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ABC Journal of Advanced Research, Volume 1, No 2 (2012)

ISSN 2304-2621

Vol. 1, No. 2/2012

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ABC Journal of Advanced Research, Volume 1, No 2 (2012)

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ABC Journal of Advanced Research, Volume 1, No 2 (2012)

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EDITORIAL BOARD Consulting Editors Dr. Md. Mostafizur Rahman, Rajshahi University, Bangladesh Dr. Dharani Kumar Ajithdoss, Texas A&M University, USA Dr. Shahzad Ali Khan, Quaid-e-Azam University, Pakistan Dr. Muhammad Mohiuddin, Laval University, Quebec, Canada Dr. Gulzar A. Khuwaja, King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia Dr. Halenar Igor, Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Slovakia Dr. Sharad Sharma, Bowie State University, USA Dr. Mojtaba Moradi, University of Guilan, Iran Dr. Ek Raj Ojha, Kathmandu University, Nepal Dr. Lawrence Arokiasamy, Quest International University Perak, Malaysia Dr. Bensafi Abd-El-Hamid, Abou Bekr Belkaid University, Algeria Dr. Ekta Sharma, Ahmmedabad University, India Dr. Asma Ahmad Shariff, University of Malaya, Malaysia Dr. Wahabi Bolanle Asiru, Federal Institute of Industrial Research, Nigeria Dr. James Adetunji Odumeru, Osun State College of Technology, Nigeria Dr. Eun Jin Hwang, Indiana University of Pennsylvania, USA Dr. Tammy R. Lamb Kinley, University of North Texas, USA Dr. Christine Fernandez-Maloigne, University of Poitiers, France Dr. Andreas Veglis, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece Dr. Sheryl B. Buckley , University of South Africa, South Africa Dr. Angel Antonio Barajas Alonso, University of Vigo, Spain Dr. Alim Al Ayub Ahmed, ASA University Bangladesh, Bangladesh Dr. Napole贸n Paredes, San Isidro. Lima 27, Per煤 Current Editor-in-Chief: Dr. Wahabi Bolanle Asiru

Current Managing Editor: Dr. Dharani Kumar Ajithdoss

Executive Editor: Dr. Alim Al Ayub Ahmed The Editorial Board assumes no responsibility for the content of the published articles.

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Asian Business Consortium is a self supporting organization and does not receive funding from any institution/government. Hence, the operation of the journal is solely financed by the processing fees received from authors. The processing fees are required to meet operations expenses such as employee salaries, internet services, electricity etc. Being an Open Access Journal, ABC-JAR does not receive payment for online subscription as the journals are freely accessible over the internet. It costs money to produce a peerreviewed, edited, and formatted article that is ready for online and print publication, and to host it on a server that is freely accessible without barriers around the clock.

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ABC Journal of Advanced Research, Volume 1, No 2 (2012)

ISSN 2304-2621

ABC Journal of Advanced Research Blind Peer-Reviewed Journal

Volume 1, Numbe r 2/2012 (Second I ssue)

Contents

1.

The Impact of Collaborative Task Acquisition Dr. Bahador Sadeghi & Roya Safari

on the

FL Vocabulary

8-14

(Track: Humanity)

2.

From Providing ‗Alternative Punishment‘ to Offering ‗Punishment in the Community‘: The History and Development of Community Penalties in Britain Dr. Basharat Hussain; Dr. Waheed Chaudhry; & Ali Askar (Track: Humanity)

15-22

3.

Economic Activities a mong Barra Community in Sindh, Pakistan: A Case study of Matli Town, District Badin Naveed Ahmed Lashari; & Dr. Anwaar Mohyuddin (Track: Humanity)

23-31

4.

Henry Fayol and Frederick Winslow Taylor‘s Contribution to Management Thought: An Overview Md. Hasebur Rahman (T rack: Business)

32-41

5.

Environmental Factors that influence Supply Chain Management Implementation in the Manufacturin g Industries in Kenya: A Case of Manufacturing Industries in Nairobi, Ken ya Dr. Stephen Waithaka Titus; Dr. Tom Kimani Mburu; Dr. Julius Koror; & Dr. Stephen Muathe (Track: Business)

42-49

6.

An Analytical Study on Determining Effective Factors for R ecruiting Right Person Md. Sajedur Rahman; & Md. Shajedul Islam (Track: Business)

50-56

7.

Mainstreaming Homosexuality in Nollywood: The Efforts and the Challenges Adedayo Ladigbolu Abah (Track: Humanity)

57-69

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The Impact of Collaborative Task on the FL Asian Business Consortium | ABC-JAR

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Vocabulary Acquisition Dr. Bahador Sadeghi1 ; & Roya Safari2 1

Assistant professor, English Department, Islamic Azad University, Iran M A in Applied Linguistics, English Department, Islamic Azad University, Iran

2

ABSTRACT Previous literature has revealed that collaborative manner of learning improves the second language acquisition. The present study was conducted to investigate the effect of a collaborative learning task compared to direct method on the FL vocabulary acquisition. To this end, two groups of intermediate EFL learners (N=38) were treated through collaborative task and direct method respectively. The learners were subjected to a pretest, a Snowball task and a direct method, and a post test over a period of one month. The result of T-test data analysis revealed that collaborative learning task played a significant role in improving learner‘s vocabulary knowledge, and there was significant difference between the present collaborative learning task and direct learning method .Therefore, the findings of this study have implications for teachers , learners, and syllabus and textbook designers .

Keywords: Collaborative task, Direct method, Receptive vocabulary, Snowball

1 INTRODUCTION In collaborative learning context, learners are engaged in an activity through which they can share their ideas, knowledge, and words in order to achieve the common goal (Brufee, 1999).

This learning context provides a rich feedback environment for learners and facilitates language acquisition. A language component which plays the significant role in communication competence is vocabulary (Coady, Huckin, 1997). Vocabulary can be acquired subconsciously while learners are engaged in a collaborative learning activity which provides an opportunity for learners to interact together (Nuan, Schmidit, 1989).

Group collaboration allows learners to notice their linguistic gap, note the link between form and meaning, and get feedback from their peers (Swain, 2000). Direct method may be easier to apply in the class than collaborative task, but the significant role of interaction, rich feedback environment, and scaffolding should not be neglected. Swain (1985) claims that the major problem is not to have enough opportunity to get involved in a mutual negotiated interaction in the passive environment of teacher-centered classrooms. A student-centered classroom plays a significant role in improving the English proficiency and motivation of learners. The purpose of the present study , therefore, was to investigate the impact of collaborative task on the FL vocabulary acquisition of intermediate Iranian learners.

It attempted to answer the following research questions:

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Is there any significant difference in the effect of a collaborative learning Task (Snowball) and a Direct method on the receptive vocabulary knowledge?

Review of related literature In Collaborative learning context, learners play the main role in their learning process and interact with each other in order to acquire the same goal, and the teacher‘s role is to facilitate their learning (Oxford, 1997). Indeed, the essence of learning comes from not just the learner's head, but also from the process of engagement between learner and other people and their social context (Hewitt & Scardamalia, 1998). In Vygotsky‘s view (1987), interaction between learners and scaffolding and getting support from all resources facilitates learning.Recent SLA research has demonstrated a need for classroom activities where students are responsible for one another‘s learning as well as their own. In fact, knowledge is constructed and transformed by students. Moreover, they retain the information longer and also appear more satisfied with their classes (Bechman, 1990; Goodsell, Maher, Tino et al. 1992). The proponents of collaborative tasks believe this fact that students are actively exchanging, debating, and negotiating ideas within their group increases their interests in learning (Totten, Sills, Digby, & Russ, 1989). In order to learn new information, ideas and skills, students have to work actively and integrate new material with what they already know or use it to recognize what they knew. The main feature of collaborative learning is that it allows students to talk with each other and to maximize their own and each other‘s learning.The theories associated with collaborative learning have originated from three psychologists and researchers‘ views: Vygotsky, Piaget, and Bandura.

The Vygotskian Perspective implies to a social interaction aspect that particularly emphasizes the social context of learning (William & Burden, 1997).To Vygotsky (1987), good learning occurs during interaction around the zone of proximal development of learners. The Piagetian Perspective placed special emphasis on biology in terms of developmental stage and implied that learning is the result of cognitive development. Thus, the active participation of learners during learning is an essential component in order to construct their knowledge (Sigel & Cocking, 1977). Bandura‘s Social Learning Theory holds that learning occurs in a social context and highlights the social behavior of participants involved in reciprocal interaction including observation, behavior modeling, emotional reaction, motivation, and receiving reinforcement.

In fact, the theory entails both cognitive and behavioral aspects (Bandura, 1977). collaborative methods facilitate second language learning, for the learner distinguishes their knowledge gap and try to test and revise their hypotheses(Swain, 2001).

As mentioned earlier,what distinguishes collaborative learning from traditional learning is the active engagement of learners. This active learning encompasses five features: Positive interdependence, Individual accountability, Face-to-face interaction, Interpersonal , and small-group skills learning,Group processing.There are many collaborative learning techniques which differ from one another in nature, but all emphasize the importance of face-to-face interaction in mutual understanding. Some such techniques are Syndicates, Think-pair share, Dyadic, Snowball, Seminar, Round Robin, Fish bowl, Buzz group, and Jigsaw. One collaborative technique was employed in the present study, and will be discussed in the next part of this study.Based on the numerous studies which support the use of collaborative learning, it can be said that collaborative learning techniques promote the rate of language learning and enhance learner achievement. Moreover, while learners are engaged in collaborative learning, they may acquire language skills and components spontaneously. Learners act as a resource of information for each other (McGroarty, Asian Business Consortium | ABC-JAR

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1989).Therefore, the use of collaborative learning techniques enhances the cognitive and affective aspects of learning (Johnson , Johnson, 2000).

Previous Studies of Collaborative Learning and Vocabulary Acquisition A number of studies have investigated the impact of collaborative learning on vocabulary acquisition (e.g., Luan, Sappathy, 2011; Kim, 2008; Hwang , 2002; Newton, 2001; Kowal , Swain ,1994). Luan and Sappathy (2011) investigated the impact of negotiated interaction on L2 vocabulary acquisition. A total of 48 participants with the same first language membership at a primary school were divided into two groups. One group was engaged in an information -gap two-way interactive task, and the other group was taught using traditional methods or a oneway input task. The comparison of the pre-test and post-test scores revealed that learners engaged in two-way interaction gained higher scores on the vocabulary test.

Kim (2008) examined the effect of collaborative and individual tasks on the acquisition of L2 vocabulary by comparing the performance of learners on a dictogloss task. The first group of participants was involved in individual work, but the other group was engaged in pair work.

The results showed significant effect of collaborative work on vocabulary acquisition. Kim (2008) investigated the effect of collaborative work on L2 vocabulary acquisition and obtained similar results in support of the effect of scaffolding on language learning. To sum up, the present study provides support for previous studies and attempts to explore the effect of collaboratrive instructional treatment on vocabulary knowledge of learners.

Hwang (2002) examined the impact of negotiated interaction on L2 vocabulary acquisition of Korean beginner learners, and found that the negotiated interaction group gained more vocabulary than the non-negotiated interaction group.

Newton (2001) suggested vocabulary learning through communication tasks. Learners were exposed to new words during interaction in a cooperative context. As a result of this treatment, not only rich language use was attained, but also the meanings of most words were retained for a long period of time.

Kowal and Swain (1994) examined the effect of dictogloss on second language learning by engaging a group of intermediate and advanced learners of French in reconstructing a text after they first listened to it. The results revealed that learners noticed their linguistic gap, linked form and meaning, and received feedback from their peers during group collaboration. The experimental group outperformed the control group.

2 M ETHOD Participants The participants in this study were 38 Persian-speaking learners of English as a Foreign Language enrolled in a discussion class at English language Institute of Jahad Daneshgahi in Qazvin, aging from 24 to 30, they were screened from among a total of 80 students based on their scores on the vocabulary section of a Michigan general proficiency test. Indeed, the participants who scored more than one standard deviation above and below mean were excluded from the study. The subjects were at the intermediate level. The selected subjects were placed into two groups to receive different treatments. The first group, with 20 members, was instructed through the Snowball task. The second group, which contained 18 members, was exposed to the the Direct teacher-centered class method.

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Materials and Instruments Vocabulary section of a Michigan general proficiency test (2009): This was a 40 -item multiple-choice test which was administered to the homogenize sample. The time allocation for the test was 35 minutes.

A pretest consisting of 80 vocabulary items: For each of the eight topics to be discussed in the experiments, 10 essential words were chosen. These words were then placed and underlined in a series of 80 sentences. The learners were given about 45 minutes to write the Persian meaning of each word. The purpose was to know which of the words the test takers were already familiar with. These words were excluded from the posttest. A posttest was administered at the end of the treatment. The questions on this test came from the words used by the students during class discussions. The words the learners identified in the pretest were excluded from the posttest. The posttest consisted of 30 multiple-choice question items intended to measure receptive vocabulary knowledge. 25 minutes was allotted for the posttest.

1st group

2nd group

3rd group

4th group

5th group

N=4

N= 4

N=4

N=4

N= 4

Procedures Once the pretest was given to all the students, one of the groups was treated with collaborative task (Snowball), and the second group with Direct English language class method. Each class met two sessions a week for one month: 8 sessions in all. The same teacher taught the same materials to the two classes. In a scene-setting session before the Snowball treatment actually had begun, the teacher explained the whole procedure to the students and listed the topics to be worked out in each session. At the beginning of each session, some words were placed on the board to help the students with the discussion.

These included the words given on the pretest. The posttests were administered in the tenth session.For the Snowball, the students were divided into five groups of four. The learners in each group were seated in a row. The teacher first asked a question related to the topic at issue and allowed the students in all groups to work out the response for a few minutes. Then, in each group the student sitting on the far left side replied to the question.

The teacher put this answer on the board for other students to see. Then, the second question was posed by the teacher, to be answered by the second student in each group.

This procedure was repeated for the remaining group members. In the end, the teacher asked some students to elaborate the responses they had previously provided.

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For the Direct English language class method , at first , the teacher listed the topics to be worked out in each session and placed related words to the topic at issue on the board in order to be presented to the students . These included the words given on the pretest.The teacher asked a question related to the topic at issue, and then, each learner tried to answer by using received vocabulary knowledge directly through teacher. In keeping with individual learning , each learner tried to achieve a goal individually. At the end of the treatment, the posttest was administered to the two experimental groups in order to measure the students‘ knowledge of receptive vocabulary.

3 DATA ANALYSIS The student responses were scored, and the data were submitted to the SPSS statistical package for analysis. It is worth noting at this point that the reliabilities of the receptive posttest was estimated to be 0.64, employing the KR-21 formula.

Results The present study investigated the effect of an independent variable with two levels (Snowball task, Direct method) on a dependent variable (receptive vocabulary learning).

For this purpose, a T-Test procedure was employed to analyze the posttest scores.

Response to the Research Question The research question investigated the effect of Snowball technique, and the Direct method on the receptive vocabulary acquisition by intermediate Iranian learners. The descriptive statistics are given in Table 1.

Table 1 Descriptive statistics for the two experimental groups (performance on a test of receptive vocabulary Group Statistics) N Snow Ball Direct Method

20 18

Mean

Standard Deviation

Standard Error

22.75 15.89

1.55 2.29

.34 .54

From these descriptive data, it can be seen in this table that the Snow ball group earned the higher mean, and the group subjected to Direct method ended up with the lower mean. So, the Snowball group performed much better than the Direct Method. However, to make sure these observations are also statistically significant, a T-Test was run, with probability level set at p = or < 0.05. The results are presented in Table 2.

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Table 2 Results of the T-Test comparison of means for learners' receptive vocabulary knowledge Independent Samples Test Levene's Test for Equality of Variances 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference t-test for Equality of Means F 2.13 Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed

Sig.

t

df

.15

10.88

36

10.66 29.38

Sig. Mean Standard (2-tailed) Difference Error .00

6.86

.63

.00

6.86

.64

* The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level In order to examine whether the difference between the two experimental groups is statistically significant, the researchers administered a T-test for the data. As with the results obtained in the test of Levene for Equality of Variances, the variances in both groups werenot equal. Sig. value (p) was lower than .05. It can be also seen in the table of t-test for equality of means that the group means were statistically significant. The value in the Sig. (2-tailed) was below .05, therefore, there was a great statistically significant difference between Snowball Group and the group treated with Direct method.

4 DISCUSSION The present study examined the effect of the collaborative learning task ( Snowball), and Direct learning method on the acquisition of receptive English vocabulary by Intermediate Iranian learners. Regarding the research question, the statistical analysis showed that the learners acquired receptive vocabulary much more significantly through Snowball task than the Direct method. This is in line with the finding of Ellis (2003) that engaging learners in a pedagogical task other than the PPP instruction activates processes that promote L2 learning.

The Snowball technique led to the great degree of acquisition of receptive vocabulary. A number of reasons can be given for this finding. The Snowball turned out to be effective task most probably because it demands interaction among learners and creates a more enjoyable learning context. The placement of learners in the instructional groups required by the Snowball task provides a rich feedback context. The underlying reason for the positive role of the Snowball task in improving receptive vocabulary acquisition lies in the fact that the learners were engaged in the production activity, gained feedback from the responses of other students to the same question, and checked the written forms of the responses. All this led the learners to better notice new vocabulary and to find out about their knowledge gap.

The finding is consistent with Kimâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s (2008) study in which a collaborative group outperformed an individual group in terms of vocabulary acquisition.

5 CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS In conclusion, this study compared the affects of two types of methods on the learners' receptive vocabulary knowledge .The findings showed that the difference between the Snowball task, and the Direct method was significant. Snowball group was a more effective task than the Direct method in terms of receptive vocabulary acquisition by intermediate learners. Therefore, it can be concluded that collaborative learning task has a significant effect on the receptive vocabulary learning of intermediate learners. The results of the present study provide implications for syllabus and English book designers, who try Asian Business Consortium | ABC-JAR

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to design textbooks. Moreover, the findings of the present study promote the learners' knowledge of different role of teacher and students in both teaching context. The results of this study also have implications for learners. Students can benefit from the advantages of collaborative task .The replication of this study can be conducted on the effect of this collaborative task on other language components and skills. Also comparison among collaborative tasks can be made according to the gender and age differences of learners.

REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21]

Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. New York: General Learning Press.

Beckman, M. (1990). Collaborative Learning: Preparation for the Workplace and Democracy, College Teaching, 38(4), 128-133.

Bruffee, K. A. (1999). Collaborative learning: Higher education, interdependence, and the authority of knowledge (2nd ed.). Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press.

Coady, J.,& Huckin, T. (Eds.) (1997). Second language vocabulary acquisition. A rationale for pedagogy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Ellis,R.(2003). Task-based language learning and teacging. Oxford Unuversity Press.

Goodsell, A., Maher, J., Tinto, V. et al. (1992). Collaborative Learning: A Sourcebook for Higher Educarion. National Center.

Hewitt, J., & Scardamalia, M. (1998). Design principles for the support of distributed processes, Educational Psychology Review, 10(1), 75-95.

Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. (2000). Cooperative learning, values, and culturally plural classrooms, In M. Leicester, C. Modgill, & S. Modgill (Eds.), Values, the classroom, and cultural diversity (pp. 15-28). London: Cassell PLC. Jung,K.(2004). L2vocabulary development through conversation: A conversation Analysis. Second Language studies,23(1),27-66.

Kim,k.(2008). The contribution of collaborative and individual tasks to the acquisition of L2 vocabulary. The Modern Language Journal,92(1),114-130.

Luan,N.L.,&Sappathy,S.M.(2011). L2vocabulary acquisition: The Impact of Negotiated Interaction.GEMA Online TM Journal of language studies,11(2).1675-8021.

McGroarty,M.(1989). The benefit of cooperative learning arrangements in second language instruction. National Associatin for Bilingual Association Journal, 13,127-143.

Mohamed,A.A.A.(2009). Investigating incidental vocabulary acquisition in ESL conversation classes.MA Thesis ,University of North Texas .

Newton, J. (2001). Options for assisting vocabulary learning in communication tasks, ELT Journal, 55(1), 30-37.

Nunan,D. (1989). Designing Tasks for the communicative classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Oxford, R. (1997), Cooperative Learning, Collaborative Learning, and Interaction: Three Communicative Strands in the Language Classroom. Modern Language Journal, 81(4), 443-456.

Sigel, I.,&Cocking, R.( 1977). Cognitive Development from Childhood to Adolescence: A Constructivist Perspectives, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Swain, M. (2001). Integrating Language content teaching through collaborative tasks.

Canadian Modern Language Review, 58,44-63.

Totten, S., Sills, T., Digby, A., & Russ, P. (1991). Cooperative learning: A guide to research, New York: Garland.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1987). The collected works of L. S. Vygotsky (R. W. Rieber & A. S. Carton, Eds.). New York: Plenum.

Williams, M. ,& Burden, R.L. (1997). Psychology for Language Teachers: A Social Constructivist Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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From Providing ‘Alternative Punishment’ to Offering ‘Punishment in the Community’: The History and Development of Community Penalties in Britain Dr. Basharat Hussain1 , Dr. Waheed Chaudhry2 ; & Ali Askar3 1

Assistant Professor, Institute of Social Work, University of Peshawar, Pakistan Assistant Professor, Department of Anthropology, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan 3 Lecturer in Social Anthropology, Institute of Archaeology & Social Anthropology, University of Peshawar, Pakistan 2

ABSTRACT The idea of dealing with offenders in the community rather than sending them to prison has a long history. We have moved far away from the pre-eighteenth century era where punishment meant punishing the body to the eighteenth and nineteenth century where offenders were segregated from their communities often putting them into prisons, which is still one of the dominant forms of punishment in the present days. From late nineteenth century until now, we can observe a move towards punishing and controlling offenders in the community. Basically, the community penalties started its journey as providing ‗alternative to custody‘ measures aimed at the welfare and therapy of offenders outside the prison walls. This rationale provided base for the sentencing practices for quite a long time. However, during 1970s, this rational came under attack from some research evidences suggesting that rehabilitation programmes are ineffective in reducing offending. This paper highlights a brief history of the main community penalties in Britain. It specifically focuses on the reason for a change in approaches of community penalties from providing ‗alternative to punishment‘ to offering ‗punishment in the community‘.

Key Words: Community Punishment, Rehabilitation, Prison Overcrowding, Penal Policy, Criminal Justice Act, 1991

INTRODUCTION At no other time in British penal history has the use of imprisonment been under such sustained criticism as it was in the period between 1965 and 1985 (Willis, 1986). That period was marked by a deepening series of crises in the prisons, involving rising numbers and falling levels of legitimacy and control (Brownlee, 1998). Despite all the attempts at reducing the use of imprisonment that began to emerge from the mid-1960s onwards, the prison population in England and Wales in 1985 stood at a record high l evel, and the proportionate use of immediate custody had increased slowly but steadily over Asian Business Consortium | ABC-JAR

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the previous ten years reversing trends in earlier decades and outstripping imprisonment rates in many other European countries (Brake and Hale, 1992). As a result, overcrowding in prisons increased, conditions for prisoners and for staff continued to deteriorate and serious riots and other lesser forms of disorder and indiscipline spasmodically rocked the system (Brownlee, 1998).

In response to this, the following decades saw a number of apparently disparate political and academic developments which nevertheless worked together to suggest the strengthening of community punishment and an optimism about reducing the prison population and improving prison conditions.

Although, by the sophisticated standards of contemporary penal history, there is as yet no adequate account of community penalties, and certainly no real way of knowing what they actually accomplished in the past (Mair, 1997), this paper aims to evaluate community penalties in England and Wales hoping to show that they are not ‗alternatives to custody‘, but rather they should be seen as ‗punishment in the community‘ measures.

EXPLAINING COMMUNITY P ENALTIES At the start of discussion, it is important to know what is meant by community penalties in England and Wales. Community penalties according to Nellis (2001: 17) refer to ‗sentences other than fines for dealing with convicted offenders outside prison‘. Similarly, for Bottoms, Geithorpe and Rex (2001), community penalties are punishments of the court which are ‗structurally located between custody on the one hand, and financial or nominal penalties (fines, compensation, discharge), on the other‘. Community penalties are also known as non custodial sentences, community based alternatives, intermediate treatment etc. (Nellis, 2001).

Of all the community penalties, probation is no doubt the first community sentence or alternative to prison sentence. In England and Wales, the early history of probation can be traced back to the work of police court missionaries of the Church of England and Temperance Society (Worrall, 1997) whereas in USA, most literature on probation refers to John Augustus of Boston who initiated volunteer work of bailing offenders under his supervision (See Bochel, 1976 for details). In both cases, the approach of dealing with offenders was based on the philosophy of ‗advice, assist, and befriend ‘offenders (Worrall, 1997: 66). Later on, the volunteer work of missionaries was given statutory status by the introduction of Probation of Offenders Act 1907. Nellis (2001) stated that the early journey of probation started as alternative to prison sentence. The main task of the probation officers was to develop good working relationship with offenders with the hope of securing their rehabilitation and reintegration. In this respect, the probation officers job included supervising offenders, ensuring compliancy with condition of probation order, visitation and reporting to the court about offender‘s behavior (King, 1964).

Probation grew with time not only in respect of its organization but also its scope from dealing with mere drunkenness to other crimes as well (King, 1964). Probation being an alternative to custody measure with the task of reducing prison population grew concerns with respect to its effectiveness especially with the increasing rates of prison population in 1960s and 1970s.

Therefore, new community measures like Parole and Suspended Sentence were introduced in the Criminal Justice Act 1967 and Community Service Order (CSO) under Criminal Justice Act 1972 (Davies, Croall and Tyrer, 2005). There were several factors responsible for the introduction of not only new community sentences, but also a change in their philosophy on the basis of which they were originally introduced and implemented.

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BACKGROUND OF COMMUNITY P ENALTIES Historically, the concept of ‗community penalties‘ has been very problematic. Community penalties can include many diverse activities in the criminal justice system: not just sentencing options following conviction, but also pre-trial decisions and even broader policies of preventing risk groups, such as juveniles, from experiencing formal justice and control (Vass, 1996). But in order to avoid confusion and to limit the discussion around specific findings, community penalties will be treated here as those penalties which are administered following conviction for a criminal offence; and whose availability within a legal framework and use by courts designates them as community penalties whose main purpose is to punish offenders in the community and thus, explicitly or implicitly, keep them out of prison. In this sense, this limited definition of community penalties comes close to the ‗community sentences‘ provided under the Criminal Justice Act 1991, as amended by the Criminal Justice Act 1993 and the national standards of practice for probation services and social services departments in England and Wales (Home Office et al., 1992, 1995).

In fact, a short essay like this inevitably precludes a comprehensive history and developments of community penalties, but it will try, in what follows, to offer a broad view of the introduction of the main community penalties (probation, suspended sentence, and community service) into the criminal justice system to find out whether they functioned in the way that was intended. From that, it will move to focus more on the development of ‗punishment in the community‘ in the forthcoming decade or so and how this affects present and future use of community penalties.

In the midst of all community sentences, it should be ensured that the probation contribution to the penal heritage is properly remembered. A reasonable case, according to Nellis (2001), can be made for claiming probation as the first community penalty although it had distant roots in the much older court practice of ―binding over‖. The writer reported that, although first made statutory in 1907, national cover was not achieved until the early 1930s, and the original three-year probation order was not a sentence, but an alternative to a sentence, and therefore, an alternative to punishment, to which the offender had to consent. Now, the probation order became dependent on a conviction; a statutory minimum period of one year was introduced; and a requirement for psychiatric treatment became available, to complement the existing hostel requirement (Nellis, 2001).

Probation had many supporters in the magistracy, but early in the 1950s some influential magistrates began a campaign for a suspended custodial sentence because they felt the probation order itself was insufficiently deterrent and, more generally, they wished to consolidate and refine the range of the courts‘ sentencing powers (Hall Williams, 1970).

After much criticism from Home Office advisers, who did not accept the arguments for toughening probation, suspended sentences were finally introduced in the Criminal Justice Act 1967, seventeen years after they were first proposed (Nellis, 2001). The normal effect of imposing a suspended sentence, as Brownlee (1998) put it, was that the offender left the court free to resume their normal life, subject only to the threat that if they were convicted of a subsequent offence committed during the operational period of suspension, the original prison sentence would then be implemented, usually in full, and normally in addition to any punishment for the later offence. Suspended sentences were not explicitly linked to probation, although suspended sentence supervision orders were created only a few years later by the Criminal Justice Act 1972- but then of little used (Nellis, 2001).

When first introduced, suspended sentence was intended to be used only in place of imprisonment and not instead of pre-existing non-custodial measures such as probation or Asian Business Consortium | ABC-JAR

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fines (Bottoms, 1987). A statutory effect was given to this intention in 1972 by the addition of a stipulation that a suspended sentence could not be passed unless the case appears to the court to be one in which a sentence of imprisonment would have been appropriate (Bottoms, 1987). However, most observers concluded that suspended sentences were applied in cases other than those where the offences concerned were serious enough to warrant imprisonment (Bottoms, 1987). As a result, rather than affecting a reduction in the overall prison population, the introduction of the suspended sentence may have actually added to it indirectly, because some people who would not otherwise have been imprisoned received suspended sentences which were later activated by reason of subsequent offending. The outcome in such cases, as Brownlee (1998) argues, was almost inevitably a longer period of imprisonment than would have been merited by the second conviction alone and, thus, an overall increase in the prison population. It is Brownlee also who drew attention to the doubts which have emerged recently that sentencers, especially magistrates, tended to increase the period of imprisonment awarded when suspending it, and so any subsequent activation resulted, once more, in longer sentences being served than might have been justified by the seriousness of the original offence. As such, the suspended sentence appeared to have done little or nothing in its first twenty years to reduce the prison population (Bottomley and Pease, 1986; Bottoms, 1987).

The Wootton Report on Non-custodial and Semi-custodial Penalties in 1970, as Nellis (2001) argues, is justly remembered for introducing the Community Service Order (CSO), the most important new alternative to custody since the inception of probation itself. In recommending the community service order, the WoottonReport expressed the hope that an obligation to perform community service would be felt by the courts to constitute an adequate alternative to a short custodial sentence, although it did not want to preclude its use in other cases where it might be thought more appropriate than existing non -custodial sanctions (Home Office, 1978). Surprisingly, perhaps, this intention was not given express statutory force, and as a result practice varied from court to court, with some courts attempting to keep community service strictly as an alternative to custody and others using it as a separate disposal in its own right (Young, 1979).

As a result, Brownlee (1998) argues, the position of this measure in the tariff of sentences was imprecise, and this represents a significant diversionary effect in the short term.

He explained that: Up to about 50 per cent of those who received CSOs might otherwise have been imprisoned, but the extent to which this lowered the overall prison population was undoubtedly reduced by an increase in the length of sentence imposed when offenders were reconvicted after having received a CSO (Brownlee, 1998:11).

There is considerable room for doubt, therefore, as to the extent to which the CSO actually did replace custodial sentencing overall, and nothing in the sentencing statistics suggests that the introduction of this particular measure had any impact on the proportion of sentenced adult offenders receiving immediate custodial sentences (Bottoms, 1987).

Thus the community service order, like the suspended sentence, has not fulfilled the high hopes held of it as an alternative to custody; and, while its reconviction record is not as poor as that of the suspended sentence, it is not particularly encouraging either (Pease et al., 1977).

T HE C RIMINAL J USTICE ACT 1991 Although the 1980s saw a number of attempts at strengthening community penalties and making them more effective, perhaps the Criminal Justice Act 1991 was the turning point Asian Business Consortium | ABC-JAR

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in the history of community penalties in England and Wales. The Act came into force in October 1992 with the aim to provide a new coherent sentencing framework based on the principle of ‗just desert‘ with only the most serious of offences being punished with imprisonment (Worrall, 1997). The background to the Act was a growing concern with overcrowding in prisons and a related belief that non-custodial sentences were viewed by sentencers as being soft options (Worrall, 1997). One of the principles on which the Act was based is that, as Sanders and Senior (1994) point out, community sentences stand in their own right and should not be seen as alternatives to custody. This principle, as Worrall (1997) makes it clear, refuted the popular mis-belief of the 1980s that most offenders deserved to go to prison and that if they were given a non-custodial sentence, they were being let off with a soft alternative.

Although the Act appeared to be successful initially in achieving its objectives, this positive trend was short-lived (Worrall, 1997). Having fallen at first in both Crown Court and Magistrates‘ Courts, the proportionate use of custody began to rise from early 1993 (Brownlee, 1998). Worrall suggests that the failure of the 1991 Act was not due to its inability to achieve its objective of decentring the prison, but to its inability to establish the punitive city outside the prison (Worrall, 1997: 39).

Because it was seen by the government of the day that the scales of justice had been tilted too far in favour of the offenders while victims had had a raw deal, further tightening of the custodial screw came in the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 in the form of a new sort of custody for 12-14 year-olds and a watering down of the requirements in the 1991 Act that courts obtained and considered probation officers‘ pre-sentence reports before imposing custody or certain kinds of community sentence (Wasik and Taylor, 1995).

Brownlee (1998) argues that the direct practical consequences of this renewed punitiveness in political rhetoric were marked by an immediate increase both in the number of people being sentenced to custody sentences and in the proportionate use of custodial sentences. In addition, an international victimization survey in 1996 showed that people in England and Wales were more likely to have been the victim of a crime and more fearful of becoming a victim than in almost any other industrialized country, including the US (The Guardian, 26 May 1997, cited in Brownlee, 1998). So it appears that the populist punitiveness of the period following 1993 produced the worst possible outcome, namely a vastly expanded custodial population up to the limits of the capacity of penal institutions to accommodate, accompanied by persistently high levels of criminal victimization and fear of crime (Brownlee, 1998).

In March 1995 the government produced a consultation document entitled Strengthening Punishment in the Community (Home Office, 1996). Its main proposal, according to Worrall (1997), was to replace existing non-custodial sentences with a single ‗community sentence‘, the exact content of which would be decided by sentencers to suit the perceived needs and requirements of each individual case. Worrall points out that the clearly-stated purpose of the proposal was to increase public confidence in non-custodial penalties; the less clearly stated aim was to bring the probation service once and for all under the control of the courts by making the purchaser-provider relationship quite explicit. But consultations on the proposal failed to produce unequivocal support among sentencers for the single integrated order, and as a result the government decided to pursue the principles outlined in the 1988 Green Paper within the current law (Brownlee, 1998).

Another strategy for Michael Howard‘s war of attrition against the perceived leniency of community sentencers was the 1996 White Paper Protecting the Public (Home Office, 1996).

Unlike the 1990 White Paper, the 1996 Paper proclaimed again that the government firmly Asian Business Consortium | ABC-JAR

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believes that ‗prison works‘ (Worrall, 1997). However, this Paper came under blistering attacks from numerous sources (see Worrall, 1997; Brownlee, 1998). A third of Howard‘s contributions to the further development of community penalties was to rekindle the use of the electronically-monitored curfew (Nellis, 2001). Finally, in the Crime (Sentences) Act 1997, he introduced, for the first time, the use of community penalties as an alternative to prison for fine default (Nellis, 2001).

Since the Conservative government ceded victory to New Labour in 1997, all the previous policies on community penalties have been replaced, as Nellis (2001) suggests, by a new penal context in which, among other things, new technology, risk management, attention to the voice of victims, and populist punitiveness all play their part. It is probably still too early for the features of this new penal context to be fully understood, but it is surely clear that, in this shift of policies, there are major implications for the development and delivery of community penalties (Bottoms et al., 2001).

To sum up, the creation of new sanctions and the expansion of community penalties since the 1970s have taken place amid hopes that they would reduce the role of prisons and engineer a more effective approach to containing offenders in the community. However, as has previously been stated, those hopes are sharply contradicted by the claims and facts marshaled by critics that the creation of such penalties does not automatically or necessarily lead to a decrease in the use of imprisonment.

Despite the diversity of perspectives adopted and emphases placed on issues under consideration, the criticisms relate to one theme: the dispersal of discipline thesis (Rodger, 1988). This theme, in its broader conception, suggests that community penalties are not substitutes for imprisonment. They fail to divert offenders from imprisonment and, on the contrary, they appear to expand the means or forms of punishment (Vass, 1996). This view that community penalties are another convenient means of extending the process of control, enlarging itself, becoming more intrusive and capturing more and varied groups of people in its meshes, is well captured by Cohen (1985), who likens community penalties, and what he calls attempts to destructure prison establishments, to a Trojan horse. Community penalties are thus a monster in disguise (Vass. 1990).

Having said that, one cannot deny that some community penalties works for some type of offenders under certain conditions may actually be successful in keeping some offenders out of prison.Community penalties, as Vass (1996) indicated, appear to fail because they are usually targeted by courts at the wrong offenders, those who may not be at risk of imprisonment anyway. In this sense, Raynor (1996) suggests that the principal prerequisites of success seem to be that programmes are accurately targeted at those most likely to benefit from them, are delivered in a consistent matter by appropriately trained and committed staff, and are subject to monitoring and evaluation to maintain what may be called programme integrity and ensure that intended outcomes are met.

The coherent development of community penalties into the future, as Bottoms et al. (2001) emphasize, must take account of the following six imperatives:  awareness of the broader political context;  awareness that re-offending can be reduced by more than one social mechanism;  responsiveness to new search findings;  the constructive pursuit of public safety;  accommodation of properly informed assessments of offenders in decision -making procedures, including assessments by those who know them best; and

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

an understanding of offenders as citizens who live in particular social environments, often of a disadvantaged character.

In sum, there is much more to be learned about the use of community penalties. However, as Vass (1990) argued, even though improvements in the administration and enforcement of community penalties can be achieved, they alone cannot be expected to resolve the prison crisis, which is a policy crisis.

CONCLUSION In England and Wales, the creation and later on expansion of the community penalties were targeted not only towards containing offenders in the community but also aimed at reducing the prison population. Critics argued that community penalties are another convenient way of the process of control where offenders are kept in the community rather than sending them to prison. However, on the other hand, community penalties have really benefited certain offenders by keeping them away from the bad effects of the prisons. One of the important pre-requisite in the community measures is the selection of appropriate programme on the basis of needs and risk assessment, which could benefit offenders. On this way, one could achieve rehabilitation of offenders on the one hand and public protection and reduction in prison population on the other hand.

REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17]

Bochel, D. (1976).Probation and After Care: Its Development in England and Wales.

Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press.

Bottomley, A.K. and Pease, K. (1986).Crime and Punishment: Interpreting the Data, Buckingham: Open University Press.

Bottoms, A., Gelsthrope, L. and Rex, S. (eds.) (2001).Community Penalties: Change and Challenges, Cullompton: Willan.

Bottoms, A.E. (1987).“Limiting Prison Use: Experience in England and Wales”,The Howard Journal of Criminal Justice, 26:3, pp. 177-202.

Brake, M. and Hale, C. (1992).Public Order and Private Lives: The Politics of Law and Order, London: Routledge.

Brownlee, I. (1998).Community Punishment: A Critical Introduction, London: Longman.

Cohen, S. (1985).Visions of Social Control: Crime, Punishment and Classification, Cambridge: Polity Press .

Davies, M. Croall H. and Tyrer J. (2005).Criminal Justice: An Introduction to the Criminal Justice System in England and Wales. (3rd ed.). Harlow: Longman.

Hall Williams, J.E. (1970).The English Penal System in Transition, London: Butterworths.

Home Office (1978).The Sentence of the Court: A Handbook for Courts on the Treatment of Offenders (3rd edition), London: HMSO. Home Office (1995).Strengthening Punishment in the Community, London: HMSO. Home Office (1996).Annual Report for the Home Office and the Charity Commissioners, Cm 3208, London: HMSO. Home Office (1996).Probation Statistics for England and Wales 1994, London: HMSO. Home Office, Department of Health and Welsh Office (1992).National Standards for the Supervision of Offenders in the Community, London: Home Office Probation Service Division.

Home Office, Department of Health and Welsh Office (1995).National Standards for the Supervision of Offenders in the Community, London: Home Office Probation Service Division.

King, J.F.S (1964).The Probation Service, (2nded.) London: Butterworth.

Mair, G. (1997).“Community Penalties and Probation”, In M. Maguire, R. Morgan and R. Reiner (eds.) The Oxford Handbook of Criminology (2nd edition), Oxford: Clarendon Press, pp. 123-45.

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[18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28]

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Nellis, M. (2001) ―Community Penalties in Historical Perspective‖, In A. Bottoms, L. Gelsthrope and S. Rex (eds.) Community Penalties: Change and Challenges, Cullompton: Willan, pp. 16-40.

Pease, K., Billingham, S. and Earnshaw, I. (1977) Community Service Assessed in 1976, Home Office Research Study No. 39, London: HMSO. Raynor, P. (1996) ―Evaluating Probation: The Rehabilitation of Effectiveness‖, In T. May and A. Vass (eds.) Working with Offenders: Issues, Contexts and Outcomes, London: Sage, pp. 242-58.

Rodger, J.J. (1988) ―Social Work as Social Control Re-examined: Beyond the Dispersal of Discipline Thesis‖, Sociology, 22, pp. 563-81.

Sanders, A. and Senior, P. (eds.) (1994) Jarvis‟ Probation Service Manual (5th edition), Sheffield, PAVIC Publications.

Vass, A. (1990) Alternatives to Prison: Punishment, Custody and the Community, London: Sage.

Vass, A. (1996) ―Community Penalties: The Politics of Punishment‖, In T. May and A. Vass (eds.) Working with Offenders: Issues, Contexts and Outcomes, London: Sage, pp. 157-184.

Wasik, M. and Taylor, R. (1995) Guide to the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994, London: Blackstone Press.

Willis, A. (1986) ―Alternative to Imprisonment: An Elusive Paradise?‖, In J. Pointing (ed.) Alternatives to Custody, Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 18-38.

Worrall, A. (1997) Punishment in the Community: the Future of Criminal Justice, London: Longman.

Young, W. (1979) Community Service Orders: The Development and Use of A New Penal Measure, London: Heinemann.

CALL FOR PAPER American Journal of Trade and Policy (AJTP) is an open-access, peer-reviewed interdisciplinary journal which seeks articles from any broad theme of international trade. AJTP features reports on current developments in international trade as well as on related policy issues.

The digital online version is published by AJTP, and the hard copy (print) version is published by Asian Business Consortium (ABC), USA Chapter. Web: www.ajtp.us

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Engineering International (EI) is a peerreviewed multi-disciplinary international journal devoted to academic advanced research from the engineering arena. It specializes in the publication of comparative thematic issues as well as individual research articles, review essays, and book reviews. Committed to disseminating rigorous scientific research to the widest possible audience, EI is fully and freely accessible on line. Web: www.j-ei.us

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Economic Activities among Barra Community in Sindh, Pakistan: A Case study of Matli Town, District Badin Naveed Ahmed Lashari1; & Dr. Anwaar Mohyuddin2 1

Department of Anthropology, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan Lecturer, Department of Anthropology, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan

2

ABSTRACT This Research paper deals with ethnography of Barra community with special focus on their economic activities. Main concern of research paper is to present a holistic view of this community in general and particular question the relationship between their income generating activities and social life. Research paper is an attempt to provide the analysis of community and way they organize to carry out socio-economic activities.

Every community has a distinctive culture, which refers to customary behavior and beliefs that are passed on through the process of enculturation.

Barra is a word which is used for calling a boy or child of Ghara community which is now the identity of Ghara community but before the partition they were known as ―GhargulaFaqeer‖ which is another caste of community because their occupations were same , they both sell handmade pots; toys and other things with selling hand made things they were used to beg too but slowly and gradually they diverted toward begging and their identity changed in the process and they started to known as ―Barra‖.They are nomads where ever they found the empty plot and someone give them protection and provide them safety. They have been living in Matli from century and half but as they are nomads so they pasture from one place to another but their center always been Matli.They are Hindus and belong to scheduled caste but they don‘t consider themselves ―Shudar‖.

Key Words: Community, Activities, Begging

Subsistence

Economy,

Socio-Economic

INTRODUCTION In view of many stimulating results of community studies, it is not surprising that a considerable time have been considered as the principle means to obtain the necessary empirical material for the construction of ethnological and sociological theories.

Ethnographers are sent away on expedition to faraway places to describe the daily lives of unknown tribes and primitive people or busy probing communities in their own societies.

Anderson sums up all elements that seem to be of importance in connection to community; ―The community, in short, may thought of as a global social unity in which exits various types of social organization; it is also a place where people find means to live, Asian Business Consortium | ABC-JAR

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it is a palace not only of economic activity and of human association, but it is also the palace human association, but it is a palace where memories are centered. Moreover, the community has the equity of duration, representing an accumulation of group experience which comes out of the past and extends to t through time ,even th ough the individuals making up the community forever coming and going‖ (Anderson 1960: 20) .

At every stage of human society people have organized certain economic system to fulfill their basic needs through utilization of resources. The economic anthropologists have studied different economic systems. According to Miller the task of anthropologists as follows, ―The task of economic anthropologists is first of all to describe the variety economic arrangements developed by human kind in different times and places.Economicanthropologists then sort those diverse arrangements into classes and attempts to fit them with different types of societies and cultures.‖ (Miller1979:214) The women in its various roles as mother, wife, daughter, grandmother, daughter in law helps in household affairs to boost the economy so household has been taken as the basic unit of analysis for studying women in economic contribution.

Every culture has its economic structure which can be different according to their norms and customs, for example in an advance city women can do work in offices and organization in accordance with their special fields, but in rural societies women‘s economic activities and contribution is quite different. Keeping this in mind, this research will explore women‘s participation in relation to production and consumption and how their economic utility transforms into their economic and social empowerment. A research had been done by FarzanaMasood and Mahajabeen. In this research theyemphasize on the women‘s participation in farm operation, ―In Economy, women are very productive. They not only participate in group production and livestock management but are also fully responsible for household activities and make handicrafts to maintain a steady flow of house hold income.

They also play significance role in farm decision making‖. (Masoodet al 1989:15)

M ETHODOLOGY Present anthropological study was conducted from February to July 2008 in town of Matli, District Badin. In the MatliBarra community lives only in the two muhulahs1namely Garibabad and KhatriParo.The members of the both muhullah are living in different conditions and within different ethnic group. Thehousehold of community were consisting of 30 households.Data was collected throughKey Informant Interviews,Participant Observation, Socio-Economic Survey, In-depth Interviews and Case studies. At initially the researchers met a community member named Virdas, who guided to get permission from four Patels(Political leader) then he could able to continue my studies but Patelsof the Barra community responded me with suspicion. Few of them behaved scornfully and even refused to speak with me but I continue to keep spirits high and started to company them at their ―Thalas‖2 and their meeting palaces.

This how ever did not solve the whole problem but they did not object my presence.but get hostile upon asking questions pertaining to their life. Elderly people tried to keep me at a distance and warned the youth against consequences of talking to me. Despite the high resistance, I succeeded in approaching young people who used to sell clothes in markets; they responded me politely but not friendly. I started to tell them about myself. This chatting provided me a chance to understand their habits, gestures, traditions and their understanding 1Muhulah 2

is a geographical boundary which consist of multiple streets The place more like footpath where they sale their clothes

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proved to be much of value later. After repeated assurance about my being student, I could secure the positive opinion of the community. Slowly and gradually I got their confidence but it took me more than two weeks to build rapport then they allowed me to work.

A view of Matli Town

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The subsistence economy of Barra community has changed with course of the time and this change in subsistence has also affected the identity of the Barra community. Before Partition in 1947 they use to make pots and clay toys, and with that profession people called them GurgulaFakeer just because other Ethnic community Gurgala also used to practice same profession and it was their traditional profession. Barra community shared the same identity in among local people due to same economic subsistence. Gradually they started to beg and obtained another identity which was not sha red but it is the word which community usually use to call or to get attention of any member in the community, the word was ―Barra‖ caught by the locale people and they started to call every member of community ―Barra‖. Slowly and gradually it became the identity of the community. As community adopted new professions and left ancestral professions because the mobility of community has been restricted and they have started to adopt permanent residence pattern. As their mobility is restricted to the few cities that are also not for longer period‘s sot they started to adopt new professions in terms of their permanent settlements. They have following ancestral professions and new professions too.

Rope making: Rope making was their traditional profession. Now very few of them know this art but nobody makes it because now this profession needs lot of hard work and produces very less profit. In other professions which now they practice, can earn more and need very little effort and less investment. In this profession every member of the house hold was being Asian Business Consortium | ABC-JAR

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involved from making of the rope to selling of the rope. The material that is used for the rope making is sotali (yarn) from palm netafter then in three four days dero (rope ball) is made from sotaIli (yarn). In last rope is made from that dero. This is the also the reason that now in community few members know the art of making rope while new generation didn‘t know so they can‘t provide assistance as well as support to old artisans family members Making of clay pots and toys: This profession is practiced before the partition then slowly and gradually they left it. They didn‘t use any tools to make clay toys or pots but they those clay toys and pots by hands. Females use to make these clay toys and pots and male use to sell them but due to adoption begging, they left this profession. This was the profession which gave them identity of ―GurgalaFaqeer‖ because the Gurgala is the community which also uses to sell clay pots and toys; so due to the same profession they shared same identity. But later they left the profession and which gradually changed their identity to Barra.

Begging: After partition in 1947 they started begging with their traditional profession. Slowly and gradually they left their old and ancestral professions and confined themselves to begging only which need no hard work. People of all ages can adopt it easily. During the adoption of begging they obtained the identity of Barra. Recently the young generation has a dopted the profession of selling second hand clothes so now they have main economic subsistence.

The Barra are known as beggars but recently young generation of males have adopted new professions like selling clothes (phari3,ironing clothes, stitching and selling) or shoes polish but still females from young to old women use to beg. They are practicing begging from many years in Matli Town and in nearby villages and cities. In the Barra old men use to beg but they are also in very small number because most of old people are sick and unable to move long distances which is prerequisite for begging. Most of young females go to other cities or villages other than their native town. The reason that they give is that in those cities no one keeps eye on them and that‘s why it reduces the chances of quarrels among the family. Old women mostly beg in their native town or in surroundings. In the morning when young man go to sell clothes or their professions, the women and men set off for begging on the cities, towns and villages. They beg in the streets and along the market. Children from 4-5 stay at home with their other kinds and very rarely accompany mothers or grandmothers in begging. They begin groups; these groups are based on the on age. Female children from 7- 11 have their own group to beg while boys of that age usually go for polish or collecting garbage. From 13 – 20 young female beg and earn more than other age groups. They make groups on bases of age because they are easy with each other and can converse informally and keep secrets of each other well.

I observed them begging many times, usually they start before the sun rise from Barra settlement and reached the main bazaar within fifteen minutes then different groups take buses for different cities and some groups spread out in cities. They beg for food, used clothes, and money. During begging they beg in groups and reached to the city centers and they separate from each other in different direction on deciding the place where they have to rejoin. Every female beggar covers each shop and home because of that each female beggar is able to know everybody in city by name and so is the case with shopkeepers that they were also familiar with them even they knew their relation among them salves. The technique which female beggars used in begging was very simple and they don‘t have to struggle for getting food or money even they beg for cigarettes. They have beg as they have every right to take money or food form shopkeepers but from 3

it resembles a Sunday Bazar in cities but in rural areas it is called phari

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strangers they only forward their hand and say “Allah jay nalaytesath” (give me in the name of Allah) and don‘t emphasis. In contrast to young women old women had to struggle and get very little amount in begging in comparison to young women. They had to struggle with every stranger so they mostly cover homes in street where they get enough food items. After begging for three or four hours, they come to prearranged point in that area where they share food items with each other and mostly they eat fruit and smoke some cigarettes.

After some break they move to next place and go through same process. At evening all female beggars gather at center of the market where they buy the essentials for the home and for dinner. Slowly and gradually they move to their settlements.

The technology of begging includes wooden stick which is only used by old female beggars and a bowl which is use to drink tea or water because they don‘t use utensils of other ethnic communities and Muslims. They also carry shoppers which are used to put fruit and vegetables or eatables to put into it. Some times in the course of begging they make certain types of pretenses and concoct different stories to gain the sympathies of the people such as they utilize the illness of any member of the group. Sometimes, the death of the person amongst them also publicized for begging and stories of family quarrels are told and retold to the women to earn more than the usual amount.

Now day‘s young generation started to consider begging of females as humiliation and they have started to protest. Many of the young members of the community are not in the favor of the begging. They are of the view that they were actually of high caste and purest amongst the Hindus but female begging is the reason that makes them impure. One of the young member from the community told that they want to abolish begging from community but the reason that we are not able to eliminate because most us (males) not able to earn through labour or they are not able generate enough money that they can fulfill their need so every one of us has to depend on their daughters, sisters, mothers or wife. There is also another reason that another member told me was about curses of female beggars whichmay impairment them and to prove that he told me an incident that of th eir grandfather who tried to restrict the females to home and didn‘t allowed them to beg. He almost succeeded but curses of female beggars worked and he became mental.

Table1: Percentage of PersonsInvolve in Begging Sex Frequency Percentage Males 8 4.65 Females 57 33.14 Source: Socio-Economic Survey Selling Clothes: This profession has been adopted very recently and by the young generation of the male members of the community. By this profession most of the members earned respect in the community and as well as money. This profession was actually diffused from their relatives living in Hyderabad to them. Their relatives from Hyderabad often come to Matli to sell their clothes and in this way this transmitted to the community living in Matli. Main reason for adopting this profession was also that it may cover the every family member from young child to old man or women. This profession includes several sub profession in which every member is used to save the cast and generate more income.Those sub professions are as following Phari: Phari is term which is used for collection of old clothes through exchange plastic utensils of home by moving through cities and villages. This sub profession is adopted by Asian Business Consortium | ABC-JAR

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the most of the young generation because it is more profitable than other sub profession in selling clothes.For phari members of the community have to go Hyderabad to buy plastic utensils which are mostly consisted of balti (plastic buckets) and kownro(small plastic bucket)and visits to Hyderabad depends upon the utilization of plastic utensils. After buying plastic utensils, they go to particular city or village as to move around that city or village to collect old clothes in exchange of plastic utensils. They exchange depends upon the quality of clothes and value of plastic utensils. There are not any specific standards for the exchange because of variation in customers. Most of customers don‘t care about what is given back to them in exchange just because either they only wanted to get rid of clothes or they exchange old clothes in sympathy and some are very much conscious of what they have given and what they are getting in exchange. They collect all clothes in big sheet which they take it by right hand with support of shoulder and in left hand they take plastic utensils.

Phari is mostly practiced by the young generation it needs strong hold of hands and stamina Because of heavy weight of clothes and plastic utensils.For the collection of old clothes they even stay in different cities such as Tando Mohammad khan, Badin, Talhar and small towns.

They mostly have their relatives in all above cities and small towns and if they have no relative in specific town they stay at ottaq4of well-to-do person. Such stay of any individual give him more profit than working nearby area of Matli. This sub profession also reflects the nomadic life of members of the community members.

Stitching of Old Clothes: As there is proverb that ―Stitch in time saves nine‖, this proverb really fits with this sub profession As collected clothes are old and are mostly torn so those need some stitching as to make it as proper as to get more profit from customer.Mostly stitching is done by the person who collects clothes through phari but every family there has enable person who able to mend the clothes and it varies to family to family either it is female (wife, sister or mother) or male who provides assistance but in other cases one who does this job takes money in against every cloth depending on stitch.

Washing and ironing of clothes: As it is also sub profession for females who stay at home and do not go for begging and males who can‘t move or go for the work. Mostly community member involve the family members as they can save money. Mostly for this activity females at home are utilized.When all clothes are stitched properly then they are washed by hands on the stream outside the city where they also take bath. If there is no body that can iron clothes in the family then they give clothes to other pers on on some conditions. For ironing clothes if one provides coal iron then one wills pay1:50 rupees per dress and if he can‘t provide the iron then he has to pay 3 rupees per dress.

After washing and ironing, clothes are ready to sell to customers. So to s ell these clothes some have shops like. Some sell clothes on footpath which is totally reserved to only them and some sell on pieri which occurs in different areas on different weekdays.Some community members don‘t collect clothes by phari but they directly buy from Hyderabad or from Karachi and sell in Matli Town and there was such a person from community because he is not able to walk properly so that is the reason he is not able to collect clothes through phari so is the case with other old members of community.

Other subsistence patterns Shoe polish: This profession is mostly adopted by very young children from ten years to eighteen years. As in Barra community everyone is independent and has to earn for him /her selves so most of the young boys earn for themselves by polishing shoes. Those 4

The is co mmon place o wned mostly by the landlord of the area for the male guttering

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young boys do not earn on regular bases but they often go to city by taking the wooden box to earn money by polishing shoes.

Selling Balloons: As mentioned earlier Barra community used to sell clay toys, but now they have switched over to sell balloons as economic source. This profession mostly practiced by the mid age people from 40 to 50 because it does not need much of the labour and not necessary to heavy load also they donâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;t have to invest more money. The children do not practice this profession because they are not able; they are so strong to move around with bamboo with which balloons are carried. Young generation does not practice because it does not provide them enough profit.

Garbage collection: This profession is practiced only by children whose age is six to ten.

They use to collect the recyclable garbage specially papers from their surroundings and they give that garbage at shop which in their mohallah and earn their pocket money.

Table 2: Percentage of People Involved in Different Occupation Sr. No Occupation Frequency Percentage 1 Begging 65 37.79 2 Selling clothes 42 24.42 3 Selling Balloons 9 5.23 4 Collect wastage 8 4.65 5 Shoe polish 16 9.30 6 Rope Making 1 0.58 7 Idle males 5 7.56 8 Idle females 13 9.91 9 Small children 11 6.39 Source: Socio-Economic Survey

PROPERTY The concept of Property is a cultural universal. For a group to utilize the natural recourses at its disposal with degree of security and continuity, it must have adequate definitions for o rights of ownership and its use. Rules regarding the possession, handling and disposition of property are found in every culture. In the Barra community Property is mostly treated as being of two types: naturally movable or unmovable. Among Barra community lack of immoveable property encourages their vagrancy. In the Barra community property consists of stuff food, tools, dogs, ceremonial items such as Gita, Garnth, clothing, some light ornaments, household utensils. These can be borrowed and tools are shared among them.

Inheritance of property follows a well-defined set of rules .when a person dies all his property goes to his spouse .When both the parents die, their property is divides among the sons .If sons are not alive,then it goes to daughter of the deceased and grandsons or if daughter is deceased then to granddaughters .if they have no son as well, then property goes to female side .And even they have no son as well as no daughter then their property is distributed among male and female collaterals.Mostly property is possessed by person who is more close to them from their relativesconsanguineals of males or his affinal i.e. consanguineals of female in the cases he lives with after the death of her husband.

On the occasion when parents die leaving behind young children, inheritance is suspended until they become adults and guardian is charged with the responsibility for the property, usually a guardian is a fatherâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s brother, if he has no brother then motherâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s brother.

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CONTRIBUTION OF WOMEN IN E CONOMIC ACTIVITIES A woman is the companion of a man in all sorts of development including her contribution in the economic activities of household. The women in its various roles as mother, wife, daughter, grandmother, and daughter- in- law helps in house hold affairs to boost the economy. So in a Barra community woman plays also an important role in their life. Women from child to old contribute in household economy. Women do not depend on the other family members for economic resources but contribute through different ways. In the Barra community women mostly follow the begging profession from young girl to old women. In every household wives, mothers, daughters and grandmothers use to beg and mostly they are the only ones who runs the house without the contribution of males because most of them are sick or drug addicts. Women who beg leave their homes at very early morning and join their group mates and disperse and collect money, fruit and vegetables for the utilities for the house hold. New born children always been with women while begging and they fulfill their needs in whole day such as they provide them lunch, fruit and complete their wants whole day .Gather different items for other children too and whenever they get any fruit or eatables they always shared it with their children. While coming back they buy all utilities for home and come back to home before sunsets. When they reach at home they fulfill their household chores such as cleaning hut, making dinner and taking care of children. The women who stay at home are very rare but they all engage themselves in helping theirs brothers, fathers and husbands in profession such as stitching clothes, airing balloons and ironing clothes. They are also responsible to take care of the weak and sick people in the other huts surrounding them. In Barra community house hold activities are run by women who are mother or grandmother and she is one whom family members give their earnings. She is responsible for savings and responsible for spending for house hold utilities. One for my key informant told me that they now they donâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;t give whole the earnings to their mother because if we give her, she saves that money and donâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;t give us back to invest it in our business but we still give her enough money to run home affairs.

ROLE AND S TATUS OF WOMEN IN B ARRA COMMUNITY Women in the Barra community are not liable to give explanations to other fellow unless they commit such thing which is considered taboo in the community. A woman plays very important role in the economic activities of the Barra community because she is source generating resources and runs household activities so women member is also considered equally important in the community as male member in the community. Woman is fully independent to choose her spouse in the community who is feasible to get married with and before getting married women have affairs in the community and no one in the family to questions about it. In extreme condition, family may show loathe but cannot restrict women to keep affairs because woman in the family equally contributes in household economy and acquires equal status as male have.

Women behave more like men in the community such as they smoke openly and are addicts from young girls to old women. There are two women members who sell drugs in their community and those whom they know personally. In the community women also have children before marriage and itâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s not considered taboo in the family.

CONCLUSION As community adopted new professions and left ancestral professions because the mobility of community has been restricted so they have started to adopt permanent residence pattern. They have left their ancestral professions and now few of them know the art of making rope, clay pots and toys making, which were practiced before the partition then slowly and gradually

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they left it. Making clay pots and toys was the profession, which gave them identity of ―GurgalaFaqeer‖.

After the partition they started begging with their traditional profession and slowly and gradually they left their old and ancestral professions and started begging, which did not need hard work and could easily be adopted by child to old. During the adoption of begging they obtained the identity of Barra, but they are practicing begging from many years in Matli Town and in nearby villages and cities. In the Barra old men use to beg but t hey are in very small number, because most of old people are sick and unable to move to long distances which is prerequisite for begging. Most of young females go to other cities or villages other than their own city. Recently the young generation has adopted the profession of selling second hand clothes so now it is their main economic subsistence. This profession includes several sub profession such as phari in which old clothes are collected in exchange of plastic utensils by moving through cities and villages collected clothes are old and are mostly torn so those need some stitching as to make it proper as to get more profit from customer. After washing and ironing, clothes are ready to sell to customers at shops, footpaths and phari. By this profession most of the members has earned respect in the community as well as money. This profession was actually diffused from their relatives living in Hyderabad to them. Their relatives from Hyderabad often come to Matli to sell their clothes and in thi s way this transmitted to the community living in Matli. Main reason for adopting this profession was that it involved every family member from young child to old man or woman in economic sphere. In the Barra community women mostly follow the begging profession from young girl to old women. In every household, wives, mothers, daughters and grandmothers use to beg and mostly they are the only ones, who run the house without the contribution of males because most of them are sick or drug addicts. Women, who beg, leave their homes at very early morning and join their group mates and disperse and collect money, fruit and vegetables for the utilities of the household. New born children always have been with women while begging and they fulfill their needs in whole day such as they provide them lunch, fruit. In Barra community house hold activities are run by women who are mother or grandmother and she is one to whom family members give their earnings. She is responsible for savings and responsible for resource management. One of my key informant told me that they don‘t give whole the earnings to their mother because if they give her, she saves that money and doesn‘t give them back to invest it in their business but now they give her enough money to run home affairs.

BIBLIOGRAPHY [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11]

Farzana, M.(1989).The Rural Women in Family System.Islamabad: Pakistan Agriculture Research Council Raymond, F. (1956).Themes in Economics,London: Tevistoe, L.C Hoebel, (1958).The Cheyenne Indians of the Great Plains, New York: Halt, Rine Hart and Winston.

David, E. (1976).Encyclopedia of Anthropology.New York: Harper and Row. Benedict, A. (1991). Imagined communities, Reflection of on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, New York: Verso Pal, A., Amanda, C., Sara, D., Johan, L.and Lyn, L. (2001). Handbook of Ethnography.

London: Sage Publications Forouk, (1970).Situation of women Bangladesh (ed) G.Renee . Dacca: BARC Printers Louise, D. (1970). HOMO HIERARCHICUS:An Essay on the caste system. Great Britain: The University of Chicago.

Raymond,F. (1993).Primitive Polynesian Economy, (ed) London: Routledge.

Stephan,F. (1973). Aboriginal Tribes of India, Delhi: Macmillan.

Adamson, H.E. (1958). Anthropology: The Study of Man New York: MacGraw –Hill, Inc.

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Henry Fayol and Frederick Winslow Taylor’s Contribution to Management Thought: An Overview Md. Hasebur Rahman Lecturer, Department of Business Administration, Pabna University of Science and Technology, Bangladesh

ABSTRACT Henry Fayol and Frederick Winslow Taylor made outstanding contribution to development of management thought. Fayol wrote as a practical man of business reflecting on his long managerial career and setting drown the principles he had observed. He clearly specified the functions of management by a systematic analysis of management process. This isolation and analysis of management as a separate discipline was his original contribution to the body of management theory. He was father of management principles many of which have stood the test of time. Frederick W. Taylor was a pioneer who propounded principles of Scientific Management. Taylor worked in different capacities in steel industry saw the urgent necessity for elimination of wastage rampant in industrial organization. He observed that the only way to attract wastage and achieve efficiency to apply method of science to the field of management. They both applied scientific methods to the problems of management. Their work was essentially complementary; different in their approach was merely reflection of their different careers. If we call Taylor the ―Father of Scientific Management‖, it would be fair to describe Fayol as the ―Father of Management‖.

Key words: Management thought, scientific management, management principles, Henry Fayol, Frederick Winslow Taylor

1 INTRODUCTION Fayol‘s pride of place in management due to his principles of how to manage, as to his famous definition of management. Fayol‘s theoretical analysis of management withstood almost a half-century of critical discussion. There have been few writers since who have not been influenced by it; and his five elements have provided a system of concepts by which managers may clarify their thinking about what is they have to do. Fayol‘s valuable concepts in management can be incorporated usefully in present-day analysis of management science.

His emphases on unity of direction and command, non-financial incentives, decentralization, coordination have greater relevance even today.

Frederick Winslow Taylor contributed a number of principles and features of management thought that adhered to his new concept of approaching management thought scientifically.

Scientific Management tries to increase productivity by increasing efficiency and wages of Asian Business Consortium | ABC-JAR

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the workers. It finds out the best method for performing each job. It selects employees by using Scientific Selection Procedures. It provides Scientific Training and Development to the employees. It believes in having a close co-operation between management and employees.

It uses Division of Labor. It tries to produce maximum output by fixing Performance Standards for each job and by having a Differential Piece-Rate System for payment of wages.

Scientific management is concerned with knowing exactly what you want men to do and then see in that they do it in the best and cheapest way (Taylor, 1911) Works Henry Fayol and Frederick Winslow Taylor are essentially complementary; they made outstanding contribution to development of management thought. They believed that proper management resource is the key reason for organizational success. Both use scientific approach to management. There major difference was in their orientation. Fayol emphasized the management of entire organization while Taylor focused on the management of operational work.

2 LITERATURE R EVIEW In management literature today, the greatest use of the term ―Principles of Management‖ and "scientific management" with the reference of Fayol and Taylor regarded as Father of Management and Scientific Management respectively. Fayol‘s theories were the original foundation for management as a discipline and as a profession. Also Fayol was the first to advocate management education (Pryor and Sonia, 2010). Scientific management was one of the first attempts to systematically treat management and process improvement as a scientific problem (Wikipedia, 2013).

Fayol is best remembered for his contribution to school of management thought. First, Fayol believed that organizational and business life was an amalgam of six activities – technical; commercial; financial; security; accounting; and management (Fayol, 1949; Parker and Ritson, 2005b; Bakewell, 1993). Second, Fayol is known for the five elements or functions of management, i.e. planning, organizing; coordination; command; and control (Fayol, 1949; Wren, 1972; Breeze, 1985; Robbins et al., 2000). Gulick expanded Fayol‘s functions of management from five to seven by adding staffing, directing, reporting, and budgeting to planning, organizing, and coordinating. Finally, Fayol advocated 14 principles of management designed to guide the successful manager (Fayol, 1949; Armstrong, 1990; Breeze, 1985; Wren, 1972). Fayol‘s 14 principles of management are: division of work; authority; discipline; unity of command; unity of direction; subordination of individual interests to the general interests; remuneration; centralization; scalar chain; order; equity; stability of tenure of personnel; initiative; and esprit de corps (Fayol, 1949, pp. 19-42; Cole, 1984, pp. 13-14). Fayol‘s theories continue to be valuable contributions to management because many management experts consider his 14 principles of management to be the early foundation of management theory as it exists today (Wren, 1994, 1995; Bartol et al., 2001; Bedian and Wren, 2001; Rodrigues, 2001; Wren, 2001; Breeze and Miner, 2002; Robbins et al., 2003).

Frederick W. Taylor, the father of Scientific Management, was an American mechanical engineer, efficiency expert, and management consultant. In 1911 he published his seminal work, The Principles of Scientific Management, in which he laid out the process of scientifically studying work to increase worker and organizational efficiency. The principles underlying his theory contributed to a wide array of management practices during the 20th century including task specialization, assembly line production practices, job analysis, work design, incentive schemes, person-job fit, and production quotas and control (Giannantonio, C. M. and Hurley-Hanson, 2011). The impact of Taylor‘s work on the field of management Asian Business Consortium | ABC-JAR

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has long been recognized by management scholars. Wren and Hay‘s (1977) study saw Taylor at the top of the list among contributors to American management thought and practice.

Heames & Breland‘s (2010) study found Taylor to be at the top of their list thirty years later.

The Principles of Scientific Management, not only tops Bedeian and Wren‘s (2001, p. 222) list of the 25 most influential management books of the 20th century, but they refer to it as ―The most influential book on management ever published.‖ The 100th anniversary of the publication of his book offers a unique opportunity to reflect on the relevance of Taylor‘s ideas in the 21st century. One hundred years later Principles of Scientific Management remains a lasting contribution to the development of management thought. Taylor continues to dominate any list of persons who have made business management a worthy calling and a fitting topic to study. His reach was international and to a broad spectrum of audiences and his ideas shaped how we live and think today (Wren D. A., 2011).

3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY Considering the significance of Henry Fayol‘s and Frederick Winslow Taylor‘s contribution to management thought, the study is taken for three fold of objectives:  To outline Henry Fayol‘s contribution to management thought;  To outline Frederick Winslow Taylor‘s contribution to management thought; and  To compare and contrast Henry Fayol and Frederick Winslow Taylor‘s contribution to management thought.

4 M ETHODOLOGY This study is based on theoretical perspective of historical contribution of two scholars of management theory namely, Henry Fayol and Frederick Winslow Taylor. This descriptive study is initiated for overviewing contribution of these scholars by viewing original work done by them. For better acknowledgement of their work scholastic articles and related book has been overviewed for serving purpose of that study that are available at library resources.

Relevant analysis and comments on Henry Fayol and Frederick Winslow Taylor works have been consolidated from internet data resources by different authors.

5 HENRY FAYOL (1841-1925); FATHER OF M ODERN M ANAGEMENT The earliest manager to systematically examine his own personal experience and try to draw from it a theory of management was Henri Fayol. A qualified mining engineer, he was made manager of a coal- mine at the early age of 25. At 31 he became general manager of a group of mines, and at 47 managing director of whole combine, a post which he held for thirty years. Throughout his career he showed all the sings of a successful manager.

This become most obvious, when he took over the top job of the combine, which was almost bankrupt. By the time he retired the business was more than twice its original size and one of the successful and steel combines in Europe. In 1916 he published the book ―Administration Industrielle et Ge‟ne‟rale‖ which deplorably was not available in English transaction until 1929. It is better known, at any rate in the United Kingdom, as General and Industrial Management, in the translation by Constance Storrs, published by Pitman in 1949. Fayol‘s major contribution was to identify management as a separate set of skills, or functions, performed by supervisors in organizations. He clearly delineated the difference between technical and managerial skills and noted that supervisor must be proficient in both to be successful. Fayol in his preface in his book say‘s management plays very important part in government; of all undertakings, large or small, industrial, Asian Business Consortium | ABC-JAR

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commercial, political, religious or other. Fayol wrote as a practical man of business reflecting on his long managerial career and setting drown the principles he had observed.

He was not attempted to develop a logical theory or a self-contained philosophy of management. His observations, however, fit amazingly well into the currently developing mold of management theory.

Contribution of Henry Fayol on Management Thought Industrial Activities: Fayol (1949) suggest that ―All activities to which industrial undertakings can be divided in to the sig groups: A. Technical activities (Production, Manufacture); B. Commercial activities (Buying, Selling and Exchange); C. Financial activities (Search for and optimum use of capital); D. Security activities (Protection of property and person); E. Accounting activities (Stocktaking, Balance Sheet, Cost, Statistics); F. Management activities (Planning, Organizing, Command, Coordination, Control).

Elements of Management: Fayol‘s (1949) answer was unique at the time. The core of his contribution is his definition of management (―To forecast and plan, to organize, to command, to coordinate and to control‖) as comprising five elements (Gulick and Urwick, 1937): To forecast and plan: Examining the future and drawing up the plan of operation; To organize: Building up the structure, material and human of the undertaking; To command: Maintaining activity among the personnel; To coordinate: Building together, unifying and harmonizing all activities and effort; To control: Seeing that everything occurs in conformity with established rules and expressed command.

General Principles of Management: Fayol (1949) summarizes a number of General Principles of Management on his own personal experience and observation, most become part of managerial know-how many are regarded as fundamentals tenets. Fayol outlines the fourteen principles: Division of labor: Concept of specialization at work; Authority: The right to give order and the power to exact obedience; Discipline: Based on obedience and respect. Unity of command: Each employee should receive orders from only one superior; Unity of direction: One boss and one plan for a group of activities having the same objective; Subordination of individual interest to the general interest: To abolish the tendency of placing individual interest ahead of the group interest; Remuneration: Employees should receive fair payment of service. Centralization: Consolidation of management functions.

Decisions are made from the top. Scalar chain: Formal chain of commanding run from the top to bottom of the organization; Order: All materials and personnel have a prescribed place, and they must be remained there; Equity: Resulted from kindness and justice; Stability of tenure: Limited turnover of personnel. Life time employment for good workers; Initiative: Call for individual zeal and energy in all efforts; and Sprits de crops: Stressed the building of harmony and unity within the organization. Fayol was a firm believer that if organizational leaders used his theories, including the 14 principles of management, they would be able to achieve performance excellence. For example, the principle of division of labor would help employees be more efficient by specializing in different tasks (Fayol, 1949; Meier and Bohte, 2000). Rodrigues (2001) agreed that an organization‘s proper implementation of Fayol‘s 14 principles of management would lead to organizational efficiency and effectiveness. He especially supported the concept of continuous training of personnel. Training is important because it not only improves employees‘ skills, knowledge, and competencies, but it also enhances organizational capacity, capability and performance which are essential ingredients for organization effectiveness and are the foundation of an organization (Rodrigues, 2001).

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Qualities of Manager: According to Fayol (1949) the business requires a basis in the people who carry them out: a) Physical qualities; b) Mental qualities; c) Moral qualities; d) General education; e) Special knowledge of the function concerned; and f) Experience. Fayol draws the conclusion that the major ability required in the managerial function. However good technical or other ability may be, if the managerial function is week the business will not be succeed. He made a point that management is not being taught along with the technical subject because there is no theory of it to teach. An adequate theory is essential.

Managerial Duties of an Organization: To organize a business is to provide it with everything useful for its functioning: raw materials, tools, capital, person nel. All these may be divided into two main sections, the material organization and the human organization. According to Fayol, manager concerned only with the human organization. Seemingly out of place, sixteen managerial duties of an organization follow the definition- Ensure that the plan is judiciously prepared and strictly carried out; See that the human and material organization is consistent with the objective, resources, and requirements of the concern; Set up a single, competent energetic guiding authority; Harmonize activities and coordinate efforts; Formulate clear, distinct, precise decisions; Arrange for efficient selection-each department must be headed by a competent, energetic man, each employee must be in that place where he can render greatest service; Define duties clearly; Encouraging a linking for initiative and responsibility; Have fair and suitable recompense for service rendered; Make use of sanctions against faults and errors; See the maintenance of discipline; Ensure that individual interests are subordinated to the general interest; Pay special attention to the unity of command; Supervise both material and human order; Have everything under control; and Fight against excess of regulations, red tape and proper control.

Command: According to Fayol (1949), the purpose of command is to set the human organization in motion towards its objectives. Its objective is to get optimum return from all employees. To command effectively- The manager must know its employees; get rid of the incompetent; know the employer-employee agreements; Set a good example; periodically review organization; Use conferences with the subordinates to ensure unity of direction, delegate the details and establish esprit de corps. Fayol wrote as the practical man of business reflecting on his long managerial career and setting down the principles he had observed. His observation fit amazingly well into the currently developing would of management theory. Since all enterprise require managing, the formulation of a theory of management is necessary to its effective teaching (Weihrich H. and Koontz H., 1994).

6 FREDERICK WINSLOW TAYLOR (1856-1915); FATHER OF S CIENTIFIC M ANAGEMENT Taylor was an engineer by training. He joined the Midvale Steel Works as a laborer and rose rapidly to be foreman and rose to the position of chief engineer after earning a degree in engineering through evening study. He was afterwards employed at the Bethlehem Steel Works, than become a consultant and devoted his life to the propagation of his ideas.

Frederick W. Taylor (1856-1915) was a pioneer who propounded principles of â&#x20AC;&#x2022;Scientific Management (1911)â&#x20AC;&#x2013; come to be recognized as the father of scientific management.

Scientific management also called Taylorism (Aitken, Hugh G.J., 1985). Taylor is renown ed for his research and work into management thought and scientific management. His Asian Business Consortium | ABC-JAR

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suggested principles and features have helped model the scientific approach to management. Its main objective was improving economic efficiency, especially labor productivity (Wikipedia, 2013). He was primarily concerned with efficiency of workers and optimum utilization of machines and other resources in order to bring up a sound enterprise consistent with the interest of entrepreneurs, the laborers and the customer at large. Taylor worked in different capacities in steel industry saw the urgent necessity for elimination of wastage rampant in industrial organization. The only way to attract wastage and achieve efficiency to apply method of science to the field of management. The first published his views on management in a paper entitled ―A price rate system‖, 1895.

The views were expanded into a book ―Shop Management‖, 1903 and further developed in ―Principles of Scientific Management‖, 1911.

Taylor was the founder of the movement known as ―Scientific Management‖. The principal object of management, he states ―should be to secure the maximum prosperity of each employer coupled with the maximum prosperity of each employee‖. For the employer, ―maximum prosperity‖ means not just large profits in the short run but the development of all aspects of the enterprise to a state of permanent prosperity. For the employee, ―maximum prosperity‖ means not just immediate higher wages, but his development, so that he may perform efficiently in the high grades of work for which his natural abilities fit him.

Change in the mental attitude of employers and an employee toward each other in respect of work was the root of Scientific Management.

His ideas speared in the United States, France, Germany, Russia, and Japan, and inspired others to study and developed the methods of scientific management Contribution of Frederick Winslow Taylor on Management Thought Contribution of Frederic Winslow Taylor can be discussed into three phases: 1). Principles of Management; 2). Mechanism of Management; and 3). Philosophy of Management.

Principles of Management: The fundamental principles that Taylor (1911) saw underlying the scientific approach to management areA. The development of a scientific method of designing jobs to replace the old rule-of-thumb methods; this involved gathering, classifying and tabulating data to arrive at the ―one best way‖ to perform a task or series of task.

B. The scientific selection and progressive teaching and development of employees; Taylor show the value of matching the job to the worker. He also emphasized the need the study worker strengths and weakness and to provide training to improve workers performance.

C. Bringing together of scientifically selected employees and scientifically developed methods for designing jobs; Taylor believed that new and scientific methods of job design should not merely be put before an employee; they also should be fully explained by management. He believed that employees would show little resistance to changes in methods if they understood the reasons for the change and they show a change for greater earnings for themselves.

D. Division of work resulting in an interdependence between management and the worker; Taylor felt that if they were truly dependent on one another, than cooperation would naturally follow.

Mechanism of Management: He put the right person on the job with the correct tools and equipment, had the worker follow his instruction exactly, and motivated the worker with an economic incentive of a significant higher daily wages. Based on his Asian Business Consortium | ABC-JAR

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groundbreaking studies of manual work using scientific principles, Taylor became known as the ―Father‖ of scientific management (Robins S. P., Coulter M. and Vohra N., 2010). Standardization, time and motion studies, functional foremanship, production planning and control, price wage system of payment on differential basis were the main ideas enunciated by Taylor.

Philosophy of Management: Scientific management was a complete mental revolution for both management and employees towards their respective duties towards each other (Taylor, 1911). It was a new philosophy and attitude towards the use of human efforts.

Thus Taylor advocated a philosophy of management under which management would undertake a basic responsibility of planning and control and prescribe the rules, laws and formulas to guide the actual operations by man and machines, so as to help employees to produce at lower cost to the employer and with more remuneration to themselves. Management should evolve laws of standard work and rules for workmeasurement. Workers should be trained in advance in detail. Detailed instruction in writing should be issued to workers regarding the task to be done and methods to be used in completing the task. What, how and when the work is to be performed is to be included in management plan. Taylor shorted the management to motivate the personnel not merely by giving orders, show the authority etc. but by selecting, teaching and developing the workmen and heartily co-operating with them.

7 FAYOL VS TAYLOR Attempts have been made to compare and contrast the work of Fayol and Taylor. The works of Fayol and Taylor are essentially complementary. Both believed that proper management of personnel and other resources was the key organizational success. Both use scientific approach to management. Berdayes (2002) suggests that the following are ideas of Fayol and Taylor that unite their work:  Work processes, organizational structures, and an emphasis on a hierarchical division of labor.  Creation of the concept of the organization as a whole (Fayol delineated clear lines of authority into a conceptual and functional unity, and similarly Taylor emphasized formalization of work processes into a total organization).  Emphasis on formal rationality by supporting scientific techniques, order, and efficiency.  The role of managers is to work with and encourage their workers. Taylor (1947) indicated that managers should work along with the workers, helping, encouraging, and smoothing the way for them. However, he also sought to change their mental attitudes and behaviors on the basis of scientific principles so as to improve operational efficiency. Along this same line, Fayol (1949) noted that need to determine their workers abilities, encourage and train them, and reward enthusiasm, initiative and success.

There major difference was in their orientation. Fayol stressed the management of organization while Taylor stressed the management of operative work. Fayol wrote during the same time period as Taylor. Fayol attention was directed as the activities of all managers while Taylor was concerned with first line managers and the scientific method, Fayol wrote from personal experience as he was the managing director of a large French coal-mining firm.

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Basis of Comparison

Table # 01 Henry Fayol

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Frederick Winslow Taylor

1. Perspective

Top management

Shop floor level

2. Focus

Improving overall administration through general principles Practitioner

Improving productivity through work simplification and standardization Scientist

Universal truths developed from personal experiences A systematic theory of management

Scientific observation and measurement Science of industrial management

3. Personality 4. Results 5. Major Contribution

Comparison between Henry Fayol and Frederick Winslow Taylor

Fayol observed management from the top down while Taylor worked at management from the bottom up. Fayol was a top manager and was obviously in a better position than Taylor to observe the functions of a manager. Fayol‘s main concern was to improve the management of total organization while Taylor concentrated on improving the management of jobs. Therefor Fayol‘s administrative theory has a wider application than Taylor‘s Scientific Management.

8 CONCLUSIONS Henry Fayol made outstanding contribution to management thought. He made a clear distinction between operational activities and managerial activities. He clearly specified the functions of management by a systematic analysis of management process. This isolation and analysis of management as a separate discipline was his original contribution to the body of management theory. Fayol firmly advocated that management should be formally taught. He also highlighted the universal characteristics of management principles. He was father of management principles many of which have stood the test of time. He developed a framework for further study and research. One of the greatest contributions of Fayol is that his ideas pave the way for developing the theory of management. However Fayol‘s works has been criticized on several counts- Firstly, his theory is said to be too formal. Secondly, he did not pay adequate attention to worker.

Thirdly, there is vagueness and superficiality about some of his terms and conditions.

Fourthly, he hinted at but did not elaborate that management can and should be taught.

Despite of these limitations, Fayol made a unique and outstanding contribution to management theory.

Taylor‘s ideas, research and recommendations brought into focus technological, human, and organizational issues in industrial management. Benefits of Taylorism included wider scope for specialization, accurate planning, timely delivery, standardized methods, better quality, lesser costs, minimum wastage of materials, time and energy and cordial relationship between the management and workmen. Worker earned more wages, employees saved their cost, turned out larger and better output and customer got in lighted with planning and doing. Taylor improved management methods by emphasizing the concept of work measurement. He developed the techniques of measure quantities, designed wage incentive scheme and lacked the problems of organizing complex Asian Business Consortium | ABC-JAR

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manufacturing activities. Taylor concept of scientific management provoked critical comments; his theory is concerned with factory management, one side benefit of employees does not consider human factor at work. His theory builds on economic man concept, human is regarded as machine.

There is, however, no contradiction between the work of Taylor and Fayol. They both applied scientific methods to the problems of management. Their work was essentially complementary; different in their approach was merely reflection of their different careers.

If we call Taylor the ―Father of Scientific Management‖, it would be fair to describe Fayol as the ―Father of Management‖.

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F.W.Taylor, Scientific Management (1911), Harper Brothers, New York Mildred Golden Pryor and Sonia Taneja (2010), Henri Fayol, practitioner and theoretician – revered and reviled, Journal of Management History Vol. 16 No. 4, pp. 489-503, Emerald Group Publishing Limited http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_management. Retrieved July 24, 2013.

Fayol, H. (1949), General and Industrial Management, Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, London (translated by Constance Storrs).

Parker, L.D. and Ritson, P. (2005), “Revisiting Fayol: anticipating contemporary management‖, British Journal of Management, Vol. 16, pp. 175-94.

Bakewell, K.G.B. (1993), ―Information: the seventh management function‖, Information and Security Management Journal, Vol. 1 No. 2, pp. 29-33.

Wren, D.A. (1972), The Evaluation of Management Thought, The Ronald Press, New York. NY. Breeze, J.D. (1985), ―Harvest from the archives: the search for Fayol and Carlioz‖, Journal of Management, Vol. 11 No. 1, pp. 43-54.

Robbins, S.P., Bergman, R., Stagg, I. and Coulter, M. (2000), Management, 2nd ed., Prentice-Hall, Sydney.

Armstrong, M. (1990), Management Process and Function, Short Run Press, Exeter.

Cole, G.A. (1984), Management: Theory and Practice, Guernsey Press, Saints Bay. Wren, D.A. (1994), The Evolution of Manage ment Thought, 4th ed., Wiley, New York, NY. Bartol, K., Martin, D., Tein, M. and Matthews, G. (2001), Management: A Pacific Rim Focus, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, Roseville, CA. Bedian, A.G. and Wren, D.A. (2001), “Most influential books of the 20th century‖, Organizational Dynamics, Vol. 29 No. 3, pp. 221-5.

Rodrigues, C.A. (2001), ―Fayol‟s 14 principles of management then and now: a framework for managing today‟s organizations effectively‖, Management Decision, Vol. 39 No. 10, pp. 880-9.

Wren, D.A. (2001), ―Henri Fayol as a strategist: a nineteenth century corporate turnaround‖, Management Decision, Vol. 39 Nos 5/6, pp. 475-87.

Breeze, J.D. and Miner, C.F. (2002), ―Henri Fayol: a new definition of „Administration‟‖, in Wood, J.C and Wood, M.C. (Eds), Henri Fayol: Critical Evaluation in Business and Management, Routledge, London, pp. 110-13.

Robbins, S.P., Bergman, R., Stagg, I. and Coulter, M. (2003), Foundations of Management, Prentice-Hall, French‘s Forest.

Giannantonio, C. M. and Hurley-Hanson, A. E. (2011), Frederick Winslow Taylor: Reflections on the Relevance of the Principles of Scientific Management 100 Years Later , Journal of Business and Management – Vol. 17, No. 1,pp. 07.

Wren, D.A. & Hay, R.D. (1977). Management Historians and Business Historians: Differing perceptions of pioneer contributions. The Academy of Management Journal, 20(3): 470-476.

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Heames, J.T. & Breland, J.W. (2010). Management Pioneer Contributors: 30-Year Review.

Journal of Management History, 16(4): 427-436.

Bedeian, A.G. & Wren, D.A.(2001). Most Influential Management Books of the 20 th Century.

Organizational Dynamics, 29(3): 221-225.

Wren D. A.(2011), The Centennial of Frederick W. Taylor‟s The Principles of Scientific Management: A Retrospective Commentary, Journal of Business and Management – Vol. 17, No. 1, pp. 19.

Gulick and Urwick (1937), Papers, Chapter 5.

Meier, J.K. and Bohte, J. (2000), “Ode to Luther Gulick span of control and organizational performance‖, Administration and Society, Vol. 32 No. 2, pp. 115-37.

Weihrich H. and Koontz H. (1994), Management A Global Perspective, McGraw-Hill, Inc. Tenth Edition.

Taylor, Frederick Winslow (1911), The Principles of Scientific Management, New York, NY, USA and London, UK: Harper & Brothers Aitken, Hugh G.J. (1985), Scientific Management in Action: Taylorism at Watertown Arsenal, 1908-1915, Princeton, NJ, USA: Princeton University Press, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_management#cite_ref-Taylor1911_10-0.

Retrieved July 20, 2013.

Robins S. P., Coulter M. and Vohra N. (2010), Management, Prentice Hall (Pearson), Indian Tenth Edition.

Berdayes, V. (2002), ―Traditional management theory as panoptic discourse: language and the constitution of somatic flows‖, Culture and Organization, Vol. 8 No. 1, pp. 35-49.

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Environmental Factors that influence Supply Chain Management Implementation in the Manufacturing Industries in Kenya: A Case of Manufacturing Industries in Nairobi, Kenya Dr. Stephen Waithaka Titus 1 ; Dr. Tom Kimani Mburu2 ; Dr. Julius Koror3 ; & Dr. Stephen Muathe 4 1

Lecturer, Communication and Information Technology Department, Kenyatta University, Nairobi, Kenya M anager, Training and Programs, Africa Economic Research Consortium, Nairobi, Kenya 3 Lecturer, Economics Department, Kenyatta University, Nairobi, Kenya 4 Lecturer, School of Business, Kenyatta University, Nairobi, Kenya 2

ABSTRACT The study looked at the factors influencing the implementation of supply chain management in the manufacturing industries in Kenya. The target population was the 52 manufacturing industries in Nairobi. Data was collected using questionnaires and semi-structured interview guide. A logit model was used to draw inferences on the factors influencing the implementation of supply chain management implementation in the manufacturing industries in Kenya. Two factors were found to positively and influence implementation of supply chain management implementation in the manufacturing industries in Kenya, while two other factors we found to hinder the implementation of supply chain management implementation in the manufacturing industries in Kenya.

Keywords: Supply chain management systems, SCS Implementation, manufacturing industries in Kenya, Factors influencing implementation.

INTRODUCTION Supply chain management systems are systems that are used to connect firms together for the purpose of the management of products, materials, information and financial report flows manage. They integrate different sets of operations into a single supra -organization that crosses individual organizations boundaries (Schary, Skjott-Lasen, and Tag, 1995).

Supply chain management is applied by companies across the globe due to its demonstrated results such as delivery time reduction, improved financial performance, greater customer satisfaction, building trust among suppliers, and others. According to Ronald, Michael and Rodger (2004) properly implemented, SCM can positively impact many functions and outcomes of the organization including product quality, customer responsiveness and resultant satisfaction, manufacturing cost control, product and market flexibility, and macro performance outcomes including market share.

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PURPOSE OF T HIS S TUDY The purpose of this study was to expand the knowledge base regarding the factors that are hindrances to the implementation of supply chain management (SCM) in manufacturing industries in Kenya. Past studies on SCM mainly concentrated on the benefits of the SCM, which included faster orders processing (Sheridan 1999); reduced costs and improved efficiency (Quinn 2000); faster delivery of products and an effective communication (LaLonde and Masters 1994); and a higher profit realization (Timme & Timme 2000).

Despite These benefits that can be realized in SCM implementation, implementation of SCM is still at infant stages in the manufacturing industries in Kenya (Bolo and Wainaina, 2011). What are not clear are the factors that influence the implementation of SCM in manufacturing industries in Kenya despite the wide range benefits that can be realized by implementing such a technology in industries.

LITERATURE R EVIEW Kenyaâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s manufacturing sector is going through a major transition period largely due to the structural reform process, which the Kenya Government has been implementing since the mideighties with a view to improving the economic and social environment of the country. Bolo and Wainaina (2011) noted in their study that corporations have increasingly turned to global markets for their supplies, and that the globalization of supply chains has forced companies to look for better and more inter-linked systems between SCM competencies, multiple SCM strategies and the implementation processes and SCM capabilities to coordinate the flow of materials into and out of the company as opposed to the fragmented systems, which have characterized many organizations in Kenya. According to Hugos, M., 2006, a supply chain management is a combination of companies who perform different functions such as producers, distributors or wholesalers, retailers, and companies or individuals who are the customers to the retailers, and are the final consumers of a product. Service providers support these companies to integrate and join a SCM cluster. However, linkages of industries by use of SCM in Kenya are weak and because of this, there exists little inter-industry integration in the country. This has resulted in consistently low manufacturing value added in the sector (KAM 1989).

RESEARCH F RAMEWORK The research framework of the study is shown in Figure 1. From this figure, the dependent variable is SCM implementation. In addition, there are five independent variable namely; Government support, Demand for efficient processes, Cost developing and running SCM, Perceived benefits of SCM implementation and Trust between trading partners.

Government support Demand for efficient processes Cost developing and running SCM

SCM implementation

Perceived benefits of SCM implementation Trust between trading partners Figure 1: Research framework

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M ETHODOLOGY The study used a combination of cross-sectional descriptive survey and explanatory research design. A descriptive research gives a thorough and accurate description survey by determining the ―how‖ or ―why‖ the phenomena came into being, and also what is involved in the situation (Neuman, 1997). This is achieved by portraying an accurate profile of the events and situations (Robson, 2002), which Sunders et al. (2007) considered as an extension of, or forerunner to an explanatory research.

The determinants of Supply Chain Management in the manufacturing industries in Kenya were determined using the logistic model, also known as logit model. The model calls for the analysis and prediction of a dichotomous outcome. Traditionally, this could have been addressed by either ordinary least squares (OLS) regression or linear discriminant function analysis. However, both techniques were found to pose challenges in handling dichotomous outcome due to their strict statistical assumptions such as linearity, normality and continuity for OLS regression, and multivariate normality with equal variances and covariances for discriminant analysis As such the logit model was found suitable to draw inferences in this study.

Model specification

 P  ln  i   Z  XB  u   0  1 X i1   2 X i 2  ...   k X ik  ui 1  Pi  Where:

X i1... X ik i

are the explanatory variables

β1 – βk are the coefficients from the log of the odds ratio function. μ = a vector of random terms Data collection methods The study was conducted on the manufacturing industries in Kenya that are members of Kenya Associate of manufacturers (KAM). A questionnaire and a semi-structured interview guide were used to collect data. A questionnaire was developed based on the objectives of the study. The questions were designed to cover general background information of the respondents relating to SCM implementation based on the conceptual framework.

Target population The target population was all large private manufacturing entities in Kenya, which are members of Kenya Associate of Manufacturers (KAM) that were operational during the period the study was conducted. These firms were selected since they are considered as being able to provide information on the environmental factors that influence supply chain management implementation in the manufacturing industries in Kenya. Other outside the manufacturing sectors were considered outside the scope of the paper and were considered not being able to reveal substantial data for statistical analysis.

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A survey of 52 large private manufacturing entities in Nairobi, the capital c ity of Kenya, was carried out using a census of all these firms. This was necessary due to the logit model used for inferential analysis in this study requires a minimum of 50 samples according to Muathe, wawire and Ofafa (2010), hence the 52 manufacturin g industries in Nairobi were too few to sample, hence a census was found appropriate in this study.

The independent variables that were used for inferential analysis were environmental factors which were categorized into demand by stakeholders for efficien t manufacturing process, Government support, perceived benefits of supply chain management and perceived cost of developing and running a supply chain management system. These factors were operationalized and hypothesized to influence the implementation of supply chain management in the manufacturing industries in Kenya positively, negatively or indefinite as depicted in Table 1.

Table 1 Operationalization and Measurement of Variables and Hypothesis Category Variable Definition Operationalization

Dependent variable

Implem entation of Supply Chain Management (SCM) in manufact uring industries in Kenya (Y) Demand by Environme stakeholders for ntal factors efficient manufact uring process Governm ent support in the impl ementation of SCM in manufact uring industries.

Perceiv ed b enefits of supply c hain management

Trust between trading partners to join S CM

Perceiv ed cost of developi ng and running a supply chain management system.

Measure

Hypot hesized Direction of the Variable

Develo pm ent a nd us e of Dumm y variable based on the act ual Supply Chain Management data:1 if implemented, o therwise 0: if (SCM) in manufact uring not impl emented. . industries in Kenya

None

Demand by stakeholders for efficient manufacturing process in Kenya.

Extent to w hich t he d emand by stakeholders for efficient manufact uring process infl uences the implementation of S CM on a 1-5 scale Extent to w hich t he amo unt of financial incentiv es provided by t he governm ent , num ber of pilot projects and the amo unt of tax br eaks influenc es the implementation of S CM in manufact uring industries on a 1-5 scale.

Perceiv ed b enefits of s upply c hain management stim ulates im plementation of SCM in manufacturing industries in Kenya on a 1-5 scale.

Positive

Trust between trading partners to joi n SCM stimulates im plem entation of S CM in manufacturing i ndustries in Kenya on a 1-5 scale.

Positive

Perceiv ed cost of dev elopi ng and running a supply c hain management system stimulates im plem entation of SCM in ma nufact uring ind ustries in Kenya on a 1-5 scale.

Positive

Governm ent provision of financial incentiv es, pilot projects , and tax breaks t o stimulate impl ementation of SCM in manufacturing industries in Kenya.

Perceiv ed b enefits of supply c hain management stimulates impl ementation of SCM in manufacturing industries in Kenya.

Trust between trading partners to join S CM stimulates impl ementation of SCM in manufacturing industries in Kenya.

Perceiv ed cost of developi ng and runni ng a supply c hain management system.

Positive

Positive

Data Collection Procedure Data was collected over a period of one month. First, the researcher sought permission from the target manufacturing industries to collect data. Afterwards, the researcher sought appointments with the managers of the firms that granted the researcher permission to collect data, after which the research assistants proceeded to self-administer questionnaires to the managers and staff involved in the supply chain management transactions in the industries, under the supervision of the researcher. The researcher Asian Business Consortium | ABC-JAR

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administered the interviews to the managers and the staff of these industries. The interviews were audio-taped and transcribed to ensure that the data was collected and used accurately.

After collecting data, it was edited to check for completeness, consistency and reliability.

Afterwards, the data was transferred to the STATA for analysis.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS A total of 52 questionnaires were administered to the manufacturing industries in Nairobi.

36 these questionnaires were filled and returned. This resulted to a response rate of 69 %, which compares well with the response rate of 46 per cent recommended by Sheehan (2001). The study therefore considered the response rate sufficient to be used to draw inferences in the environmental factors that influence the implementation of supply chain management in the manufacturing industries in Kenya.

The regression result A binomial logit model was estimated the explanatory variables considered in this study.

In the model, the implementation of the Supply Chain Management (SCS )was the dependent variable that took the value of one (1) if Supply Chain Management was implemented in a firm and zero (0) if IOIS was not implemented in a firm. The explanatory variables that were considered included demand by stakeholders for efficient manufacturing process, Government support in the implementation of Supply Chain Management in manufacturing industries, perceived benefits of supply chain management, Trust between trading partners needed to join Supply Chain Management and Perceived cost of developing and running a supply chain management system. The results of the logistic regression are presented in Table 2.

Table 2 Logit Regression Results Variable Coefficient Std. error Demand 5.4103** 2.3363 Government - 0.20766** 0.9661 support Cost -1.0321*** 0.38973 Benefits 0.24192** 0.10990 Trust - 0.33571 0.151576 Number of observations …………….... 36 Probability > Chi ……………........ . 0.0001

*** Significant at 1 per cent level of significance

Z -2.32 2.15

P>|Z| 0.021 0. 032

95% coefficient -9.9894 -0.01831

Interval -0.83129 0.39701

-2.65 0.008 -1.79588 -0.26813 2.07 0.028 0.02652 0.45733 2.21 0.427 0.03864 0.63277 LR Chi squared (11) …………………. 42.31 Pseudo .……………………0.7307 ** Significant at 5 per cent level of significance

From Table 2, Log Likelihood (LR) test gave a value of 42.31 which was statistically significant at 1% level. This implies that the overall logit model that was estimated was statistically significant, that is, there was a significant relationship between the log of odds ratio and the explanatory variables.

From Table 2, the Pseudo R squared of the regression was 0.73, which implies that the included variables explained only 73 per cent of the variations in the implementation of Supply Chain Management among the manufacturing industries studied. The remaining 27 per cent was explained by other explanatory variables not included in the model.

Similarly, two explanatory variables namely demand by stakeholders for efficient manufacturing process, perceived benefits of SCM had the expected positive signs that were statistically significant at 5 per cent level of significance. However, the perceived cost of developing and running a supply chain management system variable had the expected Asian Business Consortium | ABC-JAR

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negative sign that was statistically significant at 5 per cent level of significance. In addition, two explanatory variables namely Government supports in the implementation of SCM and Perceived benefits of supply chain management did not have the expected positive signs but negative signs and were statically significant at 5 per cent level of significance. One variable, trust between trading partners to join SCM, did not have the expected positive signs but negative signs, and was not statistically significant at 5 per cent or 10 per cent levels of significance. The influence of these variables in SCM implementation of discussed as follows: Government support This variable had a negative coefficient but statistically significant at 5 per cent level of significant. This implies that there is lack of Government support to encourage manufacturing industries in Kenya to implement the supply chain management systems in their processes. Therefore, the higher the lack of government supports, the lower the levels of supply chain management implementation in manufacturing industries in Kenya.

These findings are contrary to the findings of Elzarka, Tipi, Hubbard and Bamford (2012) who found out that the level of support that the company receives from the government when importing raw materials or products from overseas or using domestic materials, which includes the use of norms, regulations, policies, and advice for the manufacturing sector encourages firms to adopt supply chain management. They also noted that when governments make a series of reforms by increasing manufacturing sectorâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s competitiveness in the international market through logistics competency, it encourages manufacturers to initiate supply chain management systems.

Trust between trading partners The coefficient of trust between trading partners was negative and not significant at 5 per cent or 10 per cent level of significant. This pointed to the facts that trust between trading partners is not an important determinant of supply chain management systems in the manufacturing industries in Kenya. This could be attributed to the fact that trust relationships between the firms could have been established before the firms became trading partners, As such, another trust relationship with therefore not be necessary since there was one already in existence.

These findings are different from the finding of Li, Rao, Ragu-Nathan, Ragu-Nathan (2005) who postulated that the supply chain trust relationships play an important role in achieving the firmâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s supply chain management goals and is directly related to relationship management, which includes suppliers and customers.

Perceived benefits of supply chain management systems Perceived benefits of supply chain management systems variable had a positive coefficient that was significant at 5 per level of significant. This meant that the firms that perceived the supply chain management systems as being beneficial them were more likely to implement the supply chain management systems than the firms that do not perceived the supply chain management systems as being beneficial them. These findings are in agreement with the findings of Fraza (2000), who found out that the coordination and integration of activities with suppliers and understanding of customerâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s needs results in greater benefits for companies.

Perceived cost of developing and running supply chain management systems Perceived cost of developing and running supply chain management systems variable had a negative coefficient that was significant at 1 per level of significant. This meant that the firms that perceived the cost of developing and running supply chain management systems as being high were less likely to implement the supply chain management systems than the firms that do not perceived the cost of developing and running supply chain management systems as being high.

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CONCLUSION Further, the study found out that there exits low levels implementations of the supply chain management systems in the manufacturing industries in Kenya. This could be attributed to the fact that the Government of Kenya has not the necessary policies and measures in place to ensure that the manufacturing industries in Kenya are given the necessary support to encourage them to implement the supply chain management systems in the industries .

Two factors were found to encourage the implementation of supply chain management systems in the manufacturing industries in Kenya. These factors were demand by stakeholders for efficient manufacturing process and the perceived benefits of supply chain management systems in the manufacturing industries. In addition, two factors were found to hinder the implementation of supply chain management systems in the manufacturing industries in Kenya. These factors were Government support to encourage manufacturing industries in Kenya to implement the supply chain management systems in their processes and the perceived cost of developing and running supply chain management systems in the manufacturing industries. However, trust between the trading partners factor was found to be unimportant factor in influencing manufacturing industries in Kenya to implement supply chain management systems.

The study recommended that the government provide financial incentives, pilot projects and tax breaks to stimulate implementation of SCM in manufacturing industries in Kenya.

In addition, the government should lower the tax of all the facilities necessary in the development of the supply chain management to make the implementation affordable by the manufacturing industries.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We wish to acknowledge the support of different manufacturing companies for providing the necessary technical support that was required in this research work. We acknowledge the support of Ms Gladys Kimutai and Ms Lucy Kamau from Kenyatta University everybody else who gave us both moral and financial support to complete this work. We recognize your support and participation.

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Li S, Rao SS, Ragu-Nathan TS, Ragu-Nathan B. (2005), Development and validation of a measurement instrument for studying supply chain management practices. Journal of Operations Management (2005) Vol 23, 6-18 Muathe S.M.A, Wawire H.Wand Ofafa G.(2010). Determinants of adoption of ICT by Small and Medium Enterprices (SME) within the health sector in Nairobi, Kenya.

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Neuman, W.L. (1997).Social research methods: Quantitive and qualitative approaches.3rd edition, Boston, Mass, Allyn and Bacon, pp. 20-29.

Robson, C. (2002). Real world research (2nd edn), Oxford, Blackwell.

Sheehan K. (2001). E-mail Survey Response Rates: A Review. School of Journalism and Communication, University of Oregon. JMC 6 (2) January 2001.

Ronald L. M.., Michael R. W., and Rodger B. S. (2004) [Supply Chain Management: Strategic Factors From The Buyers‘ Perspective. Journal of Industrial Technology, Volume 20, Number 2, 2.

Schary P., Skjott B. and Tag L. (1995). Managing the glabal supply chain management, Copenhagen business school press, Copenhagen.

Timme, S. G. & Timme, C. W. (2000). The Financial SCM Connection. Supply Chain Management Review. Vol. 4, No. 4, 32-40.

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An Analytical Study on Determining Effective Factors for Recruiting Right Person Md. Sajedur Rahman; & Md. Shajedul Islam Lecturer, School of Business, University of Information Technology and Sciences, Rajshahi, Bangladesh

ABSTRACT The general aim of this study is to evaluate and measure the effectiveness of recruitment and selection and its impact on service delivery amongst staff within the Development of Human Resource Policy. Research has shown that motivated and satisfied employees are more productive and that there is an improvement on service delivery. Factors, which influence employee motivation, are inter alia as efficient recruitment and selection methods, achievement, advancement, being treated with respect and personal growth and development. It is suggested that a possible way to succeed with recruitment and selection would be to gain their full co-operation with the aims and goals of the national objectives and the objectives of the department, to achieve, maintain and enhance the service delivery of staff, who are also potential future leaders in the organization. This should be coupled to a commitment to excellence and efficiency in the organization in general.

Key Words: Human resource planning, Job analysis, Recruitment, Selection

INTRODUCTION Human resource is the most valuable asset to any organization who individually and collectively contributes to the achievement of the organizational goals and objectives. In the 21st century, there were increasing claims that the means to competitive advantage is achieved through human resource. In a situation where identical non-people resources in the form of finance, raw materials, plants, technology, hardware and software are made available to competing organizations differences in economic performance between organizations must be attributed to differences in the performance of human resource. In this regard, this article is geared towards analyzing the rational factors i.e. the importance and role of human resource planning and job analysis as a corporate activity that drives other human resource functions notably recruitment and selection process. Yet, as competition and technological innovations increase and product life cycles get shorter, jobs are becoming not only less static, but also less individually-based.

Consequently, the tasks to be performed and the knowledge, skills and abilities (KSAs) required for effective job performance are also becoming more volatile and sometimes more team-based.

Furthermore, and in all likelihood, organizations may perceive the creation of jobs that do not currently exist, the analysis of which is beyond the scope of traditional job analysis. Employee selection occurs after recruitment. Employees are selected based on their fit with the job qualifications, organizational culture and work team etc. As mentioned previously, the selection process must be compliant with Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) regulations. A detailed Asian Business Consortium | ABC-JAR

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job description also adds to the fairness of the selection process, as rejected applicants can interpret the minimum requirements needed and why they did not meet those criteria.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY   

Finding effective contributory factors to recruitment and selection of potential employees for an organization.

Evaluating impacts of biographical variables on recruitment and selection.

Examining how job analysis, HR planning, recruitment and selection integrate with other HR functions.

LITERATURE R EVIEW OF THE S TUDY Heneman and Judge, (2009)10 Observed that Job analysis is the process of studying jobs in order to gather, analyze, synthesize and report information about job requirements A job analysis provides a recruiter with a thorough understanding of the position, the essential functions of the job, a list of tasks or duties performed by the job and the knowledge, skills and abilities needed to perform the duties of the job.

According to De Cenzo and Robbins (2005:20)7 whenever the organization is engaged in a process of determining its human resource needs, it becomes involved in a process called Human Resource Planning. Human Resource Planning is one of the most important elements within a successful Human Resource Management Program, since it is a process by which the organization ensures that it has the right number and kinds of people, who are at the right place, at the right time, capable of effectively and efficiently completing those tasks that will help the organization to achieve its overall strategic objectives.

Employment planning translates the organization‘s overall goals into the number and types of workers that are needed to meet those goals. Without clear-cut planning and direct linkage to the organization‘s strategic direction, estimations of an organization‘s human resource needs are reduced to mere guesswork. Employment planning cannot exist in isolation it must be linked to the organization‘s overall strategy.

Cole, (2002:102)5 state that the principal purpose of recruitment activities is to attract sufficient and suitable potential employees to apply for vacancies in the organization. The principal purpose of selection activities, by comparison, is to identify the most suitable applicants and persuade them to accept a position in the organization. The importance of having efficient and effective procedures for recruitment and selection can hardly be exaggerated.

Dowling, et al, (1999: 15)9, Recruitment is defined as a searching for and obtaining potential job candidates in sufficient numbers and quality so that the organization can select the most appropriate people to fill its job needs. Selection is the process of gathering information for the purposes of evaluating and deciding who would be employed in particular jobs. Various factors such as female mangers, dual-career couples, equal opportunity legislation, and expatriate failure that impact on multi-nationals ability to recruit and select high-caliber staff.

FACTORS AFFECTING R ECRUITMENT AND S ELECTION P ROCESS Recruitment and selection process is affected by many environmental factors. There are many external and internal factors that affect recruitment and selection. The internal forces or factors are the factors that can be controlled by the organization. And the external factors are those factors which cannot be controlled by the organization. The controllable (internal) and uncontrollable (external) factors affecting recruitment and selection functions of an organization are: Asian Business Consortium | ABC-JAR

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Controllable Factors Every organization needs to analyze the controllable factors which help to effective recruitment are as follows: Organizational Recruiting Policy: The recruitment policy of the firm affects the recruitment process. Organizations with a philosophy of developing their human resources and of providing opportunities for growth favor internal recruiting policies.

Employees who desire the opportunity to advance in an organization generally prefer such a policy. Organizations with recruiting policies tend to spend relatively large sums on training and development programs so as to prepare employees for higher-level jobs.

Demographic Factors: Demography is the study of human population in terms of occupation, religion, age, sex, composition, ethnicity, etc. The demographic factors have profound influence on recruitment process.

Human Requirements: This includes information regarding the jobâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s human requirements, such as job-related knowledge or skills (education, training, work experience) and required personal attributes (aptitudes, physical characteristics, personality, interest). Good health, pleasing manners, no significant disabilities in voice, hearing and eyesight, neat conventional dress, well groomed and takes trouble with details of personal appearance.

Interest: To justify really the candidate or applicant for the specific position is interested or not. Evidence of some interest outside work but nothing specific Disposition: Acceptability to other people and previous occupational evidence of influencing others, ability to accept responsibility without undue strain and cooperative in relations with others.

Motivation: Ambitions- evidence of fairly rapid promotion and achievement of high but realistic goals; must be willing to control output to meet vigorous performance standards/targets.

Talent Pool: A company reaches into its local community to satisfy employment recruiting needs. If the local talent pool changes, then the company may find it more difficult to recruit qualified candidates. For example, if other businesses start to leave the region, then the availability of jobs drops and qualified candidates begin looking for work in other parts of the country. The company is then faced with decisions that involve paying to relocate new employees or opening new locations to access new talent pools.

Geography: Geography posses several issues for recruiting talent. Depend on the geographic suitability qualified candidates leaving the area or there not being enough candidates experienced in the fields the organization are hiring for, having a lack of local qualified candidates can be a problem.

Machines, Tools, Equipment and Work Aids: This category includes information regarding tools used, materials processed, knowledge dealt with or applied (such as finance or law), and services rendered (such as counseling or repairing).

Performance Standards: The employer may also want information about the jobâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s performance standards (in terms of quantity or quality levels for each job duty, for instance). Management will use these standards to appraise employees.

Job Context: This includes information about such matters as physical working conditions, work schedule, and the organizational and social context-for instance, the number of people with whom the employee would normally interact. Information regarding incentives might also be included here.

Special Aptitudes: Fluency in speaking & writing, Analytical skills, Ability to prepare and understand basic statistical information, competence in arithmetic, and high degree of listening skills .

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Outsourcing: The concept of outsourcing activities that are not a company's core competency is an internal business practice that affects recruiting.

Size of the Organization: Recruitment process is affected by the size of the organization to a large extent. Experience suggests that larger organizations recruit more candidates than small ones.

Large organizations find recruitment less problematic than small organizations.

Working Conditions and Benefit Packages: These have strong influence on turnover and necessitate future recruiting. The rate of growth of organization- the phase in the life-cycle of the firm is a measure of the recruiting effort.

Cost and Time Constraints: Cost and time constraints pose obvious limitations on recruiting efforts. If an organization with very little money allocation for recruiting will not even consider hiring a right person for the right position.

Image of the Organization: Image or goodwill of the organization also affects the recruitment. Organizations having good image can attract potential and competent candidates to a large extent. Good public relation, rendering public services, etc. help to enhance the image and reputation of the organization.

Nature of Job: Jobs having good image in terms of better remuneration, working condition, promotion, career development opportunities etc. can attract the potential and qualified candidates to a large extent.

Uncontrollable Factors The following discussion focuses on the factors those are not controlled by organizations.

Labor Market: Conditions of the labor market are a major factor in the design of the recruiting and selecting process. Labor market affects the size and quality of the applicant pool which in turn affects the choice of selection methods. Labor market constitutes the force of demand and supply of labor of particular importance. For instance, if demand for a particular skill is high relative to its supply, the recruitment process evolves more efforts.

Contrary to it, if supply is more than demand, the recruitment process will be easier. Both scenarios influence the recruitment process and activities.

Government Policy and Legal Factors: Several laws have been passed that provide for equal employment opportunity (EEO). Bangladesh Labor Law-2006, prohibit employment practices that discriminate on the basis of race, color, religion, national origin, sex or age and so forth. Thus Equal employment legislation remains the most significant influence on the design of selection systems. Government policy plays an important role in the determination of recruitment practice.

Social, Cultural, and Political Environment: The forces of social, culture and political environment also influence recruitment policy. For instance, the change in government can have a direct impact upon recruitment policy of the company due to change in government rules and regulations.

Type of Labor to be Recruited: It is important to clearly specify recruiting goals in terms of number and type of labor to be recruited. The type of labor to be recruited affects the scope of the recruiting effort. Each type of labor has its own labor market. Generally, labor markets are smaller in number for labor types that are highly specialized or that require higher levels of education and experience.

Unemployment Situations: Unemployment rate of particular area is yet another influencing factor of recruitment process. If the unemployment rate is high, the recruitment process will be simpler and vice versa.

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Trade Unions: In some organizations unions are involved in the development of recruitment and selection policy and procedures. Trade Unions basically wants to pursue companies to enter into agreements that stipulate only union members will be employed.

Competition: Companies within the same industry are competing for qualified candidates to ensure future growth. In this purpose the organization need to analyze what their competitors offer new employees and try to develop a competitive package to tempt in the talent that the organization need.

CHALLENGES TO R ECRUIT R IGHT P ERSON An organization‘s business performance depends on having the right human resource capability to support the business needs and the recruitment and selection function is the first step in achieving this. Potential business risks are associated with performing this key strategic human resource strategy and these can emerge throughout the process from sourcing potential candidates through to the negotiation of the employment contract.

Costs to an organization from a financial and business performance perspective can be quite high if a poor selection is made. For example, poor selection decisions can result in absenteeism, employee turnover, work related accidents and higher training costs. A common problem in recruitment and selection is poor HR planning. Rigorous HR planning translates business strategies into specific HRM policies and practices. This is particularly so with recruitment and selection policies and practices. The key goal of HR planning is to get the right number of people with the right skills, experience and competencies in the right jobs at the right time at the right cost. Detailed and robust recruitment and selection policies, such as recruitment and selection procedures, assessing criteria, talents auditing and processing the information about the labor market are important in recruiting and deploying appropriate employees at the right time. Moreover, effective recruitment and selection is possible only if there is a dedicated and competent HR team.

RECOMMENDATIONS Misleading communications regarding employment contract provisions can result in the loss of a desired candidate and potential claims for redress through industrial mechanisms. To minimize the risks organizations need to:  Effectively conducting job analysis and targeting right potential candidates ensures a good match between applicants and the jobs.  Design and implement credible and transparent recruitment and selection frameworks and processes;  Ensure compliance with anti discrimination legislation throughout the process;  Select assessment methods and tools appropriate for predicting the required performance outcome for the position;  Select the most appropriate methods for sourcing potential candidates;  Ensure that recruitment and selection policies and practices are strategically integrated with business.

The recruitment and selection function should also have measures in place to evaluate performance in relation to the time taken to fill vacancies; the costs associated with conducting the process internally/externally; and quality of candidate selection and retention.

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CONCLUSION Selecting the right person for the right position is specifically important for the organization in nowadays. Inappropriate recruitment and selection not only waste organization‘s time and effort, but also diminish its profitability and impair it competitive advantage. Therefore, job analysis and human resource planning is vital and critical, not only for particular general recruitment and selection process, but also for the organization itself. Job analysis is specifically vital for organizational consistent competitive advantage.

Sufficient job analysis enable organization to target on potential talents that with requisite knowledge, skills and abilities; once those talents are employed by the organization will inevitably add value to the organization, which is rare and inimitable. From organizational employers‘ perspective, good quality of job analysis assist targeting and attract potential recruits; whereas from the individual applicants‘ perspective, sufficient job analysis helps them to be more convenient to make up their mind about whether to apply for the job or not. Currently, due to various dynamic factors, such as restructured global market, updated policies and more diversified and flexible employment arrangement, all inevitably have important implication for each organization and its human resource management. With fully considering the changing nature of the environment, many scholars propose two general trends for job analysis future development. Technically, job analysis technique could be subcategorized into two groups, which are work-oriented and worker-oriented. The former focus on the various job related tasks; whereas the latter emphasizes more on broad human behaviors involved in work activities. Under current dynamic environment featured with changing nature of the job, worker-oriented seems more appropriate, which provides the organization‘s flexibility needs, and focus more on tasks and cross-function skills of workers.

REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12]

Ash. R. (1988). job analysis in the world of work. In S. Gael (Ed.). The job Analysis Handbook/or Business. New York: john Wiley and Sons.

Brannick. M. T. & L Evine. E. L (2002).job analysis. Methods. Research. and Applications for Human Resource Managementin the New MiHennium California: Sage Publications. Inc. Catano. V. Cronshaw. S, Wiesner. W, Hackett, R & Methot, L (1997). Recruitment and selection in Canada. Toronto: ITP Press.

Clifford. J. (1994). job analysis: Why do it. and how it should be done? Public Personnel Management .

Cole, E., (2002). Personnel and Human Resource Management. London YHT, Fifth Edition Cushway, B. (2011). The employer‟s handbook: An essential guide to employment law:Personnel policies and procedures. Milford, CT: Kogan Page.

Decenzo, D.A. & Robbins, S.P., (2005), Fundamentals of Human Resource Management. New York: John Wiley & Sons, INC Eighth Edition Dess, Gregory, G. and Jason, D. Shaw (2001), Voluntary turnover, social capital, and Organizational performance, Academy of Management Review.

Dowling, P.J., Welch, D.E., Schuler, R.S., (1999). International Human Resource Management. South Western Publishing Heneman III H.G. and Judge T. A. (2009), Staffing organization (6th Edition), Boston M. A. McGraw-Hill Irwin http://recruitment.naukrihub.com/factors-affecting-recruitment.html, retrieved on 23 June 2013 http://smallbusiness.chron.com/internal-external-factors-influencing-recruitment11905.html, retrieved on 25 June 2013

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http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_are_some_factors_affecting_recruitment, retrieved on 27 June 2013 http://www.scribd.com/doc/43326700/25/Factors-Affecting-Recruitment, retrieved on 30 June 2013 Kaplan, R. S. & Norton, David, P. (2004), Strategy Maps: Converting Intangible Assets into Tangible Outcomes, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, USA Noe, R. A. (2012). Human resource management: Gaining a competitive advantage.

New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Oswald. F. L (2003). job analysis: Methods. research and applications for human resource management in the new millennium. Personnel Psychology.

Pilbeam. S & Corbridge S, (2002), ―People Resourcing HRM in Practice, 2/e, Pearson Education Ltd. UK. Robertson, I T and Smith, M (2001), Personnel Selection, Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology Siddique. C. M. (2004). Job Analysis: A strategic human resource management practice.

International journal / Human Resource Management.

Syrett, M. (2006), Four Reflections on Developing a Human Capital Measurement Capability, in what‟s the Future for Human Capital? CIPD, London.

Ulrich, D and Brockbank, W (2005). The HR Value Proposition, Harvard Press, Cambridge, MA. Voskuijl, O. F. (2005). job Analysis: Current and future perspectives, In A. Evers, N. Anderson, & O. Voskuijl (Eds.), The Blackwell Handbook of Personnel Selection Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.

Wernimont, P. (1988). Recruitment, selection and placement. In S. Gael (Ed.), The job analysis handbook for business, industry, and government, vol. 1. New York: john Wiley and Sons Wrightt, P.M., Snell, S.A and Jacobson (2004) ―Current Approaches to Human Resource Strategies Inside-out Versus Outside” in Human Resource Planning.

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Mainstreaming Homosexuality in Nollywood: The Efforts and the Challenges Dr. Adedayo Ladigbolu Abah Associate Professor, Dept. of Journalism & M ass Communications, Washington and Lee University, Virginia, US A

ABSTRACT A critical analysis of the attempts by Nollywood, the melodramatic videofilm industry in Nigeria, to address and mainstream the notion of homosexuality in Nigeria and across the continent. Using the cultivation theory and the intergroup contact theory, the study explores the notion of mainstreaming of homosexuality by the very popular medium across Africa.

How has this particular medium address the issue of homosexuality in society through characterization and plot? Since Nollywood is a highly didactic medium, what messages about homosexuality are being presented and how do these messages contribute to or erode from existing conceptions and misconceptions about homosexuality in Nigeria? Has the medium, in its portrayal of homosexuality, contributed to the moral panic on the issue or help deflect the moral panic? The analysis is done against the backdrop of the ongoing legal, social and political homophobic rhetoric currently engulfing Nigeria and other African nations. The focus of the study is the frequency of reference to homosexuality in the society, the characterization of homosexual persons in the video-films and the narratives of the homosexual person in relation to heterosexuals in the society. The videofilms examined are: Emotional Crack (2003); Men in Love (2010) and Mind Game (2010). The results indicate that while more plots and characterization is being done by Nollywood to make homosexuality salient to the society, the characterizations of homosexuality is unsympathetic at best and even dubious in certain circumstances. In the one instance where a strong and sympathetic characterization is employed, the plot is undermined to restore the mainstream socio-religious homophobic discourse.

Key Words: Homosexuality, Nollywood, Nigeria

BACKGROUND The issue of homosexuality in Africa has recently morphed to become another story in Africaâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s exceptionality in homophobia. Similar to most modern societies, both developed and developing, Africa as a continent is grappling with individual vers us community rights especially when and how they pertain to concerns about religion, morality and sexuality. Currently, several nations in Africa legally criminalized homosexual acts, and those who have not legally proscribe the practice frown deeply on homosexuality. In Asian Business Consortium | ABC-JAR

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November 2011 the Nigerian Senate passed a bill that made it a crime carrying up to 14 years imprisonment for gays to marry and prison term of 10 years for anyone who witnesses or in any way participates in such union. ―The bill will expand Nigeria‘s already draconian punishments for consensual same-sex conduct and set a precedent that would threaten all Nigerians‘ rights to privacy, equality, free expression, association and to be free from discrimination,‖ said Erwin van der Borght, the director of Amnesty International‘s Africa program.i The bill must be passed by Nigeria‘s House of Representatives and signed by President Goodluck Jonathan to become law. South Africa remains the only country in Africa where homosexuality is legal.

The hostility currently depicted in the news media about the legal and social environment for homosexuals in Nigeria and elsewhere on the continent is alarming. Beyond the deprivation of basic human rights that these hostilities portray, it is also shutting off opportunities to have conversations about valid socially desirable behaviors and socially undesirable behaviors. The tendency to lump homosexuality together with socially deviant and criminal acts such as pedophilia and bestiality does not allow real confrontation with real problems. Anglican Archbishop Nicholas Okoh of Nigeria told reporters at a July 14 [2010] press conference that ―same-sex marriage, pedophilia and all sexual perversions should be roundly condemned‖ reports Mathew Davies (Episcopal News Service, July 15, 2010). It is worthy of note that Okoh succeeded Archbishop Akinola in March 2010 as the primate (Head) of Anglican Church Nigeria. Additionally, the continent‘s social and medical confrontation of HIV/AIDS has largely focused on heterosexual behavior. Consequently, health campaigns on preventive methods have not given adequate considerations to homosexual behavior. This ignorance may have great impacts on the efforts to control the spread of the disease on the continent.

T HEORIES Using cultivation theory (Gerbner, Gross, Morgan, Signorelli, & Shanahan, 2002 as cited by Calzo and Ward, 2009) one can deduce that media exposure to homosexual representations may help cultivate viewers‘ attitude about homosexuality (Calzo and Ward, 2009). People are socialized into attitudes about sexuality and the agents of the socialization process include parents, peer, religion and media institutions (Ballard & Morris, 1998, as cited by Calzo and Ward, 2009). Media portrayal may actually be more influential as a sex educator due to the controversial nature of the topic, which may dissuade discussion by peers and parents, and first-hand experience may also be highly limited (Calzo and Ward, 2009). Contact hypothesis is the ―most often used theoretical framework for understanding approaches that emphasize attention to categories‖ as noted by the American Psychological Association (APA). ―In this framework, people make sense of their social world by creating categories of the individuals around them, which includes separating the categories into in-group and out-groups.‖ii The more contact members of a majority have with the members of a minority group, the more likely they are to accept the minority group (Gordan Allport, 1954). Expanding on Allport‘s theory, Horton and Wahl (1956) came up with the notion that ―one of the striking characteristics of the new mass media –radio, television and the movies, is that they give the illusion of face-to-face relationships with the performer‖ (251). Horton and Wahl called this ‗face-to-face‘ relationship between performer and spectator a para-social relationship in their study Mass Communication and Para-social Interaction. Sabido (2004) distilled the 1960s study by Albert Bandura on media role-modeling in mass-mediated social learning theories and the Asian Business Consortium | ABC-JAR

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Horton and Wahl‘s 1956 para-social learning theories. Sabido (2004) complemented the Bandura modeling studies and the Horton and Wahl (1956) para -social interaction to construct an understanding of the relationship between mediated messages and the consumer. He argued that media modeling is not just about cognitive understanding but also includes the emotive and affective domains of understanding. This para -social relationship between audience and media models is comparable to face-to-face interpersonal relationships.iii Therefore, theoretically anyway, the more exposure an audience gets to members of a minority group even mediated contacts (para -social relationship), the more likely the audience is to feel like they have had contact with members of the minority good. If the mediated contacts are of positive nature, the audience may have positive associations with members of the minority group.

Subsequently, one can theorize that: if Nollywood portrays homosexuals in its characterizations and storylines, and, in a positive way, the audiences of Nollywood might gradually come to feel a para-social relationship with homosexuals and this could lead to a less hostile environment for members of the group in Nigeria and elsewhere in Africa.

UNIVERSAL H UMAN R IGHTS AND AFRICA The international standard for protecting rights for homosexuals is derived from the international language of basic rights of all individuals included in the United Nations‘ Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). The current international document for protecting universal human rights is UDHR which, when adopted in 1948 did not include language about homosexuality. However, if one accepts the later 1994 ruling by the UN's Human Rights Committee that the reference to "sex" as a protected status refers also to "sexual orientation" and concomitant practices,iv then one can argue that the language incorporates homosexuality (this ruling, however, is by no means yet accepted universally as the normative interpretation of UDHR). The fact that Africans were not involved in the conversations leading to the adoption of the UDHR is common knowledge as most of what constitutes modern day Africa was still a territory of European nations when nations were adopting the tenets of the UDHR. Thus, there was no distinctive African perspective in the articulations of the theoretical assumptions for the universal human rights document. Regardless of this fact, ―the struggle for independence in Africa predated the UDHR and remains, with the anti-apartheid campaign, the most popular and successful human rights movement known to African peoples‖ (Chidi Odinkalu, 2000:3). While the African Charter on Human and Peoples‟ Rights adopted in 1981 is symbolic of African universal assent to the international concerns about human rights, ―neither the notion of justice that underlies human rights nor the experience of struggle to realize these rights is unknown to Africa.‖ (Odinkalu, 2000:3). Schoalrs such as John Bewaji (2006), Oladele Balogun (2006), and Agbakoba, J and Nwauche, E.S. (2006) have researched the precolonial, indigenous African conceptualizations of human rights before contacts with Europeans and Arabs in Nigeria.

While many developed nations have been confronting human rights in relation to homosexuality for several decades, Africa‘s confrontation with the issue became international news in the last decade. And, as prevalent in news about Africa, the headlines of the international media coverage remains sensational and macabre. ―Homosexuality in Africa Is Still Taboo‖ screams the National Public Radio (NPR) headline dated February 22, 2010 on its website (www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=123973509). ―Religion, Politics and Asian Business Consortium | ABC-JAR

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Africa‘s Homophobia‖ reads the headline of a February 24, 2010 post on www.huffingtonpost.com On July 21, 2009, Megan Lindow of www.Time.com writes under the headline ‗How homophobia fuels Africa‘s AIDS crisis.‖ On May 29, 2010, The Economist reported on a ―Well-locked Closet‖ where ―[g]ays are under attack in poor countries—and not just because of local culture.‖ While these are all true reports, nothing in the report is unique to Africa in the continent-wide attempts to grapple with modern day politics with its mixed elements of religion and moral stance on ―family issues.‖ Several countries in Africa and other places in the world have laws preventing homosexual sexual acts. Several of these nations inherited sodomy laws dating as far back as late 19 th century from British colonialism. Several of these countries are now coming to grips with existing and new laws made to address homosexuality and society. India recently (June 2009) overturned its 149-year old sodomy law.

Sexual rights, while not explicitly stated are articulated and implied in many idioms, proverbs and sayings of many cultures in Africa. Examples of such idioms from the Yorubas of southwest Nigeria include: 1. A o le so pe tori ki omo maku, ki omo ma fi epon baba e sere. A child is not allowed to turn his father‟s scrotum into a toy as way to prevent the child‟s death.

2. Oko nleri, obo nleri, ipade dori eni. The penis brags, the vagina brags but the sleeping mat will decide.

While these would be considered sexually explicit way of talking, it is also important to keep in mind that the facts of proverbs are so uncontroversial that they are actually used to explain non-sexual issues of life. Femi Osofisan (2008), a renowned African playwright, however, argued that while early African literature from Nigeria was very subdued about sexual matters, the new literature from Africa has become ―promiscuously talkative‖ about the experience of love (2008:69). So much so that topics that were considered taboo in literature, such as prostitution, abortion, sodomy and pederasty, gay and lesbian love have all become subject of opulent exposition. Quoting Olajubu (1972), Osofisan further noted that: [T]o the Yoruba, sex has a sacred function…[but] in spite of this however, physical exposure of the sexual organs in life and in art, especially in carvings, is allowed…Obvious references to sex in words, gestures, and songs are also permitted on special occasions. On doors and veranda posts of temples and palaces can be found carvings of women with pointed, oversized breasts, and men with oversized penises. In some cases, for example, on the doors of Ife Town Hall, carvings of men and women in the sex act are depicted.

He then argued that the early literature from colonial and post-colonial Nigeria were mute or at best, subdued about sexual matters, not as a result of cultural dictates, but as consequences of Christian and Islamic indoctrination. Emerging from oral traditions of pre-colonial traditional societies into written forms that were dictated and taught in schools run by religious institutions, early written media were restrained with prudish silences and customary reticence in their expression of sex or sexual act.

As noted by Brody and Potterat (2003), several anthropological reports have documented the long and diverse history of homosexuality in multifarious African cultures.v Based on their distillation of several anthropological, physiological and epidemiological literatures on the issue, the author concurs with Brody and Potterat (2003) that ―it was not homosexuality which was imported to Africa by Europeans but, rather its intolerance.‖vi While marriage and procreation may have been universally prescribed in most African societies, heterosexual attraction was not. However marginal, bisexuality and homosexuality co-existed in ancient African societies.vii Peter Tarchell, a campaigner for gay rights, noted that ―the real import into Africa is not homosexuality but politicized homophobia‖viii

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Homosexual activity in Nigeria is legally proscribed. According to a 2007 Pew Global report, 97% of Nigerians think that homosexuality should be rejected.ix Sanctions for homosexual act can be as severe as up to 14 years imprisonment or death by stoning if the offender is a Muslim from a Sharia law state.x More recently, legislation was proposed in Nigeria that would ban same-sex blessing or marriage ceremonies, penalize those involved in them, and outlaw efforts to promote same-sex activity of any kind and through any means, with penalties of 14 years imprisonment for participants in such marriage or civil union activities and up to 10 years imprisonmen ts for witnesses or collaborators in such ceremonies. Homosexuality has been catapulted into the forefront of political and religious, and therefore, social consciousness of the Nigerian polity in the last decade by a series of events. The murmurings and grumblings against homosexuality in the country became overt homophobia in 2003. One of the events that transported homophobia into a national pastime and created moral panic was the opposition of the then Primate of the Anglican Church Nigeria, Archbishop Akinola, to the installation of the openly gay Gene Robinson as Bishop of New Hampshire by the Episcopal Church in America. The Nigerian Anglican Church is the largest single group in the world with over 17 million members, which is about 11 percent of the Nigerian population. The dissention of Akinola and other African Anglicans, and Anglicans all over the world who were opposed to the installation led to a schism in the Anglican Church worldwide. xi The then president of Nigeria, Olusegun Obasanjo (a well known member of the Anglican Church) instigated a legislation that would prevent same-sex union in the country. Any existing tolerance or indifference to homosexuality was jettisoned at this point for a political position on the impending legislation.

Despite the severity of sanctions for homosexual acts in Nigeria, several individuals continue to live their lives as homosexuals in Nigeria both openly and covertly. Coming out of the closet still carries a real danger to life and limb, nevertheless, people continue to live their lives the best they can under the circumstances and there are now organizations that exist to protect homosexuals from public persecution.

In light of the negativity, fear, curiosity, misinformation and danger that conflate in the discussion of homosexuality in Nigeria, it is critical to examine the contributions that Nollywood, a very important avenue for story-telling in Nigeria and all over the continent, is engaging with the pervasiveness of homophobic rhetoric in the public space.

NOLLYWOOD IN N IGERIA Many scholars have addressed the popularity of Nollywood among audiences in Africa and in the diaspora. Marston, Woodward and James (2007) noted that ―…these video films, popular commercial creations produced largely in the informal sector, are enthusiastically received by a wide audience of Africans and others all over the continent as well as abroad.‖ xii Jonathan Haynes (2008) makes a similar observation about the popularity of the video-films when he said: They are what is on television in Namibia and on sale on the streets in Kenya. In Congo, they are broadcast with the soundtrack turned down while an interpreter tells the story in Lingala or other languages. In New York, their biggest consumers are now immigrants from the Caribbean and African Americans, not Africans, and Chinese people are buying them too. In Holland, Nollywood stars are recognized on the streets by people from Suriname, and in London they are hailed by Jamaicans. xiii

While their commercial nature might make the video-films appear apolitical and ―grounded in an unapologetic commercial culture and seem quite indifferent to the social Asian Business Consortium | ABC-JAR

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responsibility agenda of contemporary cinema, [there are still]…several examples of popular entertainment media serving social responsibility functions‖ (Ukadi ke, 1994: 258). Adesokan (2009) noted that their ―treatment of political themes reflects a basic concern with good governance and ethical conduct in civil matters, which is then assimilated to the ideological orientation of didacticism‖ (p. 617). Haynes (2006) concurred in the assertion that despite their melodramatic forms, the video films are political and exhibit social consciousness.

Jean-Francois Werner (2006) noted that Africans now spend an enormous amount of time watching television and alluded to the Senegalese method of watching television with their children in concluding that social effects of television programming includes the acculturation of children to how culture is defined, contested and reinforced. He further noted that the acculturation effects for children also include introduction to both modern and traditional channels of social communication, which are used in the discussion of television programming.

This preoccupation with moral teaching is not deviant behavior for the video films. The use of popular media for social change has been noted in the works of several scholars.

Arvind Singhal (2007) observed that popular entertainment media are the most popular genre of mass media programming and hold value for ―stimulating public discourses on social issues at the local, national, or global level and especially on topics that are considered [taboo]: sexuality, HIV/AIDS prevention, mental depression, ethnic cleansing, racial discrimination, and the like‖ (p.259). While concerned with the question of whether the commercial viability of popular global media can be burdened by the weight of social responsibility, he remarked on several examples from all over the world in which popular entertainment media has been used for social and educational purposes. One of his examples is the Tinka Tinka Sukh (Happiness lies in small things) soap opera on All India Radio in New Delhi. In 1996, villagers from Lutsaan from the state of Uttar Pradesh mailed a poster with 184 signatures and thumbprints to the radio station to protest the practice of dowry because the show‘s protagonist committed suicide after suffering abuse from her groom for having inadequate dowry (Singhal, 2007:259). On a popular Brazilian telenovela, when Camilla, the protagonist on Lazos de Sangre (Blood Ties), was diagnosed with leukemia, the Brazilian National Registry of Bone Marrow Donors reported increase of 450 percent in new donor registrations from about 20 a month to about 900 a month.xiv Nollywood has demonstrated that in its own way, it is not shy about offering critiques on unjust cultural practices in its productions. For examples, the rites and rights of widows in some south eastern cultures in Nigeria in which widows are deprived of their husbands‘ wealth by the deceased‘s relatives, and are made to undergo several unpleasant rituals have been severally addressed by Nollywood (e.g. Widow, 2008). Other unusual cultural practices that are onerous on both men and women have also been addressed by the industry, for example, Iyawo Saraa, a Yoruba language video film dealing with a Yoruba sub-culture of foistering unwilling young women as wives on unwilling young men on the basis of tradition.

Just like the print media in Nigeria and the Yoruba travelling theater, Nollywood social activism have been more vociferous on issues of good governance, corruption in government, health-prevention of and living with HIV/AIDS, and sustenance of social norms.

NOLLYWOOD AND HOMOSEXUALITY Homosexuality is a novel area and a somewhat taboo subject not just for Nollywood but for the Nigerian media in general. This is because, even in social settings, there is a visceral repulsion Asian Business Consortium | ABC-JAR

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attached to broaching the subject and this repulsion is arguably fuelled by the fight for moral superiority between Pentecostal Christianity overwhelming southern Nigeria and the furious adoption of Sharia laws by Muslims in the North. The furious fight for the right to claim the higher moral ground could also be classified as a ―response to the anxieties of contemporary West African life‖ (Singhal, 2007:259). There is no middle ground in these religious contestations because, to be a moderate is to be licentious and bring either Islam or Christianity to moral ridicule. The misunderstanding surrounding social debate about homosexuality is palpably polluted with ignorance and misinformation that opportunities for dialogue in the media as a public sphere is completely obliterated. Online gatherings are the only places where some sort of dialogue is taking place and even these, in the perennial combative nature of online discussions, are highly judgmental and polarized in nature with very little attempt at education or understanding. In 2007 as the legislative debates on a bill to forbid gay unions were ongoing, Tide Online, one of the Nigerian newspapers reported that ―…about four per cent of Nigerians are involved in same sex relationship. As reported by the same newspaper, special adviser to the President, Prof Friday Okonofua, said (at a public hearing on a bill to prohibit same sex marriage and relationship, organized by the House of Representatives Committee on Women Affairs, in Abuja), ―...such relationships, had exposed those engaged in it to high risk of contacting sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), HIV/AIDS and cancer.‖ Same-sex relationships, he said, ―caused mental retardation, depression and high tendency to commit suicide.‖ (TideOnline, Feb. 22, 2007). It is worthy of note that Prof. Okonofua, the special adviser to the President who was giving this testimony is a well published Professor of obstetrics and gynecology at Univ. Benin, Benin City, Nigeria in the areas of maternal health.

Within this cultural and social context, Nollywood tentativeness toward the subject can be well understood. The first few Nollywood video films dealing with the subject mainly discussed female homoeroticism. The nature of the discourse of lesbianism in these video films has been adequately addressed by some scholars (Lindsay Simms, 2009; Unoma Azuah, 2008). It was recently that Nollywood became daring enough to directly address male homosexuality. Nollywood addresses the issue the same way it addresses all themes, tentatively at first, and suddenly, a glut of video films on the theme. After a spurt of movies on female homosexuality, male homoeroticism was tentatively addressed as a money-making occult ritual in a Yoruba movie called –Aaro Meta (2003). In End Times (2004), the theme was addressed in the context of God versus devil in which the protagonist, a pastor, gets all his power form the devil and while his life as a homosexual was glossed over, the sinful nature of the lifestyle was lumped with other ills of the Pastor, such as deceitfulness. Recently however, there have been several Nollywood videos addressing male homoeroticism in a direct way. Not just through insinuation but directly portraying intimacy and public display of affection between males. Such portrayals, despite the illegality of such relationship in the country, is, on the one hand, bringing saliency to homosexuality in the society, and at the same time, creating anxiety about the threat of homo eroticism to the modern heteronormative home.

Three current Nollywood videos in particular are examined for explicit portrayal of the homoerotic lifestyles as well as post modern articulation of the fear and anxieties of the homosexual lifestyle on the heteronormative family unit. The videos are Emotional crack (2003), Men in Love (2010) and Sexy/Mind Game (2010).

Emotional Crack tells the story of a post modern hetero normative family. Chudi was the husband and Crystal the wife. Chudi is an abusive and unfaithful husband who beats his wife on every slight provocation. He was authoritarian and rude to his wife and her family Asian Business Consortium | ABC-JAR

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who repeatedly asked Crystal to leave him. Chudi was also seeing Camille, an independent woman who is characterized by short Rastafarian braids, excessive smoking and a brash attitude. When physically threatened by Chudi, she, unlike Crystal, stood up to Chudi and let him know she was not afraid of him. At the urgings of a pastor, Chudi decided to change his ways and be faithful to his wife. He also stopped the physical abuse.

While the abuse was ongoing, Crytal met Camille and with no prior knowledge of Camille‘s relationship to Chudi, Crystal formed a friendship with Camille. The friendship quickly evolved into a sexual one. After Chudi met God and decided to change his ways, Crystal decided to end the sexual part of her relationship with Camille especially because Camille was asking her to leave Chudi and be monogamous with her. As Crystal sought to end the relationship, Camille sought for ways for Chudi to see them together being intimate. She succeeded and Chudi promptly threw Crystal out of the matrimonial home.

While Crystal sought to put her marriage back, Camille sought to have Crystal back. The rejection from Crystal deranged Camille and she sets out on a mission to have Crystal or destroy her. She managed to get Crystal alone and went on an attack with a knife. Crystal was saved from the attack by Chudi and Camille stabbed herself to death.

In Men in Love, we have another post-modern heteronormative family with a young son and another child on the way. Whitney is married to Charles, a successful business man who was also a philanderer. Alex, a long-ago college friend came into their lives. Alex was attracted to Charles. When Charles repeatedly rebuffed Alex advances, Alex decided to drug his drink and rape him. After the rape, Charles became enamored of Alex and moved Alex into the matrimonial home. Alex took over the cooking and cleaning as well as other traditional wifely duties in the home because he was good at them and Whitney didn‘t mind. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CT0ba9pshz8 (Video clip that shows the scene where Alex and Whitney fight over who has the right to cook for Charles).

Whitney, who was clueless about the nature of the real relationship between her husband and Alex, believed that Alex had a calming effect on her husband as Charles had stopped his philandering ways since he became reunited with Alex. Charles and Alex went around in public holding hands, touching and socializing as gays openly. Pregnant Whitney caught Charles and Alex making love and moved out of the home with her son. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1NBcDTh29k4 (scene where Whitney walked in on Alex and Charles making love). Charles didn‘t care. Through some church intervention, Whitney discovered that her husband was under a mysterious spell cast on him by Alex. It was the spell that made Charles temporarily homosexual and uncaring toward the wife. Through the intervention of prayers, the spell was removed, Charles was reunited with his pregnant wife and son, and Alex was arrested for homosexual acts at the instigation of Whitney.

In the plot of Mind Games (2010), Betty who has been married to Richard for four months walked in on her husband being intimate with another man. This is after four months of her husband avoiding any intimacy with her. She is torn between leaving her husband and staying. Richard professes love for his wife but admitted to his wife and his mother that he had always known he was gay. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=019xjury5WY (scene where Richard admitted to his family- wife, mother and wife‘s aunt that he was gay).

It is important to the plot that both Betty and Richard are born-again Christians. Richard makes a point that he cannot change who he was because he was born gay. Betty tried to convince him he didn‘t belong to the group of homosexuals anymore because of his born again status. Betty engaged on a mission of fasting and praying to save her husband from the clutches of homosexuality. In the meantime, Richard continues to receive texts and Asian Business Consortium | ABC-JAR

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clandestine visits from his gay lover. The movie ended when Betty woke up and found that the whole experience was just a bad dream.

DISCUSSION It is noteworthy that most of Nollywood storytelling about homoeroticism is articulated in terms of its threat to the heteronormative family unit. While this represents the general and universal articulation of anxieties about the impact of homoeroticism on post modern society within Nollywood, it also feeds on the visceral homophobic discourses prevailing in the society, thereby creating a near moral panic about the threat of homoeroticism in modern families.

However, the daring way in which Nollywood is approaching the theme is also subtly subversive. While news reports note the difficulties of finding places for socialization for homosexuals in Nigeria, Men in Love unabashedly portrays gay men holding hands, touching and flirting openly in restaurants and places of public accommodation without consequences. To portray this in a country that criminalizes such socialization is remarkable. In both Emotional Crack and Men in Love, the homosexual characters were threats to the traditional family. In both video-films, the homosexual characters broke up the traditional home settings and it took divine intervention in both cases to reunite the families. In Emotional Crack, the lesbian character (Camille) was portrayed as deranged and had to kill herself in the end. It is also remarkable that she was essentially bi-sexual. She started out as a single lady having an illicit affair with a married man. She became interested in Crystal as a way to get back at the married man who dumped her after finding God and repenting of his cheating and abusive ways. The husbands in both Men in Love and Emotional Crack were either abusive or cheaters-and in the case of Emotional Crack, bothhowever, in both cases, abusive and cheating husbands were still preferable to homosexual partners. According to both videos, with divine help, abusive husbands can change, but homosexuals either commit suicide when the burden of their taboo desire becomes unbearable (as the Camille character in Emotional crack) or they go to jail after their supernatural hold on innocent victims have been divinely broken as in the case of Men in Love. In these story lines, love is rarely addressed as a possible motivation for homosexual liaisons and the rare occasions it was addressed in Emotional crack, it turned out it was a means of manipulation. However, love is presumed to be the glue for the heterosexual relationships. Even in abusive relationships such as the one in Emotional Crack where Crystal was being brutally abused physically and verbally by her husband and her family was begging her to leave him. She couldnâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;t leave him because she loved him too much. Even after being hospitalized as a result of another vicious beating, Chudi was able to plead his way back into her heart. In the case of Men in Love, Charles cheats on his wife with other women but the video made sure the audience understood that he still loved her and she loved him despite their problems.

The homosexual characters on the other hand were never in the relationship for love.

Camille was a chain-smoking, independent but predatory woman who wanted another manâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s wife. Her forage into homosexuality was an attempt to punish Chudi for tossing her aside. Her relationship with Camille had nothing to do with love but everything to do with anger and revenge. In the case of Alex and Charles, Alex was not in love with Charles but wanted Charles for the socio-economic benefit of being the sex toy of a rich man. He bragged to his friends about his access to expensive cars and a better lifestyle because of Charles. Charles was just his access key to a better lifestyle. As for Charles, he was not in love with Alex either, he was under a spell according to the video-film. Alexâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s character was manipulative, cunning and greedy. He was not a sympathetic character and neither was Camille. It is also important to know that Charles was married with children and all Asian Business Consortium | ABC-JAR

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he wanted was to continue his sexual relations with Alex while remaining married to Whitney. He is essentially bi-sexual just like Camille in Emotional Crack.

Mind Game was the one attempt to use both plot and characterization to address homosexuality in a compassionate manner. The couple is a born -again Christian and yet, the man finds himself attracted to men. The torment and anguish of people who find themselves in a heterosexual liaison even when they know they are gay to satisfy society‘s demands were discussed. Richard professes his love for his wife Betty, but also proclaim that he cannot help his attraction to men because he was born gay. This addresses the notion that people make the ‗bad‘ choice of being gay. This could have been a decent attempt to actually look at the notion of homosexuality through a very sympathetic characterization and also examine the perspectives of other family members when people come out of the closet-Richard‘s mother and Betty‘s aunt were involved in the conversations. The video presented all these possibilities but didn‘t follow through. The movie capitulated by making the whole thing a bad dream on the part of Betty. Richard couldn‘t consummate his marriage to his very beautiful wife because he is homosexual not bi-sexual. Omotola-Jolaade Ekehinde, one of the more acclaimed Nollywood actors played the part of Betty. Richard was obviously torn about his homosexuality and his desire to be ‗normal‘ by societal standards. His homosexuality was not as a result of a spell or a means of revenge by a jilted lover. His internal conflict between the desire to be a ‗normal‘ man and his desire for men was explored. He was a good man caught between being true to himself and doing what was expected of him.

While the issue of homosexuality has not been treated in any depth or even in a serious manner by the industry, it is still important that the industry continues to make video films addressing the issues. The earlier films on the issue were tentative, films like Aaro Meta, End Times and My Brother‟s Keeper were tentative in dealing with male homoeroticism. In these video-films, the details of the lifestyle were not included and it was always toward the end of the story that the viewer finds out that homoeroticism was being referenced. Female homoeroticism had not fared better as a theme in Nollywood. The women were almost always deranged, angry and violent. In the last few years however, male homoeroticism have taken center stage and more actors have become more willing to portray the physical act of male homoeroticism, and, bring the topic into the public sphere. It is not the industry‘s duty to resolve the issues for society, but, by portraying the lifestyle boldly, people can become familiar with seeing men with men and women with women, thereby, making it ‗real‘ for some members of the audience. This may help in cultivating viewers‘ attitude toward homosexuality (Calzo and Ward, 2009). As argued by the contact hypothesis, the more contact members of a majority have with the members of a minority group, the more likely they are to accept the minority groups (Gordon Allport, 1954). Viewers who may never have met a homosexual person may also develop a para-social relationship comparable to a face-to-face relationship with a media character (Sabido, 2004; Horton and Wahl, 1956; Bandura, 1977) portraying the lifestyle, which might make them more compassionate in their treatment of homosexuality.

Furthermore, if the mediated contacts are positive, the audience member may have positive vicarious associations with the minority group. However, when the portrayals are consistently negative, devious and lacking in depth, this may conversely create a negative sense of contact for people who have no opinion on homosexuality and affirm the homophobic discourses of audience members with existing homophobia by creating and perpetuating stereotypes. Also, in portraying homosexual characters as threats to heteronormative families, the industry may be deepening the fears and anxieties about the open expression of homoeroticism.

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Characterization of homoeroticism that is multi-dimensional but sympathetic may be more effective in creating an opportunity for non-polarizing discussions of homoeroticism and modern society. Richard, the husband in Mind Games started out as one such character. He loves his wife, is a born-again Christian and was not malevolent in any way.

His only ‗failing‘ was his homosexuality. Such a character could have been developed to give an insight to the internal struggles and challenges faced by a gay man in modern day Nigeria. Rather, the movie got weak-kneed and sabotaged the issue by labeling it a bad dream on the part of the wife. The treatment of homosexuality in these videos is also not encouraging to many Nigerians and Africans watching and living in the closet. These portrayals offer neither relief nor understanding of the lifestyle. The video treatment of the issue could actually make it more difficult for anyone to come out of the closet because of the fear of losing friends, especially the married ones to whom you are now a threat according to the videos. Other than prayers and spiritual miracles, the videos offer no resource for having an open discussion about the issue.

Nevertheless, I think as Nollywood matures and gets bolder in its portrayals of the homoerotic lifestyle, it will evolve into educating its audiences about real issues such as health concerns, especially, with men who are married to women but are in homosexual relationships outside the marriage. Right now, health promotions and education about HIV/AIDS in Africa is centrally focused on heterosexual contacts with few, if any, concessions to homosexual relations. Making the issue salient will open the room for more relevant discussions about safe sex including safe homosexual sex and discussions about prevention and treatments will also be more nuanced.

Despite the current short-sightedness involved in the portrayal of homosexuality by Nollywood, it is still important to keep portraying the lifestyle in the hope of demystifying it for the general public. This summation is premised upon the assumption that when portrayal has moved beyond its current nascent stage, education and engagement with the issue might be the natural next steps in the industry. Currently, the stereotypical portrayal in Nollywood of the homosexual person as a threat to the traditional heterosexual home setting may be the first step in mainstreaming the lifestyle in the public consciousness. Strands of the conversation in video-films such as Mind Game could potentially allow the conversations about the lifestyle to evolve into saliency with the public and ultimately, acceptance.

ENDNOTES i

http://www.starobserver.com.au/news/2011/ 11/ 30/n igerian-senate-passes-anti-gay-bill/66899 (accessed 1/15/ 2012)

APA Council of Representatives. (2002). ‗Guidelines on Multicultural Education, Training, Research, Practice, and Organizational Change for Psychologists.‖ www.APA.org (accessed 10/07/2010). iii Miguel Sabido, (2004). ―The Origins of Entertainment-education.‖ In Entertainment-education and Social Change: History, Research, and Practice, eds. A. Singhal, M. Cody, E.M. Rogers, and M. Sabido (Mahwah, NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Lawrence Erlbaum Associates). p. iv The case, Toonen vs Australia, concerned the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1996), Article 2.26 v Stuart Brody and John J. Potterat. (2003). Assessing the role of anal intercourse in the epidemiology of AIDS in Africa. International Journal of STD &AIDS, 14 (7): 431-436.

Available online at: www.cirp.ord/library/disease/HIV/brody2003/ (accessed on 10/05/2010). ii

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Brody and Potterat (2003). www.cirp.ord/library/disease/HIV/brody2003/ (Accessed on 10/05/2010). vii Brody and Potterat (2003). www.cirp.ord/library/disease/HIV/brody2003/ (Accessed on 10/05/2010). viii The Economist, (5/29/2010). A well-locked closet. Available online at http://www.economist.com/node/16219402 (Accessed on 10/07/2010, subscription required). ix http://pewglobal.org/files/pdf/258.pdf (Visited October 15, 2010). x http://www.awid.org/eng/Issues-and-Analysis/Library/Criminalizing-Homosexuality-theNigerian-Way (accessed October 15, 2010). xi http://www.fulcrum-anglican.org.uk/news/2006/20061121radner.cfm?doc=167 (Visited October 21, 2010). xii Sallie Marston, Keith Woodward and John Paul Jones, III. (2007). Flattening Ontologies of Globalization: The Nollywood Case. Globalizations, 4:1 p. 55. xiii Jonathan Haynes. (2008). Nollywood: what‘s in a name?, Africine.org, 17 August 2008.

Available at http://www.africine.org/?menu=art&no=8042 (visited October 10, 2010) xiv T.V. Globo, The Camilla Effect (Sao Paulo, Brazil: TV Globo, 2003). As cited by Arvin d Singhal (2007). vi

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VIDEOS   

Emotional Crack (2003) Men in Love (2010) Mind Game (2010)

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Rd 4, Shyamoli, Dhaka-1207, Bangladesh  Pantidalam, Kuala Lampur, Malaysia  3900 Woodhue Place, Alexandria, VA 22309, USA www.abcreorg.weebly.com / www.abcjournals.net

Asian Business Consortium (ABC) is a multi-disciplinary research, training, publishing, digital library supporting and service house. Though founded in 2010 as the Business and Computing organization of Asia, it was reconstituted as the ABC in 2011. It has been working for creatin g and nurturing talents in USA, Malaysia and Bangladesh since its inception. As ABC is going global, it intends to open chapters in Australia, Germany, Japan, Pakistan, and other Asian countries in near future. The objectives of consortium are solely centered round the welfare and humane attitude of the founders who enthusiastically took up this noble cause and materialized it with a view to promote research and educational activities for the encouragement of scholars to develop their knowledge, to publish their analysis oriented scientific researches in international Journals, books, the task of organizing workshops, seminars, conferences, training, personality development programs and allied services.

In addition to research activities, ABC provides a goo d number of scholarships to the poor and meritorious students at various levels of education throughout the world. It plays an important role in the field of research by funding research projects and publishing the research papers.

This consortium will unquestionably become the mouth-piece of the dark horses and unacknowledged scholar whose endowed and commendable contributions shall be provided an outlet keeping in mind the greater good of the larger society of the world.

ABC runs the following international referred journals for creating a platform to share the thoughts of professionals, scholars and academicians throughout the world.

ABC Publications (ABC Journals)  Asian Accounting and Auditing Advancement (4A Journal); ICV 5.09  Asian Business Review (ABR); UIF 0.1809  Asian Journal of Applied Sciences and Engineering (AJASE); UIF 0.6351  Global Disclosure of Economics and Business (GDEB)  ABC Journal of Advanced Research (ABC-JAR)  International Journal of Reciprocal Symmetry and Theoretical Physics (IJRSTP)  American Journal of Trade and Policy (AJTP)  Asian Journal of Humanity, Art and Literature (AJHAL)  ABC Journal of Medical and Biological Research (ABC-JMBR)  Asia Pacific Journal of Energy and Environment (APJEE)  Engineering International (EI)  ABC Research Alert (Online) Each journal home page provides specific information for potential authors and subscribers.

Open access policy, the quick review process, rich editorial boards and quality publications have already made ABC Journals unique. ABC Journals are published under the direct supervisions of renowned academicians of the world.

Collaboration in Conference: ABC considers high-quality conference papers for publication.

Please contact us for detailed information.

Collaboration in Publishing: If you like to start writing a book, propose a new journal or advertise in ABC journals, please feel free to contact us.

Asian Business Consortium | ABC-JAR

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