Chapter 2: Skill acquisition

2.1 Defining skilled performance

Explain what is meant by skilled performance. – Discuss what makes a highly skilled performer. – Outline the components of skilled performance: RACE FACE. – Discuss the example (Apply it) and ask the students to come up with their own examples in pairs.

PRACTICE QUESTION ANSWERS

Q1. Using a sporting example, explain what makes a performance skilful.

Tip: be sure to apply the key elements of the definition. – A skilful badminton player will be able to consistently strike the shuttlecock well in the direction intended (pre-determined result and accuracy). – They will have an efficient and smooth technique (aesthetic). – They can adapt their skills to deal with challenges. Q2. Use sporting examples to explain the terms effective, efficient and responsive in relation to skilled performance. – Effective: for hand-passing to be effective it must find the hands of the target player and requires accuracy, consistency, confidence and control. – Efficient: the cyclist must minimise their energy expenditure by having efficient technique. – Responsive: the football player must adapt their skills to respond to their opponent and the conditions. Q3. Complete the acronym RACE FACE to identify the key characteristics of skilled performance. – Responsive, Aesthetic, Controlled, Efficient, Fluent, Accurate, Consistent,

Effective. Q4. Identify each key term in relation to how a novice will differ from an experienced performer in terms of skill. Key terms: adapt, time, fluent, efficient, consistent.

An experienced performer will: – get it right almost every time = consistent – use less energy to perform the Skill = efficient – perform the skill faster = time – be able to respond to the environment and opposition = adapt – perform the skill smoothly = fluent

2.2 The difference between skill and ability

Explain the difference between skill and ability: we are born with abilities, but we must learn skills. – Discuss the characteristics of abilities. – Identify the physical abilities and explain that being born with naturally higher levels of these abilities influences the activities we are good at.

TASK 2.1 ANSWERS

Which physical abilities are needed for the following activities? (a) Perform a handstand in gymnastics: strength, balance, co-ordination (b) Perform an overhead kick in soccer: agility, co-ordination, power, flexibility (c) Run 100 metres in under 10 seconds: speed, strength, power, reaction time, co-ordination (d) Score a three-point shot in basketball: co-ordination, power, strength (e) Perform the butterfly stroke in swimming: co-ordination, strength, flexibility, power

PRACTICE QUESTION ANSWERS

Q1. Outline the difference between skill and ability. Apply to an example. – We must learn skill. – We are born with abilities (innate/genetic). – For example, a gymnast may be born with a high level of flexibility, co-ordination, balance and strength but they will still have to practise for many hours to learn the skills required for a complete floor routine. Q2. Explain two characteristics of ability. – Innate: we are born with abilities – Enduring: they remain stable over time – Cognitive: thinking ability e.g. strategy.

2.3 Skill acquisition

Link with the Coursework Planner (PAP): Following completion of this section each student could analyse their own performance or the performance of a peer in order to identify their/their peer’s stage of learning. A proforma and sample is provided. Video evidence could be used for the analysis.

Explain the three stages of learning a new skill: – Cognitive: beginner – Associative: developing – Autonomous: expert.

PRACTICE QUESTION ANSWERS

Q1. Identify the three stages of learning a new skill. – Cognitive – Associative – Autonomous Q2. Outline three characteristics of a performer at the autonomous stage of learning. – Highly proficient (high level of performance) – Consistency of performance – Able to adapt the skill to the situation – Faster decisions and execution of the skill Q3. Identify one difference between a cognitive performer and an associative performer? – the associative performer will perform the skill better/not make as many mistakes – the associative performer will have a mental picture of how the skill should be performed.

Discuss how skills are learned effectively. – Discuss the importance of feedback when learning a skill. – ACE IT: accurate, concise, easily understood, immediate, truthful. – Explain the different types of feedback. – Ask the students to identify each type of feedback described in the examples (see PowerPoint).

TASK 2.2 (Group work) ANSWER

Discuss which type(s) of feedback would be best suited to each stage of learning: – Cognitive: terminal, positive, extrinsic, knowledge of results – Associative: terminal, constructive, extrinsic, knowledge of performance – Autonomous: continuous, constructive, intrinsic, knowledge of performance.

PRACTICE QUESTION ANSWERS

Q1. Describe the differences between intrinsic and extrinsic feedback. – Intrinsic feedback comes from inside – the feel of the movement or skill. – Extrinsic feedback comes from outside sources such as a coach telling how well you performed. Q2. Explain when feedback should take place and what factors need to be considered to make the feedback effective.

Feedback can take place during the practice or immediately after and needs to be: – accurate: specific to the performance – concise and not overly elaborate – easily understood and not confusing – immediate: during or after the performance – truthful: constructive feedback is crucial to improvement even if it is unpleasant. Q3. Using an example from sport, investigate the differences between knowledge of performance and knowledge of results. – Knowledge of performance outlines the positive and negative elements of a performance. For example, a gymnast will receive feedback on the execution of each element of their routine from their coach, highlighting errors and areas for improvement. – Knowledge of results is concerned only with the objective result such as the score the gymnast received for each element of the performance. Q4. Complete the sequence on Feedback using the following key words: feedback, adjustments, future performance, learning. – Performance outcome: 1) feedback 2) learning 3) adjustments 4) future performance.

Guidance

Link with practical performance: This could be introduced as part of a practical lesson by incorporating visual and verbal guidance into your lesson and making students aware of the differences and benefits of each. Allow students the chance to try each type of guidance with a partner.

Explain the four different types of guidance: – Visual – Verbal – Manual – Mechanical. Link the types of guidance to the stages of learning.

PRACTICE QUESTION ANSWERS

Q1. Outline an example of when a coach would combine visual and verbal guidance. – Demonstrating and explaining a skill to a group of cognitive learners e.g. passing in soccer. – Highlighting errors and demonstrating how to make corrections for associative and autonomous learners e.g. verbally explaining the cause of the error to a gymnast and then demonstrating the correct technique. Q2. Describe why it would not be suitable to use verbal guidance with a beginner. – The cognitive performer does not yet have a mental picture of the skill. – It will be confusing without a demonstration. – Verbal guidance may be misunderstood. Q3. Identify which stage of learning would be best for a coach to use: (a) verbal feedback only: autonomous (b) verbal and visual guidance: associative. Q4. Identify which type(s) of guidance would be most appropriate for learning the following skills: (a) a cognitive level swimmer learning the butterfly stroke: visual/manual/ mechanical (b) an associative level gymnast learning to vault: verbal/manual (c) a cognitive level tennis player learning to serve: manual/visual (d) an associative level athlete practising pole vaulting: mechanical/visual.

Practice

Link with practical performance: Practice types and methods can be incorporated into a practical lesson by teaching students a skill using an appropriate guidance method and then organising students into groups to rotate around different practice sessions. For example, the standing triple jump:

Practice 1: distributed practice using the whole-part-whole method Practice 2: massed practice using the progressive part method. Practice 3: fixed practice using the whole method Practice 4: fixed practice using the part method.

Explain the four different types of practice and link to examples: – Fixed – Massed – Variable – Distributed.

Explain the four practice methods and link to examples: – Whole – Part – Whole-part-whole – Progressive part.

TASK 2.3 (a) ANSWER

Copy the table and tick an appropriate method of practice for each skill.

Tennis serve

Football pass Triple jump Sprint start Front crawl

Pole vault

Whole practice Part practice Whole-part-whole Progressive part

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TASK 2.3 (b) ANSWER

Select a practice method and type of practice for each stage of learning for a triple jumper.

Stage of learning Practice method Cognitive

Progressive part

Practice type

Distributed

Associative

Whole-part-whole Distributed

Autonomous

Whole Fixed

PRACTICE QUESTION ANSWERS

Q1. Identify an appropriate practice method for each of the following: (a) a simple skill such as running, jumping, kicking or throwing: whole practice (b) a complex skill such as pole vault, triple jump or a tennis serve: part practice/ progressive part. Q2. Explain why variable practice is beneficial for invasion games such as basketball. – Skills in invasion games are open and affected by external factors, especially the opposition. – Performers in invasion games need to be able to adapt and vary the skill. Q3. Outline two benefits that distributed practice has over massed practice. – Allows breaks for recovery – Allows for feedback to be given – Allows for guidance to be given. Q4. Describe the process of performing whole-part-whole practice. – Perform the whole skill first e.g. the tennis serve. – Break the skill into each of its component parts and practise these separately e.g. the toss of the ball and the overhead shot. – Perform the whole skill again.

LONG ANSWER PRACTICE QUESTION ANSWER

Design a practice session incorporating the principles of effective practice and a variety of practice methods.

Include: • An outline of the practice session for a skill or fitness component. This should include text and diagrams where appropriate. • Application of the principles of effective practice i.e. the type and method of practice best suited to the skill. Is the skill affected by external factors such as opposition or weather; safety etc? • A description of how you would use guidance and feedback effectively – select the most appropriate types. • An explanation of how the stage of learning and experience of the learner will influence the session plan, type of feedback and guidance used.

Skill: dribbling in basketball

– Instructions: Dribble out with the right hand to a cone 20m away and then switch hands as you turn around the cone and dribble back to the start. – The type of practice is distributed in order to give feedback. – The method of practice is whole practice as dribbling does not lend itself to being broken into parts. – The coach can use the breaks in the practice to give positive and constructive feedback on technique and footwork. – Verbal and visual guidance should be given in order to refine the technique and eliminate errors. – A cognitive performer will require visual and manual guidance prior to attempting the skill and should start at a walking pace. Feedback should only be given during the breaks in performance and it should be positive, clear and concise. – An associative performer will benefit from verbal and visual guidance in order to refine their technique and gain consistency. – An autonomous performer will require less guidance and feedback as they are already at a high level. The guidance and feedback would be verbal and can take place during the performance. They require constructive feedback in order to make small adjustments.

END-OF-CHAPTER PRACTICAL TASK

Guide the students in designing the practice session, ensuring they include all three key elements: • an appropriate practice method and type of practice e.g. fixed practice of the whole skill • appropriate guidance for the level of performer e.g. visual for cognitive/beginner • effective feedback during and/or after the practice e.g. positive or constructive, continuous or terminal.