Journal of Higher Education Management - Vol 35(1)

leadership positions. One reason is due to overt and covert discrimination in employment. While this has become less acceptable in theory, in practice there is still an abundance of documentation that women and minorities still experience discrimination” (Davis & Maldonado, 2015, p. 51).

Indeed, in practice, and in first-person narratives, essays, and empirical studies, the literature clearly documents that racism and discrimination continue to persist for WOC in the academy, particularly those at predominantly white institutions (Bhattacharya,2015; Bilimoria & Buch, 2010; Frazier, 2011; Gutierrez y Muhs, Niemann, Gonzalez, & Harris, 2012; Matthew, 2016; Solórzano, 1998; Turner, 2002; Zambrana, 2018). Two recent edited volumes, Presumed Incompetent: The Intersections of Race and Class for Women in Academia (2012), and Counternarratives from Women of Color Academics: Bravery, Vulnerability, and Resistance (2019), are among the most revealing publications to bring attention to the often underreported and unaddressed experiences that WOC encounter in the academy. The title, Presumed Incompetent, accurately represents the attitudes which are, to a greater or lesser degree, clear attestations about why WOC feel they are ‘presumed incompetent’ by students, colleagues, and administrators based solely on their racial identities. WOC are held to different expectations than are their white colleagues, and often fail to meet these unwarranted expectations because the expectations fall far beyond their job descriptions—e.g., to be a mammy to students, a maid, secretary, or a sexual icon for colleagues. When such superfluous expectations go unmet, WOC report receiving threatening or hate mail from students or colleagues; having their expertise and authority challenged on a regular basis; and receiving negative or lower student evaluations for irrelevant factors such as how nice they are, how well they dress, or how attractive students think they are. All of these are dynamics to which their white male counterparts would rarely, if ever, have to succumb (Gutiérrez y Muhs, Niemann, González, & Harris, 2012).

The racism, discrimination, and daily microaggressions that WOC encounter are not just directed at them, one-on-one, from students and colleagues. One overarching theme of Presumed Incompetent points out that “predominantly white and male employment and educational institutions systematically disfavor women of color, not solely through individual bias but as part of larger systems of education, employment, media, and other civil society institutions that perpetuate and extend the privileges created by group subordination” (Gutiérrez y Muhs et al., 2012, p. 4).

For many women, such daily slights, snubs, and dismissals are common, particularly in environments where white males dominate in power; however, for WOC the barriers are frequently doubled, tripled or more, based on their multiple marginalized identities.

“The mental, emotional, spiritual, and physical fatigue expressed in the personal stories [of WOC] underscore the damage caused by an unceasing battle against discrimination and the internalization of one’s presumed incompetence” (Richardson, 2014, p. 287).

Intersectionality Essays and narratives penned by WOC tell us that they are not just women who are racial and ethnic minorities; they are entering the academic workforce with an abundance of intersectional identities. They are mothers who prioritize the needs of their children and families, even over the academic research, teaching, and service demands of their careers. They are first-generation immigrants from all continents of the world—Asia, South and Central America, Africa, Europe— and are documented and undocumented. They are members of the LGBTQ community who have same-gender spouses and partners, and are often rearing children as well. They are the first28