UnSPRAWLing Perth from the SWAN RIVER The riverine city within the city
UnSPRAWLing Perth from the Swan River The riverine city within the city Laureanda Annalisa Ricci Relatori Prof. Gastone Ave Prof. Romeo Farinella Correlatore Prof. Dr. Julian Bolleter (University of Western Australia)
Tesi di Laurea / A.A. 2015-2016 UniversitĂ degli Studi di Ferrara, Dipartimento di Architettura
//contents
CONTENTS
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
00 01
Preface
013
Abstract
017
// framework
02
Seeking ‘Terrae Australis’ 2.1
Australia in figures
2.2
Australia cities and rivers
03
2.2.1. 2.2.2
Aboriginals first... ... Europeans later
Welcome to Perth, the world’s most remote city 3.1
Perth’s introduction
3.2
# yesterday / How did we get here?
3.1.1
3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3 3.2.4
023
Sprawled Australia
1800s. (Un)planned early life of a British free settlement 1900-50s. A new planning dawn The 1950s. Post-War Positive Period The 1990s. Turning the century
006
047
CONTENTS
scenario //
3.a Perth: ‘The 21st Century’s first ghost metropolis
overview //
3.a
Australian Dream
3.3
# today / Current first-aid strategies
3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3
overview //
scenario //
3.b
Australian City Plans & Targets
3.3.3
3.b
A suitable alternative
3.4
# tomorrow / Scenario forecasted
04
What is going on? Western Australia background at a glance The planning context Just a matter of ‘targets’?
Understanding the failure
3.4.1 A change in time. Foreseeing urbanity 3.4.2 Economic trends 3.4.3 Housing unaffordability 3.4.4 Conclusion
A shift in perspective / From the endless fringes to the waved core: the Swan River 4.1
# yesterday / Historical attraction
4.2
# today / Need of continuity
4.3
# tomorrow / Riverine scenarios predicted
4.1.1 Early exploration 4.1.2 Reclamation 4.1.3 A dualism in public concerns 4.1.4 The Elizabeth Quay case
4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3
4.3.1
Various actor in a disconnected scene Aboriginals connections Natural features
Climate change threats
007
099
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
05
// analysis The built form / Just a matter of density? 5.1
Administration
5.2
Housing
5.3
Transportation systems
06
5.2.1. 5.2.2 5.2.3
5.3.1. 5.3.2 5.3.3
Local Government Areas
Uniform land use... ...slightly different density: R-Codes A matter of price
Car-based society Public transport The river role
Riverine landscape
147
6.1
Swan River system
6.2
River use / Edge analysis
07
5.1.1
6.1.1 6.1.2
6.2.1 6.2.2
127
Landscape description River sections
Riverine facilities What is affected by sea-level rise?
// strategy ‘Swan River as Perth’s beating heart’ / The riverine city 7.1
Towards the vision. Swan River’s SWOT
7.2
United vision for the river. The development company
7.2.1 Vision 7.2.2 Strategic field 7.2.3 Stakeholders
008
167
CONTENTS
7.3
08
09
Development guidelines. Key Points for metropolitan-scale actions
Connect / Water as a link 8.1
Mobility. The ‘Blue Network’
8.1.1 Ferry lines 8.1.2 Terminals 8.1.3 Ferry fleet 8.1.4 Integration into the metropolitan transit system
8.2
Riverine evolution. An echo by the river
Protect / Tailored resilience 9.1
191
209
Resilience. Plan city’s resilience to expected sea-level rise 9.1.1 9.1.2 9.1.3
Increase climate resilience Implication of climate change Approaches to climate change
9.2 Design Tool-kit. Strategies to build resilience
10
9.2.1 Retreat 9.2.2 Accommodate 9.2.3 Protect 9.2.4 Final considerations
Implement / The case study 10.1 Localization. Choosing the site 10.1.1 Leeuwin Barracks 10.2 Strategy applied to the case study 10.2.1 Mobility
10.2.2 Resilience 10.2.3 Implementation
009
227
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
10.3 Leeuwin Barracks. The new Activity Centre 10.3.1 Functional elements
11 12 13 14
10.3.2
Design principles
10.3.3
Activity Centres precincts
10.3.4
Change in density
Conclusions
247
// specifics Acronyms
251
Bibliography
255
Attachments
263
CONTENTS
//preface
00 PREFACE
013
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
00
The thesis comes from my remarkable interest in Global Cities, realities so distant and different compared to where I live. Thanks to the Atlas Scholarship Program, promoted by the University of Ferrara, I was able to live for six month in Perth (Western Australia), attending the UWA (University of Western Australia) and collaborate as a research assistant within AUDRC, the Australian Urban Design Research Centre. In this context, alongside with the Professor Julian Bolleter and his research staff, I had the chance to discover the dynamics of a city like Perth, seemingly perfect on the outside but full of hidden cracks meant to open widely in the next future. The Swan River landscape, which envelops the city in a soft hug, has been the most fascinating element, allowing me to come up with an idea and direct my research towards one direction: the river as an answer, not an issue. With a great amount of knowledge, analysis and experiences, together with the Professors Gastone Ave and Romeo Farinella, I developed a thesis that could take into account the city’s evolution in an attractive but also extremely fragile ground.
014
chapter 00
PREFACE
La tesi nasce da uno spiccato interesse nei confronti delle Global Cities, così distanti e differenti rispetto alla realtà in cui vivo. Grazie alla borsa di studio del Programma Atlante dell’Università di Ferrara ho potuto soggiornare per sei mesi a Perth (Western Australia), studiare presso la UWA (University of Western Australia) e collaborare all’interno del AUDRC, l’Australian Urban Design Research Centre. In questo contesto, affiancata dal Professor Julian Bolleter e dal suo staff di ricercatori, ho potuto scoprire le dinamiche di una città come Perth, all’apparenza perfetta ma con insidie sotto pelle destinate ad alimentarsi nell’immediato futuro. Il paesaggio dello Swan River che avvolge la città in un morbido abbraccio, è stato l’elemento che più mi ha affascinato, consentendomi di elaborare un’idea e dirigere le mie ricerche in quella direzione: il fiume non come problema, ma come risposta. Con questo bagaglio di studi, analisi ed esperienze, assieme ai Professori Gastone Ave e Romeo Farinella, ho elaborato una tesi che tiene conto dell’evolversi della città in un territorio attraente ma allo stesso tempo, estremamente fragile.
015
// abstract
01 ABSTRACT
tav. 0
017
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
01
Within a strong demographic growth context, where the population is statistically projected to double in the next 50 years, the thesis proposes a new urban development scenario for the Australian city of Perth, capable of accommodating the forecasts mainly into the metropolitan area without further load on the suburban fringe and consequently promote the sprawl.
The development company promotes a 2050-strategy that supports and integrate the current strategic plan with three strategic lines named ‘connect’, ‘protect,’ ‘implement’. By improving the transport supply through the establishment of a river transport network; planning the defence from the potential sea-level rise due to climate change and promoting the development of some riverfront areas, the vision of ‘2050 Swan Riverine City’ is realized.
In doing so the thesis question the capacity of the Swan River, key element around which Perth has developed, to reverse this trend. However, this view contrasts with the current idea according to which the river is ‘the antithesis to the city’, a heritage to protect and safeguard.
The connection of the new development centres to the CBD aims to strengthen Perth from the inside providing a more attractive urban core at international level.
To overcome such contrasts, the first step is to establish a development company with the aim of conveying the different interests towards a united vision: a shift in perception of the Swan River, from oasis to urban waterfront development.
018
chapter 01
ABSTRACT
In un contesto di forte crescita demografica dove è previsto il raddoppio della popolazione nei prossimi 50 anni, si propone una strategia di sviluppo urbano per la città di Perth (Western Australia), in grado di distribuire l’incremento all’interno della area centrale metropolitana, senza gravare ulteriormente sull’estesa fascia suburbana e promuovere lo sprawl.
Tale società promuove una strategia all’orizzonte 2050 che affianca l’attuale piano strategico, integrandolo secondo tre linee strategiche dal nome ‘connect’, ‘protect’, ‘implement’. Migliorando l’offerta del trasporto con l’istituzione di una rete di trasporto fluviale; pianificando la difesa dal potenziale innalzamento del livello del mare dovuto al cambiamento climatico e promuovendo lo sviluppo di alcune aree prospicenti il fiume, si realizza la visione ‘2050 Swan Riverine City’.
A tale scopo, la tesi si interroga sulla capacità del fiume Swan, elemento centrale attorno al quale si è sviluppata Perth, di invertire tale tendenza. Un’ottica che contrasta con l’attuale punto di vista secondo cui il fiume è ‘l’antitesi alla città’, un patrimonio da proteggere e salvaguardare.
Il collegamento dei nuovi centri di sviluppo al CBD mira infatti a rafforzare Perth dall’interno, con un cuore più urbano e attraente anche a livello internazionale.
Per superare tali contrasti il primo passo è l’istituzione di una società di sviluppo con lo scopo di convogliare i diversi interessi verso una visione comune: invertire la percezione dello Swan River da oasi a luogo di potenziale sviluppo urbano.
019
// framework
// framework
chapter 02
02 SEEKING ‘TERRAE AUSTRALIS’
tav. 1
023
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
02
01 Australia in figures
Australia, stereotypically linked to the remote wild land of koalas and kangaroos, is a country of contrasts.
triggered by rising levels of industrial activity and consumption amongst Australia’s largest trading partners, albeit slowed for several years by the Global Financial Crisis.
Although being the 6th largest country by total area in the world, its current population of just 24,6 million inhabitants (Worldometers, 2017) is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated only in the seaboard. Due to the harsh climate, much of the continent is inhospitable to humans and the amount of fertile agricultural land or available water is small compared with the total surface. Therefore, the distinctive urban pattern evolved at the interface of colonial economic development and environmental constraints, has resulted in the predilection towards the southern and eastern seabord with a small number of coastal-based state capital cities and more than half of the population settled in the three major metropolitan areas of Greater Sydney, Greater Melbourne and the conurbation of South-East Queensland (SeQ).
According to the IMP (the International Monetary Fund), Australia has today the world’s 13th largest economy and 9th highest per capita income, but it also appears as one of the fastest-growing wealthy nations in the world, as reports from New World Wealth attests. Indeed, over the past decade the overall wealth held in Australia has risen by 85 percent compared to 30 percent in the U.S. and 28 percent in the U.K., aided by the fact that Australia has gone 25 years without a recession (Bloomberg Markets, benchmark 2017). Largely because of this state of well-being and wealth, the country has always been a magnet for many migrants as a preferred destination to live. Such ever-growing phenomenon that has made possible the ‘building up’ of Australia’s current diverse population is still perceived by the majority of its residents as a positive economic and social influence.
The opening decade of the century has been driven by sustained economic growth, largely as a consequence of a resource boom
026
chapter 02
SEEKING TERRA AUSTRALIS
Urban distribution Urbanization Capital city
Darwin
N O RT H E R N T E R R I TO R Y
QUEENSLAND
WESTERN AUSTRALIA
SOUTH AUSTRALIA
Brisbane NEW SOUTH WA L E S
Perth AUSTRALIAN CA P I TA L T E R R I TO R Y
Adelaide
Canberra
V I CTO R I A
Melbourne
Hobart
Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests Subtropical forests and woodland Tropical grasslands, savannas and shrublands Grassland, savannas and shrublands Desert and xeric shrublands
Terrestrial Ecoregions and major climate zone in Australia Source: National Reserve System, Department of the Environment
027
Sydney
English
German
Australian
Chinese
Irish
Indian
Scottish
Greek
Italian
Dutch
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
Australian population ancestry Australian population ancestry Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, Census 2011
Source: ABS Census 2011
35,4% Australian
English
German
Australian Chinese
Chinese
Irish
Irish Indian
Indian
Scottish
Greek Scottish
Greek
Italian
Dutch Italian
Dutch
English
German
Australian
35,4 % Australian 35,4% Australian
NOM Net Overseas Migration incidence in population growth Source: ABS Australian Demographic Statistics (3101.0, December 2016) 500 400 300 200 100
Net Overseas Migration
Natural increase
By this means, Australia has a history of planned immigration extending more than two centuries. The contemporary migration is planned in yearly programs (Graeme, 2010), both permanent and temporary, that includes four separate categories: »» skilled workers »» family migrants »» refugee-humanitarian migrants »» others (mainly New Zealanders who have free access to Australia)
D 20 ec 16
D 20 ec 11
D 20 ec 06
D 20 ec 01
D 19 ec 96
D 19 ec 91
0
Total population growth
Among them, a strong emphasis has been given to the skilled/labour category as it contributes to national economic growth (70% of the migration program). Consequently, as the latest Australian Bureau of Statistics data attests (ABS, 2017), the ‘Net Overseas Migration’ incidence (NOM) contribute 56.0% to total population growth for the last year, while the ‘natural increase incidence’ (births - deaths) only the 40,9%.
028
chapter 02
SEEKING TERRA AUSTRALIS
Liveable city rankings
Monocle
The Economist
Mercer
Top 25 in 2016
Top 10 in 2016
Top 25 in 2016
1. Tokyo
13. Zurich
1. Melbourne
1. Vienna
2. Berlin
14. Madrid
2. Vienna
2. Zurich
14. Bern
3. Vienna
15. Hamburg
3. Vancouver
3. Auckland
16. Melbourne
4. Copenhagen
16. Lisbon
4. Toronto
4. Munich
16. Toronto
13. Berlin
5. Munich
17. Dusseldorf
5. Calgary
5. Vancouver
17. Ottawa
6. Melbourne
18. Hong Kong
5. Adelaide
6. Dusseldorf
18. Hamburg
7. Fukuoka
19. Barcelona
7. Perth
7. Frankfurt
20. Luxembourg
8. Sydney
20. Singapore
8. Auckland
8. Geneva
20. Stockholm
9. Kyoto
21. Amsterdam
9. Helsinki
9. Copenhagen
22. Brussels
10. Sydney
22. Perth
23. Honolulu
11. Amsterdam
23. Montreal
24. Portland
12. Wellington
25. Stuttgart
10. Stockholm
22. Auckland
11. Vancouver 12. Helsinki
10. Hamburg
25. Montreal
25. Nuremberg
Growth is concentrated in the larger capital cities with some recurring trends and challenges, including the decline of suburban manufacturing employment and growth of new ‘knowledge economy’ jobs mainly in the inner cities; housing unaffordability, especially in the two largest cities of Sydney and Melbourne; climate change threats and dysfunctions in metropolitan governance.
or high-quality educational institution (renowned universities, international student attendance, and research facilities). Moreover, all of Australia’s major cities fare well in global comparative livability surveys; Melbourne reached top spot for the sixth year in a row on The Economist’s 2016 list of the world’s most liveable cities, followed by Adelaide and Perth in the 5th and 7th places respectively. Sydney has just dropped out of the top ten this year due to fears over terrorism.
With some of the highest human development index globally, the country ranks highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom, civil liberties and political rights. Indeed, five out of eight Australian capital cities are Global cities (GaWC, 2016) as they variously meet international standard characteristics such as headquarters of several multinational corporations, a high percentage of residents employed in the service/information sectors
In conclusion, Australian cities seem to be well-oiled machines. However, as the following chapters will explain, some critical issues in the traditional urban planning system, outline the inability in facing the challenges predicted for the near future.
029
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
++
+
=
-
Alpha Beta Gamma Sufficiency level cities
Global Cities Source: ‘The World According to GaWC’ 2016
030
chapter 02
SEEKING TERRA AUSTRALIS
“Global cities are strategic sites in the global economy because of their concentration of command functions and high-level producer service firms oriented to world markets; more generally cities with high levels of internationalisation in their economy and in their broader social structure.� (Sassen, The Global City, 1991)
031
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
02
02 Australia’s cities and rivers
As previously mentioned, urbanisation in Australia has been driven mainly by climatic constraints. Cities’ settlement occurred on the coastal areas bounded by mountain ranges as a protection against the dry environment of the outback. Nevertheless, a recurring element characterises each capital city: it is the constant presence of a water body, usually in the form of a river.
Aboriginals ‘body and soul’, so what affects the land and water is repeated and reflected in the souls of the people. Traditional knowledge, cultural beliefs and practices rely heavily on the foundation laid by creation or dreaming stories, with their explanations of land formation, animal behaviour, plant uses and remedies, and how the land and its ecology must be managed. Since Aboriginals traditional culture has never been recorded through the written word, the library of knowledge was embedded in the people, their living environment, and expressed through stories, songs, dances and artworks which were, and still are, passed down through the generations today.
2.2.1 // Aboriginals first... Either means of transportation and communication channels or irrigation springs for fields, rivers have always been fundamental elements for civilisation purposes. Specifically, Australia’s rivers are central to traditional Aboriginal beliefs and practices as well as rich and abundant sources of water, food, and shelter. For Aboriginal people, water has a spiritual significance and is not looked upon as an element to be managed in its own right, on the contrary as a part of the natural, spiritual and environmental order of things. Rivers or wetlands are more than landscape features or natural resources. They become part of
There are many variations of creation stories in different Aboriginal groups throughout Australia. Some describe the Rainbow Serpent as the creator of rivers, streams and waterholes. Known by many names, the serpent was assumed to move across the land into the river from its resting places in nearby waterholes and billabongs, carving the landscape with its long and powerful body
032
chapter 02
SEEKING TERRA AUSTRALIS
to cleanse the rivers and their people. This creation belief relates to a profound respect for water in a dry land, which given the spiritual dimension in human life, has become expressed as a creative force, god-like or spirit in animalised form (O’Connor et al., 1989).
mainly from the historical ‘colonisation era’ started in the 18th century. The British Empire spread out via its Navy and looked for places with good harbours that could shelter ships. Most of the good soil for farming was close to the coast, and as for the centre of Australia, the majority of Australia is arid, so unless there was some economic incentive such as a mine or a telegraph station, towns did not develop to the extent as the cities of the coast. Trade and transport were also easier by sea than land, hence the exploration of the inland country upriver.
However, the long custodianship of Australia by Aboriginal people was interrupted some 220 years ago, with the European colonisation, resulting in a rapid transition to a modern western nation. This has involved considerable suffering from misguided western customs and prejudices, affecting many generations of Aboriginals, their culture and traditions.
Australia came together through federation and was initially a set of independent colonies. When the Commonwealth of Australia officially formed on 1 January 1901, it was composed of six states and ten federal territories, two of which in the mainland.
2.2.2 // ... Europeans later Other than climatic issues, the reasons behind coastal urbanisation of Australia come
Rainbow Serpent, Darlene Devery
033
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
SA
ADELAIDE
18
35
29 PERTH
BRISBANE QLD
18
HOBART TA S
States: NSW // New South Wales QLD // Queensland SA // South Australia TAS // Tasmania VIC // Victoria WA // Western Australia
WA
25 18
03 18
18
00
17
18
88
36
VIC
MELBOURNE
SYDNEY
NSW
Capital cities’ settlement
NT QLD
WA SA
NSW
Federal territories: ACT // Australian Capital Territory NT // Northern Territory
VIC
ACT
TA S
034
chapter 02
13 19
m m of on 19 Au we 0 st al 0 ra th lia
DARWIN
Co
18
69
CANBERRA
ACT
SEEKING TERRA AUSTRALIS
penal colony NT
free settlement
The initial capital cities were founded as penal colonies to exile prisoners, except for Adelaide (South Australia) and Darwin (Northern Territory), which were originally founded as ‘free settlements’ of responsible and skilled workers. Regardless the origins, each capital city have been settled on a river generally at 10/20 km inland and later spread out along the coast. Interestingly, the relationship between ‘city & river’ varies often on the morphology of
the river itself. Among the Australian cities, three river forms have been identified, to which common metabolic characteristics of the city may be attributed. / NARROW RIVERBED It is the most common morphology, typical of Brisbane (Queensland), Melbourne (Victoria), Adelaide (South Australia) and Canberra (Australian Capital Territory), as well as London, Paris and Los Angeles.
035
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
In this case, the river has a fairly constant meandriform pattern that tends to widen approaching to the mouth. The river is not perceived as a limit. Indeed it is perfectly integrated into the metabolism of the city for the ease in being crossable by bridges and infrastructures. It is also a resource for an efficient public transport system, not by chance the totality of the cities is endowed with a net of ferries that connect the main nodal points of the city. Besides, the riverbanks are a place of linear public parks, cycle footsteps and some of the principal attractions of the city.
the port connection with other cities rather than within the city as it is the case of rivers. The cities facing directly the ocean enjoy the climatic conditions coming from the environment. However, they are often victims of such, as for Darwin, due to the tropical savanna climate, the frequency of devastating cyclones is increasing every year (Australian Bureau of Meteorology).
NARROW RIVERBED Brisbane, Melbourne, Adelaide, Canberra
// WIDE RIVERBED This morphology characterises the cities of Sydney (New South Wales) and Hobart (Tasmania), as well as New York. The river is larger in size with distant shores even a few kilometres far from each other and is fed by many small creeks and stormwater drains. The wide riverbanks do not allow a large number of infrastructure links. On the other hand, it becomes a primary vehicle for the transportation either of people and goods, as industries are located nearby. This type of river is often used for recreational purposes. Indeed, there are numerous water sports facilities located along the banks that despite being mostly private clubs, are surrounded by green parks and sports area. Wherever there are no areas of public interest, this type of landscape is portrayed by the presence of most of the luxurious houses in the suburbs overlooking the river.
WIDE RIVERBED Sydney, Hobart
OCEANIC SIDE Darwin
For what concerns environmental vulnerabilities, cities on rivers are affected by something estimated to be the ‘costliest natural disaster’ in Australia (Middelmann, 2007): riverine floods.
/// OCEANIC SIDE It is the case of Darwin (Northern Territory), as well as Chicago, Miami and San Francisco. The relationship city-water here occurs in
036
chapter 02
SEEKING TERRA AUSTRALIS
Riverine oods are episodes following heavy rainfall when watercourses do not have the capacity to convey the excess water. They occur in relatively low-lying areas adjacent to streams and rivers. Despite bringing welcome relief for people and ecosystems suffering from prolonged drought, every year in Australia floods cause millions of dollars damage to buildings and critical infrastructure, such as roads and railways as well as to agricultural land and crops. Between 1852 and 2011, at least 951 people were killed by floods, another 1326 were injured, and the cost of damage reached an estimated $4.76 billion dollars (Carbone & Hanson, 2012). Among the worst flood episodes occurred in recent times, it can be recalled the one that hit Brisbane and the South-East Queensland Region between December 2010 and January 2011. With more than 200,000 people affected statewide and 35 confirmed deaths, the economic damage from this flood was estimated at $2.38 billion. In Brisbane, the river peaked at 4.46m on 13 January, flooding more than 28,000 homes and leaving 100,000 without power.
037
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
BRISBANE Queensland // QLD / 2.308.700 inh / #4 / AUS capital city by growth rate (1.6 %)
1.367 km2 suburbs 2 km2 city centre
15.842 km2
Greater Brisbane
BRISBANE RIVER
13.600 km2
20
15 km inland
catchment size
bridges
city centre
344 km
150 - 620 m
lenght
width
12 km city waterfront
157,6 km suburban waterfront
F
riverine flood 1841 1890 1893 1927 1931 1974 2011 2013
038
chapter 02
SEEKING TERRA AUSTRALIS
MELBOURNE / VIC // Victoria / 4.529.500 inh / #1 AUS capital city by growth rate (2.1 %)
37 km2 city centre
9.990 km2
Greater Melbourne
YARRA RIVER
4.078 km2
22
9 km inland
catchment size
bridges
city centre
242 km
30 - 150 m
lenght
width
24 km city waterfront
129 km suburban waterfront
F
riverine flood 1839 1863 1882 1891 1934 1954 1972 1984 1999 2010 2011
039
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
ADELAIDE South Australia // SA / 1.316.800 inh / #6 / AUS capital city by growth rate (0.9 %)
15,6 km2 city centre
3.258 km2
Greater Adelaide
RIVER TORRENS
508 km2
11
9,5 km inland
catchment size
bridges
city centre
85 km
15 m
lenght
width
10 km city waterfront
F
riverine flood 1840 1844 1931 1933
040
54 km suburban waterfront
chapter 02
SEEKING TERRA AUSTRALIS
CANBERRA / ACT // Australian Capital Territory / 390.700 inh / #5 AUS capital city by growth rate (1.4 %)
814 km2 suburbs 1,5 km2 city centre
2.358 km2
Australian Capital Territory
MOLONGLO RIVER
198.900 km2
9
15 km inland
catchment size
bridges
city centre
15 km
30 m
lenght
width
29,4 km city waterfront
28 km suburban waterfront
F
riverine flood 1852 1861 1870 1915 1922 1925 1926 1929 1931 1934 1948 1950 1956 1959 1961 1971 1976
041
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
SY D N E Y New South Wales // NSW / 4.921.000 inh / #3 / AUS capital city by growth rate (1.7 %)
27 km2 city centre
12.368 km2
Greater Sydney
PARRMATTA RIVER
252,4 km2
15
8,2 km inland
catchment size
bridges
city centre
14 km
130 - 3.820 m
lenght
width
8,4 km city waterfront
158,2 km suburban waterfront
F
riverine flood 1938 1943 1949 1955 1961 1971 1973 1975 1984 1991 1998 2001
042
chapter 02
SEEKING TERRA AUSTRALIS
HOBART / TAS // Tasmania / 221.000 inh / #7 AUS capital city by growth rate (0.8 %)
78 km2 city centre
1.695 km2
Greater Hobart
RIVER DERWENT
9.832 km2
6
21 km inland
catchment size
bridges
city centre
239 km
150 - 5.000 m
lenght
width
2,6 km city waterfront
63 km suburban waterfront
F
riverine flood 1854 1863 1889 1928 1941 1944 1953 1958 1960 1971
043
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
DARWIN Northern Territory // NT / 142.300 inh / #2 / capital city by growth rate (1.9 %)
112 km2 suburbs 2 km2 city centre
3.164 km2
Greater Darwin
DARWIN HARBOUR
3.227 km2
0
0 km inland
harbour size
bridges
city centre
45 km
6.000 - 20.000 m
lenght
width
13,5 km city waterfront
100 km suburban waterfront
F
tropical cyclones flood 1974 1998 2005 2006 2008 2010 2011 2011
044
chapter 02
SEEKING TERRA AUSTRALIS
PERTH / WA // Western Australia / 2.039.200 inh / #4 capital city by growth rate (1.6 %)
20 km2 city centre
6.418 km2
Greater Perth
SWAN & CANNING RIVERS
#Perth? Since the thesis refers to a specific case in the city of Perth it is natural to wonder which of the previous morphologies the city and its river match. Unfortunately, a simple classification it is not enough since Perth and its river embodies each of the three categories listed above.
As a result, a more detailed and complete analysis will be further discussed in the following chapters.
045
// framework
03 WELCOME TO PERTH The world’s most remote city
tav. 2
047
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
03
01 Perth’s introduction
‘One of the most isolated capital cities in the world’ is what has always defined Perth located at over 2.600 km drive from Adelaide, the closest Australian city over a million of habitants. Geographically speaking it is close to East Timor (2.785 km) and Jakarta (3.018 km) rather than Sydney (3.294 km). There’s no city of comparable size anywhere in the world that’s so remote (Gill, 2015). In fact, as Lacy Gow, a family mediator from Perth, says:
“Perth is so isolated that it is quicker, easier and cheaper to fly to Bali then to fly to the east coast. To drive to the east coast, you would cross the Nullarbor Plain, the world’s largest single exposure of limestone bedrock. It is a long, straight and desolate drive that being said; there are few reasons to leave Perth if you love the sunshine, sand and delicious food and wine.” (Gill, 2015)
050
chapter 03
WELCOME TO PERTH / The world’s most remote city.
Bali
Jakarta
64
km
2.7
18
2.621 km
3.0
km
East Timor
Brisbane m 3.610 k
Perth
3.294 km 2.134
km
Sydney
Adelaide
Flying distances from Perth Source: Distance Calculator
051
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
Perth is also an example of a sprawled city, where around 80% of housing supply is in the form of detached dwellings and where greenfield development on the urban fringe has historically accounted for around 70% of all new development. Its current built-up urban area stretches for more than 150 kilometres from north to south. However, suburban sprawl is not just typical of Perth; it’s the endemic built form of all the others Australian capital city.
During the first half of the 20th century Australia has grown from the spatial pattern established by British colonialism, that can be identified as the beginning of the systemic suburbanization of Australian cities. Afterwards, drivers of urban development such as industrialisation, migration and, latterly, globalisation, have reinforced the importance of the state capitals and fuelled their population growth. Unusually, rather than being compact and dominated by high-density apartment blocks or other tall buildings as is the case of the main cities internationally, the most notable feature in Australian cities is a highly suburbanized and geographically expansive territory with the predominance of the ‘single-storey detached family homes’ as the standard dwelling type. From the amount of space occupied by each of these millions of ‘ideal homes’, result metropolitan areas that are some of the largest and lowest density in the world.
3.1.1 // Sprawled Australia While Australia’s self-image is a rural or ‘bush’ environment, the reality instead shows one of the world’s most (sub)urbanised societies. More than 60% of Australians live in the eight State and Territory capitals, and nearly 40% in the two largest cities, Sydney and Melbourne alone (Frost et al., 2016).
For instance, Sydney, the Australia’s biggest capital city has a current metropolitan population of more than 4 million inhabitants in an area greater than 12.000 km. However, it has an average population density of less than 400 per km². Moreover, Hobart, the smallest capital city, contains 212,000 people spread across nearly 1200 km² at a density of only 123 inh/km², some of the lowest in the world. These numbers are even lower compared to those of similarly suburban nations such as Canada where Greater Vancouver has over 800 inh/km². In further contrast, in more densely-settled European urban regions such as Greater Paris and Greater Berlin, the figures are close to 4000 people/km², that means nearly ten times those of Sydney.
+60% of Australians live in capital cities
~40% live in Sydney and Melbourne
052
chapter 03
12.562 km² /// area: area: area: 12.562 km² /// 12.562k //////area: 12.562 212 people/km² /// density: /// density: 212 /// people/km² density: 212 people/ /// density: 212 people/k
/// area: /// area: /// density: /// density:
WELCOME TO PERTH / The world’s most remote city.
100 km 100 km
100 km
100 km
LO LO S A N G E L E SS ANGELES LO S A N G E L E S LO P SE A LO N G E L E S N GSE A LE R TS HALO NSG E L E S
VE N CR O UN VE VA CR OUVER NECRO U V E R VA N C O U V E R
///12.562 area: km²
/// area:
12.562 km² /// area:
///28.117 area: km²
VA N C O U V E RVA N C O U V E R VA N C O U V E R VA N C OVA UV NECRO UN VE SY DRON VA C U VEEYR
28.117 km² /// area:
2.700 km²
/// 2.700 area: km²
/// area: 12.562 area: 28.117 /// area: 2.700 km² //////urban area 6.418 km² //////urban area km² /// urban area 12.368 km² density: 212km² people/km² density:9.900 509km² people/km² density: 802 people/km² density: 212/// people/km² /// density: 509/// people/km² /// density: 802/// people/km²
x 100 people
x 100 people
x 100 people x 100 people
12.368 km²
/ density:12.368 420km² people/km² people/km² 12.368 12.368 km² / area: km² 12.368 km² 420 people/km² people/km² :/ density: 420 people/km² 420 people/km²
CHICAGO CHICAGO CHICAGO CH OI C CGH OI CNAE MI CEAL B OAU CGHR GO
x 100 people x 100 people
100 km 100 km
australia
SYDNEY Y YDNEY Y SY D N E Y DNEY SY
/ area: km² 12.368
6.418 km² /// area: /// area: 9.990 km² /// area: /// area: 9.990 km² 12.368 km² area: 6.418 km² 12.368 km² area: 6.418 km² 9.990 km² /// 12.368 area: 12.368 km² /// area: 6.418 km² /// 6.418 6.418 ///km² area: km² area: 9.990 km² /// area: 9.990 /// km² area: area: 12.368 km² /// 12.368km² km² /// area: /// /// area: 9.990 km² ////// area: 320 people/km² /// density: /// density: 453 people/km² /// density:/// density: 420 people/km² /// density: 320 people/km² 453 people/km² 420 people/km² /// density: 320 people/km² /// density: 453 people/km² /// density: 420 people/km² 320 /// people/km² density: 320 people/km² /// density: 453 /// people/km² density: 453 people/km² /// density: 420 /// people/km² density: 420 people/km² /// density: 320 people/km² /// density: 453 people/km² /// density: 420 people/km²
/// area: /// area: /// density: /// density:
/// area: /// area: ///12.562 /// area: /// area: ///28.117 /// area: /// area: /// 2.700 12.562 km² 28.117 km² area: km² 12.562 km² area: km² 28.117 km² area: km²2.700 km² 2.700 km² /// density: 212 people/km² density: 509 people/km² /// density: 802 people/km² /// density 320 inh/km² //////density 453 inh/km² /// density 420 inh/km² /// density: 212///people/km² /// density: 509///people/km² /// density: 802///people/km² /// density: 212 people/km² /// density: 509 people/km² /// density: 802 people/km² density: 212 people/km² density: 509 people/km² density: 802 people/km²
america
PA R I SPA R I SPA R I S PA R I S PA R I S PA R I S
LO N D O NN D O LO NN D O N LO LO N D OLO N NDON LO N D O N
R O M ER O M ER O M E ROME ROME ROME
2.700 km²2.700 km²2.700 km² / area:
/// area: /// area: /// area: 2.845 km²2.845 km²2.845 km² /// area: /// area: /// area: 8.382 km²8.382 km²8.382 km² /// area: /// area: /// area: 1.285 km²1.285 km²1.285 km²
2.700 km² 2.700 km²people/km² people/km² 802 / density: 802 people/km² area: 2.700 km² 802 people/km² eople/km² density: 802 people/km²
/// 2.845 /// density: area: 8.382 ///density: area: 1.285 //////area: 2.845 km² /// area: /// 8.382 /// area: /// 1.285 density: 3.700///people/km² 5.518///people/km² 2.232///people/km² /// area: density: 3.700 people/km² 5.518km² people/km² 2.232km² people/km² density: 3.700km² people/km² density: 5.518km² people/km² density: 2.232 km² people/km² /// area: 2.845 km²/// density: /// area: 8.382 km² density: /// area: 1.285 km²
LO S A N G E L E S
CHICAGO
/// urban area 12.562 km²
/// urban area 28.117 km²
/// urban area
VA N C O U V E R
/// density
/// density
/// density
3.700 people/km² 5.518 people/km² 2.232 people/km² /// density:/// density: 3.700 people/km² /// density:/// density: 5.518 people/km² /// density:/// density: 2.232 people/km² /// density: 3.700 people/km² /// density: 5.518 people/km² /// density: 2.232 people/km²
212 inh/km²
509 inh/km²
2.700 km² 802 inh/km²
europe
PA R I S /// urban area /// density
2.845 km²
3.700 inh/km²
LO N D O N /// urban area /// density
8.382 km²
5.518 inh/km²
053
ROME /// urban area /// density
1.285 km²
2.232 inh/km²
/// area:
PA R I S PA R I PA R I SPA R I S
/// 2.845 area: k
/// area: /// densit density: 3.700 people/k ////// area: km /// area: /// 2.845 area: /// density: 3.700 /// density: 3.700///people/km /// density: 3.700 p density:
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
While the emphasis on suburban rather than urban life is rooted in the past, it still retains its appeal today and it doesn’t depend on a cultural basis. Australian cities have amongst the highest levels of overseas-born residents anywhere in the world. As the Australian prime minister Malcom Turnbull said in the 20 March 2017 speech:
Sydney is the most multicultural city in Australia, with 39% of its population born overseas as of 2011, according to the last ABS census. In comparison, both New York City (2013 data) and London (2011 census) have 37% of people born overseas. Meanwhile 35% of Melbourne’s population were born abroad, and 37% of Perth’s, with another 20% having at least one overseas-born parent.
“We are much more diverse in terms of the number of people who are born overseas or are children of parents who are born overseas than any comparable nation. Much more diverse than the United States… Only California has a percentage as a diversity that approaches Australia,”
Despite more than 200 different cultures, with increasing numbers having no link to British social or cultural traditions, the idea of ownership of a single-family detached suburban dwelling is encompassed by the totality of residents.
(Steger, 2017)
1.300.000 1.000.000 700.000 400.000
United Kingdom
New Zealand India
5 20 1
4 20 1
13 20
20
12
1
20
20 1
10
9 20 0
8 20 0
07 20
20
06
100.000
China
Philippines
Estimated resident population, Australia / Top five countries of birth (outside Australia) Source: Migration, Australia, 2014-2015
054
chapter 03
WELCOME TO PERTH / The world’s most remote city.
This historical and persistent preference for suburban rather than urban life and the associated low population and dwelling density in Australia also means that providing fixed urban services such as water, sewerage and transport are getting more expensive, both because of the sheer vastness of the rails and pipes these things need in an extensive urban area, but also because the cost per person/dwelling is enormous. Whereas in a densely built-up area these costs are shared between thousands of residents per km², in most Australian cities it is at best hundreds.
ning out of the basic raw materials required to build conventional suburbs, including sand, limestone and clay, thus, in a booming economy predicted to last for decades, it should question itself on how to better accommodate the demographic flows that result from it. It can just go on producing more of the same form of suburbia as today, but there are currently questions on the never-ending availability of cheap oil, water and food and changing lifestyles that suggest the need for alternative forms of urbanism.
‘Australians have been happy to bear the burden of those costs’ in order to ‘benefit from the high private amenity of low-density living’ (Frost et al., 2016, p. 9) For instance, the traditionally wasteful use of water for greening ‘unproductive’ or ‘ornamental’ spaces such as gardens and lawns while on the other hand Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide and two times Perth have had to set up desalination plants to face a daily basis supply in a water scarcity reality, highlights a trend with origins hidden in the urban form.
2.53 million sq km
Perth has only a short history – less than 200 years – yet, it has grown from a pioneer outpost to a modern metropolis. The comfortable suburban environment that Perth has become is ‘running out of steam’ (Gleeson, 2006) under many fronts. Sitting within the threatened ‘Southwest Australia Biodiversity Hotspot’, one of the only thirty-five in the world, Perth’s suburban development has continuously affected its exceptional biodiversity, causing the loss of 93% of its original vegetation. Moreover, Perth is run-
Perth
South-west Australia Biodiversity Hotspot Source: Aus Gov, Dep of Enviroment and Energy
055
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
03
02 #yesterday
/// How did we get here?
3.2.1 // 1800s. Un-planned early life of a British free settlement
The 1833’s ‘Arrowsmith Plan’ was the first attempt of planned settlement in Perth. It belongs to a long tradition of design for colonial towns due to its orthogonal street grid pattern. Historically, this was a necessary precondition of capitalist colonies as the grid ‘was a machine for producing private property and so private wealth’. Nevertheless, in a landscape where the fear of the unknown and the aboriginal people was inescapable, the relative clarity and boundedness of the grid would have helped to maintain European values in the face of an ‘apparently malevolent environment’.
For nearly 40.000 years the original inhabitants of Perth have been the Noongar Aboriginal people. Then in the 1690s, it has been the time of the early European explorations even though they didn’t produce any physical results since the environment was not perceived suitable to settle a colony. Interestingly, just a century later, in 1829, Captain James Stirling found Perth along the banks of the River Swan, describing the land in these terms:
The richness of the soil, the bright foliage of the shrubs, the majesty of the surrounding trees, the abrupt and red colour banks of the river occasionally seen, and the view of the blue mountains from which we were not far distant, made the scenery of this spot as beautiful as anything of the kind I ever witnessed.” (Whish-Wilson, 2013,
A plan interesting feature was the rotated grid with side street running parallel the river. This decision made by John Septimus Roe, the first surveyor general of Perth, has often been regarded as a mistake: if the grid had run predominately perpendicular to the river, the city and the river would have been better connected, due to the greater number of streets providing direct views and access to the foreshore. Septimus Roe laid out also the town sites of Perth, Fremantle and Guildford. Fremantle was meant to be the port city and entrance of the colony; Guildford, instead, the loading point for agricultural product that were
p. 26)
Stirling’s description led private individuals to sell all in England and invest in and emigrate to the Swan River colony – the first British colony ever been established solely for private settlement in Australia.
056
chapter 03
WELCOME TO PERTH / The world’s most remote city.
Arrowsmith Plan, John Septimus Roe, 1833
057
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
needed to be shipped down the Swan River, and Perth the administrative and military hub.
decade 1850-59 and fivefold from 1860-69 due to the transportation of male convicts. Once transportation ceased in 1868, the rate of population growth slowed down, but as soon as the gold has been discovery in Western Australia at the end of the 1880s, the population in Perth quadrupled from 16.000 to 61.000 in a way that quickly led to the overcrowding of existing residential accommodation.
The early land grants were long narrow blocks with river frontages to allow farming and to assist with transport and communication between the shores: the main population centres along the river for much of the nineteenth century. Initially most houses were built around these centres and then, after the introduction of convicts in 1850, around convict depots and pensioner guard villages on road and river transport routes. From the 1880s, large tracts of land were subdivided for suburban development with the opening of the Fremantle-Perth-Guildford railway (1881).
IRON ORE RUSH (1970/80)
600.000 610.000 inh
600.000
Said that, mining and other global connections have been the drivers that shaped the city over the history. Since the first settlement, Perth slowly grew in size for the first hundred years till the mid-nineteenth century. After this point the colony’s population ballooned, increasing threefold in the
+ 45.000 inh
+ 10.000 inh
(1850/70)
400.000
400.000
300.000
300.000
200.000
61.000 inh
200.000
16.000 inh
9.600 inh
+550.000 inh
GOLD RUSH
(1885/95)
PENAL COLONY
3.200 inh
500.000
500.000
100.000
100.000
988 00
191
00
944
191 058
191
9000 0
00
866
181
Demographic booms
181 822 0
0
0
0
chapter 03
WELCOME TO PERTH / The world’s most remote city.
Swan River Colony land grants, John Septimus Roe, 1839
059
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
Once development reached capacity, pioneers colonies sprung up on the outskirts of suburban settlement along rail and tram lines built together with ports, roads, bridges and public infrastructures at the end of the century as the lure of gold brought genuine wealth in the colony. This public transport infrastructure allowed families to live away from the crowded and increasingly unhealthy city centres, yet maintaining a link to their employment and service opportunities.
Among the immediate solutions to such issue one reflected directly the urban form since the authorities began insisting on minimum lot sizes to ensure adequate separation between water source and own sewage. The recommended standard was the quarter of acre lot – approximately a frontage of 20 meters and depth of 50 meters creating a 1.012 m² parcel – becoming the DNA building block of Perth’s suburbs. Such large space provision gave the early suburbs their enduring qualities of space, nature, and independence. With the backyards devoted to the functional necessities of suburban life, the frontage of the lots could have been developed for more aesthetic purposes. The road, an important symbol for the suburbs, provided the window onto other people’s lifestyles: the design of front verandas, windows, doors, and front gardens were all indicative of the ‘importance of appearance’ for the early suburban dwellers.
Early suburban development in Perth spread out endlessly in a largely free-form. At the time, there was no requirement to build roads or provide any services, so the land was both cheap and plentiful. The lack of reticulated underground water systems and sewerage, combined to a predominant sandy soil, led to self-spontaneous infrastructures. As a result, by the turn of the century, this became the main cause of many debilitating, or worse, deadly disease.
20
50
m
m
1.012 sqm*
ORIGINAL QUARTER OF ACRE LOT
* acre = 4.048 sq m 1/4 acre = 1.012 sq m
Quarter of acre lot evolution
060
0m
chapter 03
WELCOME TO PERTH / The world’s most remote city.
3.2.2 // 1900-50s. A new planning dawn
between the front and rear gardens – noteworthy is the 7,6 m front setback commonly used until the 1970s.
Town planning legislation was introduced into Western Australia only in 1928 with the ‘Town Planning and Development Act’ mainly for the control over the subdivision of land and the continuous demand of basic services (water, sewage, gas, electricity), public and private transport.
While elevated sandy soils of the coastal plain have never been a major impediment to development, the lower-lying swamplands did constrain the consistent spread of suburbia.
With proper infrastructure provision, the size of lots could have been reduced, so the quarter-acre block of the early century became 800 m² in the post-war period and then 600 m² by the 1960s (Weller, 2009). Serviced land was precious and as the cost of land increased so did the pressure to reduce lots sizes. The planning legislation took over the design of suburbs also introducing rigid controls over the siting of housing and lots. Front, rears and side setbacks were standard local government controls that led to a more codified and uniform distribution of space
Besides the parallel-to-river grid rotations, Septimus Roe led down a generous terrace fronting a large open space adjoining the river to reflect Stirling’s intention that Perth was to be the administrative centre while Fremantle the port’s colony city. Therefore, the Perth’s foreshore has been left for recreational pursuits. However, during the period of growing wealth and power between the 1880s and 1970s, state and city have seen the reclamation of large areas of the Swan River banks and the re-engineering of the landscape.
13 1 m 3 m
17 1 m 7 m
47 47m m
45 45m 600600 sqm sqm m
800800 sqm sqm
7,5tback ,5 m 7 tback se m
7,5tback ,5 m 7 tback se m
se
se
POST-WAR LOT
1960s LOT
061
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
3.2.3 // 1950s. Post-war Positive Period
This holistic plan was designed to accommodate 1.4 million people by 2005: a prediction on Perth’s population growth with remarkable accuracy. It also provided the basis for the city’s current spatial form, with urban areas separated by green wedges of nonurban land. It set the groundwork for the development of national parks and identified the importance of securing river foreshores and coastal zones for the benefit of all Western Australians. The basic outline was to create ‘centres of growth’ on the outskirts of the metropolitan area. Each of these was to have a high school, a district centre, district industry and a series of residential neighbourhoods, whereas the connection among them was provided by eight regional highways and an extended rail network.
The 1950s, a time in the history when optimism and economic growth were both high, do seem to be a ‘golden (economic) age’. Indeed, the decades of the 1950s and 1960s witnessed major urban expansion in Australia, due to population growth, a long economic boom and an optimistic mood in which society was committed to major post-war reconstruction. Given the growth paradigm of the 1950s, the decade saw the launch of several large ambitious plans to cater for the future development of the capital city, which mainly contained ideas imported from the United Kingdom. Overall, 1950s plans in Australian cities were top-down documents, largely concerned with issues faced in the mother country facilitating development efficiently in the interest of the ruling hegemony of land-related interests: through land allocation and provision of good transport – particularly road – all without a strong public participation.
The recommendations of the 1955 plan passed into legislation as the Metropolitan Region Town Planning Scheme Act in 1959. Under this act, a Metropolitan Region Planning Authority (MRPA) was created with the responsibility of reviewing and converting the plan into a town planning scheme and then administering it. The result was the 1963 ‘Metropolitan Region Scheme’, the first statutory regional plan still in place today as the overarching planning framework for the Perth metropolitan area.
The population surge created by post-war migration on top of natural increases had led to the rapid outward expansion of the Perth and its suburbs. Among the wave of post-war migrants, there were many prominent British planners, such as Alistair Hepburn and Gordon Stephenson the author of the 1955 ‘Stephenson and Hepburn’s plan’; the landmark document that defined Perth. There had been no previous attempt to prepare a plan for the whole metropolitan area, so Stephenson and Hepburn were free to set key parameters. The natural boundaries were used in defining a 5.000 km² area - roughly 110 by 50 km.
From the early 1970s, mineral exports were fuelling a land boom around Perth, with demand being inflated by real estate promotion. At the 1966 Royal Australian Institute of Architects convention, Gordon Stephenson stated that in the ‘new era of planning ideas […] corridor development must be positively planned and services closely programmed’ to avoid unexpected development. Following this basis in 1970,
062
chapter 03
WELCOME TO PERTH / The world’s most remote city.
Stephenson and Hepburn’s plan, Gordon Stephenson, Alistar Hepburn, 1955
063
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
3.2.4 // 1990s. Turning the century
the structure, development strategy and measures were defined in ‘The Corridor Plan’ for Perth. The aim was to channelling urban growth along self-sufficient corridor communities, with nonurban green wedges between each corridor.
In the late 1990s, most Australian metropolitan areas had strategic plans. Their aims were those of the late 1980s and early 1990s – bringing together environmental, social and economic concerns – but with a stronger emphasis on economic policy, on the purpose of plans to provide a framework for investment and on their means of implementation. Urban policies were focusing the general pursuit of the compact city, which involves the desire to slow the outward growth of city and suburbs, create a more diverse housing stock and protect the viability of central cities. Environmental issues, expressed through increased concerns for air and water quality, were still avoiding the integration of land use and transport planning.
However, the plan had been prepared at a time where the city’s population was 700.000 inhabitants, and in just a decade the city had reached a population of one million. Consequently, a review of the corridor concept was necessary. Once the review was completed in the 1987, its recommendation eventually provided the basis of a metropolitan plan published in 1990 as ‘Metroplan: A Planning Strategy for the Perth Metropolitan Region’. In order to consolidate development within existing urban areas as well as on the extremities of the region, it placed emphasis on establishing efficient public transport routes and on planning for industrial and commercial land use and development. Corridors were retained, broadened in some cases, and to the already four existing north-west towards Joondalup, north-east towards Ellenbrook, south-east towards Armadale and south-west towards Mandurah – a fifth north-eastern one has been added along the Swan River Valley. Transport spines remained the focus of the planning system but public transport access to these spines emerged as a significant policy shift.
The long-established Metropolitan Region Scheme persisted as the Perth’s principal planning document. Nonetheless, the WAPC (Western Australia Planning Commission) in 1997 delivered the State Planning Strategy the first document of its kind in Australia required by State law which placed Perth’s future growth in a broader context, the Western Australia State. With a 2029 planning horizon, by which time Perth should have reached a population of about 2 million, deliberate policies were meant to develop several smaller towns and communities to the east and south-west of the capital.
In some respect, this was an ambivalent plan, simultaneously advocating both the decentralisation and the strengthening of central Perth, suburbanization and consolidation, public transport improvement and road construction.
In other respects, the State Planning Strategy echoes plans elsewhere – more priority for freight and high-occupancy vehicles, closer integration of land use planning transport, a mixed development in district and neighbourhood centres, and strategic
064
chapter 03
WELCOME TO PERTH / The world’s most remote city.
Corridor Plan, Metropolitan Region Planning Authority, 1970
065
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
public transport systems along corridors linking activity centres.
was built on the postulates of urban consolidation with Perth as a ‘connected city’ through an emphasis on Peter Calthorpe’s notion of Transit Oriented Developments (TODs): integrated transport and land use within a network of places connected by corridors that allow for the movement of freight and people. Network City’s authors, the Western Australian Planning Commission (WAPC), envisaged Perth becoming a polycentric city whereby infill development would create higher-density enclaves clustered around approximately 120 nodes (sites such as shopping centres, train stations, campuses and medical facilities) within the existing suburban fabric of the city. These places of exchange were defined as activity centres, and were connected by activity corridors. Public transport was to be supported by a range of activities at the centres as well as the land uses along the activity corridors linking the centres.
New development was to be based on ‘urban villages’ often designed according to the new urbanism principles, as a contrast to the conventional suburban development; thus, sustainable, compact, and identifiable residential areas with clear centres. This principle became the basis of The Liveable Neighbourhoods Community Design Code promoted by WAPC in 1997, an operational policy for the design and assessment of structure plans and subdivision for new urban – predominantly residential – areas in the metropolitan area and country centres, on greenfield and large urban infill sites. By the end of the 20th century, state and local governments throughout Australia were pursuing strategies to make their capital city-regions more sustainable, particularly encouraging more compact urban forms and reduction in car dependency. However, on a hand, a major tension between the environmental concerns was seen as underpinning renewed popular and political support for public planning, and, on the other hand, the rise of ‘market triumphalism’, acknowledging the turn to light-handed neo-liberal policies concerned about global competitiveness, resulted in built forms generally disappointing.
Generally, the metropolitan plans of early 2000, were and still are ‘thirty-year plans’ with detailed long-term housing and population targets. Despite a growing body of academic urban research providing a rich and nuanced understanding of nowadays city complexity, yet these new planning documents are struggling in achieving the targeted goals. For instance, the current popularity of the notion that increased density will result in greater sustainability still relies on its ‘self-evident truth’ rather than sustained rigorous research. Perhaps this is due to the lack in such research field or mainly to speculative actions. In any case, this challenge is the common ground on which the current urban planning strategies in Perth, and the whole Australia, is set.
Perth’s 2004 planning policy, known as ‘Network City’, was not a masterplan but a set of principles intended to be an alternative to piecemeal suburban sprawl. It emphasised growth management, in an effort to contain fringe urban growth and enhance opportunities for urban regeneration and renewal within the existing urban area. It
066
chapter 03
WELCOME TO PERTH / The world’s most remote city.
Metroplan, Metropolitan Region Planning Authority, 1990
067
1850
1839
1955
1912 Terra-cotta and oiled jarrah
1840 Town cottage
1900 Post gold rush
1920 Californian bungalow
Perth housing evolution
068
m
m 25
m
25 k
m
25 k
m
25 k
m
25 k
m
25 k
m
25 k
m
25 k
m
25 k
m
25 k
m
25 k
m
25 k
m
25 k
Perth urban evolution
25 k
25 k
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
196
963
1975
1990
1950 Moderate art deco
m
m
25 k
m
25 k
m
25 k
m
25 k
m
25 k
m
25 k
m
25 k
m
25 k
WELCOME TO PERTH / The world’s most remote city.
25 k
m
25 k
m
25 k
25 k
chapter 03
2000
2000 Modern house
1960 Low-pitch roof and open planning
069
m
03
.a
Perth /// ‘The 21st Century’s first ghost metropolis’
Current research states that a ‘business as usual’ way of containing future growth, both unplanned (sprawl) and planned (corridor’s channelling), will inevitably lead to a vulnerable living style, well far behind the highly aspired liveable ‘sense of place’ (Weller, 2009).
Although the near future will reserve the more sustainable option to commute such as electric cars powered by household solar photovoltaic panels, due to their typically lower socio-economic status, outer suburban households have relatively lower ability to pay for rapid vehicular eco-modernisation, at current prices.
Today, Perth is predominantly a flatland of free-standing suburban homes and their related infrastructure. At an average density of nine dwellings per hectare (gross urban zone), it is one of the most sprawled cities on earth. From top to bottom the city is now over 150 kilometres long and it covers 100,000 hectares. Roads are the warp and weft that hold this thin carpet of urbanism together. Mostly due to a relative dearth of public transport options, Perth has the highest car ownership ratio among Australian cities (ABS, 2016) and the fourth highest in the world. These figure shows its total vulnerability to projected rises in fuel prices or, worse, the extinction of the unrenewable supply.
Moreover, outer suburban residents require much more water (70 kl/year) than those in infill dwellings closer to the city (42 kl/year). Such profligate use of water, mostly to irrigate gardens, will be difficult to sustain in the context of a drying climate, diminishing groundwater supply, projected population growth and increasingly demand of water (x2 in the next 40 years). Because of water shortages, environmental scientist Tim Flannery recently declared that Perth could become ‘the XXI Century’s first ghost metropolis’. In the very long term, it may be right: Perth’s old and arid landscape is not suited to large numbers of stationary people. It is a reminder that the current lifestyle is unsustainable and the future must be designed.
///scenario 070
0
/year
50 km
75 km
640.000 ha
25 k
1st place km
car ownership
m
150
in Australia
9 dw/ha density
9
9
(gross urban zone)
dw/ha
42
70
kl/year water consumption kl/year
infill
greenfield
42
70
kl/year
dw/ha
42
kl/year
kl/year 2017
071
“Perth, the XXI Century’s first ghost metropolis” Tim Flannery
SEEKING
‘ TERRAE
AUSTRALIS ’
03
.a
Australian Dream
Government policies aimed to encourage home ownership included: »» exempt principal residence from capital gains tax; »» encourage banks and other lending institutions to give low-interest loans to purchasers; »» establish of a specialist housing finance sector; »» sell government built homes at favourable rates; »» introduce the First Home Owner Grants
Since the World War II, both patriotism, desire for security and favourable economic conditions, prompted Australians to put down roots and owning a home; a phenomenon later called Australian Dream. As Australia grew and prospered through the second half of the 20th century, this dream became a reality for many young families. Home ownership was viewed as a symbol of success through the life cycle: a housing tenure that offers financial security and a space where the homeowner can impose their identity, as well as an important part of the family’s continuity.
Although such policies certainly contributed to the surge of home ownership during the 1950s-60s, either the strong economy and the lack of alternatives to home ownership has been crucial. Rental housing after World War II was in short supply, so households were forced to purchase or self-build. Moreover, such accommodations were not considered an attractive long-term option due to the ‘insecurity of tenure, low maintenance standards, and considerable landlord interference in the private lives, as well as the initial ‘selection’ of tenants’ (Morris, 2016).
By 1947 just over half of Australians were homeowners and the intervention by government to stimulate home ownership was minimal. However, post-World War II, the housing policy of successive Australian governments, combined with sustained and substantial economic growth and a shortage of rental accommodation, encouraged and facilitated the rapid expansion of home ownership.
///overview
Nevertheless, there have been times during these years, where the Australian Govern-
074
ment saw the provision of public housing as a priority, but these have not been sustained for any length of time or resulted in a fundamental shift in the housing tenure split.
‘A decent shelter is a necessity for all and owning an own home the life goal for many.’ In saying so, while some prefer the flexibility that renting can offer, the stability of tenure provided by home ownership and the sense of place obtained through owning your own home can be hard to beat
Despite the Commonwealth State Housing Agreement (CSHA), signed in November 1945, where the Australian Government provided low-interest loans to the States for the building of public housing, the effective provision of alternatives has been very susceptible on the government party at that time. For instance, there has been an emphasis on public housing at the time of Australian Labor Party (ALP) in the 1980s, but the return to power of the conservative Coalition government in 1996 represented a further blow to it.
075
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
03
03 #today
/// Current first aid strategies
Since 2000, Western Australia has been shaped by global influences such as climate change, population growth, global economy, regional expansion, technology, and access to water, food and energy in a cost-competitive economic environment.
The latest population projection released by the Australian Bureau of Statistics in 2013, sets a 2012 base and a 2101 horizon. It provides assumptions for three series (A, B and C) of future population growth, with different level of total fertility rates (TFR), future mortality, net overseas migration (NOM) and interstate migration.
The compounding pressures of climate change and a rapidly increasing population have shifted the focus of metropolitan planning policies from ‘expanding new development on the urban fringe’ to ‘more intensive redevelopment within existing urban areas’. As can be seen in this chapters, such awareness is reflected in many stages of the whole Western Australia planning system, with various strategies and set targets.
Among these categories, Series A corresponds to the highest assumption, Series C to the lowest assumption while Series B adopts current trends in fertility, life expectancy at birth and NOM1 so it is more likely to be accurate. In saying so, Series B has been chosen to the following comparisons. According to the report, in 2012-2101 horizon, Australia’s population of 22,7 million (30 June 2012) is projected to reach 41,5 million in 2061 and 53,6 million by 2101.
3.3.1 // What’s going on? Western Australia background at a glance From a small sparsely populated State based on agricultural economy, Western Australia has grown into the powerhouse of the Australian economy, contributing through its regions to the nation’s gross domestic product (GDP). Because of the sustained growth of the State’s economy, WA’s population is expected to increase at a faster rate than the Australian average.
1 Series B assumes the TFR will decrease to 1.8 babies per woman by 2026 and then remain constant, ‘life expectancy at birth’ will continue to increase each year until 2061, though at a declining rate (reaching 85.2 years for males and 88.3 years for females), NOM will remain constant at 240,000 per year throughout the period, and medium interstate migration flows. (ABS 2013)
076
chapter 03
WELCOME TO PERTH / The world’s most remote city.
Whereas for what concerns Western Australia, it is projected to experience the largest percentage increase among Australian states. The horizon is set to 2061, therefore from 2.4 million (30 June 2012) will reach 6.4 million by 2061.
It follows that most of WA’s growth will occur in Perth with the highest percentage of growth (187%) amongst Australia’s capital cities, increasing from 1.9 million at 30 June 2012 to 5.5 million in 2061.
AUSTRALIA
A
70,1
70 mln 60 mln
B
53,6
50 mln
C
42,4
40 mls 30 mls
22,7
20 mls
WESTERN AUSTRALIA
A B C 2,4 1,9
6,6 5,5
A
7,7
B C
5,4
10 mln
6,4
5 mln
4,4
PERTH
21
210 011
206 611
20
20
201 122
0
Population growth Source: ABS Population Projections, Australia (3222.0, November 2013)
077
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
Perth will not just be bigger; it’s population make-up is undergoing a change that is set to continue into the future affecting either the community and households pattern.
Overseas students and temporary skilled workers comprise a significant proportion of migrants to Western Australia, which proportionally attracts more migration than its share of the national population. On the other hand, WA population is ageing. Today, around 13% of people in Perth and Peel are aged over 65; this is expected to rise to 22% by 2051 with the forecast average increase in life expectancy for all Australians at six years (84.2 years for males and 87.7 years for females). All these demographic shifts will impact on most aspects of the economy, particularly the composition of the labour force, health care requirements, education and social services, and the mix of dwelling types. It is this background that shapes the current urban planning system.
Migration, both from overseas and interstate, has been the principal source of population growth in Western Australia, with migration trends showing that new arrivals to the State will largely settle in Perth. The number of Western Australians born overseas has reached almost a third of the total population with 15% speaking a language other than English at home. Over the past few decades, there has been a shift from family migration, which made up 79% of all migration to Western Australia in the 1980s, to skilled migration which makes up 69% of today’s migration intake into the State. 25 20
1/3 1/3 1/3
1980s of WA populations of WA populations are migrants migrants of WA are populations are migrants
Overseas arrivals, 2016 Source: ABS Census of Population and Housing, 2016
078
2017
be bf 19 oerfeo 1690 re
Australia
0
60
191 61 61 7907
1 19 96119 1719097 71 19 8 1 be80 0 f 19 ore 610 1 99
Western Australia
90
1
00
16
1 9 119 919971 81 19809081
0
2 2200 011 20 1116
0
5
2 5 991
5
10
10 19 190810 2090 991
0
10
15
1 20 29091 2000 01 01
5
15
20
2100 1 05
10
20
2 20 2000201 200 06 5 0
15
25 25
22 2 2202 000160106 0110 0610
%
79% 31%
21% 69%
chapter 03
WELCOME TO PERTH / The world’s most remote city.
3.3.2 // The planning context
metropolitan and a local level, as well as established more general controls over the subdivision of land for an efficient and effective land-use planning system and a sustainable development of land in the State.
Origins of the current Western Australia planning system sit in the 2005 Planning and Development Act. Enacted by Western Australian Parliament, it consolidated the existing regulation in the field of planning (1928 Town Planning and Development Act, 1959 Metropolitan Region Town Planning Scheme Act, 1985 Western Australia Planning Commission Act) into a single piece of legislation.
By this means, the Act constituted a shift into the current planning system, as it put the basis of a regulated growth of a strategic future. In order to do so, the Act gave a statutory charge to the existing Western Australian Planning Commission (WAPC) to respond the strategic direction of government and to be responsible for the strategic planning of the State. It operates within the purview of the Department of Planning, which provides the administrative and technical advice.
As the primary law concerning the govern, development and land subdivision in Western Australia, it laid down specific controls over planning and development both at a
STRUCTURE PLANS
LEVEL
S T R AT E G I C
STATE
State Planning Strategy 2050
REGIONAL
Direction 2031 & beyond, Sub-regional framework, Subregional structure plan
Regional and Sub-Regional Plans
Region Planning Schemes
LOCAL
Local Planning Strategies
District, Local, Activity Centre Structure Plan
Local Planning Schemes
S TAT U TO R Y
State Planning Policies
POLICY Operational Policies
(eg. Liveable Neighbourhoods, Development Control Policies)
Local Planning Policies
Overview of the Western Australian Planning System Source: DoP & WAPC, Introduction to the Western Australian Planning System (February 2014)
079
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
// STATE LEVEL The current State Planning Strategy 2050, published by WAPC in 2014, articulates a directional vision towards 2050 of sustained prosperity for Western Australia as a diverse, liveable, collaborative and connected State. It gives a state-wide context for decision-making and investment and frames potential future opportunities.
These main directions are then operatively regulated in a variety of statutory State Planning Policies which provide the highest level of planning control and guidance in Western Australia. Among them, it is included the SPP 3.1 Residential Design Codes (R-Codes), that set the best parameters to all residential development in WA.
A “diverse state” is intended both in an environmental and a housing-supply term, aiming to provide diverse housing and services to communities that complement their values and lifestyle choice. Investments in education, health, housing, social welfare and cultural pursuits are meant to chase a “liveable state”. Partnerships, alliances and networks to achieve sustained growth are the principle of “collaborative state” while affordable, secure high-speed communication and transport options will enhance a “connected state”.
Together with the State Planning Strategy and Policies, the WAPC adopted in 2009 a worth noting document called Liveable Neighbourhoods. It is intended to be a key operational policy for the design and assessment of structure plans and subdivision for new urban areas in Perth metropolitan and Peel regions and major regional centres, to be followed in the design and approval of urban development for greenfield sites and for the redevelopment of large brownfield/ urban infill sites.
‘State Planning Strategy 2050’ VISION diverse
liveable
connected
collaborative
Sustained growth and prosperity
global competitiveness
strong and resilient regions
infrstructure planning and coordination
conservation
080
sustainable communities
chapter 03
WELCOME TO PERTH / The world’s most remote city.
// REGIONAL LEVEL To a more detailed level of the Western Australia planning system, the strategic spatial plans are meant to translate the key points of the state strategy vision on a metropolitan, regional or sub-regional scale.
Such as the 2004 Network City, Direction 2031 chose the connected city model as the preferred medium-density future growth scenario for the metropolitan Perth and Peel region.
‘Direction 2031 and beyond’, a high-level spatial framework and strategic plan for Perth and Peel region, is not a direct consequence of the State Planning Strategy 2050, it is instead the precursor since it was released in 2010. It has been formulated to guide the detailed planning and delivery of housing, infrastructure and service across the metropolitan region to 2031 scenario and beyond. Considering the benefits of a more compact and environmentally sustainable city, it identified the need for an urban expansion management program to accommodate a city of 3.5 million people and promote the consolidation of urban growth through significantly greater rates of infill development.
On a sub-regional level, the draft of ‘Perth & Peel@3.5million’ is the direct descendent from State Planning Strategy 2050 as it has just recently been released, in 2015 by the WAPC. It is an overarching document built on the vision laid down in Directions 2031 and beyond which provides a link across the four sub-regional planning frameworks that define the spatial plan of the Perth and Peel regions for the next 35 to 40 years. Around this strategic context, the Metropolitan Region Scheme (MRS) and the Peel Region Scheme (PRS) remain the statutory planning schemes for the Perth and Peel regions and primary statutory mechanisms for implementing future strategic land use and infrastructure proposals.
‘Direction 2031 & beyond’ VISION liveable
prosperous
accessible
sustainable
responsible
‘Connected city’ model
greater balance between greenfield and brownfield development
protection of the natural environment, agricultural land, open spaces and heritage places
development and revitalization of activity centres as attractive places to live and work
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS ACTIVITY CENTRES NETWORK
GREEN NETWORK
081
MOVEMENT NETWORK
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
N 0
ACTIVITY CENTRES CORE: commercial & mixed use
FRAME: residential & mixed use (at least 200 m) R40 - R60 Medium density residential
< R40 Low density residential
R60 + / R-AC Mixed use residential, high density residential with high frequency public transport
CORRIDORS TRANSITION AREA
EXISTING NEIGHBOURHOOD
082
CORRIDOR
5 km
chapter 03
WELCOME TO PERTH / The world’s most remote city.
3.3.3 // Just a matter of targets? Activity centres: hubs that attract people for a variety of activities such as shopping, working, studying and living. These centres mainly consist of a concentration of commercial uses combined with a varying proportion of other land uses such as residential, schools and open space. The role and function of these centres and the diversity of activities within them varies depending on their catchment.
“Direction 2031 and Beyond”, with 3,5 million people forecasting in 2050, set a 47% infill target of new housing to curtail the issues concerning a sprawling city. Such target, proposed in 2010, was a 50% increase of the infill trends at the time, following on from a net infill rate of 32% in 2011 and 28% in 2012. Although the corresponding 53% greenfield target achievable for new development on the urban front overcome the infill one, it has been improved in the residential densities, from the current density of 9 dwelling units per gross urban zoned hectare to 15 dwellings per gross urban zoned hectare.
Station precincts: areas surrounding rain stations and major bus interchanges with the potential to accommodate transit oriented development (TOD) but which are not identifed as activity centres.
Station cores
In the 2015 draft document “Perth and Peel @ 3.5 million” the 47% infill target was again nominated. It states that approximately 800.000 new homes are required to accommodate additional 1,5 million people. Of these, 380.000 dwellings are set to be developed in strategic infill locations; the majority (215.000) of these in the Central sub-region and further 165.000 in the outer sub-regions.
Industrial centres: the areas zoned industrial or urban under the region scheme. As there is little land available within the Central sub-region to cater for further industrial development, there is a need to plan, protect and preserve industrial centres within close proximity to primary arterial routes in to and out of the central city in order to maintain employment diversity.
Corridors: key public transport corridors as providing signifcant opportunities to accommodate increased medium-rise higher density residential development. Corridors provide connections between activity centres and maximise the use of highfrequency public transport. Corridors shown in the framework represent existing and future corridors served by good quality, high-frequency public transport.
However, the authors acknowledged that the 2014 rates of urban infill had reached only 28%, short of the trends earlier predicted. It means that to reach the 47% goal, the required increase in infill has moved from 50% to 68% more than most recent actual infill numbers in the five years between the publication of the two reports.
083
03
.b Australian City
Plans & Targets
Theoretically, across Australia some 60% of all future development is – according to the various state and territory planning policies – supposed to be infill development and ideally most of this would occur in Activity Centres. However, only 30% infill has typically been achieved across the nation and much of this is in form of small-scale suburban conversions of ‘quarter acre’ blocks in ‘greyfield’ suburbia into configurations of two to six homes.
Sydney (New South Wales) with a current population of 4,92 million predicted to double, reaching 8,9 million by 2061, is managing its growth with ‘The Metropolitan Plan for Sydney 2036’. It plans the future housing only for an extra 1,7 million people by 2036, stipulating that 30% of future development will be greenfield and the other 70% infill. Although Sydney has less than one third of land it needs to fulfil its current policy, the plan stipulates that 80% of new development should be built within walking distance (400-500 meters) of the 36 major and specialized activity centres, commonly with medium-high buildings.
The following data show the strategy proposed by each Australian state in meeting the highest population projections (series A) according to the Australian Bureau of Statistics.
The 70:30 ratio is the most ambitious urban infill target set in the whole Australia, and it is pursued in the same way only by Adelaide, (South Australia), with its ‘Adelaide Thirty Years Plan’.
The Western Australian target of urban infill is at the lower figure when compared to other states.
Then cities like Brisbane, Canberra and Hobart are pursuing the 50:50 ratio, a balanced provision of greenfield and infill future development.
///overview
More specifically Brisbane (Queensland), set its future in a wider regional context called South East Queensland, a conurbation
084
that stretches from the northern Sunshine Coast to the Southern Gold Coast. With a current population of 3,4 million that is likely to reach about 5,7 million by 2051, the ‘SEQ Regional Plan 2009-2031’ suggests the distribution of new 734.000 homes across 42 activity centres nominated in the Regional Plan. By this means, the connection within the South-East Queensland region is likely to make real the Australia’s first 200 km long city.
opposite way. In the 2008 ‘Melbourne at Five Million 2030’, the Victoria state’s capital city current policy set a 53% of infill target and a respective 47% of greenfield to meet the future growth projection; first with the use of urban growth boundaries, then by locating housing around its 93 activity centres. On the contrary, Perth, as previously mentioned, is directing the 47% of growth into 104 identified activity centers with an infill approach and the remaining 53% of greenfield.
Australia’s capital city Canberra, although coming from a much smaller base, is experiencing a rate of growth similar others capital city. Currently housing 390.700 people and expecting a threefold increment to 904.100 by 2061, the 2004 ‘Canberra Spatial Plan’ first and the 2011 ‘Planning for a Sustainable City’ later were meant to structure the provision of only 60.000 homes by 2030, since relying on the motto ‘for a just, sustainable, peaceful future’ for a zero-population growth.
‘Greater Darwin’, the planning framework concerning the Northern Territory capital city, does not specify population target to contain the rise in population from current 142.300 to 254.800 by 2061. However, it specifies a total capacity for 50.000 new dwellings in greenfield sites and 40.000 in infill sites – enough for an extra 191.000 people. To such a degree, the greenfield approach is slightly prevailing over the infill approach.
Finally, Hobart (Tasmania), currently hosting 221.000 people and a projection of 339.300 in 2061, is planning to limit further urban sprawl enwrapping itself in urban growth boundaries (UGB). The UGB, proposed in the ‘Southern Tasmania Regional Land Use Strategy 2010-2035’ for the great Hobart region, are meant to ensure a 20year supply of greenfield residential sites (710 ha, 7.987 homes for 25.560 people), then another 25.000 people are meant to be accommodate in infill developments across 11 identified activity centres.
greenfield
infill
30
70 Sydney / Adelaide
50
50
Brisbane / Canberra / Hobart
47
53 Melbourne
In both the cities of Melbourne and Perth, the future development is pursued by a 47:53 ratio. Interestingly it is intended in an
53
47 Perth
085
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
3.3.4 // Understanding the failure
place than dense urban neighbourhoods for raising children. The suburbs lack congestion and despite their increasing distance from the CBD, people like driving. Finally, a free-standing home with a garden is the quintessence of the Australian way of life, it is what people want, and they do not think it is ugly.
In some respects, the failure on achieving the set target can be seen in the current fundamental question for Perth: to sprawl or not to sprawl? The international sprawl debates are intense and often split sharply down the middle.
Nevertheless, the strategic plans framework chase opportunities for higher-density residential development, particularly around activity centres, station precincts and along high-frequency public transports routes in order to connect and implement employment opportunities outside the Central Business District; in other terms where people lives, thereby reducing the need for people to commute long distances for work.
The ‘not to sprawl’ side claims that it is wasteful because it is destroys agricultural land and precious habitat. Its non-porous surfaces increase runoff that damages waterways and its free-standing homes are inefficient regarding energy and infrastructural costs. Sprawl is car-dependent with increasingly long commutes that, in turn, add to the problem of global warming. Sprawl leads to social problems because it isolates people in a landscape of homogeneity. Sprawl is thought to lack culture and community because it lacks density and a sense of place. Moreover, sprawl is ugly, and people only buy into it because they have no other choice.
Theoretically, the correlation of residential density and public transport in these activity centres is unexceptionable. However, the emphasis on polycentrism is problematic because many of the 120 ‘activity centres’ identified in Perth for increased density are currently unattractive to consumers, mainly because they are typically places within the existing suburban fabric of the city that have been built primarily as service nodes for cars, not people.
Despite the global warning on consumption, waste and loss of resources, the case ‘pro-sprawl’ still persists today as politically supported by economic liberalism and suspicious of any regulatory planning that inhibits individual rights vested in land. Additionally, sprawl is cheap to build and thus enables people to enter the real estate market. Sprawl-scape is an economic powerhouse and to oppose this on either environmental or aesthetic grounds is elitist. Further, it is argued that new suburbs are safe. Replete with generous open spaces and new schools, suburbia is thought to be a better
Activity centres around train stations often have heritage building stock, fragmented land ownership, and are typically complex ‘knots’ of intersecting road and rail infrastructure with carparks so people can ‘park and ride’ in antithesis with the attempt to create urban, walkable town centres. Many others Perth’s activity centres are set around big shopping malls which are the antithesis of the dense urban village proposed in the
086
chapter 03
WELCOME TO PERTH / The worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s most remote city.
planning vision â&#x20AC;&#x201C; as car dominated, disconnected from the surrounding urban form and not attractive residential environments. Such activity centres, if they are to become the epicentres of thriving and relatively dense residential development, will require substantial reconstruction to make them attractive civic spaces. Such reconstruction, in turn, drives up costs for infill development making it potentially unaffordable compared to greenfield suburban development with which it must directly compete.
087
03
.b A suitable alternative
One of the latest research on Perth’s future, published in the book ‘Scavenging the suburbs’ says about sprawl:
“if Perth reaches its Series A ABS population projection of 6,6 million people by 2061 this could mean an increase of 1.486 km2 of suburban area, presuming that infill development continues at a rate of 28% and that suburban development occurs at a net density of R15 (15 dwellings per ha), allowing for roads (20%) public open space (10%), infrastructure (15%), regional open space (10%), industry (10%), schools (1%) and universities (1%)” (Bolleter, 2015, p. 24)
In order to avoid such worst case scenario, the same reseach propose a complementary approach to the activity centres infill for densifying suburban areas. It focuses on the potential of overestimated non-urbanized public landscape planned in previous years that could be partially rationalised to help meeting the set targets.
///scenario 088
25 k
50 km
75 km
10 0k m
1.486 km2
additional suburban development by 2061
089
m
The concept of building on ‘greyfield audits’, interest landscape types such as household gardens, roads and carparks, freeway and railway reserves, airports, infrastructural easements, industrial areas, parks, golf courses, universities, schools, river foreshores and bushlands. If all the opportunities for infill development are achieved, hypothetically almost a million new dwellings (913.879 dw) in Perth’s suburban core could be created. These new provision could house Perth’s projected population growth until 2043, well above the 2031 horizon, and avoid the need to build a new suburban area over 97 times the size of Ellenbrook (one of the latest suburban development on the north-east fringe of Perth). However, the proposed rationalisation of the landscapes that furnish the Australian ‘suburban dream’ will inevitably become unpopular, because they embody the enviable lifestyle that Perth offers and so the city’s identity. There is a need to incentives communities to support such development rather than oppose it, so that the new twenty-first century ‘Australian dream’ will this time be associated with urbanity rather than sub-urbanity. As the research finally conclude:
“ Emphasis on ‘Australian’ means this dream needs to be grounded in the lived experience or aspirations of the majority of Australians, not emerge from the pursuit of fashions imported from other cultures” (Bolleter, 2015, p. 165)
090
P
industry 95.434 dw
asphalt 230.332 dw
airport 8.559 dw
railway reserves 15.873 dw
freeway reserves 48.990 dw
easements 94.475 dw
schools 21.700 dw
golf courses 86.497 dw
university 17.809 dw
gardens 115.158 dw
parks 144.003 dw
foreshore 62.049 dw
913.879 new dwellings
Source: â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Scavenging the suburbsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; (2015)
091
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
03
04 #tomorrow
/// Scenario forecasted
3.4.1 // A change in time _ foreseeing urbanity
with convenient access to a range of services (particularly community and health) or for different styles of housing (for example, smaller dwellings which are easier to maintain) so that people can downsize from the traditional three or four bedrooms home.
Today’s population, demographic and society trends describe a WA’s community becoming more demographically diverse, better educated and more globally connected (DOP & WAPC, 2010). Such changes also reflect a shift of housing demands, particularly strong if compared to the traditional background pattern. According to Direction 2031 sources, household composition is changing. Nationally, one-person households are projected to increase to 3.2 million or 28% of all households by 2031, the fastest projected increase of all household types. Couples without children are expected to be the largest and fastest-growing family type throughout Australia in a way that they are expected to outnumber couples with children soon. As a result, there will likely be greater demand for smaller dwellings located in Moreover, Australia’s ageing population results in a growing demand for housing in areas
092
chapter 03
WELCOME TO PERTH / The world’s most remote city.
3.4.2 // Economic trends
By the end of the 20th century, employment in manufacturing, processing, fabrication activities experienced a 50% reduction, even though it was shifted towards retail and wholesale trade, business services, health, education, public administration, community and personal services.
Perth’s economy has been changing in favour of the service industries since the 1950s. Whether, Western Australia has been growing at levels far greater than the national average, with the mining and processing sectors being the primary drivers of this growth, Perth became the centre of economic activity. The resources boom has led to demands for a highly developed services sector inclusive of finance, insurance, property and business services in the capital city.
Modelling prepared on behalf of the WAPC, which takes into account the population growth and Perth’s attractiveness, states that the employment base for Greater Perth is projected to almost double from 900,000 in 2011 to nearly 1.7 million jobs by 2050 with most of it occurring in the Central sub-region.
Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing Mining Manifacturing Electricity, Gas, Water and Waste Servicies Construction Wholesale trade Retail Trade Accomodation and Food Services Transport Postal and Warehousing Information Media and Telecommunications FInancial and Insurance Services Rental, Hiring and Real Estate Services Professional, Scientific and Tecnical Services Administrative and Support Services Public Administration and Safety Education and Training Health Care and Social Assistance Arts and Receation Services Other Services
0
2
4
Western Australia
6
8 Australia
10
12
% employed
Industry sector of employment Source: ABS, Census of Population and Housing (2011)
093
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
3.4.3 // Housing (un)affordability
The 13th Annual Demographia International Housing Affordability Survey conducted in 406 metropolitan housing markets of nine countries (Australia, Canada, China, Ireland, Japan, New Zealand, Singapore, the United Kingdom and the United States) for the third quarter of 2016, rates middle-income housing affordability using the “Median Multiple”: the median house price divided by the median household income.
House affordability is the major consideration that results in today in families – particularly young families and first home-buyers - opting to live in the outer suburbs. Just ten years ago, more than 50% of all suburbs in the five top capital cities were affordable; land was cheap, housing was cheap, and most of Australians could afford to buy their very own home. On the contrary, today only 4% are affordable. Not a single inner city suburb is included in this category, and the regional areas have not been exempt from this phenomenon either.
Overall, the most affordable major housing markets surveyed were all in the United States, whereas among the severely unaffordable, Sydney (12.2) and Melbourne (9,5) followed the least one, Hong Kong (18.1). For what concern Australia, Adelaide has a severely unaffordable 6.6 Median Multiple and is the 16th least affordable of the 92 major markets. Brisbane has a Median Multiple is 6.2 and is ranked 18th least affordable, while Perth, with a Median Multiple of 6.1 is the 20th least affordable major housing market.
Something changed last decade. House prices, not only in Australia but globally, soared and put the great Australian dream in doubt. Rising prices were seen as a blessing for those who already have their own home, but a nightmare for those attempting to get into the market.
AFFORDABLE
MODERATELY UNAFFORDABLE
SERIOUSLY UNAFFORDABLE
SEVERELY UNAFFORDABLE
TOTAL
MEDIAN MARKET
( > 3.0 )
( 3.1 - 4.0 )
( 4.1 - 5.0 )
( < 5.1 )
Australia
0
0
0
Canada
0
1
3
5
5
6.6
2
6
4.7
China, Hong Kong
0
0
Ireland
0
0
0
1
1
18.1
1
0
1
4.7
Japan
0
1
1
0
2
4.1
New Zealand
0
0
0
1
1
10.0
Singapore
0
0
1
0
1
4.8
United Kingdom
0
2
12
7
21
4.5
United States
11
22
8
13
54
3.9
Housing Affordability Ratings by Nation Mayor Housing Markets Source: Demographia, 13th Annual International Housing Affordability Survey (2016)
094
chapter 03
WELCOME TO PERTH / The worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s most remote city.
Sydney
50 k
50 k
25
km
25
50 k
m
25 50 k
kmm m
25
km
km
km
25
m
m 25 50 k
25
25
50 k
50 k
m km
25
25 50 k
m
m km
25
50 k
kmm m
25 50 k
50 k
m
m 50 k
km
km
km
km
50 50 km km
25 k
25 k
m
25 k
m
m
m
m
25 k
50 km
25 k
m
50 km 50 km 25 k
25 k
25 k
m
m 50 km
50 50 km km
m
25 k
m
m
25 k
50 km 50 km 25 k
25 k
50 km
50 km
Melbourne
m
people aged 25-34
affordable
severely unaffordable
50 50 km km
25 k
m
m
25 k
m
25 k
m
m
25 k
50 km 25 k
50 km
50 km
m
25 k
25 k
25 k
m
m 50 km
50 50 km km
m
25 k
m
m
25 k
50 km 50 km 25 k
25 k
50 km
50 km
Perth m
people aged 35-44
Housing Affordability by Local Government Area Source: SBS, Mapping Australia: Housing Affordability
095
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
Nowadays, Australian house prices are so high that for many Australians the ‘great Australian dream’ is just that - a dream. For those who do manage to purchase a house, high house prices mean taking on very high levels of debt that will constrain their lifestyle for many years into the future.
Many people chose semi-detached housing as a trade-off from separate housing in order to meet affordability and location constraints. The willingness to accept this form of housing over apartments may in part reflects Perth residents’ perceptions about apartment living and their lack of experience with this kind of dwelling when compared to semi-detached housing. The findings indicate a lack of affordable housing options for both purchasers and renters with some respondents unable to afford any of the housing options available to either buy or rent. The results also suggest that a significant proportion of future housing demand will come from renters seeking to switch tenure, indicating a high demand for affordable purchase alternatives.
However, there is a shift towards the preference of more small and diverse housing types supported by the findings of a 2013 study, ‘The Housing We’d Choose: a study for Perth and Peel’, prepared by the Western Australian Planning Commission and the departments of Housing and Planning. Most of the respondents considered location as the first choice with the preference to “live in the central area but could not afford to do so” (preferences: 67% inner central, 33% suburbs; choices: 53% inner central, 47% suburbs). Only half of respondents could choose this location when constrained by household budget.
3.4.4 // Conclusion Because of the changes in economic trends and population composition, planning must respond by anticipating the evolving needs and making provision for different types of housing regarding size, type and location of homes.
For instance, younger people (18-34 years) strongly prefer (76%) to “live in the inner central, outer central and river/coastal regions due to the entertainment offer and concentration of opportunities to access work”. Then 3 out of 4 respondents said that “they were prepared to trade off house size or type in order to live in their preferred area” especially singles and couple without children. Moreover, “people who have lived outside of WA were twice as likely to tradeoff to an apartment if it meant being able to live in their preferred location”. With over 1000 people moving to WA each week, this means that there is likely to be a growing number of people willing to live in apartments.
Despite the unaffordability of the inner city area, it is this the preferred living destination either of Perth citizens that move within the region, and those who chose the WA’s capital city to study, work and live even from international backgrounds. All these alerts support the need to focus on the central sub-region area as the location to accommodate the increasingly growing population and make a step against the sprawl. The next chapter will describe the main feature that characterises the area: the Swan River.
096
chapter 03
WELCOME TO PERTH / The worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s most remote city.
097
// framework
04 A SHIFT IN PERSPECTIVE From the endless fringes to the waved core: the Swan River
tav. 3
099
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
04
01 #yesterday
/// Historical attraction
4.1.1 // Early exploration
since soil fertility is an inverse proportion to the height of a jarrah tree.
Originally it was the ‘romantic’ landscape of the Swan River the key element that allowed the settlement of the “Swan River Colony” in 1829. It was perceived as a ‘parklike Arcadia’ by the British explorers Captain James Stirling and Colonial Botanist Charles Fraser during their first voyage. Such impression was a direct consequence of the land management practices carried out by the aboriginal Noongar population that used to habit the Swan River banks. In order to better hunter kangaroos and emus, Aborigines used to fire the land producing open grassy spaces very lookalike the English parks established by the nobility in the mother country.
In these respects, the early settlers recruited by Stirling enthusiasm had experienced hard times facing the harsh of the reality. One for all the transportation was made costly in terms of time, money and life lost due to the shallow river water. Then the lakes, swamps and marshy river edges that once used to be the attractions of the site became a house for mosquitoes and diseases. 4.1.1 // Reclamation By the end of the 19th century, concurrently with a marked increase in population due to convict male transportation and gold rushes, Perth Water’s foreshore became the focus of reclaiming operations.
At a first look, the territory appeared to be very fertile and appropriate to settle a colony, mostly because of the ease of clearing trees, the presence of freshwater springs and the river’s potential use for transport. However, the hasty conclusion on fertility was distorted by an European reading of the landscape that set forests as the most reliable index of fertility. Indeed, this is not the case in the south-west of Western Australia,
Initially, reclamation was carried out to provide Perth’s citizens with recreational spaces necessary because of the absence of any sizeable central parkland in Perth, supported by the impulse to replace the significant waterfront park shown in the 1833 Arrowsmith Plan, lost due to private development. Subsequently, in the 1930s, river reclamation
102
33 18 19 3
5
19
03
19
00
18
29
18 00
A SHIFT IN PERSPECTIVE / From the endless fringe to the waved core: the Swan River
19
75
19 60
chapter 04
Perth Water reclamation over time Source: Stephenson G., The Design of Central Perth: Some Problems and Possible Solutions,1975
103
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
recreational recreational spaces spaces
residential residential development development
sanitize sanitize wetlands wetlands
freeway freeway interchange interchange
discipline discipline cultures cultures
was proposed to provide land for residential development until shifting to a more modern idea in the 1960s and 1970s where the foreshore needed to contain a freeway interchange and a freeway encircling Perth.
Then, as representative of the ‘other’, for the fecundity and source of food and water for indigenous people, the reclamation and beautification of these areas were the physical expressions of the legal notion of terra nullius in the creation of ‘land that belongs to no one’. As Perth population was unruly and perceived as in need of discipline, due to the convict origin of the city, the reclamation was also a resolution with a moral connotation in ‘restraining evil and introducing good’.
City Beautiful and Garden City movements were the first forces that drew the reclaiming time. In their respects, populations could be ‘civilised’ through the ‘deployment of handsome, civic landscape’, which means using parks as antidotes to the ‘hurtful influences’ of city living, although Perth — unlike many European and American cities — didn’t have a crowded industrial background to recover. Therefore, the main aspiration at the time was to create an unbroken chain of landscaped parks along the river.
It was only after the last reclamation of a Perth’s south-western area called Mounts Bay, in 1975, for a freeway interchange, when the community sentiment turned against further reclamation. Because of the largely unchecked program of reclamation, Perth Water were surrounded by a generic greenbelt on all sides that cut the river off from the city.
Beyond the recreational issue, wetlands and low-lying areas were also perceived as unhealthy spaces, so reclamation was one way of sanitising the Swan River’s edges.
104
chapter 04
A SHIFT IN PERSPECTIVE / From the endless fringe to the waved core: the Swan River
4.1.2 // A dualism in public concerns In 1991, an International Urban Design Competition was conducted by the City of Perth, in conjunction with the State Government, to face the increasingly problematic Perth’s waterfront. It resulted in a series of proposals that appeared conflicting: some perceived the foreshore as a ‘symbolic vestige of the endemic landscape of the Swan River’ while others as ‘an urban extension of the city’. The winning scheme ‘Waterside Perth’, proposed by the Kevin Lynch’s Massachusetts environmental design firm, followed the competition brief that was encouraging a comprehensive landscape response to the issue. It also pointed out that the main preferences continued to be related to a view of the foreshore as a counterpoint to the destruction of ‘nature’ elsewhere with the desire to articulate a ‘sense of place’ from the River Swan. The resulting scheme was appreciated by the 81% of people surveyed at the time. They preferred ‘environments’ on the foreshore, such as ‘open grass field, informal parkland and naturalistic river edges’, and were strongly against ‘lively waterfront atmosphere, waterfront buildings, or buildings on jetties or markets and souvenir stalls’ to preserve the semblance of an already artificial landscape very far from the pre-European Settlement conditions. 1 - like a lot
4 - dislike
2 - like
5 - strongly dislike
3 - don’t mind one way or another
‘Strategy for the foreshore’ survey Source: City of Perth, 1985
105
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
Waterside Perth, Carr + Lynch + Hack + Sandell, 1992
Hopefully, a shift of thinking occurred in early 2000 when a look at a global scale revealed that the historical Perth’s natural-shaped identity could rely on a lack of ambition reflected in the Perth’s ubiquitous suburban fabric. According to what the urban planner Charles Landry attested in the 2007 book ‘Perth: Town or City?’:
Therefore, following such circumstances, a series of more ‘urban’ new plans for Perth’s waterfront came out. It is the case of the 2008 ‘Circle Scheme’ for the Esplanade, developed by the design team ARM Architecture and Professor Richard Weller, famous as being strongly criticised by the design community until its demise. Because of its naïve purpose to transform Perth from a “two to three dimensions” and to “put the foot of the city back in the water”, the resulting image of the waterfront were foremost considered as lacking ‘connection to place’ with style comparable to a “Dubai on the Swan”.
“Perth needs to remind itself that, as global term of trade shift towards China and India, the city will suddenly become geographically more central to world affairs. Perth then moves to the periphery to the centre […]” (Landry, 2007, p. 4)
106
chapter 04
A SHIFT IN PERSPECTIVE / From the endless fringe to the waved core: the Swan River
This stereotype was perpetuated by the “Swan Island”, designed to be read from Google Earth; the obvious reference being to Dubai’s logo-driven urbanism of “The Palms” and “The World” developments. The indicative buildings in the publicly released renders were also high, well over 50 storeys, and sculpted into organic forms reminiscent of Dubai’s “starchitecture”. It served to further confirm the association with Dubai, at least in the minds of the critics.
Furthermore, the main critiques regarding the scheme-style were supported by the appreciation of other Australian cities with stylised urban waterfront such as Port Adelaide, Darwin Waterfront and the Melbourne’s case studies of Docklands, Southbank and Federation Square. All of these are regenerations of contaminated industrial sites remotely comparable to the pleasant non-harbour image of the Swan River in Perth.
Circle Scheme, ARM Architecture Prof. Richard Weller, 2008
107
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
4.1.3 // The Elizabeth Quay case
around a 2.7 ha inlet. Its focus is a 730 m terraced promenade surrounded by offices, apartments, hotels, shops, bars and restaurants around a newly formed inlet, and a whole new island created by excavating the land that joined it to the shore.
With a political shift of the State Government from Labour to Liberal in 2011, either the successful but again well criticised ‘Elizabeth Quay’ scheme, still developed by ARM Architecture, had to shift as well into a ‘more modest look’. Instead of 50 storeys building the height limit was set to 36 allowing the perception of the existent skyline.
Compared to the ‘Circular Scheme’, Elizabeth Quay differs on the absence of formal landscaped public space for holding ceremonial events, prevailing a promenade punctuated with expanded public areas. These include the Landing a terraced area which provide informal seating for large groups of people to attend events overlooking the water; Station Park contains a significant water feature, framed by existing fig trees, cafés, and shops, and the Island a “passive garden space” including a children’s playground and the relocated Florence Hummerston kiosk.
Moreover, while the circular inlet in the previous scheme alluded to the Aboriginal flag and icon of the “Ideal City”, the overall rectangular form of the inlet appears to reflect the robust shape and scale of “honest” post-industrial Australian waterfronts such as Circular Quay and Melbourne Docklands. The project was intended to reconnect Perth city with the Swan River creating a dynamic new entertainment and leisure precinct
108
The Island The Bridge
Barrack Square The Landing
Station Park
MIXED USE
28%
residential dwellings + 87.000 sqm
64%
office space + 200.000 sqm
8%
retail space + 25.000 sqm
46 storeys
TOWER max 36 storeys (+ podium)
TOWER min 20 storeys (+ podium)
PODIUM max 6 storeys min 2 storeys
TOWER max 25 storeys (+ podium) TOWER min 15 storeys (+ podium)
TOWER max 20 storeys (+ podium) TOWER min 12 storeys (+ podium)
PODIUM max 5 storeys
PODIUM max 5 storeys
min 2 storeys
min 2 storeys
0109 109
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
Elizabeth Quay embodies the current social debate on the use of the foreshore for different cultural context in which is located. The ‘Circle Scheme’ author Richard Weller assumed:
ernment is selling off public land’, ‘it will be windy’, ‘it will be ugly’, ‘the construction will take too long’, ‘no consultation’, ‘traffic chaos’. On the other hand, the debate around the scheme was mainly supported by youngster’s generation as the group of young and idealistic planners called Future Perth who was supporting the project as future generation’s heritage because ‘is what the young and future generation wants’. Even the Lord Mayor Lisa Scaffidi with a long term point of view asserts to “think of the generations to come and provide development which would encourage them to stay in Perth”. Similarly, the former infrastructure minister Alannah McTiernan claimed:
“People across the socio-political spectrum (by now all well-travelled) have developed a thirst for urbanity, along with the beaches, the rivers and the suburbs. This thirst is now being quenched by a number of urban projects that can be seen to reflect an increasingly sophisticated culture of design in Perth.” (Bolleter, 2014, p, 585)
Given that, a 2011 poll by West Australian successfully shows that the scheme has had a wider community support: 49% of people agree with the new plans for the waterfront, 14% don’t agree with the new plans for the waterfront, 13% want it developed but consider this the wrong look, and 24% think ‘who cares, just get it done’ (Rickard, 2011).
“What we had was a vision of Perth as international city – it wasn’t making a Dubai out of Perth, but in a 21st century city there’s got to be one small area of the town that’s a high energy place with a bit of excitement […] You can’t be designing the whole city for 58-years-olds, you know, wanting a leisurely and relaxed experience” (Bolleter, 2015, p. 130)
Significantly, most of the critics were pushed forward by two main “nay-sayers” groups both composed by senior Perth urban designers, architects, planners and historians. First CityVision, a local advocacy group that has always supported the issue of redeveloping the river foreshore since 1987, then City Gatekeepers a splinter group very active in “not supporting the state government’s proposals for the waterfront”. What disappointed most, according to CityVision, was related to the sale of public land for commercial interests, followed by many different emotional statement such as ‘it’s too big and too tall’, ‘it’s elitist’, ‘you’re taking away public open space’, ‘the gov-
110
chapter 04
A SHIFT IN PERSPECTIVE / From the endless fringe to the waved core: the Swan River
A 2012 protest against the development of the Esplenade
111
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
04
02 #today
/// Need of continuity
4.2.1 // Various actors in a disconnected scene
park, 72,1 km2 of public land and adjoining river reserve including the waterways and adjacent Crown land reserves of the Swan, Canning, Helena and Southern rivers (public foreshore reserves). Under the Act, the Swan River Trust has been vested with the care, control, and management of the River Reserve with joint responsibility for the Riverpark’s shoreline in conjunction with other foreshore land managers, including Local Government Authorities (LGA) and several State Government agencies in which the land is vested.
The 300 meters stretch of river’s edge redeveloped as part of the Elizabeth Quay project covers just a small fraction of the 8 kilometres of river edges of Perth Water or, from a wider view, of the 300 and more kilometres of the combined Swan and Canning River shoreline. By this mean, Elizabeth Quay is undoubtedly a significant achievement, but it is not an endpoint. Since Perth’s European settlement in 1829, the gradual reshaping of the edges of Perth Water has been typically characterised by a lack of ‘forward and unitarian vision’, and as such, the solutions have often produced unintended consequences.
However, since the Trust has been incorporated into the Department of Parks and Wildlife, the necessity of a broader vision which can reconcile the various urban, ecological, recreational, infrastructural and symbolic functions of the city, is now under threat as very environmentally conservative driven.
In 2006 with the Swan and Canning Rivers Managment Act (SCRM Act), a somewhat coordinated approach had been partially achieved through the foundation of the Swan River Trust an advisory body uncharged of protecting and managing the Swan and Canning River systems. The Act also established the Swan Canning River-
As a result of the union in 2014, most of Riverpark’s sites such as the waterways of the Swan and Canning rivers and the adjacent parks and recreation reserves, became Development Control Areas (DCA).
112
chapter 04
A SHIFT IN PERSPECTIVE / From the endless fringe to the waved core: the Swan River
2.090kmq
AVON RIVER 120.000 kmq
Swan & Canning Catchment
SUSANNAH BROOK
ELLEN BROOK
55 kmq
640 kmq
JANE BROOK 131 kmq
SWAN RIVER
HELENA RIVER 1.860 kmq
CANNING RIVER 1.300 kmq
8km
length of Perth Water
182km
350km
length of rivers
length of foreshore
512kmq
72,1kmq
Riverpark size & Development Control Areas
Bush Forever sites SOUTH-WEST AUSTRALIA
18%
BIODIVERSITY
original vegetation
HOTSPOT
of the Swan Coastal Plain
Perth
Swan and Canning river catchments Source: Swan River Trust, Swan Canning River Protection Strategy, 2015
113
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
Since the Swan Canning river system is subjected to increasing pressures from development on the waterways, within the DCA there is a need to balance development with the strong community desire to conserve and enhance the riverine environment, protect its amenity and maintain and improve public access to the rivers for a range of recreation activities. Therefore, the land use planning and development is subject to special consideration and approval processes, as long as the following objectives, in accordance with the SCRM Act, are respected: »» maintain and enhance the ecological health, community benefits and amenity of the Swan Canning river system; »» make suitable provisions for foreshore areas that can be reserved and protected under planning schemes and acquired as public land; »» avoid the creation of obstructions to the flow of flood waters of the river system and that appropriate provisions are made to minimise property damage by major flood flows
Noongar principles are characterised by a strong spiritual connection to the country a territory that covers the entire south-western portion of Western Australia; caring of the natural environments and for places of significance; performing ceremonies and rituals; collecting food by hunting, fishing and gathering; providing education and passing on law and custom through stories, art, song and dance. Besides being one of the largest sources of food, together with the Ocean and the extensive system of freshwater lakes and wetlands that once spread the entire metropolitan area, the Swan River is considered a sacred place for Noongar people and they preserved many stories of the Wagyl, a water-serpent understood to be responsible for the creation and maintenance of the Swan River and most of the water features around Perth. Only 150 years later the European Colonisation, the 1972 ‘Aboriginal Heritage Act’ formally recognised the right of Aboriginal people to protect cultural heritage or ‘sites of significance’ from being destroyed by development. Therefore, throughout the country, places of supreme cultural importance to the Noongar people have been registered as ‘sacred sites’ with the Department of Indigenous Affairs, including the Swan River as mythological site.
4.2.2 // Aboriginals connection The Noongar aboriginal people are the traditional owners of the Perth region and the Swan Coastal Plain. Their most distinguish trait concern the Aboriginal people’s fundamental connection to the land, as
Aboriginal involvement on land and water management has later been reinforced by the1984 ‘Conservation and Land Management Act’ (CALM Act) that enable Aboriginal people to undertake certain activities for customary purposes on reserves and other lands. Then, the previously mentioned 2006 Swan and Canning River Management Act,
“… it expresses the vital linkage of Aboriginal people to their country, reinforces their spiritual beliefs governing their existence and responsibility for their land, and provides a means for passing on social and cultural knowledge to their children” (WA Law Reform Commission, 2006)
114
chapter 04
A SHIFT IN PERSPECTIVE / From the endless fringe to the waved core: the Swan River
recognised the interests of Noongar communities and provides for their participation in the management of the Swan and Canning Riverpark.
Conversely, Bush Forever Sites are representative of regional bushland ecosystems and habitats and play a central role in the conservation of Perth’s biodiversity. They amount to only 18% of the original vegetation on the Swan Coastal Plain portion of the Perth Metropolitan Region and excludes local conservation reserves. They also incorporates associated vegetated conservation category wetlands, recognised as being some of the most biologically diverse of habitats.
4.2.3 // Natural features To further increase the complexity of the site, as indicated in the Metropolitan Region Scheme, parts of the river foreshore are either ‘remnant vegetation sites’ or ‘bush forever areas’.
Bush Forever Sites are subject to the planning requirements of the State Planning Policy 2.8 - Bushland Policy for the Perth Metropolitan Region, and protective plans such as the 2000 Bush Forever a whole-of-government policy that aims to protect some 51.200 ha in 287 Bush Forever sites.
Remnant vegetation sites represent the last remaining refuge for the fauna that once inhabited the threatened Southwest Australia Biodiversity Hotspot often treated in a consolidation way, to restore degraded parts and reduce further clearing.
“Keeping the bush in the city” Bush Forever
115
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
Through a range of mechanisms, including reservation, acquisition and negotiated planning solutions, Bush Forever seeks to protect a target of at least 10 percent of the original extent of each of the 26 vegetation complex within the Perth Metropolitan Region portion of the Swan Coastal Plain. According to the State Planning Policy 2.8, within these areas proposals or decision-making are required to seek a reasonable balance between conservation and development through a negotiated planning outcome, having regard for the specific conservation values involved. By this means, either adopting structures planning to facilitate the strategic co-ordination of bushland protection and development or a negotiated outcome for parks to further protect conservation areas can be proposed only after an impact assessment process.
cause of their bio-ecological importance. It is the case of Alfred Cove, 200 hectares adjacent to the suburbs of Attadale and Applecross; Pelican Point, a 45-hectare area in Crawley; and Milyu, 95 hectares adjacent to the Como foreshore and Kwinana FreewEay, all protected by the Swan Estuary Marine Park. They encompass mudflats, seagrass beds and intertidal vegetation such as sedges and saltmarsh, which provide many different habitats for a host of animals, especially the migratory wading birds, 33 of these species are protected under the Japan-Australia and China-Australia Migratory Bird Agreements. Such areas are zoned in the Metropolitan Region Scheme as General Use, which means that people are allowed to practice activities like fishing and pawing, but some recreational activities such as windsurfing and kite surfing are avoided together with other boating restrictions.
The Western Australian Planning Commission, the Swan River Trust and local governments are responsible for the effective planning and management of land use and development within and adjacent to the Swan River Trust management area.
Among the various characters appointed to manage the river foreshore, figure also Main Roads WA, the one, with the Department of Transport, Smart Transport and Public Transport Authority, that oversee the extensive Perthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s transport infrastructure including roads, rails, walking and cycling systems around the Swan River.
The State Planning Policy 2.10 concerning the Swan-Canning River System set the guiding principles to ensure that decisions are consistent and contribute to improving the quality of the river and the river experience, with a focus on social benefits, environmental values, cultural and national heritage, and the appropriate development. In saying so, the policy provides specific guidelines for the different precincts based on the typical landscape features.
To conclude, even the Metropolitan Redevelopment Authority (MRA), uncharged of the planning, redevelopment, and control of development in certain land of the metropolitan region, is responsible for the foreshore management as three of its thirteen sites, specifically Elizabeth Quay, Riverside and East Perth Power Station redevelopments, face directly the river with powerful social and environmental impact as it pursue an urban vision.
On a detailed scale, three parts of the river foreshore require particular attention be-
116
chapter 04
A SHIFT IN PERSPECTIVE / From the endless fringe to the waved core: the Swan River
Although all involved in a common ground, these various actors, together with the administrative independence of each LGA facing the river, have their strategical vision resulting in a fragmented jurisdiction. As a result, not perceive the potential of a broader and unitary context still lead the consideration of the river as a ‘gap’ in the urban fabric.
D WILDLIFE S AN K R PA SW
AN MARINESTU E P AR AR Y K
Re 2011 dev M elo RE ET pm ent Autor R DE O ity Act P AU V E L O L I T TH OP M A N OR ENT IT Y
n ratio resto ion lidat conso
g rin lea er c furth prevent
ot pr f 2 o
r
a
go ne
Bu
in nn la eP t a St
CO MM ISSI ON
WA
pla ce ma ur king ba nr ene wal
T AN REMNATION VE G E T
Sta 2005 te Swa Plannin g Polic n-C y 2.10 anni ng Riv er System
D
EV El iz E Ea abe AR LOP st th E MENT Pe Qu AS rth ay, Pow Rivers i de , er S tation
PL AN NI NG
RE
BU
B
al be env nefits, irom ental cult values, ural and n ational herit age
SH FA A R FO R E EA VER S
imp rove quali river ty imp rove expe river rience soci
DC
rtake unde nal io tradit ies t activi
SWAN RIVER
e 6 cti co veg on 1 nt eta 0% es ex tio t er n va cq tio ui n sit tia i on te d pl an nin g
dC an ni n
DEV A CONT ELOP RO ME LA N RE T AS
c
Alfred E PA Co R Pelic ve, M KS an P ily oin u, t
ED CR ‘SA ITES’ S
b de alan and velop ce pro me tec nt tio n
MARIN
Ab
Act ge 72 19 erita lH ina ig or
ING ANN & C ARK AN ERP SW RIV
T POR RE TRANS UCTU IN F R A S TR
ol contr ing plann ent gem mana
ADS M AIN R O
M et ro po lita n
N
envirom enta l pr ote contro cti l re on actv creati ities on al
trol con nt eme nag a m
2 sh 000 F 2 or Po 005 ever lic y2 .8 -B us hla nd
e car
ENS ORIG AB 1948 nd AR tion & La serva Con agement Act NG Man OO
em ag an 06 rs M 0 2 ve Ri g
n tio age ec rit ot he pr ral tu ul
SW D AN EP Sw an R an
IV
g
F TO T N E US TM TR R Act A ent ER
N IA L RA ST U A ERN River protection policies T S E W
River development policies
Actors & Legislation
117
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
04
03 #tomorrow
/// Riverine scenarios predicted
4.3.1 // Climate change threats
Throughout the last fifty years, Australia had bear an average burden of 1,14 billion dollars per year as costs of natural disasters, including an estimated costs of deaths and injuries. Events such as floods, severe storms and tropical cyclones have caused the greatest economic losses, whereas New South Wales has carried the most of them in a proportion of 44,5%, with â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;severe stormsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; as the most significant contribution to the cost.
Since climate change has become a global concern, the Swan and Canning River catchments are very likely to subject water-related climate changes effects in the next future. It comes that either sea level rise and floods from increasingly intense storms events, highlight the need of a more coordinated and broaden planning of the Swan River foreshore.
118
chapter 04
A SHIFT IN PERSPECTIVE / From the endless fringe to the waved core: the Swan River
<1%
8,6 %
3%
1967-1999 1967-1999
22 % 22 %
26 %
22 %
FLOOD SEVERE STORM TROPICAL CYCLONE
NEW SOUTH WALES QUEENSLAND VICTORIA
EARTHQUAKE BUSHFIRE LANDSLIDE
NORTHERN TERRITORY WESTERN AUSTRALIA SOUTH AUSTRALIA TASMANIA AUSTRALIAN CAPITAL TERRITORY
COST OF COSTNATURAL OF COST OF DISASTER NATURAL NATURAL DISASTERDISASTER
1
% 7,7
% 7,7
66,4 % 66,4 % 66,4 %
1 % 7,7
% 13
4,1% 7,1% 4,1% 4,1% 7,1% % 1 13
%1% 13 7,
in WESTERN in WESTERN in WESTERN AUSTRALIA 1967-1999 AUSTRALIA AUSTRALIA 1967-1999 1967-1999
FLOOD SEVERE STORM TROPICAL CYCLONE EARTHQUAKE BUSHFIRE
Source: Middelmann M., Natural hazards in Australia,2007
119
% 44,5
by STATE by STATE
26 % 26 %
% 44,5
1967-1999
13,1%
1967-1999 1967-1999
13,1%
25%
25%
13,1%
1967-1999
by TYPE by TYPE
COST OF NATURAL COST OF COST OF DISASTER NATURALNATURAL DISASTERDISASTER by STATE
% 44,5
% 29
% 29
25%
COST OF NATURAL COST OF COST OF DISASTER NATURALNATURAL DISASTERDISASTER by TYPE
8,6 %
1
3%
<1% 7%
8,6 %
3% 7%
1,7% >0,1% 4,2% % 8 % 7 , , 1 5 1,7% ,1%% >0,1% ,2% >04 4 2 , % % 5,8 5,8
<1%
% 29
1
1
7%
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
In the same period, Western Australia has experienced most of the damages due to tropical cyclones (66,4%), but a focus on Perth Metropolitan Area reveals that severe storms and winds, earthquakes and iverine floods in the Swan and Canning Rivers are those impacting wider populations. Despite a relatively low risk of floods throughout Western Australia (4,1%), climate change effect and sea level rise projections are leading this event to become way more common and intense.
ally by about 20 cm since the late 1800s, and by 3,2 mm a year since the early 1990s, affecting many coastal communities. Sea levels along the west coast of Western Australia have been rising between 7.1 and 7.4 mm per year since the beginning of the 1990s, about double the global average, and is projected to increase by a further 0,5 meter to 1,0 meter this century. With a plausible “high end” scenario of 1,1 meter, if the world warmed by about 4°C compared with pre-industrial temperatures, it will affect the frequency of coastal flooding: events currently considered a 1-in-100 year frequency would occur every year in most parts of WA and even more frequently in Perth.
According to “The Critical Decade”, a 2011 report delivered by Climate Council Australia, on average, sea level has increased glob-
+7.0 +7.1
+7.1
+3.3
+2.0
+7.4
+3.9 +4.6
+2.1
+4.5 +2.8
+3.6 +3.4
Local sea-level rise in mm/year around Australia from early 1990s to 2010 Source: National Tidal Centre, 2010
120
chapter 04
A SHIFT IN PERSPECTIVE / From the endless fringe to the waved core: the Swan River
1,8 m AHD Inundation level due to the combination of the highest sea-level scenario and the nominal highest astronomical tide value for the region
High sea-level rise scenario of 1,1m relevant to a 2100 scenario Source: Australian Government, Dep. Of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency
121
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
The Swan River has a recorded history of flooding dated back to the British Colonization which, hopefully, has never reported truly catastrophic events. None of the most recent events is comparable to the 2011 flood that affected more than three-quarters of Queensland and saw the Brisbane River rising with a peak of 4,46 meters in Brisbane City CBD, producing $2.38 billion of damages, the death of 38 people and the ‘substantial destruction’ of the riverine transport infrastructure.
washed away. However, the largest and last 100-year flood event recorded was in July 1872. At the Helena River, the 1872 flood level was 0,7 metre higher that the 1862 event (ARI=60). Despite the hard perception of the real risk as the projection face a century length of time, the UWA’s Professor Chari Pattiarachi attests:
“A one-metre sea level rise may not be of great significance in the sparsely populated Kimberley in northern Western Australia, where the tidal range is up to 10 metres. However, in the South-West, with a less than one-metre tidal difference, a one-metre rise will have significant effects on coastal development. […] for instance, the Swan River floods occurring twice a year now, by the end of this century it could flood at every high tide.” (Rimrod,
The earliest recorded flood is dated back to July 1830, barely a year after the establishment of the colony, when the river rose 6,1 meters above its normal level. The 1862 flood, due to three weeks of relentless heavy rain over the Swan-Avon catchment, covered Perth in over 2m of flood waters for weeks. Four people were reportedly killed during the floods, properties and farms destroyed and the bridge over Canning River was
2009)
100 80 60 40 20
3 19 8
4 19 6
3
8
19 6
19 5
5 19 5
6
5
19 4
19 4
0 19 3
6
7
19 2
19 1
0 19 1
2 18 7
18 6
2
0 year
* Average Recurrence Interval: the average interval in years which would be expected to occur between exceedances of flood events of a given magnitude
Swan & Canning rivers recorded history of flooding events
122
chapter 04
A SHIFT IN PERSPECTIVE / From the endless fringe to the waved core: the Swan River
On the other hand, the city’s growing population also means a growing demand for water and Perth’s land is slowly subsiding. Perth gets 42% of its water from groundwater, 41% from desalination and 17% from storage dams, according to the latest figures from Water Corp. Growing demand for water in Perth has caused the city to sink at up to 6mm a year and could be responsible for an apparent acceleration in the rate of sea level rise.
As a result, if not for further urban development, the Swan and Canning Rivers foreshores require a specific attention during this century and will need to be redesigned to protect the investment in housing and infrastructure inland.
Of all of the Swan River, it is the areas of reclaimed land along the Perth and South Perth foreshores which are most at risk, those of reclaimed land during the 19th century. According to the 2100 mapping of the 1,1-meter sea level rise, Langley Park, Heirisson Island and the South Perth foreshores appear almost entirely submerged ‘reclaimed’ by the river in a pre-settlement landscape of rush beds and salt marshes. Mill Point, South Perth, 1926 flood
123
// analysis
// analysis
05 THE BUILT FORM Just a matter of density?
tav. 4
127
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
05
01 Administration
/// Local Government Areas
To an administrative level, the vast urbanized territory of Western Australia is made up of 140 LGA or Local Government Areas. They represent the administrative division of a country that a local government is responsible for, and the size is generally a subdivision of a state, province, division, or territory
Despite the debated term, what is most important is the level of autonomy in managing the territory within the planning system framework. Local governments are involved in planning for local communities by ensuring appropriate planning controls exist for land use and development. They do this by, amongst other things, preparing and administering their local planning schemes and strategies.
In Australia, the term is synonymous with “municipality”. Local government authorities across the country have similar functions and powers, but have different official designations in different states, and according to whether they are urban or rural. Most urban municipalities in all states are “cities”. Many in Western Australia are officially “towns”, even within the Perth metropolitan area. Many rural areas in Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and Western Australia are “shires”, while rural areas in South Australia have “district councils”, and those in Tasmania officially use the title “municipality”. It is largely for this reason that the term “local government area”, or simply “LGA”, is favoured over the term “municipality”, the use of which could easily lead to confusion.
Local planning schemes contain planning controls such as designation of appropriate land-uses, residential densities and development standards. Therefore, local governments must base their planning decisions on the provisions and controls in their local planning scheme. All local government planning schemes and policies are required to be consistent with State Government planning objectives and requirements. In the Perth region and other areas subject to region planning schemes, local governments are required to ensure their local planning schemes are consistent with the relevant region planning scheme.
130
chapter 05
THE BUILT FORM / Just a matter of density?
Stirling
Bayswater
Bassendean
Vincent
Cambridge Subiaco
Perth
Belmont
Nedlands Victoria Park
Claremont Cottesloe
South Perth
Peppermint Grove Mosman Park
East Fremantle
Canning Melville
Fremantle
Local Government Authorities in the Central Sub-Region
131
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
Specifically, local planning schemes must fulfil the requirements coming from strategical planning.
Since Directions 2031 and Beyond sets an infill target of 47 per cent, it equates to approximately 380,000 new dwellings, of which approximately 215,000 are expected to be delivered in the Central sub region and a further 165,000 in the outer sub-regions of Perth and Peel.
As previously said, the Central Sub-Regional Planning Framework has been prepared in response to the anticipated demand for infill housing that will stem from a population increase to 3.5 million people by 2050. The plan considers the growth scenario where it is expected that an estimated 800,000 more dwellings will be needed to accommodate the additional people expected in the Perth and Peel regions. LGA
INFILL HOUSING TA R G E T
Bassendean Bayswater Belmont Cambridge Canning Claremont Cottesloe East Fremantle Fremantle Melville
4.200 15.800 10.500 6.900 19.600 1.300 1.000 900 7.100 18.500
Among the 19 LGA composing the central sub region, the 215,000 new dwelling are so intended:
LGA
INFILL HOUSING TA R G E T
Mosman Park Nedlands Peppermint Grove Perth South Perth Stirling Subiaco Victoria Park Vincent
1.600 4.400 500 16.000 8.300 60.400 6.200 19.400 11.500
215,000
165,000
380,000
infill housing target for Central sub-region
infill housing target for outer sub-regions
infill housing target for Perth and Peel Regions
Infill housing targets for the Central sub-region local government authorities Source: Direction 2031 & Beyond (WAPC, 2010)
132
chapter 05
THE BUILT FORM / Just a matter of density?
The aim is for most of all new infill residential development, approximately 75 percent (160,000 dwellings), to occur within the identified urban consolidation areas of activity centres, corridors and station precincts. There are many measures, statutory mechanisms or provisions available to local government to enable urban consolidation to be realised. These measures include local planning policies, scheme provisions, incentives, density bonuses, up-coding, splitcoding, special control or development areas, and minimum densities. These mechanisms must be considered based on the individual requirements of the urban consolidation areas, existing adjacent development, the position of the local government and the community.
ARMADALE RDV. AREA Projects: Armadale, Wungong Urban
MIDLAND RDV. AREA Projects: Midland
CENTRAL PERTH RDV. AREA Projects: Claisebrook Village, Chinatown, East Perth Power Station, Elizabeth Quay, New Northbridge, Perth City Link, Perth Cultural Centre, Riverside
SCARBOROUGH RDV. AREA Projects: Scarborough
5.1.1 // Ongoing redevelopment projects
SUBIACO RDV. AREA Projects: Subi Centro
The Metropolitan Redevelopment Authority is the body established to undertake redevelopment projects in certain part of Perth metropolitan area. Today it is directing 15 redevelopment projects in the central sub-region. Interestingly 10 of them are in the Central Business District and the only ones somewhat close to the river.
A
Elizabeth Quay
800
22,5
10
B
Perth City Link
1.650
24,4
13,5 1,1
C
Yagan Square
D
Riverside
E
Perth Cultural Centre
F
New Northbridge
-
-
4.000
9,4
40
-
-
8,5
460
7
27
G
Subi Centro
1.975
30,5
84,5
H
Claisebrook Village
1.450
13
137,5
I
East Perth Power Station
1.400
3,4
8,5
L
Burswood Peninsula
12.000
31,5
121,6
dw
ha
ha
Source: MRA, Metropolitan Redevelopment Authority
133
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
05
02 Housing
5.2.1 // Uniform land use...
According to the latest Urban Growth Monitor 2016, a WAPCâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s report on zoned land supply and land consumption through development for the Perth regions, the 77% of Perth Metropolitan Region is urbanised.
Based on historical land consumption rates, it would take approximately 61 years under current policy targets (47 per cent infill/53 per cent greenfield), as reflected in Direction 2031 & Beyond. These estimates are based on the stock of land zoned for urban development as at 31 December 2015. They do not account for potential changes to the stock of undeveloped urban and urban deferred zoned land through rezonings, or environmental requirements identified as part of future State and Commonwealth environmental approvals.
The Central sub-region, which is all but fully urbanised has the lowest stock of nonurbanized land zoned for development. The overall population that can theoretically be accommodated on the remaining stock of non-urbanised land, zoned for urban development is mostly dependent on the form of future development. In particular, the share of development contained in greenfield areas compared to infill within already established areas of the city must be taken into consideration.
However, the net infill rate, for the Perth metropolitan and Peel regions which accounts for demolition activity, was approximately 34 per cent in 2015 of the 47 intended in the strategy. This compares with 31 per cent in 2014, 28 per cent in 2013 and 2012 and 32 per cent in 2011. The actual proportion of new dwelling creation that occurs in infill areas is expected to vary from year to year and can be attributed to factors such as dwelling demolitions, the number of background and major infill projects completed
Today Perth Metropolitan Region covers an area of approximately 100.000 ha. Most of it is urbanised in form of residential development with few mixed-use areas located around transit hubs.
134
chapter 05
11%
74 10 %
LAND ZONED
79
%
6%
%
2
THE BUILT FORM / Just a matter of density?
LAND USE
RESIDENTIAL
NON URBANIZED 28.660 ha
COMMERICAL AND LIGHT INDUSTRIAL COMMITTED USES
URBANIZED 83.730 ha
Land zone and land use in Perth Metropolitan Area Source: The Urban Growth Monitor 2016
in the reporting year and the role of major greenfield land releases.
inant form of urban development in Perth. Since 2013, the design of most residential development throughout Western Australia is controlled by the R-Codes. They describe the number of residential units allowed in a specified land, aiming to address emerging design trends, promote sustainability, improve clarity and highlight assessment pathways to facilitate better outcomes for residents. In simple terms, an R-code stipulates how many residences can be built on a
A look to the graph shows that of the 77% of urbanized land the predominant land use is residential accounting for the 79% of the total. 5.2.2 // ...slightly different density: R-Codes Of the amount of residential use, low-density greenfield projects have been the dom-
135
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
10 000 sqm block of land and is used to work out the minimum size of a residential block. They are designed to help suburbs, towns and cities in WA control their population density in a structured and equitable way. For example, under the R20 code (twenty residences), the average lot size is 450 sqm, and under the new R60 (sixty residences), the lot size is 150 sqm. Considering density index in a range from R 10 (ten residences per hectare) to R 160 (a hundred and sixty residences per hectare) a look at the R-Code distribution proof the low-density prevalence in most of the areas around the river. On the contrary higher density are located near the Central Business District or the so-called Activity Centres and Corridors.
R-AC (Activity Centres) R 10
R 35
R 12,5
R 40
R 15
R 50
R 17,5
R 60
R 20
R 80
R 25
R 100
R 30
R 160
Residential Design Codes Source: State Planning Policy 3.1 Residential Design Codes.
136
chapter 05
THE BUILT FORM / Just a matter of density?
137
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
ACTIVITY CENTRE Land coded R-AC of mixed-used areas and multiple dwellings.
HIGH-DENSITY RESIDENTIAL PRECINCT Commercial zones with R-AC coding or residential zones with high density code (e.g. R80, R160). Areas of grouped and multiple dwellings.
MEDIUM-DENSITY RESIDENTIAL PRECINCT Land coded R30 to R60, of grouped dwellings and single houses.
LOW-DENSITY RESIDENTIAL PRECINCT Land coded less than R30, of detached houses.
Precincts design typology Source: State Planning Policy 3.1 Residential Design Codes.
138
chapter 05
THE BUILT FORM / Just a matter of density?
According to 2015 data, Perth Metropolitan Region has a density rate of 9,8 dwellings per gross urban zone hectare. Since 2011 ABS indicator of people per household is 2,6 the overall density in Perth corresponds to 25,5 people per hectare, therefore 2.550 people per square kilometre. Gross zone dwelling density measures the number of dwellings per gross urban or urban deferred zoned hectare, based only on urbanised land. As this measure relates to the entire stock of urbanised land, including local roads, parks and incidental uses, it is less sensitive than other measures to additions to the dwelling stock or increases in the intensity of residential dwelling development.
9,8
dw/ha
Directions 2031 and Beyond set a target of a 50 per cent increase to the 2010 average residential density of new residential areas in the Perth metropolitan and Peel regions, to 15 dwellings per gross urban zoned hectare. This target is based on a 50 per cent improvement on residential densities as measured through a study of fringe area density between 1991 and 2008.
2.550
people/km2
139
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
5.2.3 // A matter of price To complete the Perth urban frame, an analysis of the housing market confirms the scenario so far described.
14%
According to the Real Estate Institute of Western Australia (REIWA) the median house price in the Perth Metropolitan Region for the March 2016 quarter softened to $530,000.
PRIVATE SALES BY HOUSEHOLD INCOME
As can be seen from the following map, the current prices of housing market outline a sharp contrast between intense purple areas, where the average price ranges from $1 to $3 million per housing and yellow areas below $ 500,000 per housing. The contrast is evident by comparing these prices to actual density. To very low-density precincts corresponds prohibitive prices, vice versa, to high-density areas corresponds more affordable housing.
VERY LOW INCOME (<$42.850)
LOW INCOME ($42,851–$68,560)
MODERATE (LOWER) INCOME ($68,561–$85,700)
Generally today more affordable neighbourhoods are within 20-25 km from the city centre, as well as other contexts such as Melbourne and Sydney. This scenario has been strengthened in the last 10 years, that has seen a decrease from more than 50% of the neighbourhoods accessible to just 4% today.
MODERATE (UPPER) INCOME ($85,701–$102,840)
HIGH INCOME (>$102,840)
Interestingly the least affordable precincts are the one on the Swan River banks. The Western suburbs above the Swan River are commonly called “Golden Triangle”. Here it is home of the exclusive upper-middle class, prestigious private schools and tertiary education.
140
72
%
9%
5% 0,1%
chapter 05
THE BUILT FORM / Just a matter of density?
HAMERSLEY 525 K
NORTH BEACH 1.000 K
BALCATTA 520 K
STIRLING 815 K
TRIGG 1.152 K
BALGA 365 K
DIANELLA 615 K
DOUBLEVIEW 745 K SCARBOROUGH 760 K
CITY BEACH 1.645 K
OSBORNE PARK 480 K
SHENTON PARK 1.275 K
COTTESLOE 1.837 K
MOSMAN PARK 1.275 K
ATTADALE 1.100 K
EAST FREMANTLE 1.090 K FREMANTLE 767 K
BAYSWATER 600 K
MELVILLE 810 K
Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;CONNOR 530 K
BASSENDEAN 520 K
MAYLANDS 630 K ASCOT 882 K
BURSWOOD 862 K
BELMONT 450 K
RIVERVALE 560 K SOUTH PERTH VICTORIA PARK 640 K 1.250 K CANNINGTON 437 K COMO BENTLEY 865 K 497 K SALTER POINT WILSON APPLE1.150 K 557 K CROSS 1.250 K
DALKEITH 2.400 K
BICTON 875 K
YOKINE 660 K
NORTH PERTH WEMBLEY 807 K 1.020 K WEST PERTH 587 K EAST SUBIACO PERTH PERTH 1.277 K 1.260 K 840 K
NEDLANDS 1.500 K CLAREMONT 1.275 K
PEPPERMINT GROVE 3.350 K
MORLEY 515 K
SHELLEY 945 K
MOUNT PLEASANT 1.130 K
ROSSMOYNE 1.100 K
BULL CREEK 715 K MURDOCH 729 K
LEEMING 698 K
< 500k
750k - 1,0M
500k - 750k
1,0M - 1,5M
PARKWOOD 487 K
CANNING VALE 565 K
< 500k
750k - 1,0M
500k - 750k
1,0M - 1,5M > 1,5M
> 1,5M
Residential price by suburb Source: REIWA, Western Australia Real Estate Institute, March 2017
141
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
05
03 Transportation
5.3.1 // Car-based society
ly, so building a city to accommodate this seemed to make sense. The motor car provided the mechanism for Perth to grow to a large city area wise for its population.
The low-density nature of Perth is reflected in its transport systems. The impact of transport infrastructure, mainly road, on the form of urban development and structure of Perth is well established. The structure of modern metropolitan Perth, following the Plan for the Metropolitan Region, Perth and Fremantle, 1955 (Stephenson and Hepburn 1955) was that of a road-based city.
5.3.2 // Public transport The processes to reverse the car-based city concept began by building railways instead of freeways. Perth 25 years ago had virtually no railway system. Only seven million passengers a year trundled along in the old diesel trains. The new suburbs to the north and south had no prospect of good quality public transit. The almost 200 kilometres of modern electric rail built since 1990 allow more than 70 million passengers a year to travel on fast, quality railways to the north and south. Perthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s public transport has become the envy of other Australian cities.
Motorcar dominates transport mode share in Perth and hence is a significant influence on spatial employment distribution within the metropolitan area. In a study of 100 cities around the world Perth was ranked in the top ten for both motorised private mode split (at 87%) and passenger car km per capita (at 8,260km) (Kenworthy and Laube, 2001). Perthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s characteristic as a car-dominated city is a result of the success of the Hepburn Stephenson Plan. It was created when car ownership and use were rising dramatical-
The network that supports the city is based on five train lines radiating from the CBD. The original train lines (Fremantle, Midland
142
THE BUILT FORM / Just a matter of density?
OT H
ER
RE
GIO N AL
ROADS
S AD
TR
EGIO PRIMARY R
AN
AD RO
L NA
O SP
S
RT
LI NE S
PUB LIC
BU
S
RO
chapter 05
AY LW RAI
143
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
and Armadale) were built in the 19th century. The closely spaced stations were built when most people walked to public transport services and development patterns were more concentrated. The Joondalup line (1993) and the Mandurah line (2007) are located primarily in freeway reserves with stations further apart than those on the other lines. These stations, which are mainly serviced by feeder buses and park and ride, generally cater to much larger catchment areas.
commute harbour-port by car, and about an hour and a half to commute by bus. Other journey times are indicated on the next page map. Despite the proximity to the river, it turns out the almost complete absence of any riverine transport except for a link between the northern and southern banks of Perth Water.
Public transport use has already increased due to fast, reliable and frequent bus and train systems with good interchange facilities providing access to stations by both bus and car. 5.3.3 // The river role In this context, the Swan River plays a pivotal role. Within the road transport network, the main arteries circumnavigate the river at a distance, so that only twelve bridges allow the north-south crossing. On the other hand, the rail transport network expands from the city centre towards the five peripheral development directives avoiding almost exclusively the contact with the river. Interestingly, the leading international hubs are located on the river banks. It is the case of Fremantle Harbour at the river mouth, and the Perth airport located at the Lower Swan meanders. The average distance between them is 30 kilometres. The Central Business District is located 20 kilometres north the harbour and 15 kilometres south the airport. Considering the current planning system, it takes about 40/50 minutes to
144
chapter 05
THE BUILT FORM / Just a matter of density?
INT ER NA TI
BS
km ,5 32 (car)
bus)
h 1,4 0
r) ca
) ain (tr in m 45
46 m in
15 km ( b u s)
ar) in (c 17 m
(ca
bu
s)
ai+ (tr
30 h 1,20
r) ca n( mi 40
km
s) (bu
ES RI
LI NE
in 50 m
7h 1,2
RR FE
Y
s) h (bu 1,40
m 21 k r)
FE R
50 m in (bu s)
34 m in
20 k
m
n+ (trai
n mi 50
(
s) bu
h 1,27
(
O
HU L NA
145
// analysis
06 RIVERINE LANDSCAPE
tav. 5
147
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
06
01 Swan River system
Natural landscape is that which appears to be relatively natural, with the dominant vegetation being endemic to the site and the landform being relatively unaltered. The site will also have minimal development with the only land use being passive recreation or low impact structures. Unfortunately, the very nature of the Swan River is that there are few sites that have had minimal anthropogenic impact.
As said in the previous chapters, the PerthSwan River relationship takes place on the 72,1 sq km of the Riverpark. This almost-continuous green belt is home to parks, nature reserves, protected areas (Bush Forever Areas and Marine Parks), inaccessible only where there are steep slopes on the river due to orographic issues. 6.1.1 // Landscape description
Arcadian landscape is the man-made landscape which has either altered a natural landscape in way that appears to be natural or has been tamed. This is not particularly common in Perth as the indigenous vegetation is more typically left as ‘bushland’. Sections of parklands with remnant vegetation could be considered arcadian as many trees are pruned to’improve’ their form, such as South Perth Foreshore melaleuca and flooded gum stands.
The Swan and Canning Rivers and their immediate surroundings can be considered the most important landscape features of the Perth Metropolitan Region. The Swan River system landscape has changed since European settlement and is subject to ever increasing pressure for change. The river holds ‘icon’ status and has become a focus for the quality of the perceived environment in the metropolitan region. The dominant landscape characters is the nature or identity of the landscape. It is the combination of the natural and cultural elements and their processes:
The suburban landscape is characterised by those elements which are so familiar to the Perth population, streets of houses each
150
chapter 06
RIVERINE LANDSCAPE
with their own garden, shopping centres, carparks, administrative buildings, power poles, parklands and other amenities. The suburban landscape ranges from high density housing estates to large blocks with single houses.
there are permanent sporting club facilities such as club houses and infrastructure. 6.1.2 // River sections Despite the presence of Riverpark green belt, the riverine landscape has a very little natural character with endemic vegetation and unaltered form. It is a landscape mostly “ARCADIAN” or man-shaped so that it looks natural although tamed; the ideal of the European landscape.
The parkland/recreational landscape has been classified as those areas of open space with recreational facilities and infrastructure which typically have maintained lawn. The landscape is different from the natural landscape as areas have typically been cleared for recreational activities, dual use pathways have been provided and often
B
At a landscape level, it is possible to distinguish five macro-river areas:
C D
A E
RIVER PRECINCTS
A
B
C
D
E
BLACKWALL REACH
MELVILLE WATER
PERTH WATER
LOWER SWAN
LOWER CANNING
average distance 4/5 km
presence of riverine facilities
floodplain areas
151
near to activity centres & transport hubs
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
A // Blackwall Reach
nant. The river and foreshore is intensively used for commercial, recreation, transport and marine activities and access and enjoyment of this part of the river by the public is paramount.
This river section is characterised by steeply sloping limestone landforms, a variety of residential development and land uses and a wide range of water-based activities. The river narrows and is flanked by high limestone bluffs sparsely covered with natural vegetation. The area exhibits a relatively enclosed landscape, with axial and sequential views unfolding along the deep waters and course of the river towards Fremantle. This results in a greater sensitivity of the landscape to urban development scale, density and proportions than in the wider parts of the river. There are a number of different land uses in this area. Residential development, comprising a mixed tapestry of architectural styles, colour, form and scale, and extensive active and passive recreational areas are predomi-
152
chapter 06
RIVERINE LANDSCAPE
B // Melville water
er and foreshore reserves are generally extensive and developed as formal active and passive recreation areas with some pockets of natural vegetation along cliff edges and wetland bays.
This section of the river is characterised by broad expanses of water, being the widest part of the river system. This allows extensive views of the residential suburbs either side of the river and long views across the water to the Perth central business district, Mount Eliza and Kings Park. This area is less sensitive to scale than Blackwall Reach because it has a much more open visual character.
The area is also notable for a number of commercial, institutional and recreational landmarks. These include: the and Raffles hotel sites, the Sunset Hospital site, the University of Western Australia, Heathcote, Santa Maria, Methodist Ladies and Christchurch colleges and the Royal Freshwater, Nedlands, Royal Perth and South Perth yacht clubs.
However, around Freshwater Bay, from Chidley Point to Point Resolution, the landform features steeply sloping limestone cliffs, which create a moderate degree of visual enclosure. The southern aspect of these cliffs results in a shadowed margin to the river and the skyline is depicted by silhouette and form rather than colour and texture. Residential development is the predominant land use on both sides of the riv-
The Kwinana Freeway, Canning Bridge and Mounts Bay Road provide continuous views of the river to a large number of travellers on those roads.
153
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
C // Perth water
tivities. Focal points are Barrack Square, the Bell Tower, Supreme Court gardens and court house, Perth Concert Hall and tourist hotels overlooking Langley Park. Commercial, residential and recreational facilities along the South Perth foreshore opposite complement the city centre river landscape.
Perth water is a major landscape feature of the city. The expanse of water is flanked by the lawns of Langley Park, the Esplanade and Sir James Mitchell Park and framed by Kings Park and city centre office towers. Traversed by cruise boats and recreational craft, the river creates a picturesque and lively image. In contrast, still waters at night and early morning provide reflections of city lights. Dominant built landscape features are the city skyline, with high-rise buildings orientated towards the river. These reinforce the linear form of the foreshore and provide strong vertical definition. The landscape has a distinctly urban character, which contrasts with Mount Eliza and the natural landscape character of the Kings Park escarpment.
Upstream from the Causeway the river narrows and winds its way past Claisebrook inlet at East Perth and also the old East Perth power station. On the opposite bank of the river Burswood Casino provides a significant landscape feature. Redevelopment has occurred along much of this section of the river in recent years, resulting in a wide variety of land uses and a changing landscape. Adjacent to Burswood Casino the water is designated for speedboat and water-ski club use.
This part of the river provides a variety of recreational, commercial and transport ac-
154
chapter 06
RIVERINE LANDSCAPE
D // Lower Swan
opposite the Maylands Peninsula, the eroded banks adjacent to Ashfield Flats, as well as Kuljak and Ron Courtney Islands.
Once past the Goongoonup Bridge the Swan River narrows and takes the form of large meanders that take it around the Burswood, Maylands and Garvey Park peninsulas. This landscape is a more natural river landscape with a narrow channel fringed by a thin line of riverine vegetation interspersed with low-lying wetland areas at Baigup Reserve, Ashfield Flats and the South Guildford Wetland.
This part of the river has many public parks and recreational features that are integrated with riverside residential areas. Notable landmarks include Ascot and Belmont Park racecourses, Ascot brick kilns, Tranby House, Garrett Road and Redcliffe bridges, Sandy Beach Reserve and Riverside Gardens. Major riverside recreation areas such as Garvey Park and the Rivervale, Bassendean and Bayswater foreshores provide both passive and active recreational opportunities. The river is also currently used for sailing, kayaking and canoeing, horse-swimming and water-skiing.
There is still a significant amount of good quality vegetation remaining along this part of the river; however, there are also many areas that are degraded. A number of areas such as Ascot Waters, Garvey Park and Maylands Peninsula have been altered by excavation. The main landscape features of this stretch of the river include the steep embankment
155
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
D // Lower Canning
ly screened by fringing vegetation and flat topography. Residential suburbs are leafy, characterised by low density development with mature trees and a natural river foreshore. Several institutional land uses define the landscape along this section of the river.
The Canning River landscape near its confluence with the Swan River is dominated by the elevated landform of Mount Henry and the public infrastructure of Kwinana Freeway and the Canning and Mount Henry bridges. Beyond Mount Henry the river forms two wide basins, Aquinas Bay and Shelley Basin.
These include Aquinas College, Clontarf and Castledare boys homes and further upstream, the Canning City Council offices and gardens. The area includes the Canning River Regional Park, which contains some of the best estuarine vegetation of the Swan-Canning catchment. The Kent Street Weir and Nicholson Bridge are notable landmarks along this part of the river.
These are framed by the ridgeline of Mount Henry, decreasing to the flatter, lower lying land of Salter Point and Waterford. Deep Water Point is a popular recreational node, clearly visible from the Canning Bridge and used extensively for rowing, water skiing and other aquatic activities. With the exception of some significant commercial development near the Canning Bridge, most of the Canning River area has a suburban character, which is general-
156
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
06
02 River use
/// Edge analysis
The Swan River today is well-known for its tourists and local attractions. It is characterized mainly by recreational use either inland and on the water.
Australians are proud of their country down under and they celebrate it every year on January the 26th there are many different places to celebrate Australia day but in Perth there is one place that most local Australians go and that is the river. There is always a fireworks show at the Swan River on Australia Day and there is plenty of room for families to have a picnic in the afternoon and then see the fireworks later that evening.
The Swan River is an important part Perthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s history but also of Perth residentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s everyday life. For some people, the Swan River is about them getting fit they can walk, run or jog around the whole river on a daily basis for free. There are also fitness stations situated all around the Swan River area this also helps in strength workouts as well as cardio vascular.
The Swan River waters are also significant for Perth culture, with many water sports such as rowing, sailing, and swimming all occurring in its waters. Cruises carries tourist from Perth Waters to Fremantle and Rottnest Island and there many local fishermen fish early in the morning and come back with a bucket full of fish.
The river is also known to be very children friendly. It has lots of playgrounds around where children can run and play around with their friends while watchful parents can supervise them. With 300 days of sunshine a year and an abundance of gorgeous parklands, having lunch at a picnic table has become a tradition that most families in Perth do in their spare time especially around the river foreshore thanks to the abundance of picnic and barbecue spots.
158
chapter 06
RIVERINE LANDSCAPE
RIVER CRUISES
WATER SPORTS
FAMILY PICNIC & BARBECUE
PHISICAL ACTIVITY
SAILING COMPETITIONS
FISHING
TOURISM
FESTIVALS
159
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
6.2.1 // Riverine facilities
Jetties, piers and boat launching ramps allow the public use of the river itself, while accommodation facilities, including yacht clubs, several minor clubs venue of water sports and riverfront facilities with direct water access as bars and restaurants, allow the river interaction with a wide or less public access.
For the reasons described before, the Riverpark host a series of private and public riverine infrastructures that allow its use. These have been subdivided into categories based on function.
#16
boat launching ramps Ramp on the shore by which ships or boats can be moved to or from the water. Such spaces normally are composed of: • a wide car park • one or more ramps with jetties • primary services They are 100% for public use and represent the main public access to the river.
#31
independent jetties A pier projecting from the land out into the water. Jetties on the Swan River are normally timber structures subdivided by shape and vessel accommodation type. The main activities on jetties include riverine fishing and temporary landing of vessels.
160
chapter 06
RIVERINE LANDSCAPE
#12
yacht clubs Sports club specifically related to yachting. They include a well-organised variety of facilities, such as pontoons, jetties, piers to provide berthing for recreational crafts shorter than 50m. The access to such facilities is allowed only to club members except for attached bars and restaurants.
#8
minor clubs Canoe, boat, kayak, dinghy and sailing clubs. Such facilities require less spaces than yacht-club, and they are often composed of a jetty, a ramp and a boatshed. The access is restricted to club members only.
#11 facilities
Facilities facing the river, accessible either by land and water thanks to jetties. Some are restaurants and cafĂŠs, therefore public spaces. Other, instead, are venues of organizations responsible for river control, therefore private spaces.
161
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
6.2.2 // What is affected by sea-level rise? All of such riverine infrastructures, unfortunately are subjected to the potential risk of flooding, as it is shown in the 2100 sea-level rise projection. It follows that a special consideration and perhaps redesign, is needed.
21 12 19 12
jetties marinas facilities boat launching ramps
126,2 km of river edge
14 30 19 6
roads reserves parks sports club
14,26 km
2
inland
162
chapter 06
RIVERINE LANDSCAPE
163
// strategy
// strategy
07 ‘Swan River as Perth’s beating heart’
THE RIVERINE CITY
tav. 6
167
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
07
01 Towards the vision
/// Swan Riverâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s SWOT
As described in the previous chapters, the Swan and Canning River systems and what concern their immediate surroundings cover most of Perth metropolitan area. The context analysis has allowed to understand a complex site that, according to the current trends, is still strongly debated on its role for the city in whether or not it could be suitable as a destination for the forecasted future growth.
In order to answer these questions and ensure the development of a strategy both at a metropolitan and local scale suitable to the needs of the site, a comprehensive analysis is required as long as it considers the current dynamics, the main issues and potentials as transformation opportunity. In doing so, the SWOT analysis turns out to be necessary in summarizing the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of the site, therefore it has been subdivided into the following areas.
Moreover, it encourages questions such as:
How to accommodate future demographic growth without fuelling further sprawl?
What is the potential of the Swan and Canning Rivers to accommodate urban growth?
Can resiliency measures become the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s attractions which both protect and serve as upgrades for social and urban fabric?
How can the city plan for its resiliency against sea level rise while also planning for its future growth?
Can they boost urban growth?
170
chapter 08
strengths
â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;SWAN RIVER AS PERTHâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S BEATING HEARTâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; / THE RIVERINE CITY
weaknesses
opportunities
threats
L O C AT I O N area composing Perth city
high dependency on the
use of the river as a magnet
sea level rise affecting most
inner core
CBD due to the lack of
for further growth
of the river foreshore
take advantage of the
loss of tangible and
services proximity to the CBD and the main transport hubs
lack of connection within
morphology to safeguard
intangible heritage
(port/airport)
the adjacent urban fabric
the significant viewscapes
due to speculative and demographic pressure
variable riverine orography alluring scenic views
N AT U R A L F O R M presence of high-valued
excessive protection
take advantage of the
climate change effects:
natural spaces
policies cause the city
natural form in planning
bushfires, sea level rise,
(bushland,
retract from the river
tailored resilience against
reduced stream flow,
wetlands, reserves)
sea level rise
increased period of salinity stratification and
biodiversity hotspot
enhance a green connective
penetration of marine
network
water up-stream
international, national, domestic tourist
increased river pollution
attractiveness
from demographic pressure
U R B A N PAT T E R N presence of ongoing
saturated low density
urban activation from
climate change effects:
redevelopment projects for
urban fabric with suburban
attractive river hubs
sea level rise affecting the
housing supply
character
riverine suburbs riverfront reconsideration
proximity to
lack of interest in some
in a more urban way and
cultural constraints as
activity centres, corridors
areas in current planning:
services integration
antithesis
and station precincts in the
holes in the strategy and
near surroundings
riverfront setbacks
171
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
strengths
weaknesses
opportunities
threats
B U I LT F O R M high economic value of
prevalence of private single
possible provision of
oversupply of oversized
the land
households
affordable housing and
separate housing types
mixed use according to the presence of buildings with
lack of affordable housing
high architectural quality
options for both purchasers
new housing demand
house unaffordability and high cost of house
and renters
provision diversity in
tendency housing trade-off
ownership
housing choice government encourages
gentrification to cheaper
home ownership
suburbs due to sprawl
(First Home Owner Grants)
fuelling
ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES river as an environmental
lack of mixed use in the
promotion of the river use
development of
resource
urban fabric and prevalent
as an economic/productive
incongruous activities that
residential use
resource
main economic activities for recreational purposes
damage the image and consequent loss of identity
limited commercial activities located on the main traffic corridors
P U B L I C S PAC E presence of many public
generous provision of
enhance overall public
open space privatisation
spaces in form of parks and
green areas with limited
accessibility
and speculative pressure
sporting facilities
functionality enhance a continuous
climate change effects:
presence of several riverine
majority of activities on
riverine public space
sea level rise reclaiming
infrastructures such as
the river limited to specific
network
most of the river foreshore
marinas and boating clubs
groups and clubs (private)
on the river
used as public space provision of upgraded open
discontinuity in the easy public accessibility to
riverine public space
the river
system
spaces
172
chapter 08
‘SWAN RIVER AS PERTH’S BEATING HEART’ / THE RIVERINE CITY
strengths
weaknesses
opportunities
threats
INFRASTRUCTURE & SERVICES proximity to the main road
absence of riverine
emphasize the access to the
vehicle dependency due to
interchange hubs
transportation system
river foreshore
the sprawl
proximity to city’s
the current public transport
implementation and
climate change effects:
highlights (universities,
systems avoid most of the
promotion of the public
sea level rise affecting
medical and sport centres)
river foreshore
transport network
roads, esplanades, and
good light transportation
car/road dependency for
provision of a
accessibility
daily commute
ferry network
infrastructures sited in flood prone areas
MANAGEMENT solid tradition of strategic
lack of collaboration within
summarize existing
opposition and
planning
the different actors
strategy goals into a united
cultural constraints in
vision in order to meet the
compromising the idyllic
social awareness of the site
lack of a comprehensive
expected future growth in a
environment
in different and separate
vision that consider both
sustainable way
aspects
natural and built form
inability to negotiate or reach a compromise
Swan and Canning
absence of a representation
Protection Strategy
capable of coordinating
takes care of the
and implementing the
environmental safeguard
proposals
between the parties
IDENTITY Swan River as Perth’s
society segregation due to
encourage integration
reinforcement of
cultural and environmental
economic constraints
processes between cultures
segregation mechanisms
promote meeting places
gentrification
identity aboriginal connection to
accessible to everyone
the land
without any requirement
multicultural and multiethnic diverse population
173
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
S
PAPAPAPA RKRKRKRK
$$$$
proximity to the CBD and transport hubs
O
biodiversity hotspot
Swan and Canning Rivers as Perth identity
alluring scenic views
PA PA P P RK RKARAR K K
$ $ $ $
$$$$
river as resonant system
promotion of a united vision of the river $ $ $ $
NNO NO NOO
ON ON OO NN
00 0.0 0$0$0$$ .00 .0 .0 01 0.0 0 .01 .0 .0 11
NO NN ON OO
NONONONO
174
planning tailored resilience
environmental and social network
chapter 08
‘SWAN RIVER AS PERTH’S BEATING HEART’ / THE RIVERINE CITY
$
PA PAPAPA RK RKRKRK
$$$
W $
$
lack of housing options
$$$
multiple vision and lack of coordination
$
NO NNO NOO
PA PA PPAA RK RKRRKK
$ $$
river perceived as a hole
green areas with limited functionality
T
$ $$
ON OO NONN
00 0$ 00$0$$ .0 .0 .0 .0 01 000 0 .0 .0 .0 1.0101
opposition and
NOO constraints Ncultural ONN O NO NONNOO
housing unaffordability
gentrification to cheaper suburbs
00$$ 000.0 000$ 0$.0 .0 011.0 0000 0.0 .0 1.010.0
175
risk of sea level rise
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
07
02 United vision for the river /// The development company
The dual consideration of the river foreshore in recent times, first as an Arcadian escape from the city with a reverential attitude, and then as an urban city extension such as the Elizabeth Quay debated case, has resulted in a mined site for many proposals.
In order to combine city-making and resiliency planning in a coordinated design for ‘growing resiliency’, the thesis promotes the setting-up of a development company appointed to supervise over the ‘Swan Riverine City’.
A look at the SWOT analysis’ results, reveals a possible reason for this phenomenon. It can be found in the variety of actors that manage the river without a unified vision of the river itself. Therefore, in a century where climate change threats are becoming a reality, there is a stronger need for a coordinated action that not just aims the protection of the natural and built environment, but also could boost an inward growth of the city.
It is intended as an active resonant city evolving from the riverfront towards the neighboring urban fabric. It provides the benefit of a single jurisdiction along extended stretches of river foreshore, streamlining future implementation for the protection of the city. The company is meant to embody all the different stakeholders that already deal with the river. Hierarchically members of the Australian Government, State, Metropolitan and Local agencies together with components of civil society, association, institutes, organisation and the users that have direct interests in the area in a way that can take advantage of a transparent representation.
Whereas there is a tendency to deliver further development outside of the city, enhancing a deleterious sprawl effect and the inevitable emptying of the city core, the strategy aims to trigger a shift in perception of the river, from oasis to living urban space, with an approach that enhances both the river qualities.
176
chapter 08
‘SWAN RIVER AS PERTH’S BEATING HEART’ / THE RIVERINE CITY
7.2.1 // Vision
7.2.2 // Strategic action field
Currently, the two directions in outlining Perth future are represented either by the Swan River Trust with its protection policy over the Riverpark and by the WAPC with ‘Direction 2031 & Beyond’, a framework of principles set to manage the threat of an immediate future growth. These parts already work toward goals related to either the safeguard and the growth of the city. Since the necessity of coordination, the development company is intended to summarise and combine these goals together with a particular focus on the sea level rise management in order to pursue the vision:
As previously mentioned, the company is responsible for the ‘Swan Riverine City’, a site that includes: »» part of the RIVERPARK, the foreshore located in the metropolitan area between Fremantle Harbour and Perth Airport, »» the urban area adjoining the rivers, not affected by ‘Direction 2031 & Beyond’ strategy
‘Swan river as Perth’s beating heart’
The interest in the area comes mainly from the connective element of the Riverpark that allows the development of a metropolitan-scale strategy and moreover to take advantage of the existing planning policies on the Development Control Areas.
SAFEGUARD
GROWTH
| Swan-Canning River Protection Strategy |
| Direction 2031 & Beyond |
increase management coordination and collaboration between
accommodate significant
improve water quality and manage environmental
and affordability
achieve connected
maintain liveability
flows
organisations
city growth pattern
protect, manage and maintain and improve
increase housing diversity
population growth
reduce car dependency
enhance biodiversity consolidate
sense of place
urban nodes
provide access and a safe environment for Riverpark visitors
SEA LEVEL RISE MANAGEMENT adaptation
mitigation
vision
‘Swan River as Perth’s beating heart’ shift in perception of the Swan River in Perth from oasis to urban waterfront development to avoid further sprawl
177
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
7.2.3 // Stakeholders
matters concerning urban redevelopment.
By the coordination of different intents into a single development company, it turns out that either agencies of the ‘River Protection Strategy Advisory Group’, and the authors of ‘Direction 2031 & Beyond’ necessarily will take part of the company.
As normally happens in large scale strategic visions, such as New York Vision 2020, in addition to the promoters there are other team members involved into the company, based on public or private interest. Therefore it follows a list of the main stakeholders identified as susceptible of interest on the river. As can be seen all the actors analysed in chapter 3 are included.
Due to its advisory role over the river, the Swan River Trust is identified as the company promoter, together with the WAPC for
‘Swan riverine city’ The development company PROMOTERS Swan River Trust
WAPC
P U B L I C S TA K E H O L D E R S
// FEDERAL
// CITY
. . . . . . .
. Local Government Areas adjacent the river:
AG Climate Change Authority AG Geoscience Australia AG Indigenous Land Corporation CSIRO Defence Housing Australia Parks Australia National Transport Commission
178
Fremantle, East Fremantle, Mosman Park, Peppermint Grove, Claremont, Nedlands, Subiaco, Perth, Vincent, Bayswater, Melville, Stirling, Bassendean, Canning, South Perth, Victoria Park, Belmont
chapter 08
‘SWAN RIVER AS PERTH’S BEATING HEART’ / THE RIVERINE CITY
// STATE /// PLANNING ............................
/// ENVIRONMENT ...................... . . . . .
. . . .
Department of Housing Country Housing Authority Dept. of Planning WAPC - Western Australian Planning Commission . MRA - Metropolitan Redevelopment Authority . Landcorp WA . Burswood Park Board
/// RIVER SYSTEM ....................... . . . .
/// TRANSPORT ......................... . . . .
Dept. of Aboriginal Affairs Dept. of Environment Regulation Dept. of Parks and Wildlife Conservation Commission of WA Environmental Protection Authority
Dept. of Transport Public Transport Authority Mainroads WA Transperth
Dept. of Fisheries Dept. of Water Water Corporation River Guardians
/// EDUCATION ........................... . . . .
/// HEALTH ................................. . Dept. of Health . QEII // Queen Elizabeth II Medical Centre Trust
Curtin University of Technology Central Regional TAFE TAFE International WA UWA // The University of Western Australia
/// RECREATION ......................... . Dept. of Sport and Recreation . Tourism WA
P R I VAT E S TA K E H O L D E R S
// CIVIC & COMMUNITY /// RECREATION ........................ . . . .
/// EDUCATION .......................... . . . . . .
Yachting Western Australia Rowing Australia Australian Sailing (WA) Perth’s Sport Clubs
/// RESEARCH ........................... . CityVision . AUDRC // Australian Urban Design Research Centre
Presbiterian Ladies’ College Methodist Ladies’ College Christ Church Grammar School Taylors College Trinity College Aquinas College
/// MEDICAL CENTRES ............. . Bethesda Hospital
179
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
07
03 Strategic guidelines /// key points for metropolitan-scale actions
The proposed ‘Swan Riverine City’ development company promote the implementation of three metropolitan-scaled strategic directions applicable to the whole riverine system. Such directions are thought to be complementary to the current strategic planning framework, not to replace it, since, as it has been already well emphasized, it is not exhaustive.
catalogue of design strategies explicitly appointed specifically to increase the city’s resilience to sea level rise. 3 // implement ‘Implement’ means the implementation of strategical hubs on the river in order to boost river activation. This means bringing the well-known concept of activity centres to the river context, undoubtedly providing added value. This guideline takes into account the future demographic growth and the need for different housing considering the current planning targets.
1 // connect ‘Connect’, aims the connection among communities and activities already facing the river, in a stronger network taking places through the river, instead of around it. This guideline can be assumed as the starting point of the river re-activation process, especially because it boost a different public use, not simply recreational.
Each direction is expressed through two main goals achievable by three action, including either material and immaterial measures. The targeted scenario coincides with 2050, same as the current strategic planning as it is considered suitable in completing the strategy.
2 // protect ‘Protect’, aims the protection of the riverine environment, constantly threatened either by demographic pressure and climate change. Such guideline comprises a
180
chapter 08
‘SWAN RIVER AS PERTH’S BEATING HEART’ / THE RIVERINE CITY
#1
co n ect n
2
ect
#2
#3
im
#1
protect #2
p l e m e cnot n n e c t
protect
181
#3
im
ple
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
#1
co n ect n Connection of communities already facing the river in a stronger network which takes places through the river instead of around it.
182
p
chapter 08
1.1
1.2
mobility
public network
‘SWAN RIVER AS PERTH’S BEATING HEART’ / THE RIVERINE CITY
ENHANCE THE CONNECTION BY PUBLIC TRANSPORT WITHIN THE RIVER A.
creation of a brand new ferry network (BLUE NETWORK)
B.
strengthen of the bus network by adding new lines and stops along the river foreshore
C.
‘light mobility connection’ improvement by implementing Perth Cycling Network
PROMOTE THE PUBLIC SPACES NETWORK ALONG THE RIVER A.
create new publicly accessible waterfront spaces
B.
ensure the connection among existing public spaces whether is missing
C.
overcome physical/morphological barriers of the river landscape through a riverine system of catwalks
183
ct
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
#2
protect Protection of the riverine environment, which is constantly threatened either by demographic pressure and climate change.
184
im
chapter 08
2.1
2.2
‘SWAN RIVER AS PERTH’S BEATING HEART’ / THE RIVERINE CITY
resilience
landscape
PLAN CITY RESILIENCE TO EXPECTED SEA-LEVEL RISE A.
conduct a city-wide strategic planning process for climate resilience
B.
promote flood protection in areas subjected to flooding according to climate projections
C.
integrate both “hard” (engineered) and “soft” (natural) infrastructure for the adaptation to sea level rise
SAFEGUARD NATURAL AREAS ECOLOGICALLY THREATENED A.
augment protection of wetlands and shoreline
B.
promote ecological restoration that enhances the robustness and resilience of local and regional ecosistems
C.
consider landforms altimetry in the localization of implementation areas to preserve the views
185
t
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
#3
im
t n ple m e
Implementation of strategical hubs in order to boost river activation.
186
chapter 08
3.1
3.2
density
diversity
‘SWAN RIVER AS PERTH’S BEATING HEART’ / THE RIVERINE CITY
PROMOTE RIVERINE POLYCENTRISM & CREATE NEW URBAN POLARITIES A.
localization of redevelopment areas around the river, close to existing activity centres or transport hubs
B.
promote the evolution of marinas and yacht clubs into real estate developers while adapting to sea-level rise
C.
increase R-Codes indexes proportionally to meet infill targets
PROVIDE HOUSING DIVERSITY TO MEET NEW HOUSING DEMAND A.
provide different housing sizes, into locations where there is adequate infrastructure, services and transport
B.
increase the amount of accessible housing providing rental options and affordable housing
C.
promote ‘mixed used’ sites for grater sustainability
187
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
As can be seen in the following masterplan, the strategy covers the entire Swan and Canning River system, with a particular focus on five precincts, named from A to E, chosen as hubs susceptible of further development.
Such areas have been chosen mainly because on floodplain sites, close to existing activity centres or transport hubs within 200 m and for the presence of riverine infrastructures.
C EDUCATION - RESEARCH HUB Nedlands | + 500 dw |
x1
B RETAIL - EDUCATION - HEALTH HUB Peppermint Grove, Claremont, Nedlands | +2.400 dw |
x2
x7
A RECREATIONAL - SPORT HUB Fremantle, East Fremantle | +1.500 dw |
x4
x5
188
chapter 08
‘SWAN RIVER AS PERTH’S BEATING HEART’ / THE RIVERINE CITY
D CENTRAL BUSINESS DISTRICT HUB Perth, South Perth | + 2.200 dw |
E TRANSPORT - UNIVERSITY HUB Melville, South Perth | +4.100 dw |
average distance average average distance average distance presence distance presence of of presence of floodplain presence of floodplain ofareas floodplain areas floodplain nearareas to activity near areas tocentres activity near to near &activity centres to activity & centres & & presence riverine proximity to centres activity 4/5 km 4/5 km 4/5 km facilities riverine riverine facilities riverine facilities facilities floodplain transport hubs transport hubs transport hubs hubs areas transport average distance 4/5km km4/5riverine facilities centres & transport hubs
189
// strategy
08 CONNECT Water as a link
tav. 7
191
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
08
01 Mobility
/// The ‘Blue Network’
As previously seen, the Swan River is still perceived as a large urban void. Physically, it cuts east to west through the middle of metropolitan Perth, dividing the city into two halves.
from riverine precincts, initially limited to the single ferry terminal and later, in the long term scenario, exponentially evolving thanks to parallel coordinated land-based approaches.
The geographic limitations of getting around the vast Swan tidal estuary near the CBD have led to the rivalry amongst communities living on both sides, as it was difficult to get across it and it still is now despite improved transport links. A shortage of linkages between the riverbanks lengthens the journey times within the city. Therefore, Perth tends to give its back to the river, if not only to experience it at a slow, recreational dimension. To overcome such drawbacks the first strategic direction aims to improve the city connection within the river by expanding water borne transportation.
8.1.1 // Ferry lines The ‘Blue Network’ is intended to cover the whole riverine foreshore, from Fremantle Harbour up to the meanders near Perth airport. In doing so, six ferry lines have been designed. F1 line covers Perth Water area. It is meant to incorporate the existing ferry connection between Perth and South Perth into a broader extent taking care of the ongoing redevelopment projects along the river banks (Burswood Peninsula, Claiserbrook Village, etc). The circular line stops along two interchanges, ‘Elizabeth Quay’ and ‘East Perth’, from where leave the corresponding F2 line towards Perth airport and F3 line towards Curtin University.
Many major cities around the world rely on ferry transportation to help reduce traffic congestion during peak times and to provide a fast link across bodies of water. With the definition of an overarching ferry network, the aim is not just the simple connection among people. Such network is also capable of trigger urban development
In the broader Melville Water context, two ferry lines have been proposed, differing for speed and frequency.
194
chapter 09
1. CONNECT / Water as a link
F2
F4 F6
F5
F1
F3
FERRY LINE
NAME
INTERCHANGES
TERMINALS
F1*
PERTH WATER
ELIZABETH QUAY - EAST PERTH
6
F2
LOWER SWAN
EAST PERTH - ASCOT
8
F3
LOWER CANNING
ELIZABETH QUAY CURTIN UNIVERSITY
10
F4
MELVILLE WATER
POINT WALTER UWA NEDLANDS
5
F5
MELVILLE WATER HIGH SPEED
CLAREMONT - POINT WALTER UWA NEDLANDS - ELIZABETH QUAY CANNING BRIDGE
6
F6
FREMANTLE
(every 15 min)
A CLAREMONT - FREMANTLE B POINT WALTER - FREMANTLE
8 7
* Incorporates the existing link Perth - South Perth
195
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
The F4 line is an ordinary line with ferries every 30 minutes. It connects five terminals along the shore, including ‘UWA Nedlands’ and ‘Canning River’ interchanges. On the other hand, the F5 line is a high-speed line with ferries every 10/15 minutes. It is intended to stop along six terminals, 5 of them interchanges. Just to name few, this area comprises the University of Western Australia, Elizabeth Quay II Medical Centre and Canning Bridge Activity Centre.
Therefore, mainly because of the vast catchment area of such locations, it is necessary a more complete and frequent service. Finally, with the Blue Network, it is possible to reach the port of Fremantle via F6 line. The line course is constant from Fremantle Harbour until Mosman Park. Then depending on whether the terminus is either Claremont or Point Walter interchange, the line is named F6A or F6B.
EM
ON
T
II
QE
AUW
CL
A UW DS N LA
AR
ED
N F4
F6A
M
IN
T
GR OV E
F4
F3
K PA R AN M
OS
M
R TE AL W L
TL
AN
EM
H AC
RE
IN
N
FR
IO CT
W EU
RE
LE
DI
AL W
T N TH OR
E E TL AN R EM BO FR AR H
196
N
T N K AC BL
I PO N
F6
I PO
I PO
PE
PP
ER
F6B
OU N
T
N
HE
RY
Y LE
R
EL SH
M
LT ER
N T
SA
PO I
Y G
IN
N
CA N L
HO TE
C UN UR IV TIN ER SI T T
N
PO I LE S
GE
ID
BR
K R PA
J.
FF
IA OR CT VI
O
RA
W OO D RS BU
C TO RO W WN ER S E EG
H RT PE
M CO
S DA N DU
EP W AT E
E ID
RS
LL CO
TH U SO T IN PO
T N
197
VE RI
Y IT
L IL
F5
F4
T CO
IN TR
AY QU
M
F1
AS
P ST ERT AD H IU M
DS N LA LA U AY LS M IN N PE M N H IO RT AT ST PE ER ST W EA PO
H ET
F5
F2
AB IZ EL
SS RO EC PL AP
DE
AY LA N DS
1. CONNECT / Water as a link chapter 09
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
8.1.2 // Terminals The location of ferry terminals takes into account the strategical capability of the site. They are placed near existing riverine facilities, such as jetties, boat launching ramps or marinas, to avoid additional demand for infrastructure services inland.
Depending on whether the ferry stop is an interchange, line destination or terminal, the strategy proposes three different typologies. The design of each wharf is flood-resilient and inspired by the Brisbaneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s new ferry terminals (Aurecon & Cox Architects).
Some terminals are located at existing points of interest, like universities or transit hubs, while others are placed in environments susceptible to future development. Such ferry terminals are postponed and expected to be installed at a later time, once the riverine network is almost at full capacity.
During a flood, the gangway which provides lateral restraint during operation, becomes buoyant and automatically detaches from land, aligning behind the pontoon to avoid debris. The pontoon floats up, moored to a single pylon. The downstream lateral restraint changes function during a flood to provide lateral restraint to the pontoon when the gangway has disengaged from its landside support.
Within the next future, the strategyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s priority is the establishment of terminals and interchanges wherever there is yet a reasonable catchment area.
ferry terminal
Moreover, the boat-shaped design is intended to minimise flood drag force.
gangway
pontoon
SAFEGUARD HEIGHT
pier
SEA-LEVEL RISE
+1.8 m 0m
Flood-resilient terminal Source: Brisbane Ferry Terminals (Aurecon & Cox Architects)
198
chapter 09
1. CONNECT / Water as a link
-N
S
ND
LA
ED
A UW
F3
F2
F1
INT
E RC
HAN
GE
F3
F1
TER
MIN
AL
F5
LIN
ED
E ST
INA TIO
N
199
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
8.1.3 // Ferry fleet The â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Blue Networkâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; ferry fleet is intended to be composed of two types of vessels in a number to cover the entire network accordingly.
City HOPPER
City Hoppers are vessels that can reach a maximum speed of 10 knots (5,14 m/s). Because of the speed, they are adequate in low water situations, especially along the Lower Swan and Canning stretches. They are intended to run every 30 minutes. City Ferries are catamarans that can reach a speed of 25 knots (13 m/s), so they are indicated for the F5 high-speed ferry line.
CAPACITY: 120 passengers City FERRY
SPEED: 10 knots FREQUENCY: 30 min
City HOPPER
9.1.4 // Integration into the Metropolitan Transit System A key issue regarding the development of future ferry service is whether the service can be integrated into the broader transit network.
City FERRY CAPACITY: 162 passengers
Except for the Central Business District the densest employment centres in Perth area are located inland. In many instances, commuters will have to transfer from the ferry service to some other transit mode before reaching a final destination. The more seamless that transfer can be, and the less costly it is, the more likely riders will use the ferry service. Connections between ferry service and bus or train service are crucial.
SPEED: 25 knots FREQUENCY: 15 min
City FERRY
Therefore, in order to enhance public transport connection, another strategic action consists in the implementation of the current bus network, by creating intermodal hotspots around ferry terminals.
City HOPPER
200
chapter 09
1. CONNECT / Water as a link
Ideally, transfers should be offered at reduced or no cost. Achieving these goals will require agreements between transit providers to coordinate schedules, accept transfers, and share fare revenue.
Brisbane Ferry Terminal, 2016
201
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
08
02 Riverine evolution
/// An echo by the river
The set of actions described in the previous paragraph aims to improve the city connection within the river through the establishment of a ferry network. Such steps must necessarily be taken in sequence so that the expected results can be achieved. It follows the time line on the 2050 horizon, highlighting the expected developments in axonometry for a generic river section.
Today, the prevailing situation around the river outlines a low-density residential suburban context, generally coded as R10 and R12,5. The urban fabric faces a parkway running parallel to the river, which delimits an interstitial linear park crossed by the Perth Bike Network.
202
chapter 09
1. CONNECT / Water as a link
SUBURBAN PRECINCT R10 - R12,5
PERTH CYCLING NETWORK
2100 SEA-LEVEL RISE +1,8 m
2017 // Current status
203
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
The first strategical direction is set in motion by the definition of the overarching project masterplan: the Blue Network. Once defined the ferry line routes, in the first three years, the Riverine City’s Development Company promote the equipment of the first ferry terminals that can benefit from a decent catchment area and cast a future economic return from installation costs. It is the case of all the interchanges, often near city’s highlights and also the line destinations. Then, just to mention few: Elizabeth Quay - South Perth - Crown Tower for the F1 line; East Perth - Perth Stadium – Ascot for the F2 line; Curtin University as F3 line destination; Point Walter - UWA / Nedlands - UWA / QEII - Canning Bridge - Raffles Hotel as ferry interchangers of the high-speed F5 line and finally Claremont - Peppermint Grove - Leeuwin - Fremantle Harbour for the F6 line.
// FERRY LINES MASTERPLAN
// Establishment of the main TERMINALS & INTERCHANGE whenever there is
In the meantime, the company promote the implementation of the bus network near the ferry terminals with additional bus stops.
already a reasonable catchment area
Now the first benefits resulting from this action are seen, such as a shift in perception from a homogeneous ‘single-use space’ to a ‘transitional space’ thanks to the public transport. It is just a small step for the new transit hubs to become catalysts of further development.
// Upgrade BUS LINES adjacent ferry stops
As soon as the the ferry network run at full capacity, the development company promote the network finalization by establishing the last terminals wherever a reasonable catchment area has been achieved through redevelopment.
204
chapter 09
1. CONNECT / Water as a link
SUBURBAN PRECINCT R10 - R12,5 BUS STOP
FERRY TERMINAL 2100 SEA-LEVEL RISE +1,8 m
2020 // Terminal configuration
205
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
The resulting scenario is an urban development environment close to the Transit Oriented Development concept that claim ‘the creation of compact, walkable, pedestrian-oriented, mixed-use communities centred around high quality train systems’. The only difference is the way that development is driven: ferry terminals instead of rail lines. Therefore WOD, Water Oriented Development.
// STRATEGIC AREAS REDEVELOPMENT the ‘Riverine City’
// FERRY LINES FINALISATION by establishing the last TERMINALS wherever a reasonable catchment area has been achieved through redevelopment
// Trigger URBAN REDEVELOPMENT around ferry stops. Evolution from suburban precincts into high-density hotspot
206
chapter 09
1. CONNECT / Water as a link
MIXED-USE PRECINCT R60 - R80 BUS STOP
FERRY TERMINAL 2100 SEA-LEVEL RISE +1,8 m
2050 // WOD - Water Oriented Development
207
// strategy
09 PROTECT Tailored resiliece
tav. 8
209
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
09
01 Resilience
/// Plan city’s resilience to expected sea-level rise
9.1.1 // Increase climate resilience
In Western Australia, human population centres are largely concentrated on estuaries and river systems. In the capital city of Perth, the Swan Canning river system serves as an important focal point with more than 1.5 million people residing within the wider catchment area.
Perth’s shoreline has been dramatically altered over the centuries. As described in the previous chapters, by the time of the early European explorations, piers, wharves, docks, and bulkheads have been built, and landmass itself has been added, through reclamation processes.
According to the Australian Department of Environment and Energy, between 20.000 and 30.000 residential building in Western Australia, with a current value of between $5 billion and $8 billion may be at risk of inundation from a sea level rise of 1,1 metres. A 1,1 metre sea-level rise will also put up to 9.000 km of WA’s roads ($11,3 billion), up to 114 km of WA’s railways ($500 million) and up to 2.100 commercial building ($17 billion) at risk.
Now human activity is altering the waterfront in a new way. Climate change resulting from global greenhouse-gas emissions is expected to cause sea levels to rise, which will further transform the shoreline. ‘The Critical Decade’, a 2011 report delivered by Climate Council Australia, projects that by the 2100s, sea levels could be 1,1 metres higher than they are today. Moreover, the combination of such highest sea-level scenario with the nominal highest astronomical tide value for the region leads to a 1,8 meters projection. As the sea level rises, the of potentially greater storm surges impacting on coastal settlements, infrastructures and ecosystems is expected to increase, too.
Australia is already taking steps to address climate change. Indeed, it is working to reduce its contribution to climate change through the National Climate Resilience and Adaptation Strategy 2015 goal of reducing greenhouse-gas emissions to 26-28 per cent by 2030.
212
chapter 09
1. CONNECT / Water as a link
30.000 residential building
2.100
$8
billion
$17
billion
commercial buildings
9.000km
$11,3
billion
WAâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s roads
114km WAâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s railways
Building resilience to coastal storms and flooding anticipated in the future requires recognition of the character of Perthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s riverine areas as well as the risks they face. However, does not lend itself to quick or simple solutions.
$500
million
A balanced approach to increasing climate resilience will require case-by-case analysis, drawing on a toolkit of strategies that the public and private sectors can consider and apply to address vulnerabilities. In deciding among a range of practical alternatives, it will be important to consider the costs and benefits of each option, as well as opportunities to address multiple goals.
Strategies that have historically been used to divide water from land will not make sense with climate change and sea level rise.
Any strategy must recognize the ecological benefits of wetlands, shallows, and intertidal zones, along with other public priorities such as waterfront access and economic development.
To simply bulkhead the entire waterfront would not adequately address risks, would become increasingly costly, and would have negative ecological consequences for our waterways and coastal areas. To abandon dense coastal neighbourhoods would have enormous costs as well.
Implementing a resilience strategy will require actions not only by government, util-
213
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
ities, and other public entities, but also by private property owners, businesses, and communities. In some instances, more restrictive government regulations may facilitate increased resilience, while in others regulatory or other impediments may need to be modified to allow citizens and government the latitude to implement adaptation strategies.
The specific effects of climate change on a natural shoreline are not easily identified. The shoreline is constantly subject to a range of forces and events, some induced by human activity and some not. For instance, erosion and siltation patterns vary throughout the river estuary. The rise in sea level and increased frequency and magnitude of coastal storms will likely cause more frequent coastal flooding and inundation of coastal wetlands as well as erosion of beaches, dunes, and bluffs. Alterations in the landscape, along with increases in temperature and changes to precipitation patterns, will affect the many plant and animal species that inhabit Perthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s diverse coastal ecosystems.
Building resilience will be an ongoing process extending beyond the time frame of such 2050 strategical scenario. Nevertheless, it is important to act today. Since the most pronounced impacts for Perth are not projected to begin until mid-century, there is an opportunity for planning, with periodic re-evaluation of risks and strategies as climate science evolves and provides greater clarity on changing conditions. 9.1.2 // Implication of climate change Rising the Swan River water will affect Perth differently depending on the waterfront functional category.
The Public Waterfront As previously described, today nearly half of the coastline is parkland or publicly accessible areas. In addition to providing valuable and productive habitat, these parks and public ar-
The Natural Waterfront
214
chapter 09
1. CONNECT / Water as a link
eas are treasured places for recreation and relaxation. Beaches and other naturalized shorelines provide access for surfing, swimming, kayaking, and other water sports. Waterfront greenways are hugely popular for recreation and transportation. All these spaces are valuable resources that enhance the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s liveability and the health of its population.
nels, piers, and slips â&#x20AC;&#x201C; as well as the power plants, sewer and wastewater treatment facilities, and waste transfer stations that keep the city running. Also on the waterfront are located maritime enterprises such as cruise terminals, marinas, yacht clubs and a variety of other industrial and commercial businesses. Flooding and storm surges pose potential risks of structural damage, interruption of services and operations, and property loss. Hazardous materials improperly stored in vulnerable areas could be subject to leakage, which could affect adjacent neighbourhoods.
Coastal storms and temporary or more frequent inundation of low-lying areas could result in damage to or loss of parks, esplanades, piers, plazas, beaches, boat launches, and other facilities. These events are expected to accelerate the erosion of shorelines and the degradation of bulkheads (vertical retaining structures of timber, steel, or reinforced concrete, used for shore protection) and piers.
Sea walls, bulkheads, and other shoreline structures are likely to experience more damage from additional wave action and sea level rise, requiring more frequent repairs and maintenance. The effects of climate change may pose navigational issues, too, such as accelerated silting of channels necessitating more frequent dredging.
The Working Waterfront Much of the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s critical infrastructure is located on the waterfront, including a wide range of transportation facilities - rail yards, highways, streets, bridges, vehicular tun-
The Redeveloping Waterfront
215
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
9.1.3 // Approaches to climate change
A substantial portion of the river foreshore today is occupied by residential and commercial buildings that will be subject to the same risks from flooding and coastal storms as other waterfront uses are.
Today there are two broad ways to address climate change. One is mitigation, which involves actions to limit further contributions to climate change. The preference of infill rather than greenfield in addressing population accommodation is a mitigation strategy for climate change itself, enabling a large population to live in dense settlements in which per-capita carbon emissions are one-third of the national average.
Today several policies are used to manage these risks for new buildings, including flood insurance, zoning and building codes, and design of structural features such as ground floors raised above flood elevation. Existing buildings, though eligible for flood insurance, are of course generally more difficult to elevate or flood-proof.
The other general approach to climate change is adaptation, and it entails making preparations for the effects of climate change that are already inevitable. The second strategical direction of the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;2050 Swan Riverine Cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; focuses on adaptation strategies for the Swan River waterfront and waterways to build climate resilience in response to existing and projected climate hazards. By defining the guidelines, it will then be possible to apply these strategies in a selected case study.
The Blue Network Recreational boating, waterborne transportation, and other water activities will also be affected by water rising. These activities will experience changes on a gradual but daily basis and their facilities and operations may need to be adapted. Public education about the waterfront and waterways presents an opportunity to communicate more widely the importance of both mitigation and adaptation.
216
chapter 09
1. CONNECT / Water as a link
217
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
09
02 Design Toolkit
/// Strategies to build resilience
There is a variety of adaptation strategies that can be applied to build resilience, and these strategies can generally be divided into three general categories: »» retreat »» accommodation »» protection
Retreat strategies include actions such as land purchases, transfer of building rights and setback requirements in order to reduce harm to ecosystems and provide a margin of safety by keeping homes and businesses from areas susceptible to flooding. However, such measures can have dramatic effects on property owners and communities, and have been explored mostly as a potential adaptive strategy for undeveloped areas, areas of low-density development, or open uses such as habitat conservation. Retreat may be a viable strategy in less-developed portions of Perth, such as in natural areas or open spaces.
These categories are not mutually exclusive alternatives, but represent a range of possible solutions that can be applied where warranted. Potential strategies to build resilience include physical measures and policies at a variety of scales—for individual buildings, larger sites, and broader waterfront reaches— as well as other non-physical policies such as flood insurance.
9.2.1 // Retreat ‘Move to higher ground’
For instance, it may be possible to allow wetlands to migrate inland in important natural areas to maintain species habitat and moderate the impact of storm surges.
Retreat is the practice of prohibiting, restricting, and/or removing development in or from the most vulnerable coastal areas to minimize hazards and environmental impacts.
By applying an environmental constraint and enhancing the environmental restoration of the foreshore, the flood-prone areas can become living shoreline or floodable park.
218
chapter 09
1. CONNECT / Water as a link
retreat â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;move to higher groundâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;
transfer building rights
tiered city
tidal marsh system
dune landscape
219
enviromental constraint
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
9.2.2 // Accommodate ‘Live with the water’
scale, by private or public entities, and in an incremental manner. However, because of the many parties that may be involved, sites within a given area may have different levels of protection.
A variety of actions can be employed to minimize damage from flooding and storm surges without completely shielding a facility or site.
9.2.3 // Protect ‘Keep the water out’
One example is requiring flood-proofing for portions of buildings located below projected flood elevation in flood-prone areas. The lower levels of buildings can be designed to withstand controlled flooding, using breakaway walls, waterproof materials and sealants, or vents to allow flood-waters to advance and recede without causing structural damage. Buildings or other facilities can be designed with critical systems and equipment elevated above the projected flood level.
Protection strategies involve the deployment of structures that protect a building or the shoreline from erosion, prevent flooding and inundation, or reduce wave and tidal action. These strategies often are applied at the building or site scale, though they could also be used to protect an entire neighbourhood. Examples include: // Bulkheads or revetments are essentially walls that are commonly built at the edge of an individual parcel of land as shoreline infrastructure. The maintenance of these types of structures is already a continuous process requiring funding and periodic issuance of permits for maintenance or repair work. In the future, these needs will likely grow. Increased wear and tear on waterfront infrastructure will require more frequent maintenance and replacement of bulkheads, seawalls, and stabilized shorelines. These “hard” bulk headed edges result in scouring of the channel in front of the wall and limit potential for habitat near the shoreline.
Another example is the introduction building-code regulations as requirement of flood-proof. This entails measures such as raising habitable spaces and critical building systems above the 2100 SLR prediction. Accommodation measures can go beyond individual buildings to the scale of a site. It is possible to configure streets and open spaces to accommodate controlled flooding, designing such areas with salt water-tolerant plant species and elevated structures that can survive temporary inundation.
// “Soft edges,” allow the reduction of speed and force of tidal action and waves, thereby limiting erosion and damage; accommodation of shifting water levels; reduced longterm maintenance costs; and increased intertidal zone (the area that is sometimes underwater, depending on tides), which can provide enhanced habitat.
Although flood-proofing and other accommodation measures can add costs to construction or rehabilitation of buildings and sites, they generally require less initial investment than flood barriers or levees, and carry less risk of potential large-scale failure. They can be implemented on a smaller
220
chapter 09
transfer building rights
tiered city
tidal marsh system
dune landscape
enviromental 1. CONNECT / Water as a link constraint
accommodate â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;live with the waterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;
floating buildings
elevate buildings
wet floodproofing
beach nourishment
multipurpose levees
dikes
221
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
// Raising the elevation of land can restore eroded beaches, and the establishment of dunes can prevent the recurrence of beach erosion. Elevating low-lying development sites and streets through the addition of fill can reduce their vulnerability.
rebuilt or renovated as a matter of course before the most pronounced effects of sea level rise are expected to be felt. Incorporating consideration of climate-change projections into the design specifications for such structures and into long-term capital plans will ensure that flood risks and sea level rise are taken into account when new facilities are built, and existing ones upgraded.
// Dikes and levees are raised embankments designed to prevent flooding, and floodgates or storm-surge barriers are gates used to restrict the flow of waves and floodwaters. These structures can provide substantial protection from floodwaters for a larger area but also bear a range of costs, can alter ecological functions, and still may be overtopped by a flood or storm surge exceeding their designed capacity.
Whether it’s piloting inventive solutions or simply replacing existing bulkheads, the maintenance and improvement of the waterfront will require a predictable process for the review and issuance of permits for in-water construction. Establishing guidelines and standards for the design of waterfront infrastructure can facilitate the protection of development areas while minimizing ecological damage and maximizing ecological benefits.
// Breakwaters, groins, and jetties are structures located off shore or extending outward from the shore that are intended not to wall out floodwaters but to reduce the impact of waves, limiting erosion and potential damage. While they can disrupt tidal patterns, they can also provide habitat. // Restored or constructed wetlands, beaches, barrier islands, and reefs can function as dynamic storm barriers that both protect and serve ecological functions. Everyone from the government to homeowners to insurance companies will need to consider the implications of climate change and sea level rise and make decisions about resilience strategies. It will be important to integrate resilience considerations into planning on a continuing basis. This will provide opportunities for ongoing adaptation. For instance, much of the city’s waterfront infrastructure—such as bulkheads, docks, roads, and bridges—will need to be
222
chapter 09
1. CONNECT / Water as a link
floating buildings
elevate buildings
wet floodproofing
protect â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;keep the water outâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;
beach nourishment
passive flood walls
tidal marsh system
multipurpose levees
dikes
bulkheads
fish parks
rain gardens
canal streets
223
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
9.2.4 // Final considerations
Specifically, adaptation measures along the Swan River banks consist in:
With a waterfront as big and as diverse as the Swan River, there can be no one-sizefits-all solution for climate change. In very limited, less-developed portions of the city, controlled retreat from foreshore land may be an option; in others, accommodation strategies may be sufficient; and in yet others, enhanced protection of shorelines will be necessary.
Impose environmental constraints over Development Controlled Areas affected by inundation, resulting in a ban of future construction.
Relocate building rights of construction that will be seriously affected by frequent inundation, in areas not subjected by sea-level rise.
There are, however, actions that can be explored now to build resilience. These include: »» allowances and potential requirements for more stringent flood protection of buildings in flood-vulnerable areas; »» updating sea-level rise prediction maps to accurately reflect topography; »» and public education about climate-related risks and opportunities to address them.
Promote the re-development and/or modification of existing buildings such as restaurants/cafés, yacht/rowing clubs and amenity buildings to provide protection from frequent inundation.
Measures to increase the city’s resilience must consider a number of goals, including economic development, public access, and ecological health. Strategies should be promoted that produce co-benefits or advance other desirable ends. Building resilience can be an impetus for transforming the waterfront in ways that can make the city not only more climate-resilient, but also more healthy, prosperous, and liveable.
Re-engineer and/or realignment of infrastructure such as roads, paths and bridges which will be affected by frequent high-water levels.
Though the most severe effects of climate change is not expected to be felt by 2020 (Middlemann 2007), the strategy considers steps to take within the next ten years to prepare for rising sea levels and more intense storm activity associated with climate change.
Adjust foreshore reserves to provide an extended buffer to accommodate encroachment due to higher water levels.
224
chapter 09
1. CONNECT / Water as a link
The ‘2050 Swan River City’ is intended to work with communities, scientists, and policymakers to further research into physical risk-reduction measures and evaluate the effectiveness of these measures to increase Perth’s resilience. The City commits to initiating these projects over the next three years and will be tracking progress on an ongoing basis.
225
// strategy
10 IMPLEMENT The case study
tav. 9
227
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
10
01 Localization
/// Choosing the site
Among the five areas identified by the strategy as capable of urban redevelopment, the thesis proposes an applicative case to summarise all the strategic lines.
It is the farthest area from Perth city centre and doesn’t have any particular feature except for Fremantle Harbour. It also has a recreational character due to the several yacht clubs and maritime facilities along the riverbanks and the sports centres. These features do not make it too precious as ‘Direction 2031’ has favoured the development of corridors along the Stirling and Canning Highway arteries.
The redevelopment proposal of all the five areas would have been above a single-person ability. Considering the 2050 strategy scenario a ‘sequential’ approach has been considered more appropriate and at the same time effective. Therefore, the third strategic direction is intended to begin from the recreational-sport hub “A”.
However, a look the sea-level rise projection reveals that the area is particularly affected by such phenomenon, together with most of the recreational activities along the banks. Moreover, a local prominent feature is the presence of a disused area for military use, owned by the Department of Defense, Leewin Barracks.
It is a low-density residential area, like most of the river surroundings, coded R10-R 12,5 located a few kilometres upstream of the Swan River mouth and the port of Fremantle. It is approximately three kilometres northeast of the Fremantle city centre and sixteen kilometres south-west of Perth’s Central Business District (CBD).
230
chapter 10
3. IMPLEMENT / The case study
A // LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREAS:
East Fremantle North
// EXTENSION
1,84 km2 (184 ha)
// RESIDENTIAL POPULATION:
4.035 people
// POPULATION DENSITY:
2.193 people/km2
Fremantle
231
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
10.1.1 // Leeuwin Barracks
memorating the role of the junior recruits in wars, conflicts and peacekeeping activities since 1960.
In June 2015, the Department of Defence (Defence) announced its intention to sell the Leeuwin Barracks, a site located within a well established residential area on the southern bank of the Swan River in East Fremantle, WA. The site is approximately 16 kilometres southwest of the Perth central business district and three kilometres northeast of the Fremantle town centre.
// AREA:
14,3 ha
The site is approximately 14.30 hectares and comprises several buildings, infrastructure and green fields. As results by the trading act, Defence has identified the site as surplus to operational and strategic requirements and does not need to keep it.
// PROPERTY:
Leewin Barracks is a 1942 Naval Depot adopted for use as a training facility for reservists and then national servicemen. By 1960 Leeuwin began to be used as a Junior Recruit (Naval) Training Establishment. Boys between the ages of 15 and 16 years were eligible to join, and attend the JRTE for one year to undertake basic naval training and further their secondary education prior to being posted to a more specialised training facility.
DEPARTMENT
OF DEFENCE
// ON SALE:
2015
// ZONING:
PUBLIC PURPOSE
The siteâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s undulating topography towards the river is a key opportunity for future considerations.
Leeuwin Barracks is located in an area where the zoning is declared as Public Purposes CG â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Commonwealth Government and is not included on the Commonwealth Heritage List. However, Defence recognises community interest in the protection of the Junior Recruits Memorial. The contract of sale includes protective measures for the Junior Recruits Memorial, which comprises a main mast, and paved garden area leading up to a granite monument bearing plaques com-
232
chapter 10
3. IMPLEMENT / The case study
EAST FREMANTLE YACHT CLUB
PRESTON POINT DEFENCE FACILITY
WAUHOP PARK
EAT GREEK RESTAURANT
NORM MCKENZIE PARK
LEEUWIN BARRACKS
FREMANTLE ROWING CLUB
JOHN TONKIN PARK
N
SWAN YACHT CLUB
233
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
10
02 Strategy applied
to the case study
10.2.1 // Mobility
10.2.2 // Resilience
The first step consists in the application of the point 1.1 A and 1.1 B of the strategic direction ‘connect’.
In the specific case study the resilience against sea-level rise is addressed as follows.
// Ferry A. introduction of the riverine ‘Blue Network’ line 6 (Claremont/Point Walter - Fremantle Harbour)
Today, Riverside Road is located in a floodprone area due to the sea-level rise projection. Rather than embank it with bulkheads or protective walls, it is preferred to move the current Riverside Road mobility to Preston Point Road, as it is placed to a higher security level of 15 metres above sea level. The traffic load on Preston Point Road is not affected, since Riverside Road is currently as a panoramic road for the use of riverine facilities.
B. establishment of new ferry terminals. Initially Leeuwen and Fremantle Harbour terminals and then Point Direction.
// Bus A. Extension of current bus lines n.158 and n.107 introducing the n.158A/B and n.107A lines with the addition of the relative stops.
As regards public space in flood-prone areas, the strategy promotes a gradual con-
234
chapter 10
3. IMPLEMENT / The case study
version to wetlands, in parallel with the increase in the river level. This results in the transfer of building rights of recreational activities such as yacht clubs & marinas, to safety-related landing areas. In this case it is expected the displacement of the previously mentioned facilities, at the adjacent Leewin development area.
date increased medium-rise higher density residential development.
The presence of existing or planned high-quality public transport is essential in determining whether a corridor is suitable for a more-compact and diverse urban form. A high-quality public transport service is one where one or more modes of travel (in this case bus and ferry) are used in combination to:
As regards river structures, such as jetties and piers, it is prescribed the adaptation to the new level of sea-level rise.
»» However, to avoid the total loss of leisure recreation area, inevitable as a result of previous interventions, a cycle/pedestrian path replaces Riverside Road but at a security level of 2 meters above the sea level.
»»
From the path, a public walkway system branches off towards the river, maintaining and improving the recreational character of the area with more robust programmatical offerings. For instance, large passive recreation spaces and areas for seating, viewing the water, or BBQing are placed on the walkways. Whereas at the water’s edge, new features draw visitors from the shore: an in-river, filtered pool for swimming, a pair of lookout piers, a dedicated fishing pier, a potential ferry or water taxi dock, and more.
»»
provide high levels of service frequency at all times of the week and higher frequency in peak periods; provide access to a reasonable variety of destinations including through multi-modal links (the movement of people by more than one method of transport); and operate with a high level of priority over private vehicles wherever possible.
The key to successful integration of urban consolidation along public transport corridors is to increase public transport patronage by offering an easily-accessible, safe and flexible alternative to private vehicle use. However, intensifying development must not impact upon the efficient operation of the local and regional transport network. Maintaining and enhancing the urban amenity is also a key objective when considering areas for intensification.
10.2.3 // Implementation Once Riverside Road mobility has been moved to Preston Point road, and the new bus line are active, additional public transport corridors can be planned to accommo-
Nevertheless, the strategy proposes the increment of residential density along the new corridors by increasing the current
235
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
R-Codes and re-zoning residential blocks to mixed-used developments. From low-density residential precincts mainly R12,5 there is a shift towards a more urban scenario of high-density precincts of R60, R-AC, in line with what is stated in the current strategic plan. Moreover, the third strategical direction is implemented by the development of Leeuwin Barracks precinct. This is described in the following paragraph.
former walkway
wetlands
Riverside Road
Leeuwin Activity Centre
cycle path
+2.0 m
0m
Cycle/pedestrian path Scale 1:250
236
chapter 10
3. IMPLEMENT / The case study
+2m.a.s.l.
MOBILITY
+2m.a.s.l.
RESILIENCE
+2m.a.s.l.
IMPLEMENTATION
237
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
10
03 Leeuwin Barracks
/// The new Activity Centre
The area on which insist Leeuwin Barracks is expected to evolve as a further Activity Center to be added to those planned by Direction 2031.
The development plan suggests that the site can comfortably accommodate in the vicinity of 2.500 new dwellings in buildings of different heights. The medium density residential landscape is transitioning from the traditional stand-alone strata apartment building model towards buildings with flexible floor layouts, mixed uses and a variety of ownership structures.
Activity Centres â&#x20AC;&#x201C; residential and employment hubs â&#x20AC;&#x201C; provide services, employment and activities for the communities they support and are integrated within the transport network, with particular emphasis on promoting public transport, walking and cycling and reducing the need for car trips. These centres mainly consist of a concentration of commercial uses combined with a varying proportion of other land uses such as residential and open space.
The 14,3 ha of the site creates the opportunity to deliver a number of precincts with different attributes such as various interrelationships with the site and foreshore locations and access, open space and civic and retail activities and attractions. This scale of the site also represents an opportunity to provide a wide range of dwellings that reflect the changing market trends and product developments.
10.3.1 // Functional elements It is envisaged that the primary economic driver of the site is its ability to house a large number of people. This would enable a critical mass to be achieved and support the delivery of sustainable local amenities and services such as shops, cafĂŠs, and restaurants.
Since the primary use of the site is likely to be for residential purposes, key non-residential uses such as the provision of local retail, short stay accommodation (hotels and serviced apartments) and home-office
238
chapter 10
3. IMPLEMENT / The case study
are considered necessary to provide a balanced urban environment, while capitalising on the tourist and visitor potential of the site’s riverside location.
view corridors, the whole by aligning buildings heights to the site topography. The provision of ‘diversity’ of quality higher-density housing to match the changing demographics of the growing population is provided by a variety of dwelling sizes and types to create a diverse, sustainable development with varied activities, accessible to a broad socio-economic population.
10.3.2 // Design principles In order to promote a sense of community and vibrancy in the public realm, it is important that all development is designed to address, respond to and activate streets, laneways, access ways and public open spaces.
Leeuwin Barracks Activity Centre Quay will create highly walkable and bike-friendly community which provides safe, attractive and direct pedestrian access to the existing city, the public realm. Vehicle access is restricted while it is preferred public transport access by bus and ferry network.
Buildings will provide a high level of permeability by incorporating pedestrian connections across development sites. These lanes, passages and arcades will ensure excellent pedestrian access to the main public spaces within the Activity Centre. The site’s undulating topography and the proximity to, and views out over, the Swan River, require a challenge in achieving height while maintaining river views for public and private enjoyment. Urban development will be organised around mid-rise podiums (3-5 floors) with tower elements above (4-15 floors) that are setback from the street. The podium/tower design will facilitate the breaking up of the visual presence of the towers and provide view lines between the buildings. The podiums present an opportunity for a diversity of use with a scale differentiation to the towers above; providing a sense of human scale to the streetscape and an appropriate built form response to the street context. Tower elements will not present as a ‘wall’ of development and will be separated and proportioned to break up the visual presence of the towers and maintain key
239
60 mq
75 mq
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
60 mq 30 mq
60 75 mqmq
A: 30 sqm
9560 mqmq
75 mq 110 mq
95 mq
110 mq 95 mq
B: 60 sqm
Housing diversity
C: 75 sqm
D: 110 sqm
95 mq
110 mq
Scale 1:200
240
chapter 10
3. IMPLEMENT / The case study
10.3.3 // Activity Centres precincts
erage, and daily services (e.g. bakery).
The project area includes both Leeuwin Barracks and Wahuop Park, for a total area of 182.000 sqm (18,2 ha). Following the guidelines outlined above, the masterplan identifies five different areas for use and typology.
The centre has been located along the northern boundary to establish connections with the existing uses along the foreshore, and to strengthen the link from the site to the Swan River. As a result, it allows the placement of the building rights coming from Swan Yacht Club and Fremantle Rowing Club and their respective recreational, storage facilities.
// A
Riverside Precinct
The Riverside Precinct has a premium riverfront location, and it is adjacent to retained Preston Point SAS Facility. Due to its proximity to the flood-prone area, it allows the placement of the building rights coming from Aquarama Marina Yacht Club including recreational facilities and warehouses removed by the environment constraint previously cited.
On an area of about 31.000 sqm, a complex of buildings with a 3-floors basement and 4-8 floors elevated towers, house:
On an area of about 17.000 sqm, a complex of five buildings with a 3-floors basement and 4-15 floors elevated towers, house:
Apartment: 360 (25.200 sqm)
Retail floor space: 9.450 sqm
// B
Local Centre Precinct
Apartment: 850 (60.000 sqm)
Retail floor space: 25.800 sqm
// C
Civic Heart Precinct
The creation of a Civic Heart provides an opportunity to carrying forward important historic markers of the site, and create a series of formal civic spaces. Three important historic features are enhanced by including the Junior Recruits Memorial, Drill Hall and Parade Ground. This space would create a reflective, respectful area inviting visitors and locals to be immersed in the naval history of the site, among landscaping, shaded areas and contemplative features.
It is envisaged that the Local Centre is a local gathering point that would serve the day-to-day needs of the surrounding community. With an absence of local services in close vicinity to the site, the Local Centre seeks to meet these daily needs and acts as a node of activity on the site.
The Drill Hall itself would become the focus of a significant community facility and open space plaza, with its curtilage defined by a range of live-work spaces among residential buildings. A hotel or short stay accommodation offering would be located nearby to accommodate visitors to the site, and capture the unique setting and views. Public
The day-to-day needs within the Local Centre could include local retail (min-mart), medical and health uses, local food and bev-
241
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
uses, such as a cafĂŠ and museum, will help to bring life to the Drill Hall and surrounds.
the preference towards office use. Development in this site is stepped with the topography allowing views out over the river.
On an area of about 29.000 sqm, a complex of buildings with a 3-floors basement and 5-8 floors elevated towers, house:
Apartment: 750 (52.500 sqm)
On an area of about 19.000 sqm, a complex of two semi-court buildings with a 3-floors basement and 4-15 floors elevated towers, house:
Retail floor space: 13.000 sqm
Apartment: 230 (16.000 sqm)
Civic floor space: 1.700 sqm
Office floor space: 28.000 sqm
Retail floor space: 26.500 sqm
// D
Wauhop Park Precinct
The precinct is an area of about 26.500 sqm, close to the Preston Point Road Corridor, and the new bus connection. Such three-building complex surrounding the existing Wauhop Park is intended to be used mainly for office use, together with housing and retail space. It will also accommodate an underground parking space. The buildings are composed of a 3-floors basement, and 4-6 floors elevated tower that can house:
Apartment: 320 (22.400 sqm)
Office floor space: 14.500 sqm
Retail floor space: 21.100 sqm
// E
Hillside Precint
Like Wauhop Park, Hillside Precinct is the first visual approach from Preston Point Road and it is close either to the new bus connection and ferry connection. It follows
242
chapter 10
3. IMPLEMENT / The case study
MIXED USE
31%
13%
56%
residential dwellings
office space
retail space
+ 176.000 sqm (2.510 new dwellings)
+ 42.500 sqm
+ 96.000 sqm
E
D A
C B
243
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
10.3.4 // Change in density This section examines the direct effect on the population density of East Fremantle North by the urban consolidation measures described before.
The contribution coming from the Leeuwin Barracks Acrivity Centre development is of 2510 dwellings. The sum of the buildings gives additional 5.162 new dwellings. These, multiplied by 2,6, the 2011 ABS indicator of people per household, allow the accommodation of another 13,420 inhabitants.
As indicated in the R-Codes State Planning Policy, generally areas coded as R12,5 have buildings sized 700/800 sqm. On the other hand, areas coded R60, have buildings sized 120/150 sqm.
East Fremantle North population by 2050 will be 17.500 people, due to the strategy. Such increase also produces a variation in density from 2.193 to 9.500 people/sqKm.
The contribution of high-density new corridors is quantified by dividing the project area by the R60 building size. It follows an increase from the existing 475 dwellings (R12,5) towards 2.652 dwellings (R60). 2017
2050
R12,5
+ 2.652 dwellings
R60
R-AC
475 dwellings
+ 2.510 dwellings
244
chapter 10
3. IMPLEMENT / The case study
A // LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREAS:
East Fremantle North
// EXTENSION
1,84 km2 (184 ha)
// RESIDENTIAL POPULATION @ 2050:
17.500 people
// POPULATION DENSITY @ 2050:
9.500 people/km2
245
// strategy
11 CONCLUSION
247
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
11
The thesis here discussed has sought to address the underlying question of the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;2050 Swan Riverine Cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; strategy: can demographic growth and sea-level rise become an opportunity for sustainable development for the city in the near future?
The strategy applied to the Swan River allows the re-activation of the river itself and a shift of the current tendency to move away from the river, by attracting people, activities and interests. However, nothing would be possible without public awareness of the urban interest of the river, not just considering it as an element to preserve, but a richness to be valued.
As demonstrated by the application of the strategy to the proposed case study, the sole implementation of the Leeuwin Activity Centre has provided 2500 new homes. Such incidence is four times the infill target that Direction 2031 & Beyond has set for the East Fremantle area to 600 new homes. Considering the housing incidence coming from corridors along the new public transport lines, and replicating the example to the four other areas identified by the strategy, it can be stated that the present 47% infill target is reachable and easily exceedable only if attention is given towards the river.
248
chapter 11
CONCLUSIONS ABSTRACT
La tesi fino a qui trattata ha tentato di rispondere alla domanda alla base della strategia ‘2050 Swan Riverine City’: possono l’aumento demografico e l’innalzamento del livello delle acque previsti per il prossimo futuro diventare occasione di sviluppo sostenibile per la città?
La strategia applicata allo Swan River consente la riattivazione del fiume stesso e di invertire l’attuale tendenza ad allontanarsi dal fiume, attraendo invece persone, attività e interessi. Tuttavia ciò non è possibile se non si sensibilizzando l’opinione pubblica ad un interesse urbano del fiume, a non considerarlo solo un elemento da preservare, bensì una ricchezza da valorizzare.
Come dimostrato dall’applicazione della strategia al caso studio proposto, la sola implementazione del Leeuwin Activity Centre, ha consentito la creazione di 2500 nuove abitazioni. Tale incidenza è pari a 4 volte il target di infill che Direction 2031 & Beyond ha fissato per l’area di East Fremantle a 600 nuove abitazioni. Considerando inoltre l’incremento dato dai corridors lungo le nuove linee di trasporto pubblico, e replicando il tutto nelle ulteriori quattro aree identificate dalla strategia di questa tesi, si può affermare che l’attuale target di infill del 47% è raggiungibile e facilmente superabile soltanto se si pone attenzione al fiume.
249
// specifics
12 ACRONYMS
251
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
12 ABS
Australian Bureau of Statistics
ACT
Australian Capital Territory
AHD
Australian Height Datum
ALP
Australian Labor Party
BFA
Bush Forever Areas
CSHA
Commonwealth State Housing Agreement
DCA
Development Control Areas
DOP
Department of Planning
GaWC Globalization and World Cities Research Network GDP
gross domestic product
HAT
highest astronomical tide
LGA
Local Government Area
MRPA
Metropolitan Region Planning Authority
252
chapter 12
ACRONYMS
MRA
Metropolitan Redevelopment Authority
MRS
Metropolitan Region Scheme
NOM
Net Overseas Migration
NSW
New South Wales
NT
Northern Territory
PLR
Peel Region Scheme
QLD
Queensland
REIWA
Real Estate Institute of Western Australia
SA
South Australia
SEQ
South-East Queensland
SRT
Swan River Trust
TAS
Tasmania
TFR
total fertility rate
TOD
Transit Oriented Development
UGB
urban growth boundaries
VIC
Victoria
WA
Western Australia
WAPC
Western Australia Planning Commission
253
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
// specifics
chapter 05
13 BIBLIOGRAPHY
255
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
13 Books Bolleter J. (2015) Scavenging the suburbs. Auditing Perth for 1 million infill dwellings, AUDRC 1402, UWA Publishing Perth. Bolleter J. (2015) Take me to the river: the story of Perthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s foreshore. Crawley, Western Australia: UWA Publishing. Gleeson B., (2006) Waking from the Dream: Towards Urban Resilience in Face of Sudden Treat, Griffith University Urban Research Program. Landry C. (2007), Perth: Town or City? Morris A. (2016) The Australian Dream: Housing Experiences of Older Australians. Collingwood, CSIRO PUBLISHING. Stephenson G. (1975) The Design of Central Perth: Some Problems and Possible Solutions, University of Western Australia, Perth. Weller R. (2009) Boomtown 2050: scenarios for a rapidly growing city. Crawley, Western Australia.: UWA Publishing. Weller R., Bolleter J. (2013) Made in Australia: the future of Australian cities. Crawley, Western Australia.: UWA Publishing, Perth. Whish-Wilson D. (2013) Perth, Sydney, NSW: NewSouth Publishing, p. 26.
256
chapter 13
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Journal articles Bolleter, J. (2014) Charting a Changing Waterfront: A Review of Key Schemes for Perth’s Foreshore. Journal of Urban Design, Vol. 19(5). Kenworthy J., Laube F. (2001) The Millennium Cities Database for Sustainable Transport, ISTP, Murdoch University, Perth and UITP Brussels Kenworthy, J. Laube, F. Newman, P. Barter, P. Raad, T. Poboon, C. and Guia, B. (1999), An International Sourcebook of Automobile Dependence in Cities: 1960- 1990, University Press of Colorado, Boulder. Morrison S., The Case for Elizabeth Quay, in Bolleter J. 2015, Take me to the river: The Story of Perth’s Foreshore, UWA Publishing, Crawley. Reidy S. (2001) Something for Everyone: How recreation and Sport Bowled into the Australian Garden in G. Whitehead (ed), Planting the Nation, Australian Garden History Society, Melbourne. Weller R. (2010) Public Perth, Landscape Architecture Australia, 127, pp. 36-40.
Reports Australian Bureau of Statistics (2017) 3101.0 – Australian Demographic Statistics, Dec 2016. Australian Bureau of Statistics. Australian Bureau of Statistics (2013) 3222.0 – Population Projections, Australia, 2012 to 2101, Australian Bureau of Statistics. City Vision (2013) The Perth Waterfront Development (Elizabeth Quay) Project: Summary Report of Submissions by Invited Experts and Conclusions and Recommendations by City Vision, edited by City Vision. Perth: City Vision. Demographia (2017) 13th Annual Demographia International Housing Affordability Survey: Rating Middle-Income Housing Affordability, Christchurch, New Zealand: Performance Urban Planning.
257
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
Department of Immigration and Border Protection, Regional Net Overseas Migration 2004–05 to 2017–18, Australian Government. DoP & WAPC (2015) Bush Forever Areas, Planning Bulletin 69. DoP & WAPC (2010) Direction 2031 and beyond. Perth: Western Australia Planning Commission. DoP & WAPC (2015) Draft Perth and Peel @ 3,5 million. Perth: Western Australia Planning Commission. DoP & WAPC (2014) Introduction to the Western Australian Planning System. Perth: Department of Planning. DoP & WAPC (2014) State Planning Strategy 2050. Perth: Western Australia Planning Commission. DoP & WAPC (2013) The Housing We’d Choose. A study for Perth and Peel, Department of Housing and Department of Planning, Perth. Frost L., Gaynor A., Gregory J., Morgan R., O’Hanlon S., Spearritt P and Young P. (2016) Water, history and the Australian city: urbanism, suburbanism and water in a dry continent, 1788-2015, Melbourne, Australia: Cooperative Research Centre for Water Sensitive Cities. Graeme H. (2010) Focus migration. Country profile: Australia, No: 21, Hamburg, Germany: Hamburg Institute of International Economics (HWWI). Hamnett S. (2014) Australian Metropolis A planning history. Allen & Unwin. Hamnett S., Freestone, R. (2016) The Australian metropolis 20002015. In Carola Hein (ed.) International Planning History Society Proceedings, 17th IPHS Conference, History-Urbanism-Resilience, Tu Delft 17-21 July, V.06 p.083, Tu Delft Open, 2016. Housing Authority (2016) Housing Affordability. A study for the Perth metropolitan area. Middelmann M. H. (2007) Natural Hazards in Australia. Identi-
258
chapter 13
BIBLIOGRAPHY
fying Risk Analysis Requirement, Geoscience Australia, Canberra. MRA (2012) Elizabeth Quay Design Guidelines, Perth: Metropolitan Redevelopment Authority. NATSEM (2011) The Great Australian Dream - Just a Dream? Housing affordability trends for Australia and our largest 25 cities, AMP.NATSEM Income and Wealth Report, 29. Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Connor R., Quartermaine G. & Bodney C. (1989) Report on an Investigation into Aboriginal Significance of Wetlands and Rivers in the Perth-Bunbury Region, Western Australian Water Resources Council. South West Aboriginal Land & Sea Council (2011) Living culture - living land and its people, Noongar protocols: Welcome to Country, Perth, Western Australia: South West Aboriginal Land & Sea Council Steffen W., Hughes L. (2011) The Critical Decade: Western Australia climate change impacts, Climate Commission, Canberra. WAPC (2003) Greater Perth Economy and Employment Discussion Paper; No. 3, Perth: Western Australia Planning Commission. WAPC (2005) State Planning Policy 2.10: Swan-Canning River System, Perth: Western Australian Government. WAPC (2016) Urban Growth Monitor. Perth: Western Australia Planning Commission.
Newspaper Carbone D. & Hanson J. (2012) Top 10 worst floods in Australia, Australian Geographic, 08 March. Gill N. (2015) Where is the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s most remote city?, The Guardian, 19 August. Law P. (2014) Future Perth: 900,000 New Homes without Urban Sprawl, Perth Now, 5 October.
259
UNSPRAWLING PERTH FROM THE SWAN RIVER / The riverine city within the city
Loader C. (2017) What does the census tell us about motor vehicle ownership in Australian cities? (2006-2016), Charting Transport, 30 July. Morrison S. (2008) Perth deserves grand design, West Australian, 4 June. Parker G. (2011) Chance to Go for Global Glory: Mayor, West Australian, 16 February. Rickard L. (2011), Latest Perth Waterfront Redevelopment Gets a Cash Boostâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, West Australian, 26 April. Rimrod F. (2009) WA property owners could be in deep water, The Sydney Morning Herald, 13 November. Steger I. (2017) Whether Australia likes it or not, more immigrants are calling it home, Quartz, 21 March. Thomas B. (2012) Group to Fight Waterfront Plan. West Australian, 16 January. Wahlquist C. (2015), Perthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s double whammy: as sea levels rise the city itself is sinking, The Guardian, 22 October.
Websites Macleod K. (2015) Mapping Australia: Housing Affordability. Available from: <http://www.sbs.com.au/news/map/housing-affordability>
260
// specifics
14 ATTACHMENTS
263
Laureanda Annalisa Ricci Relatori Prof. Gastone Ave Prof. Romeo Farinella Correlatore Prof. Dr. Julian Bolleter (University of Western Australia)
Tesi di Laurea / A.A. 2015-2016 UniversitĂ degli Studi di Ferrara, Dipartimento di Architettura