Chapter 3: Psychological demands of performance

Link with the Coursework Planner (PAP): Following completion of this chapter each student could analyse their own/peer’s psychological preparedness before, during and after performance. Proformas are provided for tests of confidence, anxiety and motivation and sample analysis. Retain the evidence for possible use as part of the PAP.

3.1 Motivation and performance

Introduction: Motivation is a key driver affecting effort, focus and determination to succeed. – Outline the differences between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. – Discuss examples with the class.

Discuss the Apply it example. How did Philip Deignan’s motivation change throughout his involvement in cycling?

Explain achievement motivation and how it differs from fear of failure.

Drive theory: Performance increases linearly with motivation. – Ask the students to think of ways of increasing motivation? – Compare the answers from the class with the list in the book/PowerPoint.

PRACTICE QUESTION ANSWERS

Q1. Outline which type of motivation you think is most effective and why. (Give three reasons.) – Intrinsic motivation increases long-term participation, consistent effort in training and enjoyment. – Extrinsic motivation can further increase effort and focus in competition in order to achieve the reward/try harder/focused preparation. – Achievement motivation will ensure the performer is not afraid to take risks, try again despite previous failures and seek to improve. Q2. Discuss any potential problems with extrinsic motivation. – When the rewards become unattainable participation may stop. – Intrinsic motivation may be reduced if too much emphasis is placed on rewards. – There may be less enjoyment and satisfaction from participation. Q3. Identify one extrinsic motivator for a named activity. – Football: professional contract (money) – Trophies – Media attention/fame. Q4. Investigate the differences between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. – Intrinsic motivation comes from inside you, because you enjoy it. – Extrinsic motivation comes from outside sources such as rewards (money, medals, praise). Q5. Suggest reasons why achievement motivation is so crucial to successful performance. – Ensures the performer will keep trying despite previous failures. – The performer will play without fear/take risks. – They will embrace competition and difficult situations and not fear them. Q6. Analyse the link between motivation and performance according to drive theory. – Performance will increase linearly with motivation. – Performers will train harder, compete harder, seek feedback and improvement. Q7. Describe three ways a coach could enhance the motivation of a performer. – Ensure enjoyment and fun in training. – Use rewards such as awards for most improved player. – Ensure success is experienced. – Set achievable goals.

3.2 Confidence

Explain confidence and its effect on performance. – Ask the students to identify examples of confident sportspeople. – Discuss the effect of low self-confidence on performance and ask for examples.

TASK 3.1

With a partner, make a list of teams and/or sportspeople who play/compete: (a) with confidence and without fear of failure (offensive and take risks) (b) with caution and fear of failure (defensive and avoid risk). No sample answer as it is personal opinion and is often divisive, but creates good debate!

Explain self-efficacy as being the level of confidence a performer has in a specific situation or at that moment in time. – Outline the model with examples in the PowerPoint table. – Ask the students to discuss an example when they had low or high self-efficacy in sport. – Ask the students to identify strategies they use to increase their self-efficacy prior to performance. Compare with the strategies in the textbook/PowerPoint.

PRACTICE QUESTION ANSWERS

Q1. Outline three strategies that could help enhance your confidence in a sporting situation or physical activity. Apply to a named activity. – Experience success in your club soccer training sessions. – Remind yourself of previous successful performances such as a recent soccer match you performed well in. – Control stress and anxiety prior to an important soccer match. – Watch performers of similar ability performing successfully in training or a match. – Link success to intrinsic factors such as your football ability and motivation. Q2. Self-efficacy is the level of confidence a performer has in a specific situation. Describe two components of the self-efficacy model, linking them with examples from physical activity. – Past performance: experiencing success in a previous performances will increase self-confidence e.g. a penalty taker who has scored in all previous attempts. – Verbal persuasion: positive feedback and encouragement will increase confidence in future performances such as a coach praising your courage and commitment. – Vicarious experience: watching others successfully complete a task increases confidence e.g. a young gymnast watching a peer’s performance can increase their self-efficacy. – Physiological/emotional states: physical and mental arousal, anxiety, stress, nerves and motivation will impact their self-confidence e.g. an athlete who embraces the pre-race stress, butterflies, increased heart rate and breathing rate will go to the starting line with more self-belief. Q3. Describe three ways that a coach could enhance the confidence of a performer leading up to an important competition. - Achievable tasks that ensure success - Praise and encouragement - Help with mental preparation/pre-event routines/anxiety-control strategies - Linking their success to intrinsic factors such as their ability.

3.3 Anxiety

Discuss the effect of anxiety on performance including: – the difference between state and trait anxiety – the difference between cognitive and somatic anxiety – the graph used to explain the effect of increasing cognitive and somatic anxiety – why cognitive anxiety needs to be kept lower than somatic anxiety.

Explain arousal and the inverted U theory: – Arousal is a state of readiness. – Performance improves within increasing levels of arousal up to a peak and after this point performance gradually decreases.

Discuss the effect of high cognitive anxiety on golfer Graham DeLaet.

CASE STUDY

CASE STUDY QUESTION ANSWERS

Q1. Identify the reason why Graham had to withdraw from competition.

High levels of cognitive anxiety. Q2. In order to return to competition Graham had to implement mental strategies to overcome his anxiety. Outline one strategy Graham could use to control: (a) Somatic anxiety before competition: deep breathing or progressive muscular relaxation (b) Cognitive anxiety during competition: thought-stopping, mental rehearsal or imagery prior to an important shot, positive self-talk.

PRACTICE QUESTION ANSWERS

Q1. Describe what is meant by anxiety in sport. – Feeling apprehensive prior to performance – Can be cognitive (mental) or somatic (physical) – Can be state anxiety due to the importance of the competition – Can be trait anxiety i.e. your normal stable level of anxiety. Q2. Outline three ways anxiety can affect performance. – Improves performance by increasing readiness/arousal e.g. the release of adrenaline, increased heart rate and blood flow – Increases focus, concentration and motivation – Can have a negative effect on performance e.g. fear of failure, make mistakes, lower confidence, physically sick. Q3. Explain the difference between competitive state and competitive trait anxiety. – Competitive state anxiety is felt during a specific competitive situation and is unstable, usually influenced by the importance of the competition. – Competitive trait anxiety is your normal stable level of anxiety. Q4. Use figure 3.3. to explain why cognitive anxiety should be kept low and somatic anxiety at moderate levels to enhance performance. – Increased cognitive anxiety will lead to fear of failure, self-doubt, lower levels of concentration, reduced motivation and increased errors in performance. – Moderate levels of somatic anxiety will increase physical readiness including increased heart rate and reaction time (adrenaline). Q5. Use figure 3.4 to describe the effect of low, medium and high levels of somatic anxiety on performance? – Low levels of somatic anxiety will leave the performer under-prepared physically and cause them to under-perform. – Medium levels of somatic anxiety will increase readiness to perform by improving concentration, motivation, reaction time and physical readiness such as increased heart rate and adrenaline levels. – High levels of somatic anxiety will lead to reduced performance as the performer is unable to cope with this level of anxiety and may, for example, be physically sick.

Figure 3.3: The effect of cognitive and somatic anxiety on performance Figure 3.4: The inverted-U theory

3.4 Concentration

Introduction: Concentration is the ability to exert deliberate mental effort. – Discuss the positive effects of improved concentration – Discuss the negative effects of poor concentration

Discuss the ways that concentration could be enhanced. – Ask the students what strategies they use to improve their concentration.

3.5 Feedback and performance

Introduction: Feedback is the information received by the performer during and after their performance. – Outline how the different types of feedback can impact upon performance.

PRACTICE QUESTION ANSWERS

Q1. Performance in sport is heavily influenced by the ability of the performer to sustain their concentration for the duration of activity. (a) Explain the term concentration. – Concentration is the ability to apply deliberate mental effort to a specific situation e.g. a penalty kick. (b) Outline three occasions in sport where maintaining concentration can influence success. – A snooker player must concentrate on every shot as one miss could lose them the frame. – A rugby penalty kick requires intense concentration. – A sprinter must concentrate on the starter’s gun completely. (c) Explain two positive effects of good concentration on performance. – Anticipating your opponent – Maintaining tactical positioning – Improving reaction time – Improving accuracy – Improving mental preparation. Q2. When a sports performer makes a mistake it is often down to physical or mental fatigue. (a) Outline two negative effects poor concentration can have on performance. – Making mistakes/poor decisions – Missing signals – Failing to read the play – Reducing accuracy – Slow reaction time. (b) What strategies could a performer implement to enhance concentration? – Mental rehearsal of performance – Selective attention to block out distractions – Thought stopping to remove negative thoughts or distractions – Mental routine for set plays – Pre-performance routines – Fixing their attention on an opponent – Cues and triggers to focus attention. Long answer question: Investigate how feedback can affect performance. Include a range of positive and negative effects linked to the types of feedback from section 2.4. – Feedback can affect performance positively by identifying weaknesses and putting in place strategies to improve. – Positive feedback and knowledge of results can improve confidence and motivation. – Negative feedback and knowledge of performance can focus the high-level performer on eliminating small errors. – Extrinsic feedback can be used to set goals for improvement and control anxiety. – Intrinsic feedback can improve confidence and concentration as well as controlling anxiety by helping the performer focus on their own performance.

TASK 3.2 ANSWERS

Apply the effects of these psychological factors on performance: (a) Increased cognitive anxiety will impact performance by improving alertness and concentration but too much cognitive anxiety will increase the likelihood of making mistakes. (b) Increased concentration will impact performance by focusing the performer, and improving reaction time and decision making. (c) Increased motivation will impact performance by increasing effort in competition and consistency in training. (d) Positive feedback from a coach will impact performance by increasing confidence and self-esteem.

3.6 Strategies to improve mental preparedness

Discuss the effect of goal setting on performance. – Ask the students to create a short-term goal and a long-term goal.

Explain mental rehearsal and its effect on performance. – Ask the students to read the example (see page 72 of the student textbook) and explain the difference between internal and external visualisation. – Give students the opportunity to try mental rehearsal. – Discuss the benefits of mental rehearsal.

Outline self-talk, deep breathing and progressive muscular relaxation. – Lead the students through each strategy in class.

PRACTICE QUESTION ANSWERS

Q1. Outline what is meant by the term goal setting and identify three ways it can benefit mental preparedness. – Goal setting means setting targets for yourself – Helps to motivate you which leads to increased effort – Helps focus your attention/concentration – Gives direction to your training (peaking for the big event/main goal) – Allows you to check your progress – Meeting goals gives you confidence. Q2. Explain how mental rehearsal could be of benefit to a gymnast. – Allows the gymnast to practise their routine prior to the competition – Increases confidence/self-efficacy in their ability to execute the routine – Stimulates the neuromuscular system prior to performance – Allows dangerous components to be rehearsed – Rehearses dealing with disruption and moments of crisis. Q3. Explain why a 100m sprinter would benefit from mental preparation strategies such as self-talk prior to the start of their race. Which other types of mental preparation would be most appropriate for a sprinter immediately before their event? – It can be done immediately before the start in order to focus attention and increase confidence and motivation. – Mental rehearsal could be used to visualise a successful performance and increase confidence. – Thought-stopping could be used to banish negative thoughts. Q4. Identify three sports where you feel mental preparation would be beneficial to performance. For each sport chosen, outline which methods of mental preparation would be most suitable and why. – Snooker: self-talk could be used before and during the competition to focus attention; mental rehearsal could be used to visualise successful shots and increase self-confidence; progressive muscular relaxation could be used to control anxiety and tension in the shoulder/arms. – Sprinting: thought-stopping and self-talk could be used immediately prior to the start in order to banish negative thoughts and improve focus. – Rugby: the kicker could use a well-rehearsed mental routine to ensure consistency and accuracy. They could also use deep breathing, thought-stopping and self-talk to control anxiety and replace negative thoughts with positive ones. Q5. Describe how physical relaxation strategies such as deep breathing and progressive muscular relaxation benefit the mental preparation of the performer. – By increasing relaxation in the body performers can also relax their minds. – It focuses attention away from the stressful situation. – Controls anxiety (cognitive and somatic). – Decreases heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate, muscle tension. – Improves concentration.

END-OF-CHAPTER ASSIGNMENT – MARK SCHEME

(Can be used as summative assessment) Design a mental preparation plan for a named activity. Outline the strategies that the performer could use before, during and after their competition.

Include methods of: • enhancing motivation • increasing confidence/self-efficacy • controlling anxiety • improving concentration • mentally preparing • appropriate feedback during and after the event.

Each element of the mark scheme should be addressed in the assignment.

Before competition:

– Increase motivation/use of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations/encourage achievement motivation. – Increase confidence/self-efficacy: past performance/verbal persuasion/vicarious experience/physiological and emotional states/setting goals/mental rehearsal. – Control anxiety: recognise symptoms of anxiety/physical strategies including progressive muscular relaxation and deep breathing/psychological strategies including thought-stopping, self-talk and mental rehearsal/distract attention e.g. music.

During competition:

– Maintain concentration: focus attention/selective attention/blocking out distractions/fix attention on the task/mental rehearsal prior to set plays/pre-performance routine/cues and triggers. – Control anxiety and maintain relaxation: mental rehearsal prior to set plays/thought stopping/deep breathing/positive self-talk. – Feedback: intrinsic/extrinsic from coach such as positive or constructive.

After competition:

– Feedback: positive or constructive feedback/knowledge results and performance. – Goal setting: evaluate success (goal fully/partially/not achieved)/set new goals. – Relaxation strategies: progressive muscular relaxation/deep breathing/visualisation of the performance and including the identification and correction of errors.