or young children who are learning the second language in an optimal environment with lots of native-speaking peers around them. Obviously, the question of when to teach grammar formally has no simple answer.

The author Marianne Celce-Murcia is Professor of TESL and Applied Linguistics at the University of California, Los Angeles.

She has coauthored two books used to prepare ESL teachers to teach English grammar.

Another Educator Comments ...

Stephen D. Krashen University of Southern California It is significant that this question should be asked.

Not long ago, it was thought that formal grammar instruction was the only means of developing second language competence.

Current research, however, shows that second language competence is developed in another way.

My interpretation of the research is that we acquire language by understanding messages, by obtaining comprehensible input.

Direct evidence supporting the input hypofhesis includes studies shawing that when acquirers obtain more comprehensib le .input, they acquire more of the target language.

This is the case both outside of school (exposure and length of residence studiesi and inside of school (method comparison studies) and holds for both second language acquisition and the development of literacy (Krashen , 1991).

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There are also several serious problems with the hypothesis that direct instruction plays a majar role in developing language competence.

It has been argued that language is toa complex to be deliberately taught and learned, and there is evidence that peaple develop high levels of second language competence without formal instruction (Krashen, 1991).

Does grammar study have any effect?

M interpretation of the research is that grammar learning does have an effect, but this effect is peripheral and fragile.

1 have argued (Krashen, 19821 that canse ious know.led.ge_ 01_ grammar is available only as a monitor or editor, an that there are threenecessary conditions for monitor use: Performers need to knaw the rule, have enaugh time to apply the rule, and need ta be focused on formo When these conditions are met, app lca ion of grammar rules can indeed result in increased accuracy, but he performer pays a price in decreased information conveyed, a~~ a slower, more hesitant speech style.

There are other risks, such as editing one's next sentence while the other person is talking, which results in grammatically improved but sometimes inappropriate speech, and, when rules are complex, diminished instead of increased accuracy.

Current research canfirms

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that the effect of grammar is peripheral and fragile; this research shows that direc s ruchon on spec tft . ru es has a measurable lmpdct on tests that focus the performer on Torm, but the effect is short-lived (e.g. Harley, 1989; White, 1991)1 Optimal use of the monitor occurs when of conscious ~application rule5 does not interfere with communication.

For most people, this means using the monitor in writing, but delaying its use until all of their ideas are on the page.

8ecause of the fragility of conscious grammatical knowledge, optimal users may also refer to handbo~ks occasional1y.

There may be a few mental gymnasts who can remember many rules and monitor while they speak, but 1 suspect that even these virtuosi rely mostly on acquired knowledge and consciously monitor only a few aspects of grammar.e Of course, a significant number of students will not use the monitor at all, such as young children, unschooled adults, and

those who simply have no interest in grammar.

If this view is correct, it implies that formal grammar teaching can be dOne when students know the limits of conscious grammatical knowledge: When they know it is not the majar source of second language competence, when they understand that they will learn only a subset of the ru es of a language, when they understand the restricted function of grammar, and when they understand when to use conscious knowledge o language.

1 It has been clailed that direct instruction, Hhen tiled so that it is exactly at the acquirer's level of developlent, has positive effects (Piene~ann, 1984, 1989). Frol the research available to le, this so-called success is based on ver y little data. Pienelann rests luch Ăşf his case on the perforlance of one student (Biovanni) acquiring Gerlao as ÂĄsecond laoguage. Moreover, ooly ooe rule Has taught (inversion), and Pieoewann only provides 6iovanni's percentage correct io using inversion just before and just after instructiooj He are not told how laoy tiles inversion "as attelpted. Aoother student "learned inversioo in a similar manner as Giovanni" (Pieneiano, 1984, p.197), but not details are provided other than this assertioo. Also, Pieneaann claims that Biovanoi generalized his learning of the principies underlying inversion to another structure, but his iastery of this structure Has "io its very beginnings" (p.20S) and the "nulber of such instances is rather slali" (p.20S). Once again, no data is provided. Pieneiann (1989i claias that iostruction ilproved accuracy io the use of the copula in three acquirers, but once agaio only percentages are provided, and the effects appeared to be short-term.

White, Spada, lightboHn, ~ Ranta (1991) maintain that knowledge gained through direct instruction io their study was not peripheral but Has integrated into their subjects' acquired systels because, after instruction, gains were found on an oral test as well as on writteo tests. It is quite plausible, however, that cooditions fDr monitor use were let on the oral t~st. The Dral test focused the subjects 00 rules they had just studied and subjects probably suspected they were being tested on graimatical forl (al~.other tests used obviously focused the student on the target rulesl. In addition, White et al. do not indicate that there Has any tile pressure en the test.

e French-speaking children in an intensive ESL class in Lightbown (1991i showed remarkably high accuracy in the English there is construction, cOlpared to other classes, and maintained their high level of perforiance when tested one year later. Lightbown's interview with their teacher revealed that she had placed special elphasis on this structure ("1 druI.ed it into their little hands', p.2071. I suspect that these children, after so ~uch drill, si.ply specialized in this rule, lonitoring it all the tile. Interestingly, this class was not significaotly better than cOlparisons io overall reading and listening (Lightbown ~ Spada, 1990).

Gth ,Jtnnua-Q ,Jtn.teson CC!ttlUentton

October 2-3, 1992 â&#x20AC;˘ P~IO

Although there is a role for grammar, research a~ theory show that the best way of increasing grammatical accuracy is comprehensible input.

Studies also suggest tnat the most effective kind of comprehensible input for advanced grammatical development is reading (Elley, 1991; Krashen, 1991). Getting' students

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interested in books will insure continued grammatical development (as well as improvement in vocabulary, spellin, and writing style) long after the language course ends.

Acknowledgments 1 thank Joe Allen

and

Eula Krashen for their helpful comments on earlier versions of this paper.

The author Stephen D. Krashen is Professor of Education and Linguistics at th& University of Southern California.

References Canale, M. (19811. Fro. cOlmunicative cOlpetence to language pedagúgy. In J. Richards ~ R. Schaidt (Eds.), language and co.aunicatioo (pp2-271. london: Longlan.

Collier, V.P. (19B9). How long? A synthesis of research on acadelic achievelent in a second language. TESOl Quarterly, 23(3), 509-531.

CUlmins, J. (19791. linguistic interdepeodence and the educatiooal developaent of bllingual children. Review of Educational Research, 49i21, 222-251.

Frodesen, J. i19911. Gral.ar in writing. lo M. Celce-Murcia iEd.l, Teaching English as a second or foreigo language (pp.264-2761. Büston: Newbury House/Heinle ~ Heinle.

Higgs, T.V., ~ Clifford, R. (1982). The push toward cOilunicatiún. lo T.V. Higgs iEd.), Curriculul, cOlpe~ence, and the foreign language teacher (pp.57-591. lincolnwood, Il: National Textbook COlpany. larsen-Free~an, D. ~ long, M.H. i19901, An introduction to secünd language acquisitioo research. london: longaan.

McGirt, J.D. 119841. The effect of lorphological and syntactic errors on the holistic scores of native and non-native cOlpositions. Unpublished laster's thesis in TESL, University of California, los Angeles.

Richards, J.C. iEd.). (1974). Error analysis: Perspectives 00 second language acquisition. london: Longaan.

Schwabe, G.T. (1989). Appendix E: UC ESl students' evaluation of their high school Engllsh instruction: Exalples of gramlar problels in the writing of UC ESL students. In English as a second language at the University of California (/\ report to the University-Wide Co•• ittee on Undergraduat~,. Preparatory and Reledial Education frol the ESl. Subcollitteel. Berkeley, C~: Office of the President, University of California.

Elley, W. i19911. Acquiring literacy in a second language: The effect of book-based prograls. language learning, 41, 375-411, Harley, B. (19891. Functional gra••ar in Frenen i••ersion: A classrool experilent. Applied linguistics, 10,331-359.

Krashen, 5.0. (1982). PrincipIes and practice in second language acquisition. New York: Prentice Hall.

Krashen, S.D. (1991, Aprill. The input hipothesis: An update. Paper presented at the Georgetown University Round Table 00 Languages and linguistics, Washington, D.C. lightbown, P. (1991). What have we here? 50le observations on the influence of instruction on l2 learning. In R. Phillipson, E.Feller;an, M. Sharwood Slith ~ M. 5wain (Eds.i, Foreignisecond language pedagogy research ipp.197-212I, Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters. lightbown, P. ~ 5pada, N. (1'1901. Focus-on-form and corrective feedback in cOI.uoieative language teaching: Effects on second language learning. Studies in Second language Aequisition, 4, 429-448.

Pienemann, M. (1984). Psychological cünstraints on the teachability of languages. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 6, 186-214.

Pieneiann, M. (1989). I; language teachable? Psycholinguistic experiments and hypotheses. Applied linguistics, 10, 52-79.

White, l. (1991). Adverb placelent in second language acquisition: Some effects üf positive and negative evidence in the cla5sroo&. Second language Research, 7, 133-161.

Whi te, L. Spada , N., Lightbown, F'. t Ranta, L. (1'191). Input enhiillcelftent and l2 quest ion forllation. Applied linguistics, 12, 416-432.

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Ask the ATN

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Dear ARTESOLers thank you very much for your chaIIenging contributions to our ATN. We have had reaIly enthusiastic responses to the question raised in our Fall issue. In case you have forgotten about it, the question read as follows:

Dear TJ, 1 have frequentIy been ttiId that it is important for students to interact with one another in my cIassroom.

But when 1 try to get my students to interact, they make numerous errors and seem to forget everything we have studied in cIass.

1 am very concerned that they will begin to pick up each other's errors.

Does it reaIIy make sense for me to continue to have them interact in unstructured activities?

Responses:

In my oplnlon, language interaction among students during the class should not be considered as a circumstance that might imperil the Ianguage acquisition process.

The process of acquiring a new Ianguage should be as similar as possible to the one the child undergoes when he acquires his mother tongue.

What would happen if a mother didn't aIlow her child to speak to other chiIdren simpIy because he might pick up the other kids' mistakes? The poor child would find himself completely isolated from his peers. An important part of his social life -which is also necessary for his language acqui5itionwould be cut off.

Our role as teachers i5 that one of a helper, a guide. We help our students by walking around the classroom, sitting with the groups and clearing up their doubts. However many teachers mjght ask: What about those students 1 can't manage to help at the right moment?

There are

two important factors we should never forget: a. The process of Iearning demands time. b. Group interaction does not necessariIy aIways mean picking up mistakes from others. On the contrary, peer correction can be much more effective than teacher correction.

Furthermore, another important reasen wryy we must never doubt whether te engage our students in cIass interaction or not is that it stimuIate5 seIf-confidence and hence fluency, which i5 in the end the basis of our ultimate goal: communication.

'A1'IICIA GALAZZO EngIi5h ICANA

Yourquestion

involves

Teacher

two

important

P~13

issues. First, why do most learners seem to forget everything they have studied when they interact?

Krashen's Monitor Hypothesis explains that second language performers use the language picked up subconsciously to generate utterances and that they can use the language studied consciously only to monitor those utterances.

When interacting, however, monitoring is difficult. Taking time to think about rules disrupts communication.

Besides, in real communication the focus is on meaning, not form.1 Given the difficulty of bringing in conscious knowledge in communication situations, Krashen recommends that the bulk of classroom activities focus students on communication rather than language.

If students concentrate on communication, they pick up or acquire language subconsciously.

In addition, he encourages more tolerance of speech errors, which are natural and healthy accidents of language development.

Concerning the second issue, interlanguage talk, we can refer to research studies that positively demonstrate that neither do learners pick up too many errors nor do they miscorrect each other significantly.2 But we can also tell about our experience as students.

Through interlanguage talk and group work, we feel safe to take risks and participate in the learning process. Furthermore, we negotiate meaning for the purpose of communicatinq without even noticing it.

In this light, we can safely conclude that the advantagesof interaction far outweigh its ver y few disadvantages, provided that interlanguage talk is not the only input learners are exposed to.

1 Krashen, 5.0., Terrell, The natural approach.

Press.

T.O. USA:

(1983).

Alemany

Long, M.H., Porter, P.A. (1985, June).

Group work, interlanguage talk, and second language acquisition.

TESoL Quarterly: 207-225.

e

Rosa Zicari Alberto Alexander ICANA Escuela Superior

Oear colleague, If we accept that in human interaction we make mistakes of all sorts perhaps it will be easier to accept that our students make linguistic errors in classroom interaction.

Why do we always tend to concentrate so much on losses rather than on gains?

Ves, it is definitely true, in classrooffi interaction.

Why do we always tend to concentrate so much on losses rather than on gains?

Ves, it is definitely true, in classroom interaction students make more mistakes than in a structured activity.

But what about the joy of engaging in what may appear to them a real conversation when they are truly exchanging information or ideas in the target language?

Have you considered the possibility that those errors that your students make are just a reflection of the state of their linguistic development?

1 could suggest many activities to calm down your anxiety but they would be neither illuminating nor original.

I'm sure you know them far too well, and how and when to apply them. What if we just reflect on your fears for some seconds?

If, as you have pointed out, your students seem to forget so easily what they have learned with so much effort so quickly, do you think it probable that they will pick up each other's errors so easily?

If that were the case we should start !evising our methods; student interaction appears to be not only challenging but also highly effective.

RenĂŠe s. Rios ICANA Belgrano

In reference to your problem concerning group work, 1 would advice you to consult the article on the subject published

by Michael Long in the TESOL Quarterly, Vol.19, No.2, June 1985. He clearly explains the pedagogical and psycholinguistic arguments that support group work.

The psycholinguistic evidence that has emerged from research on the role of comprehensible input and on the nature of interlanguage talk is consistent on the fact that learners do provide comprehensible input to one

another as well as ample opportunity to practice a wide variety of language functions in the process of negotiating meaning.

Finally, and with regards to your main worry, research shows that miscorrections occur in such a low percentage that they don't represent a serious threat to unmonitored group work.

Besides, what seems to be important to reduce the amount of mistakes, and which is definitely under your control, is the structure of the task given to the learners working on low structured activities only after the learners have received enough comprehensible input, along with providing suggested language for activity will reduce the probability of mistakes.

A proper sequence of activities from the most structured to the least structured will make your learners ready to engage in free group conversation.

in this way, the message itself is a goal.

Despite group work is not an ideal solution and research is still being carried out on its effectiveness, group organization and size, we recommend the use of group work as complement to the lockstep ~nstruction since certain classroom activities can be conducted through teacher-fronted work and some others through group work.

Marta Marcenaro Flavia Del Giovaninno ICANA Escuela Superior

Question:

Dear ATN, Cec i1i a Antu'ha ICANA Escuela Superior

To begin with, we can start by mentioning briefly the advantages of applying group work in second language classroom. According to Long & Porter: * Group work increases language practice opportunities. * Group work improves the quality of student talk. * Group work helps individualize instruction. * Group work promotes a positive affective climate. * Group work motivates learners.

You are concerned that by interaction learners will begin to pick up each other's errors, however, researchers have found that the level of accuracy in unsurpervised group as well as in lockstep work is the same.

On the other hand, errors are a healthy and juicy part of language development.

Moreover, as Krashen and Terrell (1983) point out, it i s important to focus exclusively on communicative language use from the beginning stages even though this will involve errors, because

Children and teenagers do not usually ask to learn a foreign language. From their position in society they are not often confronted with problems of communication with speaker s of other languages.

They are not motivated to learn another language in the way that older learners might be. If they are to take part in a foreign language course with success, the motivation has to come from another source.

How can you motivate your students tO'study English?

I~ you would like to respond to this new question, send in a short response (unoar 200 words).

We wi 11 pub 1ish several of your responses in an upcoming issue.

AIl questions and responses should be sent to: Mabel Gallo Editor, Ask the ATN ARTESOL Newsletter ICANA, Maipu 672 1006 - Buenos Aires Argentina

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To this ena, TESOL, as an internatíonal profes sione! associ ation: * Supports and seeks to inspire those involved in English language teaching, teecner eaucstton, eamtmstretton and management, curriculum and materia/s design, and resesrch. * Provlaes leadership and airectton through the dissemination and exchange of intormetton and resources, and encoureaes ecces s to and srenderd s for English language instruction, protes sione! preparatian and emotoyment.

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The newa is out! .•.... our mem6er.S'hip in ARTESOL will expire soo1'1, unleaa )'01.1, act to keep )'our name on our mailing lists.

"Fe don't want to fl'l.iss )'01.1" and you don.'t want to .,nis·s the ARTESOL Newsletter and publications that 1ceepyou up-to-date and in the know.

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SIMPLE TRUTH AND OUTRIGHT LIES: USING LITERATURE FOR LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

by John Travers

"We ought to teach a child a random combination ot tantasy, simple truth and outriflht lies. In the glant's garden, cows eat grass, and pigs can tly.

That will serve to keep the child's mind alert, down to earth and wary. " Jack Spicer

A considerable body of research evidence (Rubín, 1975; Stern, 1975) suggests a truth about sueeessful second language leamers that dovetails with an observation the fantastic Lucio makes to Isabella in Measure [or Measure; namely, that fear and failure to take risks inhibit growth, stifle intelIectual energy and hamstring our cornmunicative ability dramatically: Our doubls are iraiiors And make us lose the good we oft might win By fearing to attempt.

In an effort to provide eredible and sufficiently engaging models of courageous behavior, 1developed a thematie unit based on risk-takers as charaeters in children's literature beginning with Walter de la Marc's classic tale, [ack and the Beanstalk. Subscquent selcctíons included Swimmy, Whosé Mouse Are You?, Where the Wild Things Are, Are You My Mother?, The Polar Express, Mc!ody Mooner Stayed Out All Night and the fable Who Will Bell the Cat? After reading thc stories aloud the children retold them in their own words, frequently aecompanied by some zany, improvisational dramatic play. Latcr, 1 transcribed their retellings as dictation and printed this on large sentcnce strip, which the children then uscd as a basis for their own personalized illustrations. The sentence strips are kept in individual joumals and used exclusively for this purpose. The sentcnce strips are also used periodically by the children to reassemble in sequcnce as part of an indcpcndent reading activity. (For a more elabora te discussion of this technique sce, Robert Gibson, 1975.)

In addition, the children engaged in a

wide variety of other activities designed to promote language and thought concomitantly. They constructed charts, developed graphs, sang songs, chanted chants, recited poems and made puppets. In the course of our discussions, there was no shortage of possible solutions to the unique ehallenges each of the eharaeters faced in these stories. The children wrestled enthusiastieaIly and unpredictably with the problems posed in eaeh of these texts. They suggested highly unorthodox and often unintentionally hilarious responses, including one child who volunteered that he would first kill the cat and then put the bell on it. And he wasn't kidding!

Central to all of the lessons developed in this unit was the read-aloud strategy. Reading aloud good stories pro vides a won-derful opportunity for us to modcl the proeess by demonstrating how good readers make sense of what they are reading. It is, in the words of Becoming a Nation of Readers (Anderson, 1985, p. 23), "the single most important activity for building the knowledge required for eventual success in reading." Sharing good stories ••. vith children mimics the informality and warmth of the bed time story and aIlows us to connect children with texts crafted with a great deal of

F((Jm~IDEr. JII•••

,.

(SIMPLE TRUTH, continued [rom p.1)

care and precision-texts that might otherwise rema in inaccessible. Many children relished the experience of being read to and beca me genuinely attached to some of the books, as evidenced by their wanting to hear the same stories over and over again.

They developed what [ohn Bowlby (1969) calls, in another context, "attachment behaviors," where rereading certain stories orally seemed to provide a sense of security and rewarding predictability that so often remained ellusive in their own everyday lives.

A number of researchers (Trelease, 1982; Krashen, 1983) have provided impressive evidence to support the proposition that when children are read to they begin to intemalize the vocabulary and the structures of the language and develop a genuine disposition to read for both information and enjoyment. Young children exposed to the language of books begin to absorb and use that language in a variety of real and irnaginative contexts. Over time, in Frank Smith's words (1988), "they listen like a talker," and through demonstration and engagement they gradual1y begin to see themselves as "mernbers of the club" that, among other things, is a risk-free affiliation: The child striving to read or write something is he/ped and encouraged, not given a low grade and a program of exercises. Members of the literacy club are people who read and write, even the beginners, and the fact thai one L? not competent yet is not reason for exclusion or ridicule. A newcomer is the same kind of person as the most proficient club member, except that he or she hasn'L yet had as much experience.

It is the same in all normal sports and the recreational clubs. (p. 11) Using literature as a vehiclc for language leaming lessons helps nurture what Maria Montessori calls "the absorbent mind" (1968, p. 184) by strengthening the capacity to

imagine and abstract, both of which are crucial to the acquisition of language and the development of intelligence. Sharing and enjoying stories, poems, fables, fairy tales, legends and myths encourages children to use language to investiga te, to explore, to propose questions and to seek solutions. The focus of these activities invariably is making scnse of things, and using what you know and what you know how to do.

But it is not the only value, or even the most compelling one. In helping second language learners over the hurdles and frustrations that are almost impossible to avoid, literature can pro vide a sanctuary that rescues children from the turmoil and confusion that epitomizes the school life of so many youngsters. Through exposure to good books, we can provide our students with a learníng clima te that reduces fear and anxiety and builds the trust and self-confidence that are needed to make each child a winner. Good literature has a restorative power for the imagination and enriches the lives of a11of us by revealing the uncountable range of emotions and realities that are part of being humano Robert Frost once remarked that the aim of education was "to take children from where they are and bring them to where they ain't": good stories can do just that.

As competent and f1uent adult readers, we leam about generosity from O'Henry, madness from King Lear, terror and evil from Billy Budd, and the Bronx from Tom Wolfe! In a similar manner, young second language leamers can explore the value of teamwork from Frederick Lionni's story of Swimmy, bravery from Robert Krauss' Whose Mouse Are You? and the wonders of fantasy from Chris Van Allsburg's The Polar Express. Through stories, children aré able to exorcise some of the demons and monsters that intermittently roam through their young minds. Reading a book such as Where the Wild Things Are can provide a catharsis for some frightened young childrcn who may be unwilling or unable to vcrbalize their fears.

A rich and inviting library of good books in the ESOL classroom helps us to share with kids the notion that we read for many of the same reasons that we go fishing or hiking in the woods: to see what we think, clarify our perceptions and find a better story than we could imagine for our-

selves. If we are able through good stories to captivate the imaginations of children and stir their sense of wonder at the same time we instill in thcrn a love for the language and its proper use, we will have provided them with faith that they have sornething to say and the language in which to say it (Murray, 1979). And lastly, good stories en-courage youngsters to play what Peter Elbow calls "the believing game" (1973, p.

147) by sharing with them the importance of hopefulness, the value of courage and the necessity of taking risks. This is, after all, a truth central to fairy tales and to life: You golta sell the cow to get the beans, REFERENCES Anderson, R. e, Hiebert, E. H., Seott, J. A. and Wilkson, 1.A. G. (1985). Becoming a nation 01 readers: The report o{ the Commission on Reading. Washington, o.e.: National Institute of Education.

Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment. New York: Basic Books.

Elbow, P. (1973). Writing without ieachers.

New York: Oxford University Press (appendix essay: "The doubting and the believing game: an analysis of the intellectual enterprise").

Cibson, R. (1975). "The strip story: a catalyst for communication." TESOL Quarterly.9:149-153.

Krashen, S., and Terrell, T. D. (1983). The natural approach: Language acquisition in the c/assroom. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

Montessori, M. (1967). The absoroent mind.

New York: Dell Publishing. Inc. Murray, O. (1979). Learning by teaching: Selected artic/es on learning and teaching.

Stamford, Conn.: Boynton/Cook Publishers.

Rubín, J. (1975). "What the 'good language Iearner' can tcach us." TESOL Quarterly, 9:41-51.

Smith, F. (1988). Joining the literacy club: Further essays into education.

Portsmouth, N. H.: Heinemann.

Stcrn, H. H. (1970). "What can wc Icarn from the good language learner?" The Candian Modern Language Review 34: 304-318.

J. (1982). The read-aloud handbook.

New York: Penguin Books.

Trelease,

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ASOCIACION ARGENTINA DE CULTURA INGLESA (A.A.C.I.) SUIPACHA 1333 - TE 393-0275 OCT08ER 6 tiADAV AT THE CULTURA ti OCT08ER 8 OCT08ER 13 OCT08ER 14 INSTITUTO CULTURAL ARGENTINO NORTEAMERICANO (I.C.A.N.A.) MAIPU 672 - TE 322-3855/4971/4557 OCT08ER 2-3 ARTESOL CONVENTION FEDERACION ARGENTINA DE PROFESORES DE INGLES (F.A.A.P.I.) OCT08ER 7-10 ANNUAL SEMINAR (SAN NICOLAS 85. AS. PROVINCE) MEXTESOL ACAPULCO, GUERRERO - MEXICO OCT08ER 15-18 19th NATIONAL MEXTESOL CON~ENTION TESOL-CHILE SANTIAGO - CHILE OCT08ER 8-10 3rd ANNUAL CONVENTION MODERN LANGUAGE ASSOCIATION (M.L.A.) NEW YORK, NEW YORK - USA DECEM8ER 27-30 ANNUAL CONFERENCE TEACHERS OF ENGLISH TO SPEAKERS OF OTHER LANGUAGES (TESOL) ATLANTA, GEORGIA - USA APRIL'93 9-18 27th ANNUAL CONFERENCE

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