A.R.E.A. Research Book

AREA

ATELIER FOR RESILIENT ENVIRONMENTAL ARCHITECTURE

TOWARDS AN INHABITABLE EARTH

Karolina Backman Ryan McGaffney Isabella van der Griend Charlotte Uiterwaal

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Authors: Karolina Backman Ryan McGaffney Isabella van der Griend Charlotte Uiterwaal Editor: Henri van Bennekom Delft University of Technology Faculty of Architecture & The Built Environment Complex Projects Julianalaan 134 2628BL Delft The Netherlands

We would like to thank everyone who has contributed to the collective research body which has concluded in the production of this book. The people below only touch the surface of the wide community who have supported, advised, inspired and worked alongside us throughout this project.

Abhishek Holla, Andy van den Dobblesteen, Ambrose Gillick, Amy Contino, Andre Erikson, Bo Tang, Celine Mugica, Chris Hendricks, Dan Lewis, Daphne Delissen, Devidas Buinauskas , Elly Hendricks, Emilio Hormais, Eric van den Ham, Esther van Weelden, Florian Zirkzee, Greg Keeffe, Jacqueline van Dam, James Mitchell, Joppe Douma, Julia Camargo, Karun Kumbera, Kate Raworth, Lauren Broshuis, Lian Blok, Lorenzo Cocchi, Louis Lousberg, Lucas Pol, Martijn Dalinghaus, Maurice Mitchell, Nanne Knijff, Nelson Mota, Quinten Bouwmann, Reed Loo, Roel van de Pas, Rohit Menon, Roos de Jong, Sarah de Bruin , Saskia Asselbergs, Sietske van der Meulen, Sophie Wijting, Terrie van den Brink, Wout Kruijer

FOREWORD

This publication is a product of the architectural graduation design studio ‘Building under the Himalayas’ in the Master of Science program at the Faculty of Architecture of Delft University of Technology. The studio, which was initiated and tutored by Henri van Bennekom (Chair of Complex Projects), was held in 2017 and 2018.

The search for an alternative approach to building sustainably originated from the realization that current modes of sustainable building are not available for most people around the globe, especially those people in emerging economies.

Furthermore, such building approaches do not appear to be effective enough in relation to the increasing climate change and depletion of materials. Aware of this critical situation, four ambitious Master’s students (the co-authors of this publication) took up this challenge, and designed a method to assess design and building initiatives with an integral, sustainable approach: the ‘AREA framework’.

Massive amounts of information, insights and data were collected in order to address the request for responsible, sustainable building practices, initially in Northern India, and later on a global level. The AREA framework can be a necessary and practical tool to ensure the continued existence of humankind.

PREFACE WRITTEN BY HENRI VAN BENNEKOM The recent exponential increase in global temperatures, the depletion of vital raw materials, and the decline of biodiversity are caused by human production and consumption, propagated by an outdated concept of burning fossil fuels, leaving pollution and waste behind. For decades, the tug of war on materials and oil has led to social and political conflicts, and neglect of the environment.

These problems increase in the face of scarcity and climate change. This system is no longer bearable. Human behavior is the cause and thus needs to change, but so far it hasn’t.

Accounting for up to fifty percent of all natural-resources extraction, global energy use, CO2 emission, and waste disposal in landfills, the building industry is the world’s largest consumer and pollutant. Its negative effect on the planet’s climate, environment and health is disastrous.

Continuing our building practices and consumption as we have developed them since the Industrial Revolution is a dead-end road.

The negative effects of our lifestyle on climate, nature and health are gaining speed. The world’s population is expected to grow to approximately nine billion by 2050, needing an estimated 1 billion additional houses. And perhaps even more worrying is the middle class growing to five billion people who all want a car, a refrigerator, eat meat and travel, adding to the current harmful impact of human existence.

The big challenge will be to confront our inertia to change our destructive habits, which prevents us from becoming sustainable. We need to better realize that everything we use - from cars to deodorants, from coffee cups to buildings - requires production energy and materials, which increase the emission of greenhouse gases and pollution, and deplete all kinds of raw material sources. In order to change that system and to start putting a halt to our global problems, we must reduce and alter consumption, production and transportation. And that is why we must find ways to change our current habits and expectations.

Last month, the United Nations issued a warning that countries are required to make a much more serious effort in their climate policies and actions due to the higherthan-expected increases in global temperatures. Recently, the Dutch government agreed on a ‘climate law’. The Paris climate agreement set ambitious goals. Worldwide, many ambitions are formulated to fight climate change and the impact of consumptions. But countries are struggling to achieve those goals. For all of the formulated ambitions on climate and environment we need the right tools to act. This

publication presents an attempt to provide one.

Our lifestyle seems captured in a consuming system driven by economic growth, with marketing and media as engines.

Governments and manufacturers promise economic growth, thus more jobs and public buying power, which in turn seems to make or keep everybody happy. We seem to be growth addicted. But the planet has limits to growth, and we have been overshooting its boundaries already for decades, as this publication documents. In this sense, the ‘Doughnut Theory’ of Kate Raworth is very refreshing. This theory questions the currently used economic models that are based on profit and growth, and provides another model, the ‘doughnut’. When I told my students (the authors of this publication) about this, they immediately embraced this approach, and used this theory as one of the basic principles to develop a ‘framework for human resilience’. The result of their work is a method to integrally determine on social, economical and environmental aspects, which choices and measures need to be taken to achieve the most sustainable actions for any design and building task.

The huge impact of the building industry on global environmental and climate issues shows the need for a tool to design and build with another approach. The ‘AREA framework’ provides us with a very valuable and desperately needed tool that enables us to change our behavior to put us on a path toward a habitable planet.

I sincerely hope that this book inspires other people to take complementary initiatives.

Ir. Henri A. van Bennekom Complex Projects, Faculty of Architecture Delft University of Technology, NL July, 2018

CONTENT

IN FIGURES A Planetary Outline

p12

IN THEORY A Framework for a Resiliency

p58

IN PERSPECTIVE A Referential Lexicon

p96

01. The Blue Marble

INTRODUCTION ATELIER FOR RESILIENT ENVIRONMENTAL ARCHITECTURE On the 7th of December 1972 the crew of Apollo 17 left the surface of our planet for what would be the final moon landing mission of the Apollo program. During their voyage toward the moon the crew of Apollo 17 captured an image which would go on to become the most reproduced photograph in human history.1 The photograph was the first image to show the entire planet floating in the vast context of space, creating the first real representation of what Buckminster Fuller commonly referred to as Spaceship Earth.2 The understanding which the Blue Marble brought back to the surface of the earth, that the planet of which we inhabit is not infinite, arguably spread routes for the beginning of the environmental movement. In this realization, it noted the first time in human history in which we had become so technologically advanced to leave our home planet, and in what was reminiscent of an outer bodily experience, gained consciousness to the fragility of the place which we call home.

A key figure of this environmental movement, who brought forward the early notion of environmentalism and human induced climate change into the forefront of popular discussion and politics, was the former US Vice President, Al Gore. Gore, through anticipating the effects that the changing climate would have on the ability for humans, and other species of life, to inhabit this planet, knew that the Blue Marble possessed great value. Value, which could be used as a tool for us to map and understand the effect we as humans were having on our spaceship earth. In this understanding, Gore, in collaboration with NASA, began to develop the DSCOVR satellite in 1998. The satellite would act as a means of measuring the changes in climate on Earth from space through producing similar images to that of the blue marble over a prolonged period of time. However, in the change of US Presidential administration in 2000, the satellite was put into storage3, taking another 17 years before it would be launched by the Obama administration with the support of Elon Musk’s Space X.4 On launch of this satellite we are now able to measure and record the effects which not only climate change is having on our World, but also the effects which human expansion is having on the Earth’s surface. The production of the Black Marble photography series by NASA in 2012 provided clear images of the Earth at night, showing mans industrial expansion across the planet. This expansion is illustrated in the light coming from our built environment which breaches the Earths atmosphere and projects outwards into space.

Since Gore’s original attempt to launch the DSCOVR satellite, global energy usage has increased by over 70%.5 In addition to this we have become a more urbanized species,

with the global population becoming majority urbanized in recent years and is anticipated to grow in the lead up to 2050.

This urbanization has put increasing pressure on our urban built environments, meaning that our cities rely on many outside sources for the necessary supplies which it takes to sustain them. This use of resources in relation to the ecology which it takes to produce them is measured in ecological footprint. A city or country’s ecological footprint gives an indication of their consumption of resources in relation to their ability to produce those same resources at the same rate as which they were consumed.

In relation to the built environment, the concept of using ecological footprint as a design influence in optimising the production cycles of our building has been explored by Greg Keefe in his book Means, Means, Means: An Adventure in the Technoscape.6 Keefe argues that our buildings must become smarter beasts and implement a factor four reduction of our earthshare(ecological footprint) in order to become completely circular systems which sustain human inhabitation.7 However, to reach a sustainable ecological footprint on this planet we must also retain the social, economical, and technological advancements which enabled us to comprehend our existence on this planet and brought environmentalism to the forefront of human thinking.

In this move to urbanization, our ecological footprints have increased exponentially. In which the creation of vast metropolises only adds to the pressure which we are putting on the planet. In understanding this, the city of London was the first to measure the ecological footprint of the city in it’s city limits report, published in 2002. The report found that the City of London needed 293 times the size of London to sustain itself.8 In showing this, the link can be made that the expansion of our urban areas is the major force in the increase in our ecological footprint, due to the vast amount of imports which it takes to sustain city life. The instinctive reaction to this would be that our cities and even countries should become more localized, making use of localized goods, labour and resources to sustain itself. In a sense this can be seen, more in response to trade protectionism rather than environmentalism, in the Trump administration tariffs on the importation of foreign industrial goods to the United States.9 However, Keeffe argues that the hyper localized city is also not sustainable, due to their being no wealth in becoming completely subsistence based.10 There is a need, therefore, to create optimal urban environments which make use of contextually based resource and enter into

trade to procure resources which are not available on a local scale. This bridge between local and global is becoming ever more present as our urban environments spread to the far reaches of the world.

Globalization, as a construct of living, has enabled the freedom and ease of movement to many remote places of the planet, enabling dense urban inhabitation in places where it would never have before been possible. A key example of this is the Maldives, where remote islands in the Indian ocean have been completely urbanized, relying on vast imports of goods to sustain themselves. However, the transportation of these resources to remote parts of the globe has come at the cost of constantly rising carbon dioxide emissions due to our reliance on fossil fuels which is intrinsic in the production and transportation of those resources.

2016 noted the first year in recorded human history where the carbon dioxide levels passed the 400ppm (parts per million) of carbon dioxide in the earths atmosphere. The breaching of this threshold meant that it is unlikely that the concentration of carbon dioxide in our atmosphere will ever fall below this mark within the lifetime of people currently alive on the planet.11 The change in climate which we have witnessed over the last century has therefore become irreversible and we must begin to prepare ourselves in our built environments for the unknown changes that lie ahead.

It is not only necessary to construct our urban spaces to be sustainable, but also necessary to make them resilient to the changes in weather which are predicted to occur in the foreseeable future.

In a bid to enable this to happen, Johan RĂśckstrom and Will Stefan from the Stockholm Resilience Centre outlined the extents of which our planet is able to remain resilient in terms of planetary boundaries in 2009.12 RĂśckstrom & Stefan show that many of these planetary boundaries have already been breached, propelling the need for human kind to become resilient in order to sustain current standards of living.

The understanding of these issues fell to us upon our first design project as a studio, which was located in the Himalayas of North East India. The Kullu Valley, the location for this studio project, had historically been deemed locally as Kulanthapita13, which translates to The End of the Habitable World, and henceforth, feeds into the name of this book.

This region, gained its name from man’s inability to navigate The Rohtang Pass, being forced to stop and create a limit to the expansion of their settlements. With advancements in infrastructure and technology this region became wildly accessible to the outside world between the 1950-60s.

The expansion of human kind into this valley created new urban settlements which put themselves at risk in this

extreme environment through being completely depended on external resources and un-contextualised means of production. Through analysis of the valley, we came to the realization that the problems which the region faced were not merely localized issues but had routes in a much wider global scale. The acknowledgement of which lead us to the book which you are reading now which aims to provide a key framework for the integration of resilient methods of design into the production of our built environment.

As architects we need to understand the global context in which we are inevitably working, and bring together the pluralities of local and global in the context of our work. In doing so we outline the current situation of the planet in relation to four key topics which we have outline in relation to the built environment; Socio-Economics & Health, Mobility & Resources, Energy, and Disaster Resilience. This outline correlates key information from multiple sources to provide a comprehensive understanding of the globalized context in which we are working now and in the lead up to 2050. To enable us to comprehend these condition we have developed a key design framework which enables designers to analyse within the built environment in relation to key resiliency principles, to determine the extent in which the context in which they are working is resilient across multiple scales, from the global to the local. The use of this framework enable architects and designers to understand the strengths and shortfalls of the project which with they have been tasked to design appropriate solutions to the issues at hand.

To further understand this theory and illustrate the extent of its usage to you, the reader, we have employed what we believe to be key precedent examples which employ resilient strategies of design which are transient across scales and relevant on both global and local extents.

The aim of this book is to equip you and others in the professions within the built environment with the knowledge and tools that it takes to design for a resilient future of a fragile species on a finite planet.

02. The Black Marble

IN FIGURES

AREA

14

IN FIGURES

ABSTRACT

15

IN FIGURES sets the scene of the current state of the world.

It draws up the planetary and social conditions the world is facing and how this is predicted to change for the future.

The chapter outlines the current patterns of consumption, growth and pollution that is contributing to the path of an uninhabitable earth with resource scarcity, polluted reserves and a great increase of natural hazards. These patterns are particularly analysed in regards to the built environment which is where we, as architects, can contribute to a dierent future through sustainable development that provides and inclusive, safe, sustainable and resilient living environment for all.

AREA 16

“By 2050 66% of the global population will live in urban areas”

- UN World Urbanization Prospects

IN FIGURES

17

POPULATION

AREA ESTIMATED URBAN POPULATION IN 2050 Source: UN World Urbanization Prospects

Source: World Bank 2015

> 25 MILLION

0-49%

25 MILLION - 50 MILLION

50-99%

50 MILLION - 100 MILLION

100-299%

100 MILLION - 500 MILLION

> 300%

< 500 MILLION

97%

POPULATION GROWTH 1960-2015

JAPAN

Source: Populstat

7%

70%

75%

50%

81%

POPULATION PER COUNTRY

AUSTRALIA

INDONESIA

CHINA

INDIA

RUSSIA

88%

91%

87%

96% NETHERLANDS

UK

BRAZIL

USA

18 LEGEND

IN FIGURES

POPULATION

To become resilient, our planet faces a multitude of challenges in the near future. The first of these which this text aims to address is the increasing population, induced by globalized urbanisation, resulting in a growing number of inhabitants on this earth.

In developing countries, 1 in 5 people by 2030 will be slum dwellers, living below the poverty line.3 As part of the urban population, the urban built environment will have to improve to become more inclusive to accommodate for this large section of society. This pressure on the built environment takes place not only in the cities that are here today, but in new cities formed from the urbanization of rural areas as communications and technology becomes more interlinked, enabling decentralized living.

The increase in global population will mean that construction will also increase to accommodate the added population, with the United Nations predicting that the global floor built floor area will increase by 50% by 2050. This development can be seen to be most pressing across Africa(+550%), China(+480%), and India(+260%).4 This growth in floor area is set to mostly take place in slum settlements where urban conditions are dense and largely informal. To allow for this expansion the built environment must become adaptive and inclusive for its inhabitants, enabling them to quickly adopt it to their changing needs and habits as the urban population expands. This will require architecture to become far more contextualized, taking into consideration the employment of local skills, knowledge, resources, and materials to enable the constant and rapid upgrading of the social foundation of living conditions in response to a continued influx of population.

As the population grows in developing countries, China &

If the World population consumes in the same pattern in 2050 as we do now, three times the amount of Earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s resources will be needed to sustain life on Earth.5

19

In the near future, according to the UN World Urbanisation Prospects for 2050, global population is estimated to increase by 2.8 billion people between 2016 and 2050, reaching a total of 9.8 billion.1 The year 2016 was the first time in contemporary documented history in which the percentage of the global population living in urban areas overtook that of rural areas. This urbanization is set to further increase, with the UN predictions for 2050 estimating that 66% of the global population will be living in urban settlements, towns, and cities.2 The shift away from rural, agricultural based settlements which will inevitably accompany this shift, towards more industrial and service based processes which take place in urban areas are also predicted to create an increase in wealth among developing nations.

India will account for over one third of the global population, with India predicted to overtake China in terms of total population. The double threat of expanding population, caused by urbanization, coupled with the potential of a rising ecological footprint, will put exponential stress on the Earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s natural environment and resources.

9 Population billions

AREA

Source: Populstat 2017

POPULATION INCREASE 2000-2050 (PROJECTED)

10

8

7

20

SENEGAL NIGERIA INDONESIA USA CHINA

INDIA

2050 2040 2030 2025 2020 2010 2000

POPULATION DENSITY (PEOPLE/KM2), INCREASE IN POPULATION 2000-2050 AND POPULATION BY NUMBER OF PEOPLE 2050 (PROJECTED) Source: Populstat 2017

+285%

+173%

1.119

1.706

0.039

0.337

0.330 +60%

0.394

-11%

+40%

+68%

billions

POPULATION

percentage increase

POPULATION

billions

POPULATION

percentage increase

POPULATION

billions

POPULATION

percentage increase

POPULATION

billions

POPULATION

POPULATION

percentage increase

billions

POPULATION

percentage increase

POPULATION

billions

POPULATION

POPULATION

percentage increase

IN FIGURES

POPULATION INCREASE 2000-2050 (PROJECTED) Source: Populstat 2017

Population billions

2

INDIA

1.5 CHINA

0.5

2010

2020

2025

2030

2040

2050

21

2000

USA INDONESIA

POPULATION DENSITY (PEOPLE/KM2), INCREASE IN POPULATION 2000-2050 AND POPULATION BY NUMBER OF PEOPLE 2050 (PROJECTED) Source: Populstat 2017

INDIA

CHINA

USA

INDONESIA

NIGERIA

SENEGAL

364.8

445.3

198.8

144.1

146.8 35.3

DENSITY

people/sq. km

DENSITY

people/sq. km

DENSITY

people/sq. km

DENSITY

people/sq. km

people/sq. km

DENSITY

DENSITY

people/sq. km

AREA BUILT UP FLOOR AREA BY REGION 2017 AND PREDICTED ADDITIONS UNTIL 2060 Source: UN Environment 2017

2017 (EXISTING)

2017-2030

2030 - 2040

2040 - 2050

2050-2060

120

+ 550%

22 TotalBuilt up Area (billion m2)

90

+ 20% + 480%

60

+ 33%

+ 260% + 45% + 150%

+ 110% + 40%

+ 30%

30

0 AFRICA

CHINA

INDIA

NORTH AMERICA

EUROPE

ASEAN LATIN (ASSOCIATION AMERICA OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN NATIONS)

OTHER ASIA MIDDLE EAST OECD PACIFIC (AUSTRALIA, NEW ZEELAND, JAPAN & KOREA)

IN FIGURES

GLOBAL BUILT UP FLOOR AREA BY 2050 Source: UN Environment 2017

GLOBAL BUILT UP FLOOR AREA 2017

23

GLOBAL BUILT UP FLOOR AREA 2050

+50%

GLOBAL URBAN VS RURAL POPULATION 2050 Source: UN World Urbanization Prospects

Rural

Urban

66%

34%

AREA 24

“20% of the global population live in slums.”

- UN Environment

IN FIGURES 25

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

AREA GDP PER CAPITA 2011 (PPP - PURCHASING POWER PARITY IN US DOLLAR/PERSON) Source: World Bank 2017

$61,882

$48,442

$39,211

$34,294

$21,218

$8,466

$3,552

$1,884

WORLD AVERAGE: $1,067

NORWAY

USA

GERMANY

JAPAN

RUSSIA

CHINA

INDIA

GHANA

26 LEGEND INCOME LEVELS ACROSS THE WORLD (US DOLLAR/YEAR) Source: World Bank 2015

SHARE OF POPULATION LIVING ON LESS THAN 2011â&#x20AC;&#x2122;S INTERNATIONAL POVERTY LINE (<1.90 US DOLLAR/DAY) Source: World Bank 2013

LOW INCOME (< 1,025 US)

<2 %

25-49.9 %

LOWER MIDDLE INCOME (1,026-4,035)

2-9.9 %

>50%

UPPER MIDDLE INCOME (4,036-12,475)

10-24.9 %

HIGH INCOME (>12,475)

IN FIGURES

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

The rapid growth in population in the run up to 2050 is predicted to be accompanied by an increase in wealth.

By 2050 the four fastest growing economies globally are predicted to be China, the United States of America, India, and Indonesia in terms of increase in GDP(Gross Domestic Product).6

Historically, the global increase in wealth has been coupled with a decrease in the percentage of the population living in poverty, with 11% of the population living below the poverty line in 2015.10 However, by 2030, 20% of the population is still predicted to be living in slum housing.11 With slums being a main source of urban population growth, the way we design slums, not only programatically, but economically becomes increasingly important. In developed economies the price of housing has increased dramatically over the last century, with housing price in relation to income almost doubling between 1987 and 2007.12 The increase in the cost of housing in developed nations has caused segregation between the wealthy and poor, meaning many with lower income are locked out of access to housing which meets their base needs.

The design of our living environments then becomes increasingly important, ensuring access to shelter becomes available and aďŹ&#x20AC;ordable to all within society.

To allow this to happen professions need to become far more interdisciplinary, taking a completely holistic approach to design which encompasses all scales, taking into consideration the wider global situation whilst being responsive to the needs of the user. This requires professions to rethink their economic model to encompass a larger scope of society.

The increase in global wealth in society can be linked to the increased consumption of resources, and henceforth a greater ecological footprint.13 With this increase in GDP/ capita by PPP-ranking in 2050; China, India and The United States of America will have the wealthiest citizens, and therefore the highest consumption patterns.

For the built environment this brings with it a growth in the

27

The expansion of Asian economies such as China, India, and Indonesia, will bring with it a shift in global wealth which will allow the E7 economic community7 to begin to compete with G7 economies.8 By 2050 China is projected to push to the forefront of new wealth, to be almost be on par with the United States of America in terms of Gross Domestic Product(GDP).9

construction of new buildings. Therefore, as consumption grows we must design our buildings to be adaptable for multiple functionalities throughout their lifespan to enable them to become an integral part of this increase in construction.

AREA GLOBAL PROJECTED INCREASE IN GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT 2000 - 2050 Source: World Bank 2015

Advanced Economies

30,000

10,000

WORLD Developing Economies

0 2000

2010

2020

2025

2030

2040

2050

COUNTRY PROJECTED INCREASE IN GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT 2000 - 2050 Source: World Bank 2015

50,000

GDP US dollar billions

28

GDP US dollar billions

50,000

China

30,000

USA India

10,000 Indonesia

2000

2010

2020

2025

2030

2040

2050

IN FIGURES

GLOBAL POPULATION PERCENTAGE LIVING BELOW THE POVERTY LINE Source: World Bank 2015

11% Below poverty line

Above poverty line 29

89%

PROPORTION OF GLOBAL POPULATION BELOW POVERTY LINE (1.90 US DOLLAR/DAY) 1990-2011 Source: World Bank 2015

Poor

Not Poor

8 Billion

6 Billion

4 Billion

2 Billion

0 Billion 1990

1993

1996

1999

2002

2005

2008

2011

2013

AREA

COST OF HOUSING COMPARED TO INCOME LEVELS 1987-2007 Source: Wealth Foundations 2012

House Price to Income Ratio x6

Australia Ireland New Zeeland UK x5

Canada x4

USA x3

30

x2

x1

SENEGAL NIGERIA INDONESIA USA CHINA

INDIA

2007 2005 2000 1995 1990 1987

PROJECTED POPULATION INCREASE & PROJECTED GDP/CAPITA INCREASE 2016-2050 Source: World Bank 2015 & PWC 2016

+285%

+111%

+130%

+173%

+181%

+181%

+292%

+60%

+53%

-11%

+40%

+68%

percentage increase

GDP/CAPITA

percentage increase

POPULATION

percentage increase

GDP/CAPITA

percentage increase

POPULATION

percentage increase

GDP/CAPITA

percentage increase

POPULATION

percentage increase

GDP/CAPITA

POPULATION

percentage increase

percentage increase

GDP/CAPITA

percentage increase

POPULATION

percentage increase

GDP/CAPITA

POPULATION

percentage increase

IN FIGURES

PREDICTED GLOBAL HOUSING CONDITIONS 2030 Source: UN Environment 2017

TOTAL GLOBAL POPULATION

20% 31

POPULATION LIVING IN SLUM HOUSING

GLOBAL CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRYâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S PART OF THE GLOBAL GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (GDP) Source: UN EP 2012

Other Industries

Construction Industry

10%

34%

AREA 32

“By 2025 30% of the global population will face water shortage”

- United Nations

IN FIGURES

33

RESOURCES

AREA AMOUNT OF EARTHâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S NEEDED IF EVERYONE CONSUMED LIKE THE AVERAGE PERSON OF Source: Global Footprint Network (2016)

4.8

1.8

3

0.7

2

5.4

USA

BRAZIL

GERMANY

INDIA

CHINA

AUSTRALIA

34 LEGEND BIO-CAPACITY OF COUNTRY EXCEEDS ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT OF CONSUMPTION Source: Global Footprint Network

ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT OF CONSUMPTION EXCEEDS BIO-CAPACITY OF COUNTRY

WATER SCARCITY Source: World Resources Institute

Source: Global Footprint Network

0-50 %

>150 %

EXTREME (<80%)

50-100 %

100-150 %

HIGH (40-80%)

100-150 %

50-100 %

>150 %

0-50 %

IN FIGURES

RESOURCES

The projected increase in population, urbanization, and wealth which leads to higher consumer patterns has put further pressure on the planets natural resources. To measure this the term ecological footprint is used, which maps the rate at which nations consume resources in relation to the rate at which the earth can reproduce the same amount of resources consumed. To live sustainably, the bio-capacity of every country, the rate at which their eco-systems can produce resources, should exceed their ecological footprint, the rate at which their population consumes resources.14

At the heart of this, it is our scarce resources, those that take the longest time for the earth to renew, that are being depleted the fastest. In 2013 British Petroleum(BP) estimated that the earth has 53.3 years of oil resources left in it’s eco-system. If this prediction is accurate then in just over 200 years, humans have depleted a natural resource which takes millions of years to form.16 The current value system where intrinsic value is added to rare goods through status instead of the labour that went into creating them, creates a problem for globalized resources. As resources begin to deplete they become more sought after and hence more valuable, leading to a faster rate of depletion.

This not only includes resources which produce energy but also extends to the basic resources which support human life; food and water. In the case of food it is a case of wasting a resource of which we have an over abundance.

In advanced economies food resources are stockpiled to an extent of up to 400% of what is needed for human consumption. In comparison, taking 130% of food resource per consumption as a sustainable level of supply, some developing countries have as little as 80-90% of the food resources which are needed to support human life.17The over

The World’s average water consumption is currently 1240 m3/ person/year.18 Higher income countries, such as the United States of America, tend to consume twice this amount.

Whilst water usage in developing industrial economies can also reach above average consumption. China, accounts for as much as 34% of the world’s water consumption, mainly due to its large agriculture and mining industries.19 Water scarcity is considered to be the most pressing issue for the future population, according to UN and NASA. Out of the world’s 37 major aquifers, which provide 30% of the global population with water, 21 have more water removed annually than what is being replenished through rainfall. 20 The world is facing growing inequality in access to fresh water, a result of the expanding wealth gap which is coinciding with rural and urban migration, mainly impacting Sub-Saharan Africa. The resultant climate change which is rapidly taking place on earth will further widen water inequality, with many nations across the world falling victim to extended periods of drought cause by an increase in global average temperature. Whilst polar melting from the Artic, to Greenland, to Antarctica is predicted to increase sea level, subsequently creating widespread flooding worldwide. This can already begin to be anticipated, in analysing the increase in tropical storms and hurricanes which have occurred in recent years, induced by rising sea temperatures as our oceans gain more freshwater from the melting of polar ice caps.21 The depletion of the earth’s natural resources, through human hedonism, inevitably results in the changing climatic condition which will render this planet un fit for human inhabitation. This can be traced back to one key source; the increasing pollution of greenhouse gases which mankind is adding to the earth’s atmosphere.

35

The two main factors which influence ecological footprint are population (density & size) and wealth(GDP). High income countries have a much higher ecological footprint than low income countries. High population density impacts ecological footprint, the bio-capacity per person starts to become scarce as the population becomes denser.

The largest contributing factor to the global ecological footprint is greenhouse gas emissions. Specifically, carbon emissions are currently the fastest growing contributor to ecological footprint worldwide. Currently, the global ecological footprint is at 1.7, meaning that to sustain life on earth as it is now, it would take 1.7 planets to do so. If human consumption continues in the current trend the global ecological footprint is predicted to rise to 3 earths by 2050, meaning that the planets resources are being heavily depleted by man kind.15

consumption which is taking place in the developed world, who have access to disposable wealth generation, is not only by standing this global inequality, but is creating waste and pollution which is contaminating what should be the most abundant resource on this planet; water.

AREA ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT/CAPITA IN HIGH INCOME VS LOW INCOME COUNTRIES

NUMBER OF COUNTRIES NEEDED TO MEET THE CONSUMPTION DEMANDS OF ITS POPULATION

Source: Ecological Footprint Network 2015

Source: Ecological Footprint Network 2015

7 JAPAN

Global hectares per person

6 5

CHINA

4 INDIA

3 2

36

GERMANY

1

WITHIN THE GLOBAL LIMIT

0 1960

USA 1970

1980

1990

HIGH INCOME COUNTRIES

2000

2010

LOW INCOME COUNTRIES

ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT DEMAND OVER TIME

Number of earths available and demanded

Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

1.5

1

0.5

0 1961

1971

1981

1991

GRAZING PRODUCTS

CROPS

FISH

FOREST PRODUCTS

BUILT UP LAND

CARBON

2001

2012

IN FIGURES

WATER CONSUMPTION RATIOS BY CONTINENT Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

19%

69%

World

21%

Europe

22%

57% 51%

Americas Australia & Oceania

34%

81%

Asia

5%

13%

MUNICIPALITY

WATER LEVEL CHANGES IN THE WORLDâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S LARGEST AQUIFERS

21 OUT OF THE WORLDS 37 MAJOR AQUIFERS HAVE MORE WATER REMOVED ANNUALY THAN WHAT IS REPLACED

Source: American Geophysical Union 2016

150

Water storage anamoly (level height in mm)

9%

50 Canning

-50

Middle East Southern Plains Central Valley N China Plain Guarani

-150

-250 NW India

2003

2005

2007

2009

2011

2013

BY 2025 UN ESTIMATES 30% OF THE WORLD POPULATION TO FACE PHYSICAL WATER SHORTAGE

37

INDUSTRIES

25% 10%

82%

Africa

15%

15%

60%

AGRICULTURE

12%

AREA ENERGY CONSUMPTION GROWTH PER COUNTRY 1960-2015 (METRIC TON OF CO2 EQUIVALENT) Source: World Bank 2015

8 USA

6

MtCO2

RUSSIA NETHERLANDS

4

UNITED KINGDOM

38

CHINA WORLD AVERAGE

2

INDIA

0 1960

1975

1990

PERCENTAGE OF GLOBAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION PER SECTOR

2005

2015

ENERGY USAGE PER CAPITA (EQUIVALENT TO TON OIL) Source: World Bank 2011

Source: United Nations 2015

28% 40 %

7 ton

5 ton

3.8 ton

2.9 ton

USA

RUSSIA

GERMANY

UK

2 ton

1.4 ton

0.7 ton

0.6 ton

CHINA

BRAZIL

NIGERIA

INDIA

32%

BUILDINGS

INDUSTRY

TRANSPORT

IN FIGURES

BUILT ENVIRONMENTâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S CONTRIBUTION TO RESOURCE EXTRACTION Source: Willmott Dixon 2010

GLOBAL RESOURCE EXTRACTION

50-70% 39

RESOURCE EXTRACTION FOR THE BUITL ENVIRONMENT

GLOBAL ACCESS TO WATER Source: World Bank 2015

29%

Contaminared Source Water access

No water access

10%

61% GLOBAL ACCESS TO ENERGY Source: World Bank 2015

Energy access

No energy access

20%

80%

AREA 40

“The built environment contributes to 50% of global landfill”

- Willmott Dixon

IN FIGURES

41

POLLUTION

AREA CO2 EMISSIONS PER CAPITA COMPARED TO WORLD AVERAGE (METRIC TON CO2/PERSON) Source: World Bank 2017

18.6 ton

18 ton

12 ton

9.6 ton

5.5 ton

2.1 ton

1.5 ton

0.1 ton

WORLD AVERAGE: 5.5 TON

AUSTRALIA

USA

RUSSIA

GERMANY

CHINA

BRAZIL

INDIA

82 LAS VEGAS

60 NEW YORK

152 BOGOTA

66 AMSTERDAM

3 STOCKHOLM

153 DELHI

50 ADDIS ABEBA

42 LEGEND CO2 EMISSIONS PER COUNTRY 2016 (Metric tons) Source: Edgar

0 - 100.000 100.000 - 250.000 250.000 - 500.000 500.000 - 750.000 750.000 - 1.000.000

AIR QUALITY INDEX - PM2.5 CONCENTRATION (Uq/m3) Source: NCBI

0 - 50 51 - 100 101 -150 151 - 200

Good Moderate Unhealthy for sensitive groups Unhealthy

UGANDA

150 BEIJING

IN FIGURES

POLLUTION

Carbon dioxide emissions are the largest contributor to the rise in ecological footprint. Increasing at the fastest rate of all greenhouse gases, carbon dioxide alone, is responsible for 80% of emissions globally.22

The built environment is one of the largest consumers of energy, making up 40% of energy consumption and 31% of carbon emissions.24 Only 19% of the energy which is used to fuel our towns, cities, and homes, comes from renewable energy sources.25 Whilst this pollution is accelerating the process of planetary climate change, it is also leading to poorer air quality, damaging human and environmental health. Air quality is measured in the amount of particles in the atmosphere which are smaller than 2.5mm, named particulate matter 2.5(PM2.5).26 The main contributor to the reduction of atmospheric air quality is the burning of fossil fuels.

This does come from some environmental sources such as volcanic eruptions, however it has been significantly increased through motorised and air transportation, power plants, and human induced forest fires. Between 1995 and 2015, concentrations of PM2.5 increased by 11.2% globally. 27 In 2015 long-term exposure to PM2·5 contributed to 4·2 million deaths globally, being the 5th highest risk factor for global deaths.28 Next to being a threat to human health, PM2.5 increases acidity in the planet’s oceans, changing the flow of nutrients, depleting soil and damaging oceanic life, global forests belts and agricultural crops.29 Whilst the planet’s oceanic water quality is becoming more acidic with the increase in PM2.5, so too is the quality of fresh water decreasing as a result of industrialised processes.

The United Nations estimates that one in ten people worldwide do not have any access to clean water, and only 61% have access to water through a ‘safe’ water source.30 More loss of life from unsafe water occurs each year than from all forms of violence, including war.31 In urban areas

To deal with these stresses which are being put on global water systems, waste management must improve to ensure that available fresh water is drinkable. The world produces 3.3 million tonnes of waste per day. In 2050 this is predicted to double to 6 million tonnes.33 In high income countries approximately 72% of the waste is sent to landfill.

In comparison to low income countries this number is 92%.

34 Currently the United states of America and China are the largest contributors to waste production, whilst SubSaharan Africa and South Asia are predicted to see the largest increase of waste production in the coming years.35 The damage which human beings as a species are doing to the earth’s natural environment has passed a key tipping point, in 2016 the recorded parts per million(ppm) of carbon dioxide particles in the atmosphere passed 400ppm, which studies believe will never go below this again in current human lifespan.36 The climate change which this is causing is creating stresses to human life; socially, in accommodating for the global increasing and urbanising population; economically, in equal access to depleting resources which increase in value as they become more scarce; and environmentally, in the pollutants which people are adding to the atmosphere. The planet will respond and adapt, as it is doing, to the changing climate that mankind is causing, but as it does it will put current life on earth at serious risk, as like any functioning immune system, it tries to rid itself of the pollutants which are preventing its ecosystem from functioning. This earth isn’t going anywhere, the planet will stay and it, itself, will live. However, mankind, are now causing a threat to themselves, rather than the planet, of reducing human kind and all other complex organisms to extinction; like humans have done to many other species which once functioned as a vital part of spaceship earth’s natural cycle of life.

43

The amount of carbon dioxide in the earth’s atmosphere, which is currently primarily produced through the burning of fossil fuels, increases as the global demand for energy increases, which has been rising ever since the industrial revolution. Globally, there has been an average yearly increase in energy consumption, between 2006-2016, of 1.8%.23 This increase in energy consumption is fuelled by a growing population and a rising number of that population gaining wealth. As wealth(GDP) of a country rises, so does the percentage of the population who can afford access to energy.

the main cause of contaminated water sources is from poor sewage and water management, with India, Pakistan, Indonesia, Ethiopia and Nigeria accounting for 75% of the worlds open sewage.32 The rapid rate at which the global population is growing and becoming more urbanised looks set to put further stress on the quality and availability of water supply systems, whilst access to water is only going to become more scares as our climate changes, leaving a large amount of developing countries vulnerable to extended periods of drought.

AREA PERCENTAGE OF GLOBAL CO2 EMISSIONS PER SECTOR Source: United Nations 2015

10 % 31 % 24 %

14 %

21 %

44 INDUSTRY

BUILDINGS

AGRICULTURE & FOSTERY

TRANSPORT

OTHER

GLOBAL GROWTH OF CO2 EMISSIONS 1960-2015

COUNTRY GROWTH OF CO2 EMISSIONS 1960-2015

Source: World Bank 2015

Source: World Bank 2015

Million MtCO2

MtCO2

10

10k

8

7.5k

6

5k

China

USA 4

2.5k

2 1960

India Russia UK

0k 1975

1990

2005

2015

1960

1975

1990

2005

2015

IN FIGURES

DEATHS ATTRIBUTED TO PM2.5 POLLUTION PER YEAR AND CAUSE

GLOBAL DEATHS CAUSED BY WATER & AIR POLLUTION Source: Apte et. al 2016

Source: Apte et. al 2016

13%

Pollution Related Causes

3

Other Causes

Nr of Deaths (millions)

4

87%

2

45

PERCENTAGE OF GLOBAL URBAN POPULATION EXPOSED TO UNHEALTHY PM2.5 LEVELS 2014

1

Source: Apte et. al 2016

0 1995

2000

2005

2010

Cerebrovascular disease

Ischaemic heart disease

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Lower respiratory/ infections

Not Exposed

Tracheal, bronchial, lung cancer

90%

2015 Exposed

1990

10%

GLOBAL CONCENTRATION OF PM2.5 1990-2015

COUNTRY CONCENTRATION OF PM2.5 1990-2015

Source: State of Global Air 2018

Source: State of Global Air 2018

Average Annual Population-WEighted PM2.5 (uq/m3)

Average Annual Population-WEighted PM2.5 (uq/m3)

70

100

60

Bangladesh

80

India

50

China

60

40 30

40

20 20

10 0 1990

USA Russia

0 1995

2000

2005

2010

2015

1990

1995

2000

2005

2010

2015

AREA GLOBAL PROJECTED WASTE GENERATION Source: World Bank 2015

Waste Generation (millions of tonnes /day)

12

8

4

0

2010

2040

2070

2100

46 PROJECTED WASTE GENERATION BY REGION

WASTE GENERATION/CAPITA PER INCOME GROUP

Source: World Bank 2015

Waste Generation (millions of tonnes /day)

Source: World Bank 2015

kg/capita/day

South Asia

3

3

High Income and OECD countries Sub-Saharan Africa East Asia and Pacific

2

2.1 ton

2

Latin American and the Caribbean

1

Middle East and North Africa

1

0.6 ton

0.8 ton

1.2 ton

Europe and Central Asia

2100

HIGH INCOME

2070

UPPER MIDDLE INCOME

2040

LOWER MIDDLE INCOME

2010

LOW INCOME

0

0

WASTE GENERATION PER CAPITA Source: World Bank 2015

2.6 kg

2.25 kg

2.1 kg

1.7 kg

1.8 kg

1 kg

1.1 kg

0.3 kg

USA

AUSTRALIA

GERMANY

JAPAN

TURKEY

CHINA

BRAZIL

INDIA

Source: Willmott Dixon 2010

IN FIGURES

BUILT ENVIRONMENT’S CONTRIBUTION TO GLOBAL LANDFILL WASTE

GLOBAL LANDFILL WASTE

50% 47

PERCENTAGE OF LANDFILL WASTE FROM THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

BUILT ENVIRONMENT’S CONTRIBUTION TO GLOBAL WATER POLLUTION Source: Willmott Dixon 2010

GLOBAL WATER POLLUTION

PERCENTAGE OF WATER POLLUTION CAUSED BY THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

40%

AREA 48

â&#x20AC;&#x153;3.4 billion people live in hazard prone regions of the worldâ&#x20AC;?

- United Nations

IN FIGURES 49

DISASTER RESILIENCE

AREA CLIMATE CHANGE VULNERABILITY Source: Nature Climate Change

LOW VULNERABILITY,

LOW VULNERABILITY,

HIGH VULNERABILITY,

HIGH VULNERABILITY,

GOOD PREPERATION

POOR PREPERATION

GOOD PREPERATION

POOR PREPERATION

50 MOSCOW LONDON CHICAGO

NEW YORK

MADRID

LOS ANGELES

MIAMI PORT-AU-PRINCE

MEXICO CITY

BEIJING

PARIS

DELHI

ISTANBUL

HONG KONG

MUMBAI

MANILA

BANGKOK

KINSESINA

LIMA

OSAKA

SHANGHAI

CAIRO LAGOS

TOKYO

SEOUL

JAKARTA

RIO DE JANEIRO

SAO PAULO SANTIAGO

BUENOS AIRES

LEGEND RISK ZONES OF EARTHQUAKES Source: Global Seismic Hazard Assesment Program (GSHAP)

SEISMIC ZONE I SEISMIC ZONE II (LEAST ACTIVE) SEISMIC ZONE III (MODERATE)

TROPICAL CYCLONES PEAK WIND SPEAKS (in km/h)

POPULATION IN CITIES Source: Global CCS Institute

Source: Nathan World Map of Natural Hazards (2011)

ZONE 0: 76-141

ZONE 5: â&#x2030;¥300

15+ MILLION

ZONE 1: 142-184

10-15 MILLION

ZONE 2: 185-212

5-10 MILLION

SEISMIC ZONE IV (HIGH)

ZONE 3: 213-251

SEISMIC ZONE V (HIGHEST)

ZONE 4: 252-299

IN FIGURES

DISASTER VULNERABILITY

Climate change is increasingly impacting the nature of natural hazards and their probability of becoming disasters. Only 40 % of the world population is aware of climate change, and of these only 45% consider it as a serious threat. It is also evident that the most vulnerable countries are the least aware, whilst they themselves contribute the least to climate change in terms of greenhouse gas emissions. To promote climate change awareness, it has been found that communication access and education are the most important resources.39 Alongside climate hazards which are on the rise, global seismic zones are becoming more populated by rapidly urbanizing settlements. The seismic zones are defined by the peak ground acceleration (m/s2) and the probability of exceeding in 50 years. 40 Central and South Asia are the areas of the world where earthquakes are more most likely to strike, and with greater intensity. This extends to Nepal and parts of Northern India which are areas with a higher risk of

strong earthquakes. As these regions become further populated the risk to life becomes more significant.

The strongest earthquake recorded in Nepal in the past century had an intensity of 8.2 on the Richter scale, killing 10,000 people. Similarly, in 2001 the major earthquake in Gujarat, India, resulted in the death of 20,000 people, and in 2005 throughout Pakistan and Kashmir, 130,000 people died.41 All of these cities had similar patterns of newly urbanised population residing in poorly constructed buildings with high vulnerability to seismic hazards, due to their speed and quality of construction.

Today, there are more than 50 cities worldwide with populations of more than 5 million people.

The proximity of high population densities to high magnitude and nature of hazard events are the most important factors determining the scale of impact, and occurrence of disaster.

51

The world has been experiencing a dramatic increase of disasters in recent decades. It is commonly accepted amongst geographers that there is no such thing as a natural disaster. Instead, disasters are conceived to be a result of natural hazards and human vulnerability linked to social, economical and political activities.37 The term natural disaster can then be considered to be a result of the increase in human population which occupy hazard prone areas. Yet, as oceanic temperatures rise, tropical storms and hurricanes become more frequent and more powerful, striking regions of the earth with more force than ever before.

38 Increasing periods of drought, and land mass eďŹ&#x20AC;ected by drought, forces many to become climate refugees and can result in increase levels of conflict between people. Increasing population and planetary urbanisation sees people inhabiting areas of land which would never have been habitable previously, artificially supported from external resources, putting life at risk in the event of a break in resource logistics.

The natural disasters which are becoming increasingly frequent each year are the tangible result of the dangers to human life which are caused by climate change.

AREA CONTRIBUTION OF DIFFERENT HAZARDS TO GLOBAL AVERAGE ANNUAL FINANCIAL LOSS

ECOOMIC LOSSES RELATIVE TO GDP BY INCOME GROUP (1990-2013)

Source: Source: Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction 2015

Source: Source: Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction 2015

% OF GDP 0.18 0.16 36%

0.14

33%

0.12 0.10 16%

14%

0.08

52

0.06 0.04 0.02

STORM SURGE 49.8 BILLION US$

DISTRIBUTION OF DISASTER MORTALITY BY INCOME GROUP (1990-2013) Source: Source: Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction 2015

LOW INCOME

UPPER MIDDLE INCOME

LOWER MIDDLE INCOME

HIGH INCOME

HIGH INCOME

TSUNAMI 3.7 BILLION US$

UPPER MIDDLE INCOME

FLOODS 104 BILLION US$

LOWER MIDDLE INCOME

WIND 44 BILLION US$

LOW INCOME

EARTHQUAKES 113 BILLION US$

IN FIGURES

INCREASE OF DAMAGE CAUSED BY NATURAL HAZARDS 1990-2015 IN THE WORLDâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S 65 TOP HAZARD PRONE COUNTRIES Source: Source: Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction 2015

Reported Damage to Housing (nr)

Reported Damage to Education Facilities (nr)

1,200,000

8,000 7,000

1,200,000

6,000 1,000,000

5,000

53

4,000

800,000

3,000

600,000

2,000 400,000

1,000

200,000

0 1990

1994

1998

2002

2006

2010

1990

2013

Reported Damage to Agriculture (ha)

1994

1998

2002

2006

2010

2013

Reported Damage to Health Facilities (nr)

16,000,000

900

14,000,000

800

12,000,000

700

10,000,000

600

8,000,000

500

6,000,000

400 300

4,000,000

200

2,000,000

0 1990

1994

1998

2002

2006

2010

2013

1990

1994

1998

2002

2006

2010

2013

AREA EXPERIENCED CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTING AWARENESS Source: Nature Climate Change

12

54

Percentage of respondants

10 8 6 4 2

AFRICA

GLOBAL WARMING

ASIA

EUROPE, NORTH AMERICA AND AUSTRALIA

LOCAL TEMPERATURE CHANGE

LATIN AND CENTRAL AMERICA

OTHER

PERCENTAGE OF POPULATION AWARE OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND HOW MANY PERCENT OF THE AWARE CONSIDERING IT TO BE A SERIOUS THREAT Source: Nature Climate Change

% AWARE

98% 53%

USA

% CONSIDERING IT AS THREAT

46% 35%

57% 61%

95% 48%

35% 45%

35% 30%

62% 21%

HAITI

GUATEMALA

NETHERLANDS

UGANDA

INDIA

CHINA

IN FIGURES

PERCENTAGE OF WORLD’S POPULATION LIVING IN HAZARD PRONE AREAS Source: United Nations 2015

TOTAL WORLD POPULATION 2018 7.6 BILLION

45% 55

PERCENTAGE LIVING IN HAZARD PRONE AREAS 3.4 BILLION

CLIMATE CHANGE INDICATOR - CONCENTRATION OF ATMOSPHERIC CO2 Source: Johan Rockström et.al 2009

BUILDINGS CONTRIBUTES TO 38% OF THE GLOBAL GHG EMISSIONS PREDICTED CONCENTRATION IF NOTHING CHANGES

MEASURED CONCENTRATION

700

Co2 Concentration (parts per million)

600 500 400

CLIMATE CHANGE THRESHOLD

300 200 100 0 1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

2020

2020

2030

2040

2050

AREA

56

IN FIGURES

CONCLUSION

The planet today is experiencing multi-faceted stress, brought on it by mankind’s hedonistic consumption of natural resources which we have been unable to replenish in time to allow our globalized ecosystem to remain stable.

To make this shift we need to become sustainable.

Sustainability at it’s base conception is three fold, 1.

Economical, 2. Social, and 3. Environmental. To solve the global issues which threaten the existence of life on this planet we need to make a change which is integrated in a combined economic, social, and environmental push which is beneficial for living beings. Since the industrial revolution the main strive of man’s industrial action has been purely economical. Throughout then20th Century we awoke to the social issues which this was causing in the developed world and responded in a series of social governmental legislation to promote work alongside life. Now, we are understanding the consequences which our actions are having on our environment and need to do the same. However, the move towards legislating our global development cannot purely be environmental. in order to sustain itself and be resilient into the future the move forward must be economically, socially, and environmentally equal in benefit.

However, on the realisation that we have passed the tipping point of invoking irreversible climate change, it is no longer enough to advocate for only sustainability itself, it is now imperative to become resilient to the indisputable challenges that lie ahead. To do this we must understand where we have succeeded, and where we have not, in the past and be able to use this knowledge to enable us to predict what may happen in the future. This is the basis of what has been set out in this chapter. Through creating this knowledge base we have accumulated the global state of the world both currently, and in the near future which has enabled us to outline the challenges which we face in the built environment in the coming decades. in outlining these challenges we are then able to imagine ways of overcoming them, which we believe lies in an integrated solution in

However, understanding the challenges that we face on a global scale is often difficult to fully relate to when working on a design solution which is contextually part of a much smaller urban fabric. Therefore, to relate our design projects to the globalized issues at hand the forthcoming chapter outlines the evolution of sustainable development, enabling us to formulate this into a specific framework for architectural design. This framework can be applied to any design task, from the design of a minute building detail when deciding which material choice to make or which construction system to implement, through to urban planning in the placement of buildings within a wider fabric.

The framework is a design task which is aimed at not only trained designers or architects within society, but for everyone. The city of the future is going to be self built, and we aim to provide the theoretical tools on which to build it.

57

The rapidly expanding population which is expected over the coming century will only add to these stresses in what is an already crowded planet. The increase in globalized wealth, and consumption of resources which it will take to sustain this ever growing population will therefore need to evolve to a circular based system which makes use of renewable resources, and prevents pollution to both directly and indirectly preserve the health of life on this planet through reduced pollution to slow down the effects of climate change which is making life more vulnerable when inhabiting this earth.

economical, social, and environmental resiliency.

IN THEORY

AREA

AREA

60

ABSTRACT

IN THEORY

IN THEORY critically analyse the history of sustainable development frameworks, with a particular focus on the globally acknowledged principles of the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals, and how these can be adopted to a theoretical framework concentrated on the performance of the built environment. Based on four interrelated topics critical to the success of a resilient built environment; SocioEconomics & Health, Mobility & Resources, Energy and Disaster Resilience, this chapter sets up the goals and strategies AREA have developed to achieve an alternative future with a resilient built environment that is valuable, safe, efficient and feasible for all.

At the heart of AREA’s framework is an approach to sustainable development that truly emphasize its interrelated components of social, economical and environmental sustainability, crucial to prevent existing threats for human resilience and the continuation of our earth as a habitable place.

61

AREA SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY

AREA SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

62 ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY

ECONOMICAL SUSTAINABILITY

INTRODUCTION

As architects, AREA consider it necessary to understand what this ‘safe space’ means for the built environment. Therefore, this chapter also propose a model that provides a holistic and evidence-based framework in which achieving sustainability and resilience in the built environment can be analysed and understood. Fulfilling this model includes working towards minimising the threats of human resilience through eight goals that consist of integrated measures from social, economical and environmental sustainability. These goals have been developed based on sound theory and research, integrating the UN Sustainable Development Goals with the theory of internationally acclaimed author and economist Kate Raworth to become a solidified framework. The goals, necessary for the ‘safe space’ for humanity, will lead to a built environment characterised to be; Valuable, Feasibly, Efficient and Safe. Applying this model to practice will also be discussed in the last part of this chapter. This part will focus on how to analyse the current situation of the built environment in a specific context according to the framework, and how to use this analysis to plan for future projects.

The ‘Framework for a Resilient Built Environment’ described in this chapter will provide a solid model for actors in the built environment, and the communities that inhabit them, so that we can plan for a continuing habitable earth.

63

In this chapter AREA first critically analyses the history of sustainable development theories, mapping out the weak points that allows for the holistic theoretical approach to become an independent approach when applied to practice. The conclusion of this analysis is that the problem lies in the conventional relationship between the goals of the frameworks belonging to one of the three components for sustainable development, which allows them to be separated and dealt with independently in practice.

From this knowledge AREA has developed a new framework, rethinking the conventional structure of the goals for sustainable development to ensure an interdependent approach of the three main components is continuous from theory to practice.

The goals of AREA’s framework focus on the interrelated threats to human resilience, and the future of our earth, that is caused by not achieving

social, economical or environmental sustainability.

The interdependency of these threats, and the three components for sustainable development, is the heart of the new framework developed by AREA. Because each threat is a consequence of not achieving interrelated factors from social, economical and environmental sustainability they can only be dealt with through solutions integrating vital components from the three. The result is a framework that enforces a holistic approach to sustainable development through theory and practice where sustainable development is considered the ‘safe space’ for humanity. This is a space where humans can thrive without depleting the world’s resources they need to survive, and where they can be resilient to industrial, social and ecological disruption.

IN THEORY

The current patterns of population growth, wealth increase and environmental strain pose a major challenge for the 21st century. How to provide the basic needs of the world’s growing population, whilst reducing the pressure on the environment is becoming an increasingly alarming question to prevent the daunting future of an uninhabitable earth that lies within the current path of development.

This question is not a new one, and the answer has for long been agreed to lie in sustainable development that harmonizes social, economical and environmental sustainability through human inclusion and prosperity, alongside environmental protection1.

Multiple global frameworks to achieve these types of sustainability have been proposed, most notably by the United Nations. However, there seems to be a critical component missing in these frameworks causing practical outcomes to often be contrasting to the holistic goals of the theoretical framework.

Up until now, the frameworks for sustainable development have contained crucial flaws that allows for an independent approach to achieving the goals of social, economical and environmental sustainability.

More often than not do countries, companies and other actors, focus on one part of the sustainable development spectrum without recognizing the negative impact it might have on the other parts.

AREA

â&#x20AC;&#x153;The real challenge is to deal with the goals for sustainable development together and not as separate components.â&#x20AC;?

- Kate Raworth

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IN THEORY

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT THROUGH HISTORY

65

AREA THE LIMITS OF GROWTH DIAGRAM FROM CLUB OF ROME, 1972

Source: Club of Rome, 1972

AREA

UNITED NATION’S FIRST CONFERENCE ON HUMAN ENVIRONMENT, 1972

Source: Dag Hammarsljöds Library (UN), 1972

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SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT THROUGH HISTORY A CRITICAL ANALYSIS

To ‘meet the needs of the present’, the heart of sustainable development is the importance of a strong social foundation based on social and economical sustainability that ensures the wellbeing of the world’s population. The UN has been working with establishing and implementing this foundation since 1948 through human rights norms and development programs promoting access to life’s essential needs which they defined as; food security, income, clean water, shelter, energy, health care, education, equality, social equity, occupation, resilience and freedom of speech for everyone.6 Without such a foundation the overall development of humanity becomes tainted by cultural degradation, deprivation, inequality and oppression, which all contributes to an increase of conflicts and disasters. This puts humans in a more vulnerable position hence a foundation of social and economical sustainability becomes critical for human survival.

How to achieve this social foundation without ‘compromising

The ambition to achieve measures that harmonizes social, economical and environmental sustainability has become a shared concern across the globe since the establishment of the Brundtland commission.8 Since then various sets of frameworks and goals for global sustainable development, mutually agreed upon amongst world leaders, to build an inclusive, sustainable and resilient future for people and the planet, have been established. The first framework for such measures were formalised by the UN in 1992 under Agenda 21 – a global plan of action to promote sustainable development. However, the first goals to be realized in such framework were not developed until the turn of the millennia with eight Millennium Development Goals (MDG’s) to be reached by 2015. These goals focused on enabling people to be; well, productive and empowered. 9 However, due to the UN’s long history of a humanitarian focus, as well as the lack of knowledge about the human impact on the critical environmental systems vital for human survival, the MDG’s were primarily dedicated to social and economical sustainability with only one of the eight goals relating to environmental sustainability.10 Furthermore, the direct measures necessary to achieve environmental sustainability according to the goals were at the time vague leading to a priority to fulfil the social and economical goals, sometimes at the cost of the environment.

The failure to integrate important goals for environmental sustainability with the creation of a worldwide social foundation made this first set of goals for sustainable development and a resilient future incomplete. However, the publication of a report by world leading earth systemsscientists in 2009 made a truly holistic approach to sustainable development possible in theory which came to shape the next set of goals development by the UN. The report called ‘Planetary Boundaries: Exploring the Safe operating Space for Humanity’ was written by 29 worldleading scientist and outlined the condition of 9 processes occurring in different earth-systems vital for human survival.

The important processes presented in the report included; climate change, biodiversity loss, the nitrogen cycle, the phosphorus cycle, ozone depletion, ocean acidification, freshwater use, land use, aerosol loading and chemical pollution.11 Furthermore, the report documented estimated limitation of each process to sustain stable earth-systems.

The conclusion was a set of ‘planetary boundaries’ which if

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‘Development that has the ability to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability for future generations to meet theirs.’5

the ability for future generation to meet theirs’ requires measures to provide it within a framework of environmental sustainability that ensures current and future supply of necessary resources as well as a stable natural environment to inhabit.7

IN THEORY

The interconnected dependencies of social, economical and environmental sustainability were perhaps most famously first recognized in the Club of Rome’s publication ‘Limits to growth’ in 1972. In this publication the organisation outlined the limitations to the concept of indefinite economic growth due to resource depletion. Furthermore, the organisation highlighted the necessity to deal with the problems of mankind in terms of poverty, decease, war and environmental deterioration as ‘meta-problems’ that cannot be solved in their own terms, and must be seen as intertwined.2 The discussions from ‘Limits to growth’ cooccurred with the United Nation’s (UN) first conference on human environment in Stockholm 1992 where United Nation’s Environment Program (UNEP) was founded.3 UNEP was then the first to globally define Sustainable Development in 1987 at the UN’s World Commission for Environment and Development (WCED), also known as the Brundtland Commission. This important definition was a response to the occurring conflict between leading global nations’ push towards increased economic growth with a globalized economy, and the consequential degradation of the environment this had proven to result in.4 The core of sustainable development was thus to enable economical growth and human prosperity within the boundaries of the natural environment humans rely on to meet their basic needs. The definition of sustainable development, as it is still recognized today, was therefore coined asW;

AREA breeched will risk the future life of humanity and the planet as we know it.

According to these limitations, three of nine boundaries had already been breached in 2009 as a result of humans’ rate of consumption, pollution and resource depletion.12 In 2018 there are now four boundaries belonging to this category including climate change, rate of biodiversity loss, nitrogen cycle and freshwater use.13 With the documented information of the earth’s planetary boundaries, an overview of the current state of global sustainable development, including social, economical and environmental sustainability, was possible. Additionally, it provided the groundwork for the first holistic framework of overreaching measures to achieve a resilient future in accordance with the Brundtland definition of sustainable development.

AREA 68

Recognised economist and author, Kate Raworth, was the first to propose a truly comprehensive framework for sustainable development with tangible measures from the UN’s definition of a social foundation and Rockström et. al’s definition of planetary boundaries. In a discussion paper for one of the biggest international confederation of charitable organizations, Oxfam, Raworth presented a powerful diagram showing sustainable development as the ‘safe space’ for humanity which lies inside both the zone of fulfilled social foundation and the planetary boundaries.14 The diagram consists of a circle with three layers. At the core is the development needed for a strong social foundation fulfilled by social and economical sustainability.

At the periphery is the planetary boundary dependant on environmental sustainability that should not be breached to ensure future social foundation and a stable natural environment. The doughnut shaped area between these spaces is what Raworth considers the ‘safe space’ for humanity. Within this space humanity has the best potential to thrive, and any development contributing to either breaching the planetary boundary, or not fulfilling the social foundation, cannot be considered to be sustainable for the future. Furthermore, Raworth stresses the importance of the circular shape of the diagram to represent the interrelated characteristics of the components of the social foundation, as well as the earth-systems for the planetary boundary.15 To achieve development that sits within the ‘safe space’ for humanity Raworth in her book ‘Doughnut Economics’ stresses the need to divert from traditional economic theory with unlimited growth being the end goal, and instead sees a future where humans thrive by regenerating resources and distributing them equally.16 By using scientifically acknowledged statistics on the current global conditions in regards to achieving the UN’s definition of a social foundation, and the current state of earth’s planetary boundaries presented by Rockström et. al, Raworth uses her diagram to highlight the shortcomings of today’s growth-focused development and the consequential

tensions between social, economical and environmental sustainability it results in.17 Raworth’s holistic ‘doughnut framework’ for sustainable development came to have large influence when the UN formalised the new Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), following the Millennium Goals, to be achieved by 2030.18 Unfortunately however, the principles of working on interrelated goals across the three elements for sustainable development to land in the ‘safe space’ for humanity was lost in the way the framework was translated in to the SDG’s, particularly evident when applied in practice.

The UN’s SDGs, signed by 195 countries in 2015, consist of 17 goals for sustainable development proposed alongside 167 targets to achieve them.19 The goals are the most progressive measure taken on a global scale, fully adopted the thinking of harmonizing social inclusion, economical development and environmental protection, to enable development that will lead to Raworth’s definition of a ‘safe space’ for humanity.

However, the way in which the goals and their targets were designed for the SDG’s undermines the complexity of interactions between them. The targets of the SDG’s appear to be a list of actions to be ‘ticked off’, presenting each goal as separate from each other and belonging to a certain type of sustainability. This once again detaches the three components of sustainable development; social, economical and environmental sustainability, instead of framing them as interdependent. The result is a risk that actions taken to achieve one goal, without the consideration of its entanglement with other goals, ends up undermining the success of another.20 For example, a national policy focused on SDG nr 3 to provide good health and well-being, perhaps by ensuring affordable access to housing for all, might undermine SDG nr 13 of reduced climate change impact if the methods of achieving such housing does not consider the environmental impact that many cheap construction materials bring along. Likewise, a national policy for SDG nr 13 of reduced climate change impact, perhaps in the built environment, might undermine SDG nr1 of no poverty if the price of housing increases dramatically because of shortsighted implementation of high-tech solutions to improve climate performances.

The independent focus of achieving different parts of the goals, and the resulting problems this leads to, have become evident across the signature countries of the The current approaches of global sustainable development frameworks are to develop measures that achieve different types of sustainability that together will form a holistic working system. Evidently, this has proven difficult due to the hidden interdependence between social, economical and environmental sustainability and the risk of one measure undermining another. To be able to work on goals for sustainable development simultaneously AREA propose an approach that instead of looking at the different types

DOUGHNUT FOR THE SAFE AND JUST SPACE FOR HUMANITY

Source: Kate Raworth 2012

IN THEORY

CURRENT CONDITION OF THE DOUGHNUT COMPONENTS

Source: Kate Raworth 2012

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AREA THE UNITED NATIONS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS

Source: United Nations 2015

AREA 70

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In conclusion it can be said that whilst the UNâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s SDGs provides a strong theoretical framework required to stop our currently disruptive path towards an uninhabitable earth, a framework that ensures the interdependent approach to social, economical and environmental sustainability through theory and practice is required for it to become reality.

Such a framework has to work on all goals simultaneously and ensure that no goal undermines another. AREA has developed such a framework which will be presented in the following part of this chapter. This part will also showcase how it can be fulfilled, with a particular focus on the built environment.

IN THEORY

SDGâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s. Developed countries that already have a rather strong social foundation are focused on minimising their environmental impact whilst maintaining the high living standard and consumption patterns that has resulted in the vulnerable state the world is currently in. However, the actions taken to achieve such goals by developed countries show neither feasibility nor suitability for a worldwide application. Instead, these solutions, trying to maintain the current rate of consumption with less environmental impact, often by the use of technological solutions, would require an unsustainable impact on the global environment when implemented in cultures that today neither have the means or access to such technologies. Meanwhile, the developing part of the world is focusing on providing a social foundation for their inhabitants. This often results in a change of already environmentally sustainable practices to unsustainable ones due to their economical feasibility when trying to achieve the same level of living standards as the developed countries, particularly when dealing with the rapid trend of population growth.21 The consequence is that whilst individual countries may work towards achieving certain goals of the SDGs, the overall global development towards a sustainable future is in a stand still as long as we ignore that the goals interrelate with each other.

AREA 72

â&#x20AC;&#x153;We need to create goals for sustainable development that provides human resilience. Only then will social, economical and environmental sustainability be harmonized â&#x20AC;?

- A.R.E.A

IN THEORY

AREAâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S FRAMEWORK FOR HUMAN RESILIENCE

73

AREA AT S

SAFE SPACE RS STE SA DI

DS

R

EE

TE WA

N EN

FOOD

FOUNDA TIO CIAL SO N AL TH

AREA

LOS SO FC UL TU RE

RE

HE

TH

CONFLICT N WA O TER ATI EV SC R M A N U H R P E O S T I L AR IENC ATS DE E R CI E TH TY

N

PEACE

NETWORKS G

& JUST

ICE

L. E

IC

VO

IT RS VE DI BIO

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PO LLU TIO N

UITY

LITY

. EQ

SOC

IN US

EQU A

HO

TIO CA

EMISSIONS

EDU

PO

INEQUALITY

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SS RES OUR CE DE PLETION

E NG A CH TE A M CLI

AREA’S FRAMEWORK FOR HUMAN RESILIENCE A NEW APPROACH TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

75

AREA’s framework for sustainable development, coined as a ‘framework for human resilience’ builds from Raworth’s doughnut diagram of a ‘safe space’ for humanity. However, instead of the planetary boundaries at the periphery of the doughnut AREA has placed the threats for human resilience. These threats are what need to be avoided for the continuation of our existence, referring to the second part of the Brundtland definition of sustainable development. To achieve this an interdependent approach to social, economical and environmental sustainability is key. Meanwhile the inner circle of the framework consist of UN’s definition of a social foundation, referring to the first part of the Brundtland definition which is crucial to human resilience for the ability to recover and learn from

disruption. The space in the middle in AREA’s framework, the ‘safe space’, therefore represents the condition that defines sustainable development. This is the space where the needs of the present are met, without threats to human resilience compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirs.

When this space has been reached, humans can thrive in symbiosis with the earth they inhabit in contrast to the currently antibiotic relationship tainted by resource depletion, pollution and biodiversity loss. Only such a condition can be considered truly sustainable and resilient.

However, in order to get to that space the framework needs to be translated in to practicality. This requires tangible measures that embed the critical interrelation of social, economical and environmental sustainability needed for human resilience.

IN THEORY

The current approaches of global sustainable development frameworks are to develop measures that achieve different types of sustainability that together will form a holistic working system. Evidently, this has proven difficult due to the hidden interdependence between social, economical and environmental sustainability and the risk of one measure undermining another. To be able to work on goals for sustainable development simultaneously AREA propose an approach that instead of looking at the different types of sustainability to be achieved by certain goals, sees the threats to human resilience when they are not.

Human resilience is by AREA defined as the potential for humanity to recover and learn from disruption, which is dependant on the first part of the Brundtland definition for sustainable development ‘to meet the needs of the present’.

Such resilience is also necessary for the continuation of our existence, which is key to the second part of the Brundtland definition, and dependent on the ability to continue to live of the earth we call home.

The benefit of focusing on the threats for human resilience is that they, like the three factors for sustainable development, are interdependent. Therefore they require multifaceted measures to reduce them, which makes it impossible to deal with only one type of sustainability at a time, making an interdependent approach necessary in both theory and practice. AREA has defined the threats for human resilience, based on the results of breaching the planetary boundaries of Raworth’s ‘doughnut framework’, the consequences of not fulfilling the social foundation defined by the UN, and also the interdependent effects of these two. The outcome is 10 threats that all have social, economical and environmental consequences; climate change, resource depletion, pollution, biodiversity loss, water stress, disasters, conflict, inequality, deprivation and loss of culture. Preventing all of these threats is needed to ensure human resilience, and to move towards the end of an uninhabitable earth.

AREA PRIMARY FUNCTIONS AND AMENITIES - Providing adequate shelter - Having access to energy supply - Having access to safe drinking water - Having access to food supply - Provide safeguards for human health

CONFLICT

RE D RI

CU EC LT ON U O VA

AVAILABLE AND AFFORDABLE - Utilising localised resources - Utilising localised labour - Utilise localised knowledge - Being economically affordable to a widespread public - Ensuring sustained supply & affordability

ER GY

P

PO LLU TIO N

H AN CE

LOW ENVIRO L NMENTA IMPACT

M

INEQUALITY

INCLUSIVE & ADOPTABLE RE SO UR CE S

IG R FO R E

H

EMISSIONS

NETWORK OF ASTRUCTURE INFR

AB DA L E BL & E

RES OUR CE DE PLETION

INCLUSIVE AND ADOPTABLE - Integrating with local norms - Allowing for flexibility - Setting an example - Ensuring understanding - Enabling equal opportunities

RS STE SA DI

PRIMARY FUNCTIONS & AMENITIES

WA TER SC AR CI TY DI SA ST ER

L AI AV FOR AF

& Y LIT BI LO MO Y IT RS VE DI BIO

76

SS

NETWORK OF INFRASTRUCTURE - Encouraging strong community cohesion - Providing resilient network of institutions - Having a resilient supply of resources - Providing distributed network of communications - Having a resilient energy network

E NC LIE SI RE

N TIO VA E PR DE TH AL HE S& IC M L& L RA ICA M E LU

REDUCED RISK - Promoting risk awareness - Promoting risk preparedness - Providing secure structures - Adhering to safe planning - Enabling immediate recovery

D CE U SK

AREA

LOS SO FC UL TU RE SO CIO -E CO NO

CULTURAL & ECONOMIC VALUE - Supporting a localized economy - Encouraging diverse economy - Supporting long term societal wealth - Contributing to local culture - Responding to local preferences

EN

E NG A CH TE A M CLI

LOW ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT - Using renewable resources - Optimising circular life-cycle of resources - Producing minimal emissions and waste - Optimising durability - Using renewable energy sources

HIGH PERFORMANCE - Minimising energy demand - Encouraging awareness of energy usage - Applying passive design principles - Applying responsive design principles - Optimising energy source to use

AREA’S FRAMEWORK FOR A RESILIENT BUILT ENVIRONMENT A MODEL FOR THE FUTURE without impacting other goals such as providing energy access for all, but in other places a reduction of 100% might be possible whilst not impacting such a goal. Creating goals based on capabilities therefore allows for the opportunity to strive for the perfect balance and harmonization between social, economical and environmental sustainability, which will inevitably be different depending on context and throughout time.26 Furthermore, the framework for a resilient built environment also integrates the SDG’s developed by the UN and showcase how to deal with them in the interdependent approach necessary for human resilience.

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The tangible collection of goals and targets developed

by AREA, necessary for the path towards the end of an uninhabitable earth, results in an answer for Raworth’s ‘safe space’ for humanity in regards to the built environment. This ‘space’, according to AREA, is a built environment that is Valuable, Feasible, Efficient and Safe. Notably, achieving less than all of these characteristics is not enough to combat the threats for human resilience, which is why the measures to achieve them overlap in AREA’s framework. This overlapping, strengthened by studying the goals in the circular diagram, makes sure that they are considered simultaneously and in harmony with each other. This provides a more unified path towards human resilience and sustainable development, different from the independent approach of the UN’s SDG’s. With this framework it becomes possible to analyse the current situation of the built environment in various contexts and scales, and to understand what opportunities there are to achieve a resilient built environment for the future making it valuable in both theory and practice.

IN THEORY

Considering the large contribution of the built environment to the currently antibiotic relationship between humans and earth, AREA, as a collective of architects, finds it necessary to start with investigating what such a tangible framework would look like for the built environment. Firstly it becomes important to understand the current trends within the built environment contributing to the realisation of threats to human resilience. In short, the built environment contributes to these threats by being responsible for 40% of the world’s energy use and 38% of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions.22 Furthermore the built environment consumes 50-70% of the world’s resources and produce 50% of the global landfill waste causing pollution.23 Meanwhile 40% of the world’s population lacks access to clean water, 20 % lacks access to energy and 20% of the world’s population is estimated to live in slum housing by 2030, most of which will be located in increasingly disaster prone areas.24 To combat these worrying trends, and reverse their impact, AREA propose a framework for a resilient built environment that deals with four key topics, all containing factors of social, economical and environmental sustainability, under which interdependent goals should be achieved.

These topics are; Socio-economics & Health, Mobility & Resources, Energy, and Disaster Resilience. Socio-economics & Health deals with goals related to providing a network of economical, mental and physical support vital for human resilience, whilst Mobility & Resources deals with the way to provide for that support. Energy, which could be considered part of Mobility & Resources, is dealt with as a separate topic because of the built environment’s large consumption of it, which currently directly influences two critical threats for human resilience; climate change and pollution. Disaster Resilience concludes the four topics and deals with how to combine them all to ensure a human environment prepared for disruption.

In the framework, each topic has interdependent goals that should be achieved by fulfilling goal-specific targets. These goals and targets have been developed by studying best practice examples of social, economical and environmental sustainability in the built environment, which will be outlined in the next chapter discussing how to fulfil the goals of the framework. Important for these goals to work across the three components of sustainable development is the phrasing of them as capabilities rather than functionalities.

Capability goals are focused on creating the ability to achieve something rather than setting strict measures of what needs to be achieved. This provides the freedom to achieve a certain goal to the extent where it is in its optimal for a certain context, without risking undermining another goal.25 For example, providing a goal of reducing CO2 emissions with 80% might not be possible everywhere

AREA THREATS FOR HUMAN RESILIENCE WATER SCARCITY

POLLUTION

LOSS OF CULTURE

EMISSIONS

BIODIVERSITY LOSS

CONFLICT

INEQUALITY

CLIMATE CHANGE

DEPREVATION

DISASTER

RESOURCE DEPLETION

AREA

FOCUS AREAS FOR THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT SOCIO-ECONOMICS & HEALTH

MOBILITY & RESOURCES

ENERGY

DISASTER RESILIENCE

GOALS TO BE ACHIEVED FOR A RESILIENT BUILT ENVRONMENT 78

PRIMARY FUNCTIONS AND AMENITIES

CULTURAL AND ECONOMIC VALUE

INCLUSIVE & ADOPTABLE

AVAILABLE & AFFORDABLE

LOW ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

HIGH PERFORMANCE

NETWORK OF INFRASTRUCTURE

REDUCED RISK

CHARACTERISTICS OF A RESILIENT BUILT ENVIRONMENT

VALUABLE

FEASIBLE

EFFICIENT

SECURE

CONFLICT

CU EC LT ON U O VA

ER GY

EN

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L AI AV FOR AF

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AB DA L E BL & E

IN THEORY

RE D RI

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PRIMARY FUNCTIONS & AMENITIES

WA TER SC AR CI TY DI SA ST ER E NC LIE SI RE

N TIO VA E PR DE TH AL HE S& IC M L& L RA ICA M E LU

D CE U SK

LOS SO FC UL TU RE SO CIO -E CO NO

AREAâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S FRAMEWORK FOR A RESILIENT BUILT ENVIRONMENT: FROM RESEARCH TO FRAMEWORK

LOS SO FC UL TU RE SO CIO -E CO NO CU EC LT ON U O VA

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80

A BUILT ENVIRONMENT THAT...

Provides Primary Functions & Amenities to minimise the human Is Inclusive & Adoptable ensuring vulnerability and ensure basic integration with local human needs (also societies related and to creates suitable and disaster functional, resilience) by strengthening living environments for to - the population Providing (also related adequate Mobility shelter & Resources) by: Having access to energy • Integrating with local norms supply • for flexibility - Allowing Having access to safe • Setting an example drinking water - Ensuring Having access to food • understanding supply • Enabling equal opportunities Providing safeguards for human health

P

M

ER GY

RE SO UR CE S

IG R FO ER H

PO LLU TIO N

INCLUSIVE

& ADOPTABLE

AB DA L E BL & E

EMISSIONS

NETWORK OF ASTRUCTURE INFR

L AI AV FOR AF

& Y LIT BI LO MO Y IT RS VE DI BIO

SS

RS STE SA DI

PRIMARY FUNCTIONS & AMENITIES

WA TER SC AR CI TY DI SA ST ER E NC LIE SI RE

AREA

INEQUALITY

CONFLICT

D CE U SK

N TIO VA RE P DE TH AL HE S& IC M L& L RA ICA M E LU

EN

A CH TE A M CLI

Provides Primary Functions & Amenities to minimise the human Has Cultural & Economical vulnerability and ensure basic Value ensure longevity of the to humanto needs (also related built environment disaster resilience)and by form an important part of the society by: Providing adequate shelter Having access to energy • Supporting a localized economy supply • - Encouraging Having diverse accesseconomy to safe • Supporting drinking water long term societal - wealth Having access to food supply • Contributing to local culture - Responding Providing safeguards for • to local preferences human health

E NG

Provides Primary Functions & Amenities to minimise the human Provides Primary Functions vulnerability and ensure &basic Amenities to minimise human human needs (also the related to vulnerability and ensure disaster resilience) by basic human needs (also related to Disaster Resilience) Providing by: adequate shelter Having access to energy •supply Providing adequate shelter •- HavingHaving access to energyto supply access safe •drinking Havingwater access to safe drinking - water Having access to food •supply Having access to food supply safeguards •- ProvideProviding safeguards for humanfor human healthhealth

SOCIO-ECONOMICS & HEALTH

ZERO

POVERTY

HUNGER

GOOD HE ALTH

QUALITY

AND WELL-BEING

EDUCATION

GENDER

CLEAN WATER

EQUALITY

AND SANITATION

AFFORDABLE AND

DECENT WORK AND

CLEAN ENERGY

ECONOMIC GROWTH

SUSTAINABLE CITIES

PEACE, JUSTICE

AND COMMUNITIES

AND STRONG INSTITUTIONS

81

Fulfilling these goals for Socio-Economics & Health in the built environment will make it Valuable for the people it hosts through cultural and economical factors that will ensure its longevity and the wellbeing of the societies. Examples of achieving these goals can be read in the following chapter IN PERSPECTIVE

NO

IN THEORY

In regards to the built environment society, economy and health, are closely interrelated and interdependent to one another. The interaction of these three in the built environment provides a social network of economical, mental and physical support that is vital for human resilience.

Society refers to the organisation of people living together and our everyday activities played out on a public, increasingly global, stage. A functional society is fundamental for a functional economy, which requires a healthy and productive population, and the built environment has a large impact on local cultures, customs and sense of belonging. Economy is crucial for a society to thrive by providing wealth and enable access to human essentials such as water, food, shelter and energy. The built environment plays an important part of ensuring the distribution of such wealth, both physically and mentally, to ensure a functioning society.

Health includes the mental and physical health brought on through our natural environment, as well as societal and economical interactions in the built environment and their conduciveness in establishing a feeling of being an integral part of the society. This includes the ability to have ownership of oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s own wellbeing. It also refers to the direct impact by the built environment on our wellbeing such as indoor climate, access to natural light, access to nature, space, fresh air etc.

The goals related to this topic must therefore be associated with achieving a built environment that becomes closely integrated with local societies, make them stronger both physically and mentally, promotes equal distribution of wealth and agency, and ensures longevity of the built environment and its qualities, which also contributes to environmental sustainability.

INTEGRATED UN SDGâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S:

AREA RE D RI

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IG R FO ER H

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INCLUSIVE

& ADOPTABLE L AI AV FOR AF

& Y LIT BI LO MO Y IT RS VE DI BIO

AB DA L E BL & E

EMISSIONS

NETWORK OF ASTRUCTURE INFR

AREA

SS

RS STE SA DI

PRIMARY FUNCTIONS & AMENITIES

WA TER SC AR CI TY DI SA ST ER E NC LIE SI RE

LOS SO FC UL TU RE SO CIO -E CO NO CU EC LT ON U O VA

CONFLICT

D CE U SK

N TIO VA RE P DE TH AL HE S& IC M L& L RA ICA M E LU

EN

A CH ATE M I CL

E NG

A BUILT ENVIRONMENT THAT...

82 Is Inclusive & Adoptable ensuring integration with local societies and creates functional, suitable and strengthening living environments for the population (also related to Socio-Economics & Health) by:

Is Available & Affordable reducing the need for transport and provides long-term socioeconomical prosperity by:

Has Low Environmental Impact to ensure the continued wellbeing of the earth and all its living creatures depending on it (also related to Energy) by:

• • • • •

• • • •

•

Integrating with local norms Allowing for flexibility Setting an example Ensuring understanding Enabling equal opportunities

•

Utilising localised resources Utilising localised labour Utilise localised knowledge Being economically affordable to a widespread public Ensuring sustained supply & affordability

• • • •

Using renewable material resources Optimise circular life-cycle of resources Producing minimal emissions and waste Optimising durability Using renewable energy sources

MOBILITY & RESOURCES

GENDER

POVERTY

EQUALITY

DECENT WORK AND

INDUSTRY,

ECONOMIC

INNOVATION AND

GROWTH

INFRASTRUCTURE

REDUCE D

SUSTAINABLE CITIES

INEQUALITIES

AND COMMUNITIES

RESPONSIBLE

CLIMATE

CONSUMPTION

ACTION

AND PRODUCTION

LIFE

LIFE

BELOW WATER

ON L AND

83

Achieving these goals under the topic of Mobility & Resources will result in a built environment that is Feasible for the people and the planet, in terms of consumption and cost, also ensuring the future scalability as needs changes and obstacles are met.

Examples of achieving these goals can be read in the following chapter IN PERSPECTIVE.

NO

IN THEORY

Mobility & Resources in the built environment refers to the extraction, production and distribution of building materials from which we construct the spaces where we live, work, learn and socialize. This also includes the production and use of infrastructure required to allow for mobility and access to these spaces, and other vital needs for life such as water, energy, food and waste management, hence it is directly related to the topic of Socio-Economics & Health.

This topic becomes important for achieving a built environment that sits within the ‘safe space’ for humanity since the building sector is currently the world’s nr 1 consumer of natural resources, and also the worst polluter of the atmosphere, water and land we rely on to survive. 27 Whilst the resource of energy required for operation of the built environment will be dealt with as a separate topic, the embodied energy required for the extraction and production of materials in the built environment, making up 10% of the worlds total energy consumption28, is included in Mobility & Resources.

Furthermore this topic becomes important due to the current pattern of globalisation that has contributed to humans becoming more and more detached from the source and impact of our consumption pattern.

This does not only impact the natural environment, but also the social and economical environment as foreign products are being introduced to new contexts and locations, creating vulnerable dependencies, simultaneously as resources are being extracted from places where they might be needed the most to be used in other parts that have the means to pay for them.

The goals related to this topic are therefore not only associated with achieving a built environment made from renewable, clean and local resources, but also creating a built environment from resources that are efficient, distributed by nature, fair and inclusive throughout their life-span.

INTEGRATED UN SDG’S:

AREA LOS SO FC UL TU RE SO CIO -E CO NO CU EC LT ON U O VA

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P

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RE SO UR CE S

IG R FO ER H

PO LLU TIO N

INCLUSIVE

& ADOPTABLE

AB DA L E BL & E

EMISSIONS

NETWORK OF ASTRUCTURE INFR

L AI AV FOR AF

& Y LIT BI LO MO Y IT RS VE DI BIO

SS

RS STE SA DI

PRIMARY FUNCTIONS & AMENITIES

WA TER SC AR CI TY DI SA ST ER E NC LIE SI RE

AREA

INEQUALITY

CONFLICT

D CE U SK

N TIO VA RE P DE TH AL HE S& IC M L& L RA ICA M E LU

EN

A CH ATE M I CL

E NG

A BUILT ENVIRONMENT THAT...

84 Has Low Environmental Impact to ensure the continued wellbeing of the earth and all its living creatures depending on it (also relating to Mobility & Resources) by:

Has High Performance to improve efficiency and durability of energy consumption, reducing pollution and resource depletion by

Provides a Network of Infrastructure that is efficient and can continue to support the wellbeing of societies in case of disruption (also related to Disaster Resilience) by:

•

• •

•

• • • •

Using renewable material resources Optimise circular life-cycle of resources Producing minimal emissions and waste Optimising durability Using renewable energy sources

• • •

Minimising energy demand Encouraging awareness of energy usage Applying passive design principles Applying responsive design principles Optimising energy source to use

• • • •

Encouraging strong community cohesion Providing resilient network of institutions Having a resilient supply of resources Providing distributed network of communications Having a resilient energy network

ENERGY

INDUSTRY,

CLEAN ENERGY

INNOVATION AND INFRASTRUCTURE

REDUCE D

SUSTAINABLE CITIES

INEQUALITIES

AND COMMUNITIES

RESPONSIBLE

CLIMATE

CONSUMPTION

ACTION

AND PRODUCTION

LIFE

LIFE

BELOW WATER

ON L AND

PEACE, JUSTICE AND STRONG INSTITUTIONS

85

Achieving these goals under the topic of Energy will result in a built environment that is Efficient through design and construction to reduce environmental stress whilst ensuring the wellbeing of people.

Examples of achieving these goals can be read in the following chapter IN PERSPECTIVE.

AFFORDABLE AND

IN THEORY

Energy in the built environment belongs to the topic of resources. However, the built environment is responsible for 40% of the world’s energy consumption, including industrial and residential consumption. 29 This consumption is currently fuelled to 83% by non-renewable carbon sources, and is therefore also the largest contributing sector to two of the threats for human resilience; climate change and pollution.30 This makes the topic of energy such an important point in itself within the built environment to move towards the ‘safe space’ for humanity, that it has been separated from the other resources.

Currently the energy consumption in buildings is directly linked to the increase of Green House Gasses emissions (GHG) fuelling climate change.31 Of the world’s energy consumption 10% is used to extract and produce the building materials and infrastructure referred to in the previous topic Mobility & Resources, also called Embodied Energy. However, the other 30% of the world’s energy consumption related to the built environment is used during the operational phase of the building for heating, cooling and appliances.32 This is also the type of energy that is predicted to rapidly increase in the coming years due to greater access to energy sources across the globe. Such an increase is important for humanity as energy access is considered one of the essentials for a social foundation to power a healthy economy and society. However, for a resilient future it will require new energy sources and means of consumption that are non-damaging to the environment as well as improved efficiency in energy use, reduction of energy consumption per capita and resilient energy supplies.

The goals related to this topic are focused on minimising the consumption patterns of the built environment whilst increasing the accessibility to energy sources that are clean, renewable, affordable and reliant.

INTEGRATED UN SDG’S:

AREA LOS SO FC UL TU RE SO CIO -E CO NO CU EC LT ON U O VA

RE D RI

H AN CE

LOW ENVIRO L NMENTA IMPACT

RES OUR CE DE PLETION

P

M

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IG R FO ER H

PO LLU TIO N

INCLUSIVE

& ADOPTABLE

AB DA L E BL & E

EMISSIONS

NETWORK OF ASTRUCTURE INFR

L AI AV FOR AF

& Y LIT BI LO MO Y IT RS VE DI BIO

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RS STE SA DI

PRIMARY FUNCTIONS & AMENITIES

WA TER SC AR CI TY DI SA ST ER E NC LIE SI RE

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86 Provides Primary Functions & Amenities to minimise the human vulnerability and ensure basic human needs (also related to disaster resilience) by:

Ensures Reduced Risk which minimises the exposure to disasters by:

Provides a Network of Infrastructure that is efficient and can continue to support the wellbeing of societies in case of disruption by:

• • •

• • • • •

•

• •

Providing adequate shelter Having access to energy supply Having access to safe drinking water Having access to food supply Provide safeguards for human health

Promoting risk awareness Promoting risk preparedness Providing secure structures Adhering to safe planning Enabling immediate recovery

• • • •

Encouraging strong community cohesion Providing resilient network of institutions Having a resilient supply of resources Providing distributed network of communications Having a resilient energy network

DISASTER RESILIENCE

ZERO

POVERTY

HUNGER

GOOD HE ALTH

CLEAN WATER

AND WELL-BEING

AND SANITATION

AFFORDABLE AND

INDUSTRY,

CLEAN ENERGY

INNOVATION AND INFRASTRUCTURE

REDUCE D

SUSTAINABLE CITIES

INEQUALITIES

AND COMMUNITIES

PEACE, JUSTICE AND STRONG INSTITUTIONS

87

Achieving these goals under the topic of Disaster Resilience will result in a built environment that is Safe for the people and the planet through ensured structural integrity, adaptability to disruptions and a continued supply of basic function required for sustained health and wellbeing. Examples of achieving these goals can be read in the following chapter IN PERSPECTIVE.

NO

IN THEORY

Disaster Resilience in the built environment relates to how well inevitable hazards and disruptions, caused by either nature or social and economical circumstances, can be absorbed by communities.

Natural hazards are particularly becoming a growing concern for the built environment, as the majority of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s cities, with constantly growing populations, are located in areas vulnerable to these types of hazards.33 These hazards are currently intensifying due to climate change and the risk of them turning into disasters are heavily influenced by how the built environment is designed to anticipate, adapt and recover from such a hazard.34 Furthermore, as discussed previously in the topic of Socio-Economics & Health, the built environment has large impact on the wellbeing of societies and economies, which is a crucial factor to reduce the risk of a natural hazard becoming a disaster, and also for other man-made disasters to occur such as conflict and war.

Disaster resilience in the built environment must work to protect the livelihoods, institutions, economic assets, cultures and ecosystems in the event of a threat or disruption to normal life.35 Achieving this requires a built environment that reduces the exposure and vulnerabilities of risk for a disaster both physically and psychologically, but also responds quickly to restore necessary functions of society in case of it happening.

The goals related to Disaster Resilience are therefore encouraging a built environment that; promotes decentralized and ensured access to resources, reduces risk and exposure through structural integrity and adaptability, and strengthens the wellbeing of societies, economies and the natural environment.

INTEGRATED UN SDGâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S:

AREA

â&#x20AC;&#x153;The biggest threat to our planet is the belief that someone else will save itâ&#x20AC;?

-Robert Swann

88

IN THEORY

THE FRAMEWORK IN PRACTICE

89

AREA AREA AREAâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S TEAM DURING A FIELD TRIP TO THE KULLU VALLEY IN 2017 90

A RESILIENT KULLU VALLEY During the spring of 2018 AREA have worked on applying the framework for a resilient built environment to practice in the area of Kullu Valley in Northern India. The task for the studio was to re-imagine the current vulnerable built environment and its population that is under threat of disasters, climate change, pollution and resource scarcity. To do so AREA started a thorough investigation on the social, economical and environmental context across multiple scales of the valley. This investigation consisted of extensive literature studies and a field trip under which interviews, surveys and observations were made.

Back in the Netherlands the studio analysed the research according to the framework for a resilient

built environment which showed a lot of opportunities to improve the resiliency of the valley. From this, a problem statement for a design task was made focused on improving the overall resilience of the valley by improving the resilience of four key topics being; transport, tourism, housing and waste. By thinking of these topics as interconnected and vital components for the resilience of the valley the studio managed to propose four building designs that all contributes to a better future in both the valley and the world.

More information about these projects can be found in the studioâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s PROJECT BOOK dedicated to projects based on the framework.

THE FRAMEWORK IN PRACTICE REALISING A RESILIENT BUILT ENVIRONMENT

CONTEXT RESEARCH

FRAMEWORK ANALYSIS

SOC IOEC ON O CU EC LT ON U VA O L

IN THEORY

DIS AS TE R R RE D RI S

CE EN ILI ES

PRIMARY FUNCTIONS & AMENITIES

D CE U K

H ALT HE & S IC M L & AL RA IC M E U

INCLUSIVE & ADOPTABLE

NETWORK OF ASTRUCTURE INFR

Y

&

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H AN C

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IG R FO

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DESIGN OUTCOME

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L AI R AV FO AF

MO

Area’s framework for a resilient built environment is aimed to be used by any actor in the built environment; architects, planners, developers, councils etc., as well as the communities that inhabit them. The framework provides a holistic and evidence-based model in which the sustainability and resilience of the built environment can be measured and validated across multiple scales whilst constantly considering the interdependence of social, economical and environmental sustainability. The framework can be used for planning new projects, but also as a tool for analysis of the success of an already finished project. Applying the framework to practice for a new project consist of; 1) understanding the specific context in which the framework is applied, 2) analysing the existing condition of resilience in the built environment based on the framework targets, 3) design and innovative solutions to fulfil the framework.

To understand the specific context in which to apply the framework and make a fair analysis of the current situation it becomes important to study the context from a social, economical and environmental perspective. Such a study should entail a broad methodology of research to provide a fairly distributed representation of the social, economical and environmental conditions to create the best outcome when using the framework. Depending on scale this might include a variety of studies ranging from scientific research to field observations and personal interviews. However, such a study might also be achieved by including the involvement of a multidisciplinary team which will ensure that a broad perspective of the crucial components of each topic is covered and heard in the analysis.

To get an overview of the existing condition of resilience in the built environment in the specific application, each goals of the framework should be analysed and filled in based on the amounts of targets achieved within that goal.

From this a problem statement can be made for a new proposal or design with a focus of how to contribute to the fulfilment of the rest of the targets to reach the ‘safe space’ for humanity. On certain scales such design or innovation might contribute to greater strengthening of some of the goals, whilst on other scales it might deal with all of them. However, even achieving one of the goals in AREA’s framework contributes to sustainable development because they are all inherently interlinked. This allows the application of AREA’s framework to practice to occur in multiple ways whilst providing the same long-term outcome. With AREA’s framework it does not matter if it is used as a theoretical framework to encourage discussion and future planning for a resilient future, or if it is used for the practical planning and realisation of projects, both of these applications will contribute to true sustainable development and future human resilience.

THE FRAMEWORK IN PRACTICE FOR KULLU VALLEY

SOCIAL CONTEXT

CLIMATE & NATURE

HAZARD VULNERABILITY

HISTORY

LITTERATURE STUDY

AREA

ECONOMICAL CONTEXT

DEMOGRAPHICS TYPOLOGY STUDIES

CULTURE PHYSICAL OBSERVATION INDUSTRY

INTERVIEWS & SURVEYS 92

ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT

LIVING CONDITIONS

INFRASTRUCTURE

RESOURCES

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

SOCIAL OBSERVATIONS

CU EC LT ON U O VA

ER GY

EN

E NG A CH TE A M CLI

PO LLU TIO N

E H AN C

RES OUR CE DE PLETION

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INEQUALITY

INCLUSIVE & ADOPTABLE

LOW ENVIRO L NMENTA IMPACT

93

RE SO UR CE S

IG R FO R E

H

EMISSIONS

NETWORK OF ASTRUCTURE INFR

L AI AV FOR AF

& Y LIT BI LO MO Y IT RS VE DI BIO

SS

AB DA L E BL & E

IN THEORY

RE D RI

RS STE SA DI

PRIMARY FUNCTIONS & AMENITIES

WA TER SC AR CI TY DI SA ST ER E NC LIE SI RE

LOS SO FC UL TU RE SO CIO -E CO NO

CONFLICT

D CE U SK

N TIO VA E PR DE TH AL HE S& IC M L& L RA ICA M E LU

THE IDEAL RESILIENT BUILT ENVIRONMENT

C I FF

E NG A CH TE A M CLI

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E

IC

VO

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UITY

VAL U LO

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IN US

EQU A

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IB

G

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TIO CA

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PEACE

NETWORKS

FE A

INEQUALITY

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RS STE SA DI

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R

TE WA

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FOOD

FOUNDA TIO CIAL SO N

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LOS SO FC UL TU RE

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CONFLICT N WA O TER ATI EV SC R M A N U H R P E O S T I L AR IENC ATS DE E R CI E TH TY

CONCLUSION

95

The following chapter will provide best practice examples from different parts of the world on how to achieve the goals within AREA’s framework for a resilient built environment in reality. It looks at case studies for achieving the goals of the four critical topics presented in this chapter through various scales and from different geographical and economical contexts. By doing so, tangible proposals for integrated measures needed to steer the currently disruptive development path towards a prosperous one, are made and hope to inspire the approach to our built environment.

IN THEORY

With the framework developed in this chapter AREA hopes to provide a model for sustainable development in the built environment that is robust through both its theory, and when applied to practice. To do so, AREA proposes that there is a need to understand the complex and interrelated social, economical and environmental threats for human resilience, caused by the lack of sustainable practices, which requires integrated measures to not become reality.

The development of such measures has evolved from a critical analysis of the history of sustainable development frameworks, in particular the UN’s SDGs, from interviews with specialists across multiple disciplines related to the topic, and by looking at best practice examples of sustainable practice across the globe. The focus has been on understanding how to best achieve an integrated outcome of social, economical and environmental sustainability through both planning and realisation of projects. The result is a holistic and true understanding of sustainable development, represented in a diagram as the ‘safe space’ for humanity where all the needs of the present is met without threats of human resilience compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirs.

Reaching this space for the built environment is proposed to be done by fulfilling eight specific goals dealing with crucial topics of Socio-economics & Health, Mobility & Resources, Energy and Disaster Resilience in the built environment. These goals aim to combat, and reverse, currently damaging trends within the built environment that is rapidly contributing to accelerated threats of human resilience and the inhabitability of our earth.

In practice, the framework can be used by various actors in the built environment to both analyse current conditions of resilience and to plan for innovative solutions in the future.

When the framework is achieved in practice across different contexts and various scales, the result will be a resilient built environment that is; Valuable, Feasible, Efficient and Safe. Such an environment is crucial to reach the biggest challenge of the 21st century; achieving a ‘safe space’ for humanity on earth.

IN PERSPECTIVE

INTRODUCTION

Achieving a resilient built environment that sits within the ‘safe space’ for humanity in AREA’s framework for human resilience does not necessary require reinventing the wheel of current practice. It does however require a critical analysis of current best practice within the four key topics for the built environment established by AREA; Socio-Economics & Health, Mobility & Resources, Energy and Disaster Resilience.

In particular, it is important to analyse how best practice examples, across scales and contexts, achieve the goals for resilience developed by AREA and where there is a potential to achieve more in the future by integrating them.

This chapter looks closer at policies, projects and ways of doing that helps the built environment on a path to fulfil the eight goals for a resilient built environment developed

by AREA. By studying real life examples across varying scales, from international policy through to the building detail, as well as examples from different geographical and economical contexts, this chapter becomes a source book of practical examples, which when integrated adhere to AREA’s theory for a resilient future.

Within the topic of Socio-Economics & Health best practice examples that showcases a move towards a circular and distributive built environment. These projects are analysed in regards to fulfilling the goals of a built environment that is; Inclusive & Adoptable, Cultural & Economic Value and Primary Functions & Amenities. The projects highlighted in this section are projects that 1) supports local and decentralized wealth creation, 2) provides ownership of enterprise, 3) give access to land and housing, 4) promote improved health and education, and 5) provide improved networks of energy and communication.

Within the topic of Mobility & Resources best practice examples that showcases a move towards a circular and distributive built environment will be analysed in regards to fulfilling the goals of a built environment that is; Inclusive & Adoptable, Available & Affordable and has Low Environmental Impact. This includes projects that supports local and decentralized resource extraction, and material production, to minimize transport and vulnerable dependencies, efficient design to reduce the amount of resources needed, and environmentally and socially considerate practices that reduce pollution and increase both mental and physical wellbeing.

Within the topic of Energy examples of….. will be analysed in regards to fulfilling the goals of ….

Within the topic of Disaster Resilience examples that span from country wide policies that encourage resilient development to detailing for safe and durable structures will be analysed in regards to fulfilling the goals of Primary Functions & Amenities, Reduced Risk and Network of Infrastructure.

The examples referenced in this chapter are just some ways that are forging the way to create a future that renders our planet still fit for human habitation. Multiple other options exist to fulfil the goals of AREA’s framework for a resilient built environment, with the importance of choice being the options appropriateness for its direct context.

â&#x20AC;&#x153;There is no such thing as societyâ&#x20AC;?

- Margaret Thatcher

AREA 100

THE SOCIETAL ECONOMY

IN PERSPECTIVE

RYAN MCGAFFNEY

101

ABSTRACT

Socio-Economics & Health includes best practice examples that showcases a move towards a circular and distributive built environment. These projects are analysed in regards to fulfilling the goals of a built environment that is; Inclusive & Adoptable, Cultural & Economic Value and Primary Functions & Amenities. The projects highlighted in this section are projects that 1) supports local and decentralized wealth creation, 2) provides ownership of enterprise, 3) give access to land and housing, 4) promote improved health and education, and 5) provide improved networks of energy and communication.

The projects discussed in this section spans from country wide policies that encourages social economy and health to detailing for understandability and inclusiveness. Of particular interest is the lessons that can be shared between developing an developed countriesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; diďŹ&#x20AC;erent approach to circularity which when integrated provides a promising path towards a resilient future.

XL: COUNTRY UK

CREATION OF A UNIVERSAL HEALTHCARE SYSTEM

L: CITY XLXL

XLXLXLXLXXLXLXLXLXLXXLXLX XLXLXLXLXLXLXLXLXLXLXLXLX XLXLXLXLXLXLXLXLXLXLXLXLX

BELGIUM

PROVISION OF A COMPLEMENTARY CURRENCY FOR AN INCLUSIVE SOCIETY

POPULATION PER COUNTRY Source: Populstat

> 25 MILLION 25 MILLION - 50 MILLION 50 MILLION - 100 MILLION 100 MILLION - 500 MILLION < 500 MILLION

A.R.E.A

POPULATION GROWTH 1960-2015 Source: World Bank 2015

0-49% 50-99% 100-299% > 300%

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PROVISION OF SHARED WORKSPACE FOR DECENTRALIZED WORKING

KENYA

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CHANGE OF VALUE FROM EXCLUSIVITY TO TIME

UK

PROVIDES ADAPTIVE FINANCING FOR AFFORDABLE HOUSING

KENYA

STRENGTHENING GENDER EQUALITY THROUGH WEALTH CREATION

IN CONTEXT

XS: DETAIL GLOBAL

ENABLES ACCESS TO ARCHITECTURE FOR EVERYONE

INDONESIA

STANDARDIZED COMPONENTS FOR SAFE CONSTRUCTION

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TOWARDS A SOCIETAL ECONOMY Source: Kate Raworth

NEO-LIBERAL ECONOMICS

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THE SOCIETAL ECONOMY INTRODUCTION The built environment in which we live is inhabited by individuals. As social beings, humans form groups of individuals, relationships with other people which make up the basis of society. This society is supported by an economic model which enables it to trade between individuals and share knowledge, skills, information, goods etc. As a society people form an economy and in turn the rules of that economy inform how our interactions with other individuals take place. The built environment is a physical construct of this interlinked socio-economic model, responding directly to the relationships of social and economic interactions, both physical and psychological, between people. The framework in which this built environment is constructed, through the socio-economic model which society prescribes for itself, has a direct effect on our health as human beings.

This refers to both our mental and physical health; mental: the way in which our built environment safe guards our health and mental wellbeing, either enabling or deterring people to socialise with others through their socio-economic model, physical: the way in which our built environment safe guards our physical health and the human body, through preventing the spread of disease, prevention of toxic pollutants, and reducing the risk of injury through safe building practice.

The title of this section; The Societal Economy is a term for expressing the notion that society and economy are not actually two distinct subjects within themselves, and that one cannot function without the other. This section looks at our societal economy across a range of scales and differing contexts throughout the world to determine the means which we need to fulfil our social, economical, and health

Today, we live in a globalized societal economy. The advances in mobility and communications over the last century have enables humans on this planet to become ever more connected, both physically and digitally. This has enabled and encouraged the vast movement of 1. Goods, through international trade, and 2.People, through migration, globally. The results of this planetary exchange are outlined in four aspects by The International Monetary Fund; 1. Trade, 2. Capital Movement, 3. Movement of People, and 4. Spread of Knowledge and Technology.1 Globalization brings many benefits such as the possibility to reduce poverty in both developed and developing countries through international exchange. However, in some instances it could be argued that globalization creates further divide between wealthy and poor regions of the world. Aside from this our now globalized economy has been linked to the environmental effects which the planet is witnessing today, in the form of climate change.2 These effects have been documented in relation to the current economic model by Kate Raworth’s Doughnut Economic model. Raworth shows that in some aspects the globalized world has already surpassed many of our planetary boundaries.3 The effects which global society is having on the planet are only set to increase unless the way in which individuals live, trade, and interact in the globalized societal economy is adapts to the challenges ahead.

The main contributors to the stresses which globalization is putting on the planet are developed economies with high wealth, and hence high consumer patterns. This is only forecast to increase with The International Monetary Fund predicting that the four fastest growing World economies will be China, The United States of America, India, and Indonesia in terms of Gross Domestic Product(GDP) between 2020 and 20504, three out of four of which are currently classed as developing economies by the United Nations.5 If developing countries expand in the way which developed economies have done over the past 150 years, since western industrialization, the global ecological footprint will far surpass the limit of the earth’s biological capacity. By 2030 our earthshare(ecological footprint/biological capacity) is forecast to be the equivalent consumption rate of two earths.

IN PERSPECTIVE

These can be assessed through the three goals of AREA’s framework which contribute to socio-economics & health; cultural & economic value, inclusivity & adoptability, and access to primary functions & amenities. The first; cultural & economic value, enables people to create a built environment which is relevant and valuable to them, making reference to their historical backgrounds; giving a sense of place, whilst creating a means of economic income in which their society can support itself. The second; inclusivity & adoptability, enables people to feel part of their socio-economic framework, allowing them to gain a sense of purpose within their built environment as well as a knowledge and understanding of how that framework is constructed.

The latter; access to primary function & amenities, refers to the notion that all people within that socio-economic framework should have access to the necessary functions & amenities which are needed to support and sustain human life.

needs as we play out our everyday lives in the context of our built environment.

This predicted trend is generally followed by the move towards a majority urbanized population (China 75%, USA 87%, Indonesia 70%).6 With the only member of these big four economic states anticipated to still be on the verge of having a majority of its population living in urban areas is 107

India (50% Urban),7 lying still under the global average of 66% urban by 2050.8

AREA

Alongside this predicted wealth increase, the globalized world looks to bring with it further inequality in terms of wealth distribution between people. In 2017, Credit Suisse highlighted that the worlds wealthiest 1% of people account for half of the total wealth of people on the planet.9 As architects and designers we design specifically for that wealthiest 1%, as the percentage of the global population who can afford to pay for professional building design services. However, the United Nations outlines that shelter, architecture in its rawest state, is a basic human need, meaning that 99% of our built environment is being built by non professional. As our Societal Economy increases in wealth and population, yet becomes more unequal the design of the built environment has to become more inclusive to provide a sustainable and resilient backdrop for everyday life in society to take place. Alastair Parvin, founder of Wikihouse, outlines this task through three points which he believes designers need to address; 1. Don’t Build, Designers should question whether a building is the best solution to solve the problem at hand, 2. Go Small, Design for the incremental growth of places and allow design to be available to all through making small and affordable design solutions which contribute to a wider whole, and 3. Go Amateur, Design for people without professional knowledge of the construction of the built environments, empowering everyone to be able to build their own form of shelter.10 AREA’s framework aims to enable design methods such as this, through analysing the built environment with this tool we can provide answers to outline such as Parvin’s, through inverting the guidelines into answerable questions with measured outcomes to determine; 1. How much to Build, 2. How Small?, and 3. How Amateur?. In the Societal Economy, to create design solutions for the globalized world which are; 1. Inclusive and Adoptable, 2. Have Cultural & Economic Value, and 3. Are linked to and can become Primary Functions & Amenities.

On a global scale, Raworth outlines her goals for a societal economy which is distributive by design through the implementation of; 1. Health & Education, 2. Energy & Communications, 3. Land & Housing, 4. Ownership of Enterprise, 5. Money Creation. Raworth argues that each of the key points need to be pre-distributed within society, moving away from the centrally distributed system of the 20th century which implied an assumption of inequality and implemented a system of check and balance through the taxation of wealth.11 This can be done through empowering individuals with the capability to achieve personal well-being, decentralising energy and communication technologies, creating affordable and community based land and housing, having employee ownership in enterprise, and providing a monetary creation system which is inclusive

for all within society. Throughout this section case studies of how these aspects can be achieved will be highlighted to provide examples of best practice of Sustainable and Resilient design solution to the growing Societal Economy which is taking place in the built environment.

108

CIRCULAR STRATEGY FOR BUILDING INDUSTRY

Source: Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2016)

HEALTH & EDUCATION

ENERGY & COMMUNICATIONS

MONEY CREATION

IN PERSPECTIVE

LAND & HOUSING

OWNERSHIP OF ENTERPRISE 109

AREA

110

XL: COUNTRY On the scale of the nation state the set up of a societal economy needs to provides an economy which is integrated within society. In creating an economy which is linked to creating a social foundation without exceeding our planetary boundaries we will be able to become more resilient on a nation scale to global financial fluctuations. Through understanding that the fluctuations of this economy is directly dependant on people we must also understand that people are not standard components which 20th Century economics set them out to be. People are ever changing and adapting beings that are both individual and social.

Therefore, the social economy in the 21st Century must anticipate for the fluctuations in human relations which happen in economy and society.

To do this a universal social foundation needs to be established. The means of doing this must be highly contextualised and pre distributed amongst people. For many developed countries a social foundation was set in the second half of the 20th Century with the sweeping reforms of post war socialism. However, the creation and improvement of this social base must be implemented incrementally and contextually to the society and economy which it serves, preserving the cultural heritage of the specific place which integrating new standards of living within it. Therefore, the societal economy needs to be contextually optimised to make use of localized skills and knowledge to work within communities to developed a universal standard of living within the societal economy.

IN PERSPECTIVE 111

JOINT GOVERNMENTAL DEPARTMENT

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NATIONAL HEALTH SERVICE

An example of this social and financial equilibrium, at a national scale, can be found in the post war period of the late 1940s, before the introduction of free market economics. In the United Kingdom in 1942 Lord Beveridge published his report of Social Insurance and Allied Services, outlining the pretence for the post war Welfare State which was to be set up by the Government. The Beveridge report set out Five Giants which were to be tackled to rejuvenate the country after the second world war; Want, Ignorance, Disease, Squalor, and Idleness. The role of tackling these challenges in the built environment fell to the Minister for Health; Aneurin Bevan, whose role combined the provision of health care and housing for the British population. Bevan undertook a vast slum clearance program, and with it, the building of new social housing for all. The construction of New Towns brought

with it vast employment opportunities in the construction industry, as well as state employment through the nationalisation of the railways, and heavy industry such as steelworks, and coal mines. This was supported by a free and universal education and health care system, The National Health Service(NHS). Bevanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s success in this top down approach came from the interdependency of the Housing and Health governmental departments, providing preventative healthcare measures through the better well-being of individual through an improved built environment, whilst simultaneously providing corrective healthcare measures through a freely accessible health service. In doing this Bevan created a new nationwide service which is Inclusive & Adoptable, has Cultural & Economic Value, and provides Primary Functions & Amenities to the population of the United Kingdom.

IN PERSPECTIVE 113

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L: CITY On the scale of the city, our urban environments need to become inclusive and adoptable for all within the societal economy. In doing this people need to have access to public space enabling the social interaction which form society to form. In advanced economics where this societal foundation was built throughout the industrial revolution, the physical health issues caused by the rapid economic expansion which developing countries are now facing have, to a great extent, been alleviated from society. The main challenge now comes from the increasing risks to mental health which the privatisation of space is having on society.

The commons, publicly owned utilities, spaces, and places, have for centuries been the epicentre of human interaction.

These public spaces however, have continuously been at risk since the mainstream introduction of Neo-Liberalist policy

by Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan to the globalised political economy in the 1970s. With the privatisation of these places of human, social, and societal interaction the new space in which these genetically inherent activities take place is the shopping mall or the coffee shop, the restaurant or the cinema, place which are all only available of those in society who have enough capital means. To those in society who cannot afford to socialise in the neoliberal economy the issue of mental illness is becoming increasingly more apparent. In the beginning of 2018 the UK Government launched a cross party commission to research and combat the issue of loneliness across the country, with statistics showing that over 9 million people (13.7% of the population)12 are suffering from loneliness, with some having had no social interaction with other people in over one month.13 In this context it then becomes increasingly worrying when architects and urban planners, the shapers of our built environment, call for the privatisation of all public life.14

IN PERSPECTIVE

In recent years as political economic policy has started to diverge to further extremes of left and right, a framework for a sustainable societal economy on a national scale has been suggested by the British Labour Party under the leadership of Jeremy Corbyn. Corbyn sets out a manifesto to reclaim the commons into public ownership in a move which is a mass reversal of fifty years of neoliberalism into a social and economic period which has not been witnessed in many advanced economies since the post was period of the late 1940s & 1950s, but may hold the key to the resurrection of an economy which works for society rather than a society that works for the economy.

individual through changing the value system of currency from exclusivity to labour time, enabling society to form through wealth creation.

However in order to achieve this the economy needs to be decentralised and diversified, making use of various financial systems to include all inhabitants of the city into society. The next examples showcase different examples of alternative currency which provide access to society for 115

TOREKES

The creation of Cultural & Economic Value which is Inclusive & Adoptable in the built environment is the implementation of an alternative currency in the region of Rabot, Gent, in Belgium. Torekes were set up in Gent by economist Bernard Lietaer as a complementary currency to integrate the large number of refuguees living in the region into society. Due to the refuguee status of residents living in Rabot, many people could not gain access to employment, and hence monetary income in the traditional economic structure of Belgium. On visit to Rabot, Lietaer found that what many of these people actually wanted was access to garden and community space which they had had in abundance in there home countries due to access to land.15 However, in Rabot this land had not been available to the new immigrants moving into the community. Lietaer based his currency

around the creating of this new urban community space, looking at empty industrial sites are the location where these spaces could be built. Individuals in the community could generate an income through the Toreke currency system if they did certain activities to contribute to the production of these community spaces. This currency could then be exchanged for certain good in local shops and services within the region, giving residents outside of the normal societal constructs access to money generation. This system succeeded in the built environment through the inclusion of people into a larger society as well as creating an improved urban space to improve inhabitants well-being. Implementing both economical and health benefits which were predistributed and securing a social construct in the region of Rabot.

TOREKE ECONOMICS TOREKES

RESOURCES

CURRENCY WAGES

TY CIE SO ER ID

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AC CE SS TO BO LA

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ER ID

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WIDER SOCIET Y

116

COWRY & BITCOIN The use of cowry, in the Pacific Islands, put monetary value in terms of labour(time), over that of volume of goods. The cowry currency was made from shells acquired from the beaches in the island where individuals would polish the shells to increase their value. In a simple sense the creation of this monetary system appreciated craftsmanship through the amount of hours a person put into the creation of the currency over the rarity of the currency itself. Through doing this the cowry creates a process of wealth generation which is Inclusive & Adoptable whilst creating Cultural & Economic value in society.

LABOR

This method of wealth production is also seen in more contemporary currencies such as Bitcoin. Bitcoin uses a system of user verification, called Mining, to authenticate digital currency transactions. This work is undertaken by groups of individuals who check the online code between transactions, and then share that information in the creative commons to be checked again, eventually reaching a majority consensus of authentication. Miners are then paid for their time in bitcoins. This process helps to verify the bitcoin currency, making it more financially stable, and hence more valuable. The move to a decentralized financial system such as this makes our economic systems secure and less susceptible to corruption and misuse.16 The transparent and impartial system of checks and balances here creates self made economic value whilst also being an inclusive and adoptable system for users. In relation to the finances behind the built environment alternative monetary system such as bitcoin could enable out economic markets to become more transparent and stable, preventing the booms and busts which we have witnessed in neo-liberal politics throughout the 20th and early 21st centuries.

VALUE

IN PERSPECTIVE

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117

AREA

118

M: COMMUNITY The community in todays society has witnessed a downturn since the implementation of neo-liberal policy into developed nations. The community oďŹ&#x20AC;ers a social support network which begins to form society and makes individuals more resilient due to them being connected within a wider network. These connections enable an informal economy to take place, often referred to as the unpaid care economy, where individuals carry out services, care, for one another on the basis that their eďŹ&#x20AC;orts will be reciprocated. This secondary economy has been present throughout the built environment in both the developed and the developing worlds, however in the developed has largely fallen by the wayside with the move to the privatised ownership and consumerist nature of housing and land. In the formation of the United States of America now towns would be formed through community eďŹ&#x20AC;orts, new buildings would be constructed in social rituals such as the barn raising, which as a method of construction would construct

and reinforce the community within society as well as the barn itself. Events like this still take place in developing countries, where informal settlements are constructed in a self build format by individuals and communities. However, the move towards more regulated technological building constructions in developed countries means that the self build community construction has largely evaporated from our communities, along with the social network which it formed along with it. However, although this may be the case, the implementation of the sharing economy, where goods and resources become shared between large groups of people rather than individual ownership has the possibility to promote these social structures once more within our urban fabric. The project example in this section showcase an alternative socio-economic structure which enables the formation of this community to happen, promoting social, economical, and environmental health which is reinforced through community.

IN PERSPECTIVE 119

LILAC HOUSING

With the current generation entering into the property market in United Kingdom being commonly understood as generation rent in response to the ever growing acknowledgement that they will never be able to own their own home due to the vats increases in property price in relation to income, many of the younger generation in the UK are susceptible to unstable housing tenure led by private landlords in the near future. The Lilac housing project in Leeds, United Kingdom creates housing which is Available & Affordable and Inclusive & Adoptable for its users, providing a new rental system for co-habitation. The housing is rented on contextual factors of the inhabitant’s income, making the housing affordable for everyone living within it, and enabling a diverse demographic to co-inhabit the dwellings. Each

house is priced at 35% of the inhabitant’s total income, making the rental price attainable, with the housing project being owned by a co-operative fund. Through their rental payments, dwellers gain equity in the housing fund which increases in value over time, meaning that each of their rental payments is an investment into the housing project which is then paid out to them once they decide to move out of their home. 17 Through doing this the lilac housing enables individuals to gain a sense of ownership(cultural & economic value) over their homes which they would not otherwise have in privately rented accommodation, enabling individuals to become more invested in the society and community in which they are living(inclusive & adoptable).

INVESTOR CO-OPERATIVE & COMMUNITY LAND TRUST SECURE LOAN FOR HOUSING

COMMUNITY LAND TRUST

INVESTOR PROVIDES LONG TERM

CO-OPERATIVE

AREA

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OCCUPANTS LEASE FROM CO-OPERATIVE AT % OF MONTHLY INCOME

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120

1K HOUSE In Kenya, due to the structure of land inheritance where land is passed on to male members of the family, it has been increasingly diďŹ&#x192;cult for women to own land and henceforth gain wealth within the society in which they live.18 The 1k House Project by Orkidstudio aims to counteract this problem through designing homes which cost half the price of the modern Kenyan vernacular of reinforced concrete and brick. Through utilising a construction method of earth bags the 1k house is able to be constructed with a non-skilled labour workforce who are trained on site to allow them to replicate this building typology to other houses in Kenya. Orkidstudio, working with local financial institutions and government bodies secured a method of financing where the households gain access to livestock as supplements to their house, then through the sale of dairy products generate income to pay oďŹ&#x20AC; the loan taken out to build the home. After the construction of the first home, Orkidstudio were able to step out of the project, which is now run by a co-

operative, called Build Equality, set up by 15 women who were involved in the initial house construction. Through this method of construction, the 1k house project was able to create housing which was Inclusive & Adoptable for the users through enabling them to become part of and learn the skills to construct their home, had Cultural & Economic Value through the wealth generation of dairy farming to supplement the home and contribute to the wider dairy market, and provided Primary Functions & Amenities for its inhabitants through giving access to safe and secure shelter.

IN PERSPECTIVE 121

AREA

122

S: BUILDING On the scale of the individual building, buildings need to become more inclusive to the communities which they serve. This comes across multiple thresholds in terms of the layout and plan of the building to promote equality between people, the construction of the building must be contextual to promote local material and economy during that process, and in the end life of the building, to promote reuse once the building has vacated its original function. In developed countries, such as the United Kingdom, where private ownership has increased the amount of people living alone in urban areas, and therefore creating an increase in chronic loneliness it is becoming increasingly important that our buildings become shared environments which enable us to interact with one another to form the bonds of community. In developing countries, where these strong bonds of community still existing, it is imperative that we strengthen those relationships through our buildings. This

should be done through economic incentive, gaining wealth creation through personal investment in building design and construction, social incentive, strengthening community networks in building design and construction, and environmental incentive, improving upon the existing living environment through building design and construction.

The two project examples shown here are both designed by the same architects, Selgascano, in extremely different contexts. The architects didn’t take a different design approach to each project because of it’s context, as many architects would if working in developed and developing countries. They looked at the needs of the people in the same way, and designed the best solution to fit those needs.

In treating these projects in the same way they have been able to shape spaces which completely enhance the needs of their users economically, socially, and environmentally.

IN PERSPECTIVE 123

SECOND HOME

AREA

In the United Kingdom, the Trade Union Council have noted an increase in the amount of people working from home of 19% between 2005-2015.19 This comes with advances in technology which have enabled the decentralisation of the workforce, mainly in the service sector. However, although this brings benefits from allowing individuals free will over where they are able to work, it creates a workforce which is increasingly isolated from the social groups with whom they collaborate.

In reaction to this decentralised working flexible workspaces have been created to accommodate workers as both individuals and in groups, most notably Second Home who have their original workspace in Spitalfields, London. Second Home offer monthly memberships for desks and offices spaces which range from 1 person to 175 person teams, giving both access to fixed and flexible office spaces which are currently located across London

and are branching out to Portugal and the United States.20 These typology of co office space enables this decentralized and flexible workforce to become socially and economically viable through enabling flexible membership packages and creating shared workspaces which prevent social isolation. In creating this workspace, Second Home provides pieces of urban infrastructure which are Available & Affordable through variations in membership types, Inclusive & Adoptable through promoting co working, and provides Cultural & Economical Value through creating a diverse hub of business, and provides Primary Functions & Amenities by creating workspaces which cater to each individuals needs.

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KIBERA SCHOOL

To support and nurture the societal economies in developing countries, access to education plays a key role. In relation to this, Spanish architects Selgascano made use of their commission to design a pavilion for the Louisianna Museum in Denmark to promote and repurpose their design of the pavilion for a new school in Kibera, Kenya. In dealing with a rapidly changing community of the slum of Kibera, Selgascano designed a building from standard components which were readily available and affordable to create a piece of architecture within the community which could expand and contract to the needs of its inhabitants, whilst providing a stimulating learning environment for a slum in which three quarters of its residents are under the age of 18.21 The school creates a learning space which bring in fresh air and natural light whilst still shading with the use of corrugate polycarbonate roof sheeting which is attached to a skeleton frame, constructed from scaffolding poles which are completely demountable by hand, enabling individuals to reassemble the school building completely. The Kibera school creates a key Primary Functions & Amenity in one of Nairobi’s densest slums whilst employing a construction system which is Inclusive & Adoptable, and adding Cultural & Economic Value to it’s community through providing improved learning facilities for a largely young population.

IN PERSPECTIVE 125

AREA

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XS: DETAIL On the scale of the detail, construction needs to become less bespoke and more accessible and understandable to the people who physically use the building. In doing this, it empowers the end users of the building to have control to adapt the buildings to their changing needs over time, and maintain the building throughout it’s lifespan, enabling that lifespan to grow and become resilient. Traditionally, before the industrial revolution, buildings have always been built by people within a local vicinity to them, using local skills and crafts. This not only enables the buildings to become contextually and climatically responsive, but also enables them to be maintained over time by local people. Over the industrial era of the 20th Century this localized skill and trade largely disappeared, with the age of steel and concrete construction sweeping the globe, with homogenized methods of construction being replicated in vastly differing contexts. With global urbanization expanding the more remote places of the earth, however, this type of construction, in some places, has lacked the necessary engineering skills which it takes to construct it properly. This has resulted in a mass of poorly constructed homogenous buildings being constructed in some of the most vulnerable locations on the planet. However, now with vast communications and technological advancement since the industrial revolution, we are now able to easily transfer knowledge and bespoke design across the globe, being able to relate these designs to climate and contextual factors in the location which they are to be built. This enables the revival of localized and self build architecture, which has been so present throughout human history, whilst creating the provision of industrial machinery to make the construction process available and affordable for the people using it. This section showcases two projects which bring digital craftsmanship into being in two different forms of architectural expression and contexts.

Both of the examples discussed in this section provide examples of decentralized detail design which can be reproduced across various locations globally through utilizing advances in communications and technology in the built environment.

IN PERSPECTIVE

The first, Wikihouse, by Alastair Parvin, creates an online creative commons platform in which people can collectively design, edit, and critique buildings. The buildings are designed using open sourced 3D modelling software, in which they can be exported as parts to be made in a CNC milling machine. In doing this the online buildings can be transferred to any CNC milling machine in the world, and then cut to be assembled. All of the parts of the building are able to be assembled by hand, with connections also being made from CNC timber, even down to the extent of the mallet to assemble them being a piece on the cutting list.

the concrete bones for a new building. In doing this, this system of construction standardizes the engineered details which are necessary to construct a safe and secure concrete building in regions of the world where the engineering knowledge to do so is lacking.

The second, Cast Formwork System, by Nadia Remmerswaal is another CNC milled project for a different function than Wikihouse. Cast, rather than CNC milling the structure of the building itself, mills the formwork in which to pour

127

WIKIHOUSE

As the global population begins to expand and our urban environments become denser, the need for housing which can adapt of these rapid fluctuations become increasingly necessary. Wikihouse, an open source housing platform, founded by Alastair Parvin creates a solution to this through democratising production.22 Parvin creates a creative commons of housing through linking digital design, production, and construction to create homes which can become adaptable to their individual userâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s needs. Through doing this wikihouse aims to redesign the architecture profession for the 21st Century through creating architecture is Available & AďŹ&#x20AC;ordable to 100% of the global society, rather than the 1% which architects

have generally served in previous centuries. Each design is made available online and can be manufactured on a CNC machine in any location across the globe. Due to the constraints of the CNC machine each piece is able to be constructed by hand, with specific detailing to reduce the amount of electrical machinery it takes construct each house, making the process Inclusive & Adoptable from the openly source digital design through to the human scale of the construction itself.

AREA 128

CAST FORMWORK SYSTEM Self build cities make up a large part of the infrastructure of the developing world, with 20% of the global population being anticipated to live in slum housing by 2030. In Indonesia, industrialisation and availability to the materials of steel and concrete created a new vernacular based on reinforced concrete construction.

However, due to the precise engineering skills which it takes to properly construct this typology many of the buildings being constructed in these rapidly changing areas of the planet are unsafe and create hazards to those inhabiting them. The Cast Formwork System developed by Nadia Remmerswaal aims to address this issue through creating a pre-fabricated concrete

formwork to standardise the details of concrete construction to produce safer buildings in slum areas.

The formwork is CNC milled from plywood which is then slotted together using wooden pegs, which can also be cut on the CNC mill, to create an interlocking formwork which can be assembled with minimal construction skills to produce a safe concrete frame on which infill structure can be placed. This system produces a method of production which is Inclusive & Adoptable through ease of construction in the standardised detailing which it employs, creates Cultural & Economical Value in enabling inhabitants to customise their building through choice of infill materials, and provides a safe means

IN PERSPECTIVE 129

XL XS XL

INCLUSIVE & ADOPTABLE

INEQUALITY

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CONFLICT

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RES OUR CE DE PLETION

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CONCLUSION

XL: COUNTRY UK

This study has consisted of best-practice examples that deal with the goals from AREA’s framework for a resilient built environment.

In particular the focus has been on achieving the goals of a built environment that is; inclusive & adoptable, has cultural & economic value, and creates primary functions & amenities.

However, as becomes clear when placing the best-practice examples in the framework fulfilling these goals also influences the fulfilment of other goals within the framework highlighting the interdependency of the goals required for a future habitable earth.

CREATED A UNIVERSAL HEALTHCARE SYSTEM

XL

Optimizes circular life-cycle of resources

Producing minimal emissions and XL waste Minimizing energy demand

XL

L: CITY BELGIUM

PROVIDED A COMPLEMENTARY CURRENCY FOR AN INCLUSIVE SOCI

MALDIVES

SHOWCASES THE VALUE OF TIME OVER EXCLUSIVITY

L

Producing minimal emissions and waste

L

L

Having a resilient supply of resources

L

L

Provide safe guard for human health

L

Producing minimal emissions and waste Enabling equal opportunities Economically affordable to a widespread public

M: COMMUNITY UK

PROVIDES ADAPTIVE FINANCING FOR AFFORDABLE HOUSING

KENYA

STRENGTHENS GENDER EQUALITY THROUGH WEALTH CREATION

M

Optimizes circular life-cycle of resources

M

M

Having a resilient supply of resources

M

M

Using renewable energy source

M

Utilising localized resources Encouraging strong community cohesion Supporting a localized economy

S: BUILDING UK

S S S

Allowing for flexibility Optimising circular life-cycle Economically affordable to a widespread public

KENYA

ADAPTIVE BUILDING TO STIMULATE LEARNING

S S S

Optimising circular life-cycle Allowing for flexibiity Producing minimal emissions and waste

XS: DETAIL GLOBAL

ENABLES ACCESS TO ARCHITECTURE FOR EVERYONE

XS XS XS

Optimising circular life-cycle Ensure understanding Contributing to local culture

By studying how to achieve a social and distributive approach to the built environment across various scales the combined efforts and responsibility from global organizations, governments, local institutions and individuals, needed for a resilient future becomes evident. Only by working towards these goals across all of these different scales can they actually be achieved and make a difference for the future of our earth. Moreover, as can be seen when placing the best-practice example from this topic in the framework for a resilient built environment, the integration of these approaches with the approaches for the other topics becomes crucial to fulfil the framework that will lead to a ‘safe space’ for humanity. It therefore becomes important to work across disciplines, topics and scales to solve the shared concern for our future world.

IN PERSPECTIVE

PROVIDES SHARED WORKSPACE FOR DECENTRALISED WORKING

Throughout this study it becomes clear that the most important steps towards a resilient future involves a move towards an inclusive and distributive approach to Socio-Economics & Health in the built environment. Such an approach can be seen in developed countries where the sharing economy is encouraging community to reform in what has becoming a largely privatized world.

However, such approaches are also evident in the developing economies where the distributive design in buildings that can be self built encourage the cross collaboration between community and economics. The examples shown in both the developing and the developed world creates a great opportunity for both contexts to learn and feed off of each other in the creation of the societal economy. However, with the increasing pressure of population growth and provision of a strong social foundation, the social and economical concepts which have been elaborated upon here can help to create a more responsive and distributive system of socital economics, in in doing so improve health in our built environments through improved physical and social spaces.

INDONESIA

STANDARDIZED COMPONENTS FOR SAFE CONSTRUCTION

XS

Optimising circular life-cycle

XS

Producing minimal emissions and waste

XS

Using renewable material resources

131

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Waste is just a resource in the wrong hands.â&#x20AC;?

- Unknown

A.R.E.A 132

TOWARDS A CIRCULAR AND DISTRIBUTIVE FUTURE IN PERSPECTIVE

KAROLINA BÃ&#x201E;CKMAN

133

ABSTRACT

Mobility & Resources includes best practice examples that showcases a move towards a circular and distributive built environment. These projects are analysed in regards to fulfilling the goals of a built environment that is; Inclusive & Adoptable, Available & Affordable and has Low Environmental Impact. The projects highlighted in this section are projects that 1) supports local and decentralized resource extraction, and material production, to minimize transport and vulnerable dependencies, 2) provides efficient design to reduce the amount of resources needed, and 3) showcase environmentally and socially considerate practices that reduce pollution and increase both mental and physical well being.

The projects discussed in this section spans from country wide policies that encourages circular resource flows to detailing for understandability and re-usability. Of particular interest is the lessons that can be shared between developing an developed countries’ different approach to circularity which when integrated provides a promising path towards a resilient future.

XL: COUNTRY UK

ESTABLISHED A ROUTE MAP FOR A CIRCULAR BUILDING SECTOR

L: CITY PERU

SUPPORTS BUILDING CODES FOR VERNACULAR & RESOURCE EFFICIENT ARCHITECTURE

RWANDA

PROVIDES ACCESS WITH DRONE TECHNOLOGY FOR REMOTE AREAS

BIO-CAPACITY OF COUNTRY EXCEEDS ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT OF CONSUMPTION Source: Global Footprint Network (2017)

0-50 % 50-100 % 100-150 % >150 %

A.R.E.A

ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT OF CONSUMPTION EXCEEDS BIO-CAPACITY OF COUNTRY Source: Global Footprint Network (2017)

>150 % 100-150 % 50-100 % 0-50 %

S: BUILDING MALAYSIA

PLANS FOR LONGEVITY AND FLEXIBILITY OF BUILDINGS

UK

ADAPTS BUILDING DESIGN TO THE CIRCULAR ECONOMY

136

M: COMMUNITY COLOMBIA

PROVIDES ABOVE GROUND TRANSPORTATION FOR DENSE CITIES

THE NETHERLANDS

ARE DEVELOPING SELFSUFFICIENT COMMUNITIES IN URBAN AREAS

INDIA

ENABLES DECENTRALIZED PRODUCTION OF BASIC RESOURCES IN SMART VILLAGES

IN CONTEXT

XS: DETAIL JAPAN

DETAILS FOR DECONSTRUCTION & RECONSTRUCTION

FINLAND

OPTIMIZES MATERIAL USE WITH CNC-MILLING AND SMART DETAILING

137

CURRENT LINEAR BUILDING INDUSTRY

Source: Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2016)

RESOURCE EXTRACTION

MATERIALS MANUFACTURING

THE BUILT ENVIRONMENTâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S IMPACT ON GLOBAL NUMBERS

Source: See text

RESOURCE EXTRACTION

50-70% GHG EMISSIONS CO2

CONSTRUCTION

38% WATER POLLUTION OPERATIONS

A.R.E.A

SERVICE

40%

DEMOLITION LAND FILL

LANDFILL

50% 138

TOWARDS A CIRCULAR AND DISTRIBUTIVE FUTURE INTRODUCTION Since 1971 the world has been consuming natural resources quicker than what can be absorbed and replaced by our biological systems1. This means that the world’s consumer patterns since then are constantly depleting the resources required for humanity to survive. Furthermore, the current means of extraction, manufacturing and transport of resources are speeding up the rate of degradation through pollution, contributing to climate change and contamination of natural reserves, which is becoming a growing issue for the health and livelihood of the global population.

This is a result of a generally linear approach of consuming and using natural, non-renewable, resources where materials are sourced, manufactured, used and finally disposed of as waste. This ‘take-make-use-dispose’ model, fueled by industrialization and lately globalization, has resulted in the current global scenario with rising carbon emission,freshwater scarcity, deforestation, soil erosion and growing landfill sites2.

With natural resources now becoming harder and more expensive to access, the growing trend of detachment between resource extraction and consumption has created vulnerable dependencies of imported resources, which in

The current worrying trends of Mobility & Resources in the built environment makes it a crucial topic to deal with to ensure future sustainability and resilience. According to the UN’s International Resource Panel, dealing with responsible management of natural resources and mobility in the built environment directly relates to 12 out of the 17 SDG’s11. Such management ensures that the built environment enables; responsible extraction of resources, production that benefits local economies and environments, fair and environmentally sustainable distribution of resources, sensible consumption and elimination of waste through re-manufacturing and re-distribution12. Achieving such characteristics results in the fulfillment of the three goals AREA have developed for the topic of Mobility & Resources to contribute to a resilient built environment being; Inclusive & Adoptable, Available & Affordable and having a Low Environmental Impact. Best practice examples on how to achieve these goals in the built environment focus on 1) supporting local and decentralized resource extraction and production to reduce transport distances and vulnerable dependencies, 2) efficient design to minimize the consumption of resources needed, and 3) environmentally considerate practices of producing and using resources that minimizes pollution.

On a global scale the primary framework, amongst policy makers and academics, to achieve a resilient and sustainable future in regards to Mobility & Resources is by changing the current linear path of resource consumption, resulting in waste, to a circular one. In a circular model, waste is first and foremost avoided, and the occasional resulting waste from one product becomes the resource for another, resulting in less need for extraction of new resources. This resource management strategy is known as the ‘3R’s’; Reduce, Re-use, Recycle and is a shared core of the leading circular models of today such as The Circular Economy and Cradle-to-Cradle13. Achieving this in the built environment has been proposed to require a focus on designing for deconstruction, ease of refurbishment, long life, adaptability and shared services and components14. To also provide fair and environmentally responsible distribution of resources a global framework for mobility has also been developed with a focus to; Avoid the need of transport

IN PERSPECTIVE

The building sector is currently the world’s nr 1 consumer of natural resources being responsible for 50-70% of the global extraction3. It is also accountable for almost 50% of the waste ending up in global landfill sites4, 38% of the world’s green house gas emissions5 and contributes to 40% of the world’s fresh water pollution6. These statistics are all a result of the ‘take-make-use-dispose’ model, which endured due to an assumed abundance of cheap natural resources through industrialization, but is now seeing limitations due to population growth, wealth increase and growing consumption across the world.

These trends are also fueled by technological advancement, allowing for globalization and the mode of mobility of resources, people and knowledge to not be limited by physical distances. Human settlements are today not restricted by the supporting land around them, but can import and export goods far beyond their geographical location both physically and virtually. Whilst this increased mobility has enabled major benefits for sustainable development in terms of accessibility of vital resources, it has also resulted in an increase of emission and pollution from longer transport destination, as well as an unfair distribution of the world’s resources7. Currently, developed countries consume almost four times as much of the world’s resources than developing ones8. Meanwhile, a large proportion of natural resources are extracted from the developing countries but manufactured and consumed in developed ones.

the event of disturbance due to external factors, such as disasters or political conflicts, can have large impact on the livelihoods of populations. Examples of such situations in recent history is Russia’s cut of natural gas supply needed for heating in the cold regions of Ukraine due to a political conflict in 20149, and the earthquake in Haiti 2010, which saw a very slow and expensive reconstruction, heavily dependent on charity, due to the high cost of imported building materials the country was dependent on as a result of population growth and deforestation10.

139

through planning and localized economies, Shift mode of mobility to more environmentally friendly and accessible options, and Improve mobility to become more efficient and sustainable15.

A.R.E.A

According to the UN, applying an integrated approach of these two frameworks to the built environment could, with the existing technologies of today, directly reduce its energy usage with 50%, greenhouse gas emissions by 35%, water consumption with 40%, and waste production with 70%16 by 2050. Furthermore, the application of these frameworks in the built environment have also been proven to increase resilience, strengthen economies and created new employment sectors17.

There are multiple best practice examples dealing with these frameworks and achieving targets from AREA’s framework for a resilient built environment across multiple scales. In industrialized developed countries there has been a strong trend recently for ‘smart’ technology to make design and planning efficient and suitable for a circular and sustainable resource strategy, without compromising the level of living comfort. Meanwhile, in low-industrialized developing countries many low-tech, circular, environmentally sustainable and resource efficient practices exists out of necessity, but have also been seeing a gradual decrease as income/capita increases and the direct necessity for a culture of repair and re-use disappears18.

However, academics from all over the world agree that lowindustrial developing countries has a large potential to leap frog into a post-industrial society by captivating the circular culture currently there, rather than follow in the disruptive footsteps of industrial developed countries linear model of resource management19. To do so however, it becomes crucial to integrate some of the technological advantages of developed countries to cope with the large population increase and improved living standards predicted.

Developed countries however also have a lot to learn from developing countries and emerging economies in how to create innovative solutions from limited resources and challenging environmental requirements. Therefore, the following sections will look at best practice examples dealing with the global frameworks of Reduce, Reuse, Recycle and Avoid, Shift, Improve from the built environment across multiple scales, and from different social, economical and geographical contexts. This will provide a guide for how to achieve the goal targets of AREA’s framework for a resilient built environment within the topic of Mobility & Resources, and most importantly how they can be integrated to create a world that is a safe space for humanity.

CIRCULAR MANAGEMENT STRATEGY RESULTS ON BUILT ENVIRONMENT’S GLOBAL IMPACT

Source: See text

GHG EMISSIONS

CO2

-50% WATER CONSUMPTION

-35% LAND FILL

-70% 140

CIRCULAR STRATEGY FOR BUILDING INDUSTRY

Source: Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2016)

MINIMIZED RESOURCE EXTRACTION

RECYCLE MATERIALS MANUFACTURING

CONSTRUCTION

REFURBISH / REMANUFACTURE REUSE / REDISTRIBUTE MAINTAIN

OPERATIONS

COLLECTION

REPAIR

IN PERSPECTIVE

SERVICE

ENERGY RECOVERY

141

LARGE SCALE KEY FOCUS AREAS

Source: Renz & Zafra Solas (2016)

1

SUPPORT EFFORTS OF EXPERIMENTATION AND INNOVATION

2

PROMOTE DEBATES ON TECHNOLOGIES AND LEGISLATION

3

SPUR PROCESSES TO SCALE-UP INNOVATIVE PROJECTS

COUNTRIES WITH LEADING CIRCULAR STRATEGY FOR THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Source: Ekins & Hughes (2017)

UNITED KINGDOM

GERMANY

CHINA

JAPAN

DENMARK

The Green Construction Board’s Roadmap

Policy for Resource Efficiency in the Built Environment

Association of Circular Economy Within the Building Sector

Circular Economy Legilsation for the Building Sector and Vehicles

Centre for Management and Recycling of Waste Within the Building Industry

A.R.E.A 142

XL: COUNTRY On a very large scale, cross-country agreements and governmental organizations play an important role to achieve AREA’s goals for a resilient built environment. In regards to working towards the two frameworks of circular resource management and sustainable mobility, such large organizations has the potential to; support private efforts of experimentation and innovation, provide opportunities for fundamental debates on technologies and legislation, as well as spurring mechanisms and processes that foster innovations within these frameworks to become mainstream and be scaled up20. This can be achieved through actions that supports and facilitates new materials, technologies and methods that reduce material consumption and allows for more efficient life-cycle use of building components. Such actions include supportive legislation, financing research and innovation, positive subsidizing and tax reductions to accelerate the uptake of the two frameworks21.

.

IN PERSPECTIVE

Some of the most fore running countries in the world to support the research and innovation of circular practices within the building sector are Japan, China, Denmark, Netherlands, Germany and the UK22. In Europe, the UK is the country with the largest governmental dedication to establish a circular strategy for the building sector, as part of achieving the goals of the UN’s SDG’s to decrease carbon emission by 50% until 2030.23 This commitment of the UK government to change their current ‘take-makedispose’ model in the building sector provides a great example for how countries and organizational leaders can take responsibility to achieve the AREA goal of ‘Low Environmental Impact’ in regards to Mobility & Resources in the built environment. However, achieving this goal can also be done by providing legislation and building codes that allow and support the use of local and low-carbon intensive building materials. Such legislation also helps fulfill the other goals within the topic of Mobility & Resources being a built environment that is Inclusive & Adoptable and Available & Affordable. Examples of such legislation has been seen in many developing countries over the past years to enable the continuation of vernacular architecture that is often more environmentally, socially and economically sustainable compared to modern architecture with industrialized materials, previously favored in building codes.

advanced and foreign construction techniques as well as their impact on the local cultures started to be criticized in some countries from the 1980’s25. These countries often had strong vernacular architecture that had been adapted to the social, economical and environmental context over thousands of years, but was being depleted with the introduction of building codes favoring ‘modern’ building techniques. One of the first countries in the world to embrace its vernacular architecture and the potential for self-built structures in the building code was Peru, where a long history of adobe building had built the nation due to the abundance of suitable soil that was easily accessible and affordable to everyone. The Peruvian model of embracing vernacular architecture in its building code shows the impact government legislation can have on supporting sustainable use of resources and mobility. It also highlights the crucial role of legislation for the ability of sustainable and resilient practices to be scaled up and accessible to everyone. This becomes a particular lesson in developed countries, now focusing on circular innovations within the building sector, which needs to be matched by supporting and innovative building codes so that they can be realized and part of common practice.

Building codes have in general been driven and developed in industrialized and developed countries based on the best available standards of construction techniques. With a growing influence of industrialization in developing countries and the impact of globalization, ‘sophisticated’ standards favoring brick, steel and cement has been favored in building codes across the world since the 1950’s24.

However, these imported standards social and economical constraints due to the high cost of imported materials, 143

UNITED KINGDOM

In 2013 the UK government in collaboration with industry leaders submitted the policy paper ‘Construction 2025’ outlining a joint strategy for the UK construction industry to reduce carbon emission by 50% until 2025, and 80% until 2050 through resource and energy efficient design and manufacturing26. To achieve the goals of the strategy the UK government established The Green Construction Board to provide leadership and action. Together with industry leaders such as ARUP and the Climate Centre as well as the governmental organization for circularity and sustainability, WRAP, the board developed a ‘route map’ for how to achieve the goals within different parts of the sector contributing to the reduction of; operational domestic carbon, operational non-domestic carbon, capital carbon and operational infrastructure27.

The route map deals with the life-cycle of the building

LOW-CARBON ROUTEMAP FOR 2050

sector and importantly includes measures to make the production and usage of the six most common materials in the UK construction industry more efficient, as well as integrating material efficiency by design, and site and transport efficiency through prefabrication and planning. To achieve these measures the UK government have devoted more than 200 million British pounds to research and innovation within the topic of resource efficiency and circular design making them a leading candidate to establish a circular building sector in the future28.

UK BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Source: ARUP and The Green Construction Board (2013)

39

A.R.E.A

EMBODIED EMISSIONS

OPERATIONAL INFRASTRUCTURE

-70%

-88%

209

OPERATIONAL COMMERCIAL

-82%

OPERATIONAL DOMESTIC

-86%

INTERVENTIONS AND ASSUMPTIONS FOR EMISSIONS REDUCTIONS (In regards to Mobility & Resources)

CCS in Materials Sector

Materials Efficiency

By Design

Site Efficiency

Transportation Carbon Intensity

Glass Industry Efficiency

Plastic Industry Efficiency

CO2

100%

5%

Metals Industry Efficiency

Concrete Industry Efficiency

43%

31%

49% Brick Industry Efficiency

61%

89% Lighting Technology Energy Savings

70%

30% Growth of Infrastructure Spending

2.3%

Compound Annual

15% C+D Landfill Waste

50%

ACHIEVING 80% REDUCTION OF GHG EMISSIONS BY 2050 Baseline 1990 Carbon Dioxide Emissions (MtCO2e) 2050 Carbon Dioxide Emissions (MtCO2e)

144

PERU

The Peruvian government established the first building code for adobe construction in 1985 and it has since then been developed to constantly comply with increasingly sophisticated regulations for seismic design whilst continuing to enable accessible, aďŹ&#x20AC;ordable and inclusive housing for the population29.

The most recent important contribution to the code was an extensive research project conducted by government-funded engineers to improve the adobe constructions seismic performance using low-tech and aďŹ&#x20AC;ordable techniques. The research, finished in 2013, introduced a new way of ropereinforcement that supported the continuation of adobe construction as an environmentally, socially and economically sustainable technique within an increasingly industrialized country30. The impact is not only that the large proportion of Peruvians using this technique can continue to build aďŹ&#x20AC;ordable and safe home, accepted by the government, but also that the country continues to support the use of local and low-tech materials resulting in a reduced impact on the environment.

IN PERSPECTIVE 145

VEHICLE GHG EMISSIONS PER PASSENGER KILOMETER TRAVELLED Source: Chester and Horvath (2009)

Conventional Gasoline Sedan Conventional Gasoline SUV Urban Diesel Bus (Peak) Communter Rail Light Rail Small Aircraft Large Aircraft 0

50

100

OPERATIONAL

150

200

250

300

Greenhouse Gas Emissions (gCO2e/Passenger Kilometer Travelled

EMBODIED

20-MINUTE NEIGHBOURHOOD COMPONENTS Source: Plan Melbourne 2030 (2017)

Local Shopping Centres

Local Employment Opportunities

Local health Facilities and Services

Well Connected to Public Transport, Jobs and Services Within the Region

Local Schools

Life Long Learning Opportunities

Local Public Transport

A.R.E.A

20-MINUTE NEIGHBORHOOD

Cycling Networks

Local Playgorunds and Parks

The ability to meet most of your everyday needs locally within a 20-minute journey without using a car Walkability

Grenn Streets and Spaces

Housing Diversity Community Gardens Ability to Age in Place Aï¬&#x20AC;ordable Housing Options

Sport and Recreation Facilities Safe Streets and Spaces

146

L: CITY complicate social and economical sustainability when developed areas need to be demolished and social patterns interrupted to make way for infrastructure. To combat this problem there has been a large focus on utilizing transport modes with less impact on the ground development such as cable cars and drones. These modes of transport also have the opportunity to be run on more environmentally friendly energy sources as they do not require fuel but can be run on electricity. Whilst drones have been proven to be very efficient to transport smaller goods to almost any location, cable cars have become an increasingly popular mode for transport of people, particularly in dense and hilly regions across the globe37. One of the most successful examples of a cable car network can be found in Medellin, Colombia. This project also shows how integrating traditional knowledge with modern technologies can provide an optimal solution for both humans and the planet. Likewise, the Droneport project highlights how the integration of innovative technology, in various forms, can be beneficial in planning to achieve the framework of Avoid, Shift and Improve, as well as the goals of AREA’s framework for a resilient built environment.

IN PERSPECTIVE

The largest level of realizing the goals of AREA’s framework for a resilient built environment through physical projects is on a city and regional scale. At this scale the most pressing issue in regards to Mobility & Resources in the 21st century is ensuring efficient flows and equal access to resources dealing with the AREA targets from the goals Low Environmental Impact and Available & Affordable.

Cities in particular are facing a growing problem with population growth and densification putting pressure on the current infrastructure and means of transportation of resources and people31. To combat this issue city councils and planners across the world have started to apply the Avoid, Shift, Improve framework to create mobility that involves less transport, smaller physical distances and more environmentally friendly transport options. To achieve this, one of the most common planning solutions have become the ‘walkable city’ and the ’20-minute city’ where densities and amenities are planned so that all basic human needs such as food, work, education, health and leisure can be reached within a walk or bike distance32.

To enable this solution, and create more efficient city fabrics, the collection and analysis of ‘Big Data’ and ‘Internet of Things’ (IoT) have begun to be integrated with city planning across the globe, particularly in developed countries with an established technologically driven society and economy33. Whilst Big Data and IoT are currently being used in a widespread manner to optimize on-ground transportation and mobility in the world’s largest cities some of its most interesting applications can be found in the rural landscapes where infrastructure is scarce and complicated to establish. The project ‘Droneport’ presented at the Venice Biennale in 2016 by Foster + Partners showcases one of such applications where the developed technologies of data collection and drone delivery is planned to enable widespread access to necessary resources in remote areas of Rwanda34.

This way of using efficient data collection to optimize the use of transport modes and resources, enabled by technology, is considered a crucial component for a sustainable and resilient future according to industry leaders, academics and organizations like the UN35. However, the required physical mobility of people and resources still remain a critical topic to be dealt with, in particular in regards to the shift and improvement of current modes of transport.

When looking at the sustainability of current modes of transport it is of importance to consider the environmental impact of its manufacturing, required infrastructure, fuel consumption and resulting pollution. For example whilst airplanes produce much more green house gas emission than cars per passenger, the overall ecological footprint (including carbon footprint and land use) is much greater for cars than airplanes due to the road infrastructure required36. The need for extensive infrastructure can also

147

BIG DATA

Big Data and IoT collects data of movement and usage from people through their devices, sensors and satellites to be used for more efficient planning of resource flows and transport by locating where obstacles occur in real time and provide greater overview of the sources to such obstacles38.

Furthermore, the widespread use of technology such as mobile phones and Internet enables data collected to be shared and accessible by almost anyone, anywhere, at any time. This virtual exchange of information on people’s needs, knowledge and habits allows for new types of mobility and the potential to share assets that are being under-utilized resulting in minimized physical transport and more efficient use of resources39.

COLOMBIA

A.R.E.A

The city of Medellin, Colombia’s second largest city, was the first in the world to integrate a cable car system within their public transport network41.

Since 2010 they have installed six cable car lines that connects to the local metro but reach places previously impossible to reach without long walking distances due to the dense development of the poorer hill areas in the city. After the first two years of operation the local council have already noticed the benefits of the cable car system, which have improved the time of commute for passengers who now do not get stuck in traffic, increased flow of passengers with the lines each carrying 3000 people/hour, less airpollution due to the reduced need for buses, and a total green house gas emission reduction equivalent to taking 4000 cars of the road every year.

Transport by cable was not a new phenomenon in this hilly region and is what locals had done for centuries using zip-lines to transfer goods up and down the hills43. The introduced cable car system was simply a modernization of the old zip-line system to create a socially, environmentally and economically sustainable mode of transport for the people as well as their goods.

To date the system carries 30 000 people daily, mainly low-income earners who now have easier access to the central areas and employment opportunities.

The cable car system of Medellin has served as an inspiration to a rapidly growing number of similar systems in other Latin American cities such as Rio de Janeiro, Mexico City and Bogotá. Even in western countries such as the US and the UK cable cars have become an increasingly considered mode of transportation to ease road traffic.42

148

RWANDA The idea behind Droneport is to establish small infrastructure hubs that can be access points for drone deliveries of critical resources such as medical supplies.

The first port have just started construction and is estimated to be both cheaper, more environmentally friendly, and reach a greater number of people than conventional road infrastructure. Foster and Partners choose Rwanda for their pilot project due to the great access of 3G networks but limited physical infrastructure.

The project is run in cooperation with Afrotech Initiatives and hopes to see three completed Droneports by 2020 with drone delivery that can cover almost half of Rwanda’s countryside.

The drones have a wingspan of almost three meters and can carry deliveries around 10 kg.

By establishing ‘Droneport’ communities Foster and Partners hope to also improve local economies, provide new employment opportunities and strengthen community cohesion. With Africa being a continent where the gap between population increase and infrastructure growth is increasing exponentially drone technology has been considered an important solution to provide improve health and economic outomes. With the Droneport, Foster + Partners and Afrotech also hope to gather real time data from close by villagers to enable efficient and consistent delivery of supplies.40

DRONEPORT COMMUNITY NETWORK

Source: Foster + Partners (2016)

1 01 0101 10 10 1 01 0101 10 10 1 01 0101 10 10 1 01 0101 10 10 1 01 0101 10 10

Commercial

Emergency

IN PERSPECTIVE 149

COMMUNITY SCALE KEY FOCUS AREAS

Source: AREA (2018)

1

REDUCE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT AND COST THROUGH LOCAL RESOURCES

2

INCREASE AFFORDABILITY WITH COLLABORATIVE SELF-PRODUCTION

3

ESTABLISH MICRO-ECONOMIES FOR MORE INCLUSIVE AND RESILIENT COMMUNITIES

TYPES OF RESOURCE PRODUCTION & DISTRIBUTION

Source: n.a

CURRENT SCENARIO

RESILIENT SCENARIO

A.R.E.A CENTRALIZED RESOURCE PRODUCTION

DE-CENTRALIZED RESOURCE PRODUCTION

DISTRIBUTIVE RESOURCE PRODUCTION

150

M: COMMUNITY Perhaps one of the most important scales of the built environment is that of the community scale where there is potential to address all of AREA’s goals within the topic of Mobility & Resources, as well as contribute to other goals of the framework to fulfill human resilience. Projects on this scale has the ability to; 1) reduce the environmental impact through the use of local resources, preferably within 50 km of the site44, 2) increase the availability and affordability of resources through the self-production resources in a collaborative manner, 3) increase inclusiveness and adaptability through the creation of micro-economies that are close to self-sufficient.

Self-sufficiency and circularity of resources is the key goal at this scale to minimize the environmental impact of communities and strengthen their resilience. Academics and world leaders in sustainable development are in agreement that the creation of resource production on community scale is key for the future resilience of humanity45. The current trend of centralized resource distribution and multinational companies controlling the supply of many of the world’s resources not only have a devastating environmental impact due to long transportation routes, but also damage local economies and becomes vulnerable to disasters due to their centralized approach. Instead there is an urge to focus on establishing clusters, communities of smaller scales, that are productive and self-sufficient in their basic needs, particularly to provide food, water and energy46.

IN PERSPECTIVE

Productive and self-sufficient communities living off their closest land were once the norm, pre-industrialisation.

However, particularly in developed countries such way of living has disappeared with population growth and industrialization pushing the land required for resource production further and further away from the users. In later years there has been a large movement to bring the production of critical resources back to the users, particularly focusing on how it can be made available and affordable on a small scale to fit even in densely populated areas. One bestpractice example of how to achieve this is the project ReGen Villages by James Ehrlich, which is a global project with its first ‘village’ currently being built in Almere, Netherlands47.

The project tries to apply both frameworks of Reduce, Reuse, Recycle and Avoid, Shift, Improve at a community scale through the creation of new efficient and selfsufficient neighborhoods. However, the implementation of the idea behind the project becomes even more interesting for the future of human resilience when it can help adapt already existing ‘low-tech’ self-sufficient neighborhoods and villages. Such villages predominantly exist in developing countries where local resources and circularity is a necessity for survival48. As these villages goes through modernization and the need for greater access to water, sanitation and electricity starts pressing their ability to be self-sufficient,

there are many ways to capture the value of their already circular nature and often strong community cohesion.

India as the country with the most people in the world living in village communities, the majority of which are still located in rural settings, is an inspiring example of integrating modern technologies with inherited circularity of traditional communities.49 The government of India established a ‘Smart Village’ program in 2014 to provide support for existing villages to capture their circular nature.

The program aims to establish self-sufficiency in already existing communities and have great potential to establish a more sustainable, decentralized and distributive network of resource infrastructure as these villages grow together and become neighborhoods in larger cities50. In such ways all the goals of AREA’s framework for a resilient built environment can be fulfilled, because the resource infrastructure is inherently inclusive & adaptable, available & affordable and has low environmental impact.

151

NETHERLANDS

The idea behind ReGen Villages is to establish selfsufficient neighbourhoods of 25-100 households by; harvesting rainwater, recycling grey water, produce energy from solar and biogas, grow vegetables, and have cattle and fish for food51. What makes the project special is the integration of technical solutions to optimize the amount of land required to become selfsufficient, showcasing how the project can fit in even urban settings. ReGen Villages are set up as closed-loop systems for energy, food and water, utilizing the ‘waste’ from one stream of production as the resource for another. The solutions used to achieve this on minimal amount of space are hydroponic agriculture, grey water recycling, solar energy and biogas production. The project claims that by utilizing these technologies in a cluster of 25-100 dwellings they can reduce the amount of land

needed to, for example feed the inhabitants, with 98% compared to regular farming. Meanwhile, the clustering and sharing of decentralized infrastructure reduces the cost of installation, as well as the amount of materials required.

The building in the villages are also designed for their specific climatic contexts to minimize the energy usage of the households so that they can be completely circular.

The hope of the project is also that it will link together with similar neighborhoods to create a sustainable network of self-sufficient clusters that can collaborate in case of obstacles and emergencies.

There are currently four ReGen Villages planned within Europe but the founder James Ehrlich sees the concept of the villages to be applied globally in the future.47

A.R.E.A 152

INDIA The self-sufficient village as the ideal human settlement for social, environmental and economical sustainability has for long been a core to Indian culture and was highlighted by Mahatma Gandhi as the primary initiative to be achieved post independence in 194752. In recent years the Indian government have tried to capitalise on the strong village communities to establish decentralized production of basic resources such as water, food and electricity rather than the costly and resource inefficient application of centralized infrastructure across the large country.

The concept of ‘Smart Villages’ has spread across India in since 2014 and focus on improving villages’ existing circularity by implementing community scaled rainwater harvesting, energy production, water filtration plants, biogas production and productive farming53. One of the greatest success stories is the village of Kedia in the Jamui district that through the implementation of shared vermincompost units, 11 biogas plant, and a decentralized waste water system (DEWATS) have become fully selfsufficient of water, food and gas despite population increase54. The installation of local infrastructure has also contributed to a boost in the village economy and increased livelihoods of the population.

‘THE SOUL OF INDIA LIVES IN IT’S VILLAGES’ Mahatma Gandhi

IN PERSPECTIVE 153

DESIGNING WITH BUILDING LAYERS FOR CIRCULARITY

Source: ARUP (2016)

RECOVERED MATERIAL FACTORY

EA DE SE O CO F NS TR UC

RE

TU

C RU ST

EA RE SE O FU F RB ISH M

IN

SK

ES

VIC ER

S

E AC SP ASSEMBLY

FF

STU

LO LO NG L OS IFE EF IT &

TIO

N

EN

T

FLE AD XIBIL AP I TA T Y & BIL IT Y

RESOURCE FACILITY

SER SHA VICE & RIN G

A.R.E.A

0-3 YEARS

3-7 7-25 25-40 40-100 YEARS YEARS YEARS YEARS

USE

DISASSEMBLY

154

S: BUILDING On the scale of the building, life cycle planning becomes of great importance to fulfill the goals of AREA’s framework. A building’s life cycle include all stages from the sourcing of the materials it is made from, the construction of the building, its operational phase and its end use55. Currently, the end use for buildings result in demolition and the creation of building waste that goes to land fill. However, there is a great opportunity to plan and design the building for an end use that does not result in waste but instead re-uses the building components it is made from. Likewise, there are many ways to design the building for extension of its operational phase through planned flexibility, also making it more inclusive, adaptable and affordable to its user.

To plan for the life cycle of buildings it is important to consider its different interlinking ‘layers’ which all have different life spans and circular opportunities. The concept of building layers was first proposed in the 1970’s by Frank Duffy and later developed by Stuart Brand in the 1990’s56.

According to Brand buildings consist of six layers; Site, Structure, Skin, Services, Space and Stuff. The potential life span of each layer decreases from the site of the building that will always remain, to the stuff (i.e lighting and furniture) that have daily to yearly overturns57. If each of these layers are designed for easy separation and deconstruction, each layer can also facilitate re-use, re-manufacturing and recycling. Likewise, designing the building in separate layers, with different lifespans, also allows each component to be repaired, moved or adapted independently as the inhabitants needs change at different times. This reduces the need for large-scale renovations and adaptations, as well as increases the flexibility of use and overall longevity of the project58.

IN PERSPECTIVE

Planning for the buildings life cycle by designing the building in layers is not a modern phenomenon. Vernacular architecture from all over the world shows architecture that allows for spatial and structural adaption depending on the needs of the users. The traditional Malaysian architecture is a prime example of this and truly showcases how to plan for the longevity of the building components, particularly by focusing on its operational phase. Unfortunately this type of life cycle planning for buildings was quickly eradicated with modernization and the use of less flexible and robust materials such as concrete and brick59. However, there are also modern examples trying to bring this way of thinking back. One of such examples is ARUP’s Circular Building presented at London Design Festival in 201660 that was fully designed based on the principles of a circular economy.

These two examples shows the great opportunities to change the current linear path of the building life-cycle to a circular one, reducing its environmental impact, through flexible design and planning for deconstruction and re-use.

The vernacular Malaysian house also shows the importance

of adaptable flexibility for inclusive and affordable housing, whilst ARUP’s project showcase how to maximize the adaptability of its components by integrating technology.

155

COMMON ADDITION SEQUENCES IN MALAYSIAN VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE

Source: Utaberta & Spalie (2011)

Rumah Ibu

Serambi Gantung

Selang and Dapur

Lepau

Anjung

Rumah Ibu

Serambi Gantung

Dapur

Lepau

Anjung

Rumah Ibu

Serambi Gantung

Courtyard and Rumah Tangah

Dapur

A.R.E.A

MALAYSIA The traditional Malaysian house construction is based on a standardized measurement system using different parts of the human body as reference61. These standardized dimensions of the basic house allows for modular flexibility and incremental additions to be made as the family size, or its economy, increase.

By also using timber members connected with peg joints the structure and its spatial arrangement can easily change without larger impact on the life within the house. Furthermore, the flexibility allowed in the Malaysian house is not restricted to simply expansion over time, but also allows for the re-location of complete parts of the house. This occurs if the family moves to a different village, which requires deconstruction of the entire house and then re-construction in the new

location. But it also occurs when the oldest child marries and the parents give a part of the house as a wedding gift, which is then detached from the main house and relocated, without deconstruction, to a close by plot.

This inherited planned standardization and flexibility of the houses structure, and space, enables a more circular life cycle for the building and its components. It also allows for affordable and inclusive housing in Malaysia as families’ homes can grow with the size of the family and their assets.62

156

EXPLODED AXO - CIRCULAR BUILDING

Source: ARUP 2016

UNITED KINGDOM

The Circular Building was designed by a multidisciplinary team of architects and engineers to test the ideas of the circular economy in the built environment. Their design challenge was to create a building where all the components and materials could be re-used, re-manufactured or re-cycled63.

Key to the project was the idea of leasing building components compared to owning them. This, they argued would increase each building layer’s value in terms of designing for disassembly and re-use64.

The structure of the building was made from steel offcuts from other projects, and the available dimensions of these cuts determined the size of the building.

Moreover, the structure only used exchangeable dry connections making it easy to disassemble and reassemble in different configurations after the festival. The building’s skin consisted of identical panels made from compressed agriculture waste that were put together using ‘push-fit’ connections, making it as flexible as Lego and easy to re-use. The dimension of the panels were also designed to fit standard industry dimensions to optimize the their future use across a variety of projects65.

One of the key lessons ARUP discovered during the planning of the project was the importance to spread the knowledge of the components’ circular potentials to prevent them from ending up in landfill.

Therefore they created a ‘material database’ for every component of the building which contained their different chemical composition, strength and age so that it would be easier for future users to know its suitability for their project. They also ‘tagged’ each component of the building with an individual QRcode so that it could be identified and also shared on online platforms66.

IN PERSPECTIVE 157

EMBODIED GHG IN COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS Source: Hammond & Jones (2016)

9.2

Aluminium

0.24

Factory Made Brick Cement

0.074

Concrete

0.107

Reinforced Concrete

0.2

Steel

2.9

Copper

2.71

Glass

0.91

Timber (Hardwood)

0.31

Timber (Glue Lam)

0.42

Plywood

0.54

Rammed Earth

0.08

Stone

0.08

Sand

0.005

Plastics

3.3

Plaster

0.13

Insulation (Rockwool)

1.28 1.1

Insulation (MIneral Wool) 0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Greenhouse Gas Emissions (kgCO2e/kg material)

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF STEEL AND CONCRETE STRUCTURES COMPARED TO TIMBER A.R.E.A

Source: The Canadian Wood Council (2016) - Based on standard single-family home of timber stud frame, according to Canadian construction practices

EMBODIED ENERGY

CLIMATE IMPACT (GHG)

NEGATIVE AIR QUALITY IMPACT

NEGATIVE WATER IMPACT

RESOURCES CONSUMED

BY WEIGHT

WASTE PRODUCED

+53%

+23%

+74%

+247%

+14%

-21%

+120%

+50%

+115%

+114%

+93%

+37%

STEEL STRUCTURE

CONCRETE STRUCTURE

158

XS: DETAIL architecture that has been used for thousands of years to construct timber shrines using no-nail construction73. The way in which Shinto architecture carefully considers the materials used, their life cycle and their detailing responds to all the goals for Mobility & Resources within AREAS framework for a resilient built environment, whilst also ensuring the preservation of local skills and culture making it a truly valuable case study in terms of approach to the built environment. Another great example of best practice within the detail scale of Mobility & Resources is the Finnish company Metsä Wood who have come up with a modular wood framing system that optimizes the use of material through CNC-milling and provides a no-nail structural solution74.

In many ways the detailing and material approach of the Shinto architecture and Metsä Wood are very similar.

From a detail point of view, simple and direct connections in structures come naturally in vernacular architecture that was constructed by the common man. However, with smart incorporation of technology resource-efficiency and adaptability of building materials can be optimized and an integrated part of building design. From a material point of view, a modest relationship to nature and the life-cycle of materials is aspirational, and the Metsä Wood system shows how it is possible to retain this relationship whilst responding to the challenges of population growth and increased resource consumption. Most importantly, both these projects showcase how to fulfill the goals within Mobility & Resources from AREA’s framework for a resilient built environment and contribute to a more sustainable future.

IN PERSPECTIVE

The detailing of buildings and the consideration of material’s appropriateness has large influence on a project’s ability to fulfill the goals of AREA’s framework for a resilient built environment. Within the topic of Mobility & Resources the choice and use of materials, as well as construction techniques, can largely influence a projects potential to have low environmental impact, be affordable and enable designs that are inclusive and adoptable. One of the key components to reduce the environmental impact on a detail level of a building is the choice of materials in relation to their renewable characteristics and embodied energy.

Embodied energy is the energy used for a building material to be extracted, produced and transported to its project location67. Because the world is dominantly run on fossil fuel, this embodied energy is a large contributor to the pollution and green house gas emissions having a negative impact on our environment68. The currently most used materials in the built environment; concrete, brick and steel, all have very high embodied energy due to the process required to extract and produce them. Their industrial character also results in very long transport distances. In comparison, traditionally used materials such as timber, stone and mud all have very low embodied energy and are also often sourced and produced more locally69.

Embodied energy is generally measured as a unit per kg or m3 of different materials70. This makes it important to also analyze the amount of material required for a building, both in terms of volume and weight to accurately decide what material has the lowest embodied energy.

Furthermore, because embodied energy is greatest for the production of a building material, its life-cycle also has great importance as well as nature’s ability to renew the raw resources required to produce the building material71.

Choosing building materials that fulfill the goals for AREA’s framework for a resilient built environment therefore entails an analysis that considers; minimizing the embodied energy in the production of the material, minimizing the embodied energy for transporting the material, minimizing the volume of material needed and the potential for nature to restore the raw resources required over the material’s life span. In addition to this, the detailing of the materials in a building becomes crucial to enable them to be reused and recycled.

Simple, dry connections are therefor to be preferred, as these require minimal work to be deconstructed and minimizes the risk of damage to surrounding structure72.

Such details can also favor other goals of AREA’s framework for a resilient built environment such as; inclusive & adoptive and affordable & available, if they are designed to enable any user to construct the building themselves.

Vernacular Japanese architecture offers a great case study for best practice in regards to building detail and Mobility & Resources. Of particular interest is the traditional Shinto

159

JAPAN

The Ise Grand Shrines is the most important Shinto site in Japan and its main shrine has been deconstructed and reconstructed with new timber every 20th year for the last 1500 years75. This cycle of building â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;renewalâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; responds both to the cycle of nature, the amount of years it takes to regrow the timber used, as well as the cycle of human generations. The process of renewal is deeply embedded in Japanese culture and the constant deconstruction and reconstruction of the shrines not only preserves these important buildings, but also preserves the craftsman skills to build them.

The 20 years cycle of reconstruction means that there are normally three generations of carpenters involved, from the novice ones in their 20s, to the experienced ones in their 60s76.

The Shinto Shrines have their own sacred forests from which they harvest the timber used, ensuring it local production and sustainability in the long-term.

Furthermore, because of the no-nail construction, the timber from deconstructed Shinto Shrines is reused for other parts of the shrine complexes with less religious value77.

A.R.E.A 160

FINLAND Metsä Woods main product is Laminated Veneer (LVL) I-beams, that maximizes the strength to volume of the timber. Together with German architect Hans-Ludwig Stell the company have developed a system of CNCmilled components for modular and flexible homes. These components, that consist of beams, posts, and rafters additionally contains slots for joist to pass through which then interlocks in the corners of the building creating a robust system without the use of nails. The result is a structural system that is self-explanatory in assembly, can easily be deconstructed and re-used, and is quick to erect78. The company was inspired by the detailing and optimization from steel construction, but was able to use a much more environmentally sustainable material like timber with CNC-milling technology that allows for

precise production to optimize the material’s efficiency79.

The benefits of Metsä Woods system is not only the lower embodied energy, but also the resource-efficiency leading to less material used, both in weight and volume, which also has positive environmental impact on the transport required and machines for assembly. Two people can easily put the resulting lightweight system together with only a hammer as a tool, also showing how smart detailing can make buildings more inclusive and adoptable by a larger public. This is showcased in the modular housing in which the product is used which comes in a variety of sizes and shapes, but is affordable and easy to construct for the common person.

IN PERSPECTIVE 161

CONFLICT

LOS SO FC UL TU RE SO CIO -E CO NO CU EC LT ON U O VA

D CE U SK

RE D RI

L

INCLUSIVE & ADOPTABLE S

L

M

XL

L

EMISSIONS

XS

M

NETWORK OF ASTRUCTURE INFR

INEQUALITY

XS

RS STE SA DI

PRIMARY FUNCTIONS & AMENITIES

WA TER SC AR CI TY DI SA ST ER E NC LIE SI RE

N TIO VA E PR DE TH AL HE S& IC M L& L RA ICA M E LU

H AN C

E

RES OUR CE DE PLETION

XS

P

ER GY

RE SO UR CE S

L

LOW M ENVIRO L NMENTA S IMPACT

IG R FO R E

H

XL

M

L AI AV FOR AF

& Y LIT BI LO MO Y IT RS VE DI BIO

A.R.E.A

SS

XS

AB L DA MLE B & S LE

EN

E NG A CH TE A M CLI

PO LLU TIO N

XL XL

162

CONCLUSION

XL: COUNTRY UK

ESTABLISHED A ROUTE MAP FOR A CIRCULAR BUILDING SECTOR

PERU

SUPPORTS BUILDING CODES FOR VERNACULAR & RESOURCE EFFICIENT ARCHITECTURE

Optimizes circular life-cycle of resources

XL

Producing minimal emissions and XL waste

XL

XL

XL

Minimizing energy demand

XL

Utilising localised resources Utilising localised knowledge Enabling equal opportunities

L: CITY RWANDA

PROVIDES ACCESS WITH DRONE TECHNOLOGY FOR REMOTE AREAS

COLOMBIA

PROVIDES ABOVE GROUND TRANSPORTATION FOR DENSE CITIES

L

Producing minimal emissions and waste

L

L

Having a resilient supply of resources

L

L

Provide safe guard for human health

L

Producing minimal emissions and waste Enabling equal opportunities Economically affordable to a widespread public

M: COMMUNITY THE NETHERLANDS

ARE DEVELOPING SELFSUFFICIENT COMMUNITIES IN URBAN AREAS

INDIA

ENABLES DECENTRALIZED PRODUCTION OF BASIC RESOURCES IN SMART VILLAGES

M

Optimizes circular life-cycle of resources

M

M

Having a resilient supply of resources

M

M

Using renewable energy source

M

Utilising localized resources Encouraging strong community cohesion Supporting a localized economy

S: BUILDING MALAYSIA

PLANS FOR LONGEVITY AND FLEXIBILITY OF BUILDINGS

S S

Allowing for flexibility Optimising circular life-cycle Economically affordable to a widespread public

ADAPTS BUILDING DESIGN TO THE CIRCULAR ECONOMY

S S S

Optimising circular life-cycle Allowing for flexibiity Producing minimal emissions and waste

XS: DETAIL JAPAN

DETAILS FOR DECONSTRUCTION & RECONSTRUCTION

XS XS XS

Optimising circular life-cycle Ensure understanding Contributing to local culture

FINLAND

OPTIMIZES MATERIAL USE WITH CNC-MILLING AND SMART DETAILING XS

Optimising circular life-cycle

XS

Producing minimal emissions and waste

XS

Using renewable material resources

Throughout this study it becomes clear that the most important steps towards a resilient future involves a move towards a circular and distributive approach to Mobility & Resources in the built environment. Such an approach can be seen in developed countries with innovative technologies improving transportation, circularity and resource efficiency to reverse the currently damaging trends set by these countries. However, such approaches are also evident in the vernacular practices still present in developing countries that embed these characteristics by necessity. This creates a unique opportunity for developing countries to leapfrog into a new industrial age that is all about resource efficiency and equal distribution. However, with the increasing pressure of population growth and provision of a strong social foundation the innovative technologies from developing countries can become beneficial to improve the capacity of more simple circular systems in developing countries.

Likewise, developed countries should look at the approach of circularity existing in developing countries that often grow from a social background of inclusivity providing uncomplicated solutions that everyone can use.

By studying how to achieve a circular and distributive approach to the built environment across various scales the combined efforts and responsibility from global organizations, governments, local institutions and private people, needed for a resilient future becomes evident. Only by working towards these goals across all of these different scales can they actually be achieved and make a difference for the future of our earth. Moreover, as can be seen when placing the best-practice example from this topic in the framework for a resilient built environment, the integration of these approaches with the approaches for the other topics becomes crucial to fulfil the framework that will lead to a ‘safe space’ for humanity. It therefore becomes important to work across disciplines, topics and scales to solve the shared concern for our future world.

IN PERSPECTIVE

S

UK

This study has consisted of best-practice examples that deal with the goals from AREA’s framework for a resilient built environment. In particular the focus has been on achieving the goals of a built environment that is; inclusive & adoptable, available & affordable and has low environmental impact. However, as becomes clear when placing the bestpractice examples in the framework fulfilling these goals also influences the fulfilment of other goals within the framework highlighting the interdependency of the goals required for a future habitable earth.

163

A.R.E.A

“The more we are using clean energy, renewable energy sources, the less environmentally problematic facilities end up being a problem for everybody, but particularly for folks who have to suffer the consequences of some of these facilities.”

- Barack Obama

164

EMPOWERED ENVIRONMENTS

IN PERSPECTIVE

CHARLOTTE UITERWAAL

165

ABSTRACT

Energy is the third out of four topics that was of importance for constructing the goals for AREA’s framework. Carbon emissions that are a result of the use of unclean, nonrenewable energy sources are the most important contributor to climate change. This section will be a summarized acquaintance with the role of energy consumption and production on a global scale, looking at energy as an end-use product. This definition does not concern the energy that is used for the entire sourcing process, the so-called embodied energy as has been discussed in the section of Mobility and Resources, but it concerns the energy that is used for living, in particular use within the built environment. Through this section one will become acquainted with different practices worldwide within the energy environment throughout every scale of society, reaching from the global scale down to the scale of detail, showing holistic and inspiring examples that answer to AREA’s framework.

L: CITY

XL: COUNTRY SWEDEN

SUBSIDIZES ENERGY EFFICIENT RENOVATIONS FOR THE EXISTING BUILDING STOCK

KENYA

SUPPLIES IITS INHABITANTS WITH SMALL-SCALE INDEPENDENT SMART GRIDS

LEGEND CO2 EMISSIONS PER COUNTRY 2016 (*1000 metric tons)

BARCELONA, SPAIN

TRANSFORMS THE CITY’S GRID INTO AN EFFICIENT GRID WITH NO WASTE ENERGY

950%

A.R.E.A

Source: Edgar

0 - 100.000 100.000 - 250.000 250.000 - 500.000 500.000 - 750.000 750.000 - 1.000.000

S: BUILDING AMSTERDAM, NL

DEVELOPS SUSTAINABLE HOTEL WITH SOLAR ADAPTED SKIN

ARAB’ WORLD

PROVIDES VERNACULAR IDEAL FOR PASSIVE HOUSING

168

M: COMMUNITY FORTALEZA, BRASIL

RECYCLES WASTE TO PROVIDE ELECTRICITY

HÃ&#x2DC;RUPHAV, DENMARK

IMPLEMENTS DISTRICT HEATING THAT CAPTURES HEAT EXCESSES FROM SUPERMARKETS

BOTSWANA & ETHIOPIA ARE HOME TO SOLARKIOSKS, PROVIDING A BASE FOR EMPOWERED COMMUNITIES

502% 1,328%

467%

IN CONTEXT

XS: DETAIL BIHAR, INDIA

ENABLES GENDER EQUALITY BY CREATING A SECURE ENERGY SUPPLY TO HOUSEHOLDS

GERMANY

INITIATES THE PRINCIPLE OF THE PASSIVHAUS, THAT PRODUCES ITS OWN ENERGY CONSUMPTION

169

WORLD TOTAL FINAL CONSUMPTION

Source: IEA (2018)

THE BUILT ENVIRONMENTâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S IMPACT ON GLOBAL NUMBERS

Source: See text

COAL AND COAL PRODUCTS

INDUSTRY

ELECTRICITY

HEAT

NATURAL GAS

OTHER

BIOFUELS AND WASTE

NON-ENERGY USE

OIL PRODUCTS

TRANSPORT

ESTIMATED RENEWABLE SHARE OF TOTAL FINAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION

Source: REN21 (2016)

A.R.E.A

79,5% FOSSIL FUELS

2,2% 7,8%

NUCLEAR ENERGY TRADITIONAL BIOMASS

WIND/SOLAR/BIOMASS/ GEOTHERMAL/OCEAN POWER

MODERN RENEWABLES

1,7% 10,4%

3,7%

HYDROPOWER

4,1% BIOMASS/SOLAR/ GEOTHERMAL HEAT

0.9%

BIOFUELS FOR TRANSPORT

170

EMPOWERED ENVIRONMENTS INTRODUCTION

Energy is the main fuel supporting the economic model on which our societies thrive. Ever since the beginning of the Industrial revolution, energy provided by the burning of fossil fuels has fostered the expansion of economic, social and environmental development.

There is a strong relation between the welfare of a society and the energy being consumed per capita.1 Macro-economic analyses show how the availability of energy, and the eďŹ&#x192;cacy with which it is being used has enabled human beings to enhance their comfort, live longer and increase their numbers.2 A secure energy supply is the main condition for development and therefore plays a major role in the eradication of poverty within a society, through advancement in health, education, water supply and industrialization.

The biggest stimulant to the urgency to make a rapid shift to renewable resources is the prospect of the preeminent trend of immense global population growth (+30% by 2050) and at the same time, the predicted increase of global GDP (+130% by 2050. It can be expected that the global energy demand will rise parallel, whichever result in an emerging ecological footprint. The most abundant consumption patterns prevail in urban settings, owing in part to their higher incomes, as its residents carry higher energy consumption per capita than their rural neighbors. In 2016, urban dwellers consumed more than two-third

AREAâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s framework focuses particularly on Energy as an end-use product within the built environment.

Within the section of Mobility & Resources, energy has been approached as so-called embodied energy; the sum of all energy that is needed to produce goods and services. This section deals with Energy on an operational scale, the final energy consumption, as it takes up a major part of the resources distracted from the earth and plays a vital role in the combat to climate change. Within the frame of the built environment, energy end-use means a secure supply to communities and residencies to heat and cool their buildings, to use electricity and gas for lighting, cooking etc.

IN PERSPECTIVE

On the other end, this same fuel is responsible for the biggest share in carbon exhaust worldwide, which is the main responsible for climate change and resource depletion. The urgency to shift on a global scale to using energy from renewable resources and invest in technologies that eďŹ&#x20AC;ectuate this transition is high.

While our current systems are built on the supply of energy derived from these fuels from non-renewable resources, the supply is depleting rapidly. This depletion is putting fast establishment of an alternative supply system in a crucial position. In the combat to climate change, this transition plays a most vital role. Being so important to the wellbeing of a society on one hand, but posing such a tremendous threat to the society on the other hand, was a reason for A.R.E.A. to highlight energy as an important resource and therefore discuss it separately.

of the global energy and are consequently responsible for 70% of the CO2 emissions.3 According to REN21, only 19% of the global energy consumption in 2016 was coming from renewable energy sources, which implies that the remaining energy consumption is being derived from the burning of fossil fuels.4 Throughout this section, renewable energy will refer to the definition of energy that is derived from natural processes that are replenished constantly. In its various forms, it derives directly or indirectly from the sun, or from heat generated deep within the earth.

Included in the definition is energy generated from solar, wind, biomass, geothermal, hydropower and ocean resources, and biofuels and hydrogen derived from renewable resources.5 As stated above, apart from demand and resources energy is a global issue when it comes to universal provision, as currently 20% of the world still has no access to energy, disabling equalities within societies.6

How does Energy occur in our societies as an enduse product? Currently, oil, coal and natural gas are amongst the natural resources that are being exhausted most by our global society. Before these primary fuels become ready-to-use for final energy consumption, they are being taken into transformation processes in refineries and plants that generate energy currencies, as they are chiefly present in our day-to-day lives; for example electricity and secondary fuels such as gasoline. Energy in this form is where this section focuses on. Final energy consumption is an aggregate 171

GLOBAL ENERGY TRENDS RELATED TO THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Source: Maggie Comstock et.al(2012)

of all the energy going into the energy sector, which include Agriculture/Forestry, Commercial and Public Services, Fishing, Industry, Transport and “Others”, such as residential and commercial services. Diagram 1 shows which end-use sectors are responsible for the larger part of the global energy consumption.

In 2012,the UN launched an initiative called “Sustainable Energy for all”. This initiative has been brought in to existence to achieve the objectives that are expressed within Goal #7 of the Sustainable Development Goals; Affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all. UN’s first objective is to provide universal access to modern energy services, the second objective is to increase the share of renewable energy globally and the third objective is to reduce the global projected electricity consumption from buildings and industry; which comes down to investing in energy efficiency.7 These three objectives correspond with the three goals of AREA’s framework that relate to energy; “Network of Infrastructure”, “Low Environmental Impact”, and “High Performance”. However, these are not being considered as independent points of improvement as is the case with the Sustainable Development goals, but as conditions of equal importance as the conditions within the other three sections, which should all be approached as equally important for the sustainability of a project.

GLOBALLY

40% OF GLOBAL CO2 EMISSIONS

20%

HAS NO ACCESS TO A SECURE ENERGY SUPPLY

CO

URBAN VS. RURAL DWELLERS

Source: REN21 (2016)

70% URBAN

A.R.E.A

This section introduces the best case studies of both innovative and vernacular practices worldwide that deal with enabling a secure energy supply, with minimizing energy demand and with substituting non-renewable resources with renewable resources to supply. These practices will be analyzed on their performance according to AREA’s framework, to regard how the projects that carry out energy related measures have taken in account the effects the measures cause on the related matters in the other three sections (SE&H, M&R and DR); to see if a project follows an holistic approach benefitting each sector.

The examples of these practices go from a global scale to the scale of a detail. For each scale an example in the developing world as in the developed world will be regarded.

THE BUILDING INDUSTRY IS RESPONSIBLE FOR

CO2

30%

172

BENEFITS OF ENERGY EFFICIENCY

Source: IEA (2016)

ASSET VALUES

ENERGY SAVINGS

GHG EMISSIONS ENERGY SECURITY

DISPOSABLE INCOME

PUBLIC BUDGETS

ENERGY DELIVERY

ENERGY EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENTS

RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

MACROECONOMIC IMPACTS INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS

EMPLOYMENT HEALTH AND WELL-BEING

IN PERSPECTIVE

LOCAL AIR POLLUTION

ENERGY PRICES

POVERTY ALLEVIATION

173

RENEWABLE POWER CAPACITIES IN WORLD AND TOP 6 COUNTRIES

POPULATION WITH NO ACCES TO ELECTRICITY

BY REGION OR COUNTRY

Source: REN21 (2017)

Source: REN21 (2017)

GIGAWATTS 1200 1100

1.081

ACCESS POPULATION CHANGE CHANGE 2010-2016 2010-2016

GIGAWATTS 200

OTHER

900

180

OTHER DEV.ASIA

800

160

700

140

600

120

1000

500

320

300

334

106

80 40

100 0

20 0

WORLD BRIC EU 28 CHINA TOTAL * NOT INCLUDING HYDROPOWER

-24% +7% -44% +8% -31% +11%

INDIA 61

60

200

WORLD TOTAL

SOUTHEAST ASIA

100

429

400

161

-55% +11% 57

38

SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

-42% +7% -1%

U.S. GERMANY INDIA JAPAN U.K.

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

+18%

2016

GLOBAL NEW INVESTMENTS IN RENEWABLE POWER AND FUELS

BY REGION OR COUNTRY

Source: REN21 (2017)

U.S.

CHINA

13,4

07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 UNITED STATES

40,9

40,5

EUROPE

EUROPE

07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 AMERICAS (EX. U.S. & BRAZIL)

07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

BRAZIL

126,6

A.R.E.A

ASIA & OCEANIA

AMERICAS

6

INDIA

07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

AFRICA & MIDDLE EAST

10,9

07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

AFRICA & MIDDLE EAST

INDIA

31,4

10,1

BRAZIL

07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 ASIA & OCEANIA (EX. CHINA & INDIA)

07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 CHINA

174

XL: COUNTRY As the UN establishes the definition of global goals in order to create a sustainable global environment, it is the responsibility of the independent countries to take ownership and establish a national framework of ambitions to achieve these goals.8 The apparatus of a country reaches from policymaking to investments in renewable energy technology and resources that secure future energy supplies and mitigate their environmental impact. A country’s policy is an ultimate example of a top-down approach; it can have a great impact at once. Policymaking that concerns energy measures comes down to financial governance and decision-making about large-scale interventions. Some countries use their national policies to stimulate private efforts. For example, The Green Deal was launched in the UK in 2012, permitting loans to energy saving measures for properties.9 Another example is Sweden, where sustainable solutions were promoted through subsidiaries as they were given in order to renovate the existing building stock.10

Apart from increasing the share in renewable energy sources, a country’s policy is meaningful when it comes down to achieving the other conditions AREA has defined for a resilient energy supply, which is especially of high importance for developing countries. A country is the main responsible to establish access to reliable and ample supplies of all forms of energy and improve energy efficiency and development and deployment of low-carbon technologies. As has been noticed in the introduction, access to energy is a key factor when it comes to health services, education, the economy etc., and is therefore highly essential for socio-economic development in a country.

For highlighting a country that is making rapid development and shows a great example in terms of making use of its presence of renewable energy sources and providing its most remote communities with energy, we look at Kenya.

Kenya is Africa’s fastest growing economy and it is the world leader when it comes to off-grid solar systems installed per capita and therefore is a great example for showing off-grid potential in developing countries.14 Kenya is unique in the world in terms of the depth and dynamism of its solar off-grid market. The market for stand-alone solar photovoltaic (PV) systems started to be developed in Kenya in the mid-1980s and thereafter catalyzed in 2008 when Kenya was selected as one of the two pilot countries for the Lighting Africa program, initiated by the World Bank Group.15

IN PERSPECTIVE

Within Europe, Sweden is a leader when it comes to energy efficiency and investments in renewable sources. It is the country that gets the highest share of its energy from renewable resources and has reached its 2020 schedule of having a 50% renewable energy share years ahead in 2012.

The Swedish cities Malmo and Hammers by are amongst the most sustainable cities in the world for using an Eco cycle approach and introducing world-leading examples of sustainable building.11 Also, the Swedish green energy market is a shining example, thanks to the great variety of choice available to customers and nationwide price leveling. Although these large scale, country-led investments in renewable resources are highly necessary, the reason to highlight another type of example provided by the Swedish government driven on subsidiaries is because it deals with a challenge that is particular for developed countries as they have to deal with an existing situation. In most of these countries there is a large stock of monuments and old buildings that are a cornerstone for the local culture, but now need to act conjointly with the responsibility to achieve sustainability goals. When it comes to tackling the existing system and finding methods to let the existing stock meet a higher performance standard and have less impact on the environment, again Sweden turns out to be an example with its subsidiary program. This project is a great example of how to look for a solution that enables multiple positive facets across all sections of AREA’s framework, such as health benefits, security of energy supply and an increased economic activity. While these benefits of energy renovation are being assessed specifically within a Swedish context, at the same time they represent the ability of an energy efficiency driven project to stimulate multiple factors alongside.

The Renewables Global Status Report that is published by Ren 21 yearly12 keeps track on the status of independent countries in terms of their investments in renewable energy resources and their current capacity in renewable resources.

Intriguing is, that countries that reveal a high score in both annual investments and capacity in renewables are China, the United States, Germany and Japan. Clearly, these are countries that currently have the financial capacity to invest in these large-scale installments. But, even while these investments are often linked to being a luxury item that is only affordable for wealthier countries, 2015 was the first year in which the largest investments in renewable energy plants were led by developing countries such as India and Brazil.13 This is a great trend due to the fact that these countries usually have abundance in renewable energy sources, such as solar, hydro and wind power. Energy from these sources are apart from their eco benefits, a more reliable supply and better to introduce in remote, developing communities since it is not depending on grid-connected energy of which implementation in rural areas is often difficult and expensive.

Besides, the energy that these sources deliver is more affordable for its users.

175

A.R.E.A

176

A particular difference between developed and developing countries, is that whereas the developed countries need to deal with an existent system that is built upon high consumerism and a more satisfied, imbedded built environment, set in its unsustainable ways, the greater deal for developing countries is how to lead a growing economy into sustainable pathways and ensure a grid and resources that are accessible for the entire population. While these countries are in a phase of rapid development, there is more space for to do early interventions and therewith leap over the phase of industrialization with its negative consequences, as it is known in the western countries.

While the large country led investments in renewable resources are the foundation to sustainable development in the energy industry in terms of the reduction of CO2 emissions and exhaustion of non-renewable resources, cutting in energy demand is at least as important. The latter is less dependent of a country’s financial capacity as it doesn’t necessarily require a large investment at once. Both the Sweden and Kenya example offer a solution to which is contributed by the commitment of citizens of the country, which also contributes to a creation of awareness amongst them.

IN PERSPECTIVE 177

SWEDEN

Since 2008, a new law has been in force that obliges every building to get a declaration, showing clearly how much energy a building consumes in comparison with others, aiming to promote more efficient energy use. In addition, late 2016, the Swedish government has introduced a support program of roughly €100 million for the renovation of the existing building stock according to energy related measures.16 The effect of this subsidiary can be large due to the fact that the majority of the Swedish building stock is built before 1990.17 The requirement for receiving this support is to reduce and verify the energy consumption of the building by at least 20%. The assessment of the impact of the renovation in terms of energy efficiency is based on the HEFTIG-model, carried out by Swedish Energy Agency (SEA) and the National Board of Housing, Building and Planning (NBHBP). It describes two scenarios: an alternative 1 scenario and a maximum scenario.18 The Alternative 1 scenario includes measures such as insulating attics, painting and sealing of windows, changing cellar doors and installing exhaust air heat pumps. The Alternative 1 scenario estimates 30 per cent NUMBER OF DWELLINGS BY TYPE OF BUILDING AND PERIOD OF CONSTRUCTION Source: Statistics Sweden, Dwelling Stock (2016)

energy savings in the overall building stock up to 2050.

The maximum energy efficiency scenario covers extensive areas of renovations such as additional insulation of facade, replacement of windows, replacement of ventilation systems, replacement of thermostats and adjustment of heating systems, as well as adjustments to lighting. The maximum scenario for multi-dwelling buildings estimates a 56 per cent reduction in energy consumption per typical building up to 2050. The maximum scenario for single-dwelling buildings estimates a 46 per cent reduction. For offices 39 per cent reduction is estimated in the maximum scenario and for schools 55 per cent.19 Energy savings are, however, not the only valid argument in favor of pursuing energy efficiency renovations, as it is now well established that there are multiple benefits to be captured by investing in energy efficiency renovations of buildings. These can include health benefits from reduced outdoor air pollution, benefits in terms of security of energy supply, and health and productivity gains from a better indoor climate.

ASSESSING MULTIPLE BENEFITS FROM SWEDISH ENERGY RENOVATIONS

Source: The Swedish Energy Agency and the National Board of Housing, Building and Planning (2016)

600.000

one- or twodwelling buildings multi-dwelling buildings

500.000

IMPORTANCE IN SWEDISH CONTEXT

YEARLY VALUE

400.000

7.6 - 9.1 BILLION SEK

300.000

ENERGY SAVINGS

A.R.E.A

200.000

1.9 - 2.1 BILLION SEK OUTDOORS 0.4 - 1.1 BILLION SEK INDOORS

100.000

HEALTH BENEFITS

46%

53%

OF ONE-OR TWOOF MULTI DWELLING BUILDINGS DWELLING BUILDINGS IS BUILT BETWEEN IS BUILT BETWEEN

1961-1990

46%

OF ONE-OR TWODWELLING BUILDINGS IS BUILT BEFORE

1931

data missing

2011-

2010-2010

1991-2000

1981-1990

1971-1980

1961-1970

1941-1950

1951-1960

1931-1940

-1930

0

0.13 BILLION SEK REDUCED CO2 EMISSIONS

RENEWABLE ENERGY INVESTMENTS

NOT RELEVANT TO QUANTIFY

1951-1980

SECURITY OF ENERGY SUPPLY

INCREASED ECONOMIC ACTIVITY

NOT RELEVANT TO QUANTIFY

NOT RELEVANT TO QUANTIFY

178

14 UNDERSERVED COUNTIES IN NORTHEAST KENYA 14 UNDERSERVED COUNTIES IN NORTHEAST KENYA IN THE WORLDBANK PROGRAM IN THE WORLDBANK PROGRAM Source: The World Bank (2017) Source: The World Bank (2017)

MANDERA MANDERA

TURKANA TURKANA

WEST WEST POKOT POKOT

MARSABIT MARSABIT WAJIR WAJIR SAMBURU ISIOLO SAMBURU ISIOLO

GARISSA GARISSA

NAROK NAROK TANA LAMU LAMU RIVERTANA RIVER

TAITA TAVETA KILIFI TAITA TAVETA KILIFI KWALE KWALE

COMPONENT 1: 1: COMPONENT STAND-ALONE SYSTEM STAND-ALONE SYSTEM

SOLAR PV & BATTERIES SOLAR PV & BATTERIES

GOALS FOR OFF-GRID SOLAR ACCESS PROGRAM GOALS FOR OFF-GRID SOLAR ACCESS PROGRAM

BY BY THETHE WORLDBANK BY 2020 WORLDBANK BY 2020 Source: The World Bank (2017)

In july 2017, The World Bank has funded a project called “Off-grid Solar Access Project for Underserved Counties”. The project’s objective is to increase access to modern energy services in fourteen underserved counties of Kenya, located outside Kenya’s grid, which is almost exclusively concentrated centrally, where the population is most dense. The existing grid connects 5.5 million consumers, leaving 4 million people that lack access to electricity The mission of Kenya’s government is twofold, on one hand it plans on extending the current grid and on the other hand it focuses on developing off-grid solutions, where the World Bank’s project comes in. 20 This project consists of four components: Mini-grids for Community Facilities, Enterprises, and Households, Stand-alone Solar Systems and Clean Cooking Solutions for Households, Stand-alone Solar Systems and Solar Water Pumps for Community Facilities and Implementation Support and Capacity Building. It is expected that 3 million new users will be reached through the traditional grid extension approach while the remaining would achieve access through off-grid solutions. A typical mini-grid site with 230 consumers, including a primary school as well as a Level 1 health facility, will have a peak demand of approximately 20 kW and energy consumption around 4,250 kWh per month, as estimated in ongoing pre-feasibility studies for 30 potential mini-grid sites (supported by the World Bank’s KEEP).

While the project goal is set for 2020, currently the project has yet helped Kenya expand electricity access rates from 23 percent in 2009 to about 42 percent (about 4 million households) in 2015.

IN PERSPECTIVE

SOLAR PV, HIGHER EFFICIENCY SOLAR PV, HIGHER EFFICIENCY STOVES & SOLAR WATERPUMP STOVES & SOLAR WATERPUMP

COMPONENT 2: 2: COMPONENT MINI-GRID MINI-GRID

KENYA

Source: The World Bank (2017)

+270.OOO +270.OOO

+1.100 +1.100

PROVIDED ELECTRICITY PROVIDED ELECTRICITY

PROVIDED ELECTRICITY PROVIDED ELECTRICITY

HOUSEHOLDS FACILITIES HOUSEHOLDS COMMUNITY COMMUNITY FACILITIES

+400 +400

BOREHOLES BOREHOLES

+150.000 +150.000

COOKSTOVES COOKSTOVES

179

RESCCUE FRAMEWORK FOR URBAN RESILIENCE

Source: UN-Habitat (2018)

SMART CITY

A.R.E.A 180

L: CITY Similarly to the scale of a country, a city can have a great impact on the development of new sustainable energy provision because of their ability to implement policies at a large or local scale. The scale of a city is especially viable and almost exclusive when it comes to creating sustainable energy, as it is one of largest scales where spatial planning is being discussed in detail. It is the responsibility of the city government to ensure that infrastructure; large-scale building projects, waste processing and city planning develops according to sustainable guidelines. Also at a city scale there is the responsibility to investing in renewable energy sources to ensure Low Environmental Impact. Likewise the national government, city municipalities can provide subsidiaries to encourage people on an individual scale to invest in energy efficiency related measures. City-investments in a largescale renewable energy plant can supply the city’s grid with sustainable energy. Worldwide there are beautiful initiatives at a city scale in the direction of a sustainable future.

Barcelona has been ranked by the European Energy Commission for being one of the top five Smart Cities in Europe. 22 As it has started innovating on sustainable solutions years before the European Energy commission had defined its agenda for 2020, it is one of the only European cities that is on schedule for reaching the goals. Barcelona especially has a good reputation when it comes to energy efficiency. In 2014 it received the award for being Europe’s capital of innovation as it had the best innovative ecosystem, connecting citizens, public organizations, academia and businesses. The city’s bottom-up approach is inspiring. Improving the energy efficiency of a transport system can be responsible for a great share of the city’s energy reduction. Barcelona’s buses are 100% powered by electric energy, generated from Europe’s largest solar panel system, called “Forum Esplanade”. The vehicles are designed in a way that the motor is turned off

While in terms of Affordability & Availability, a city municipality plays an important role in setting up a secure grid and supply, for cities in developing countries; especially where there are slums and poorer communities this is a great challenge. It is not hard to picture images of slums and waste plants that are characteristic for big cities in developing countries. Access to energy is a more emerging and illustrative challenge than for example reducing energy consumption, as it is in cities in developed countries. A great example of creating affordable access to energy has been established in Fortaleza, Brazil. 24 Coelce - fortuitously a subsidiary of the Endesa Group, has launched a very inspiring program in which lower income groups that cannot afford to buy electricity from the traditional grid, collect the city’s waste and take it to appointed recycling points, where they get credits in exchange to purchase energy for their homes. This example shows not an intervention by a city government but by a company benefiting an entire city.

Also, the Ecoelce project enhances several aspects of the

IN PERSPECTIVE

Smart cities A popular approach of a city structure that applies to energy efficiency is the so-called structure of a “Smart City”. The actual definition21 of a “Smart City” is an urban area that uses different types of electronic data collection sensors to provide information, which is used to manage assets and resources efficiently. Information and communication technology (ICT) is used to enhance quality, performance and interactivity of urban services, to reduce costs and resource consumption and to increase contact between citizens and government.

Smart cities use data and technology to create efficiencies, improve sustainability, create economic development, and enhance quality of life factors for people living and working in the city. This aims to result in smarter, more efficient urban (energy) infrastructure.

each time the bus needs to stop. Besides, the municipality is developing a tram network, completely run on electricity from renewable sources. The Local Energy Agency, run by the government is offering appealing financial incentives for companies and individuals; for example decreased tax bills are awarded to those with efficient houses and lower public transport fees are given to those who comply. New houses that are sold or leased have to meet rigorous energy standards and new constructed buildings need to be equipped with solar-thermal water heating systems and perform according to the net-zero standard. According to the U.S. Department of Energy the most common definition for this net-zero standard is that the total amount of energy used by the building on an annual basis is roughly equal to the amount of renewable energy created on the site. Also, the city has replaced all the city lighting for LED-lighting. In order to let all these energy related measures run simultaneously and use the energy source as efficient as possible, the Spanish company Endesa has started a pilot project, called the “Smartnet Project” to test how to implement an efficient, smart energy grid. 23 The implementation of a smart grid in Barcelona is an important foundation for sustainable development. While at a first glance it seems like the grid mainly has an economic purpose – as more efficient use of resources, transportation and electricity will have a great economic benefit for each individual user, the benefits on a social and even more on a ecological level are of great impact. A smart grid will decrease the demand for energy, make efficient use and avoid waste energy, but also ensure uttermost comfortable living environments for people. Therefore this project is a great example according to AREA’s framework, as it is a project with a multifaceted approach to a sustainable future.

181

A.R.E.A

182

AREA framework, as it consciously merges social matters with environmental and economical A positive aspect of both projects in Barcelona and in Fortaleza is their inclusiveness. The development improves the situation for citizens, for the government, for the environment, but not less important, for businesses. When sustainable implementations in any field are done, they should benefit all stakeholders simultaneously in order to ensure durability. Like the Endesa Group has found a way to merge their business goals with a social matter, it remains more attractive for a company to stay committed to the project. Also both examples show how citizens can be involved in a creating a sustainable energy network, while Barcelona is still a pilot project testing how fluctuating demands of fictive consumers can be organized technically through system operators, Fortaleza shows an inspiring example of how these consumers contribute to a new recycling system. The biggest difference between these two, looking at the fact that they are different as being a developed vs. developing country, is that Barcelona needs to find efficiency solutions for an existing system, while in Fortaleza, fixing the existing system is to a great extend, focused on socio-economic improvements.

Also, the involvement of citizens in a developed country needs to have a different incentive than there was for example in Fortaleza. While for empowering people in developing countries to contribute to a sustainable system, money is a great incentive and the amount of effort is less important, in developed countries, convenience can be a great incentive.

IN PERSPECTIVE 183

BARCELONA, SPAIN Since 2016 a very innovative pilot project is being tested in Barcelona, under supervision of the Spanish company Endesa - one of the largest electricity companies in the world. It is part of the so-called Smartnet project that is funded by Horizon 2020 - The EU Framework Program for Research and Innovation. The Smartnet project aims to develop a more flexible energy market model, by exploring the opportunities of a Smart Grid - a set of new technologies and features that respond to current electricity distribution demands (by involving citizens).25 Activities that are required in order to establish a Smart Grid are: smart metering, active demand management, distributed generation, automated grid management and

development of e-mobility. The pilot project in Barcelona focuses to proof the feasibility of a shared balancing responsibility model of the Smartnet project. Twenty base stations are installed by Vodafone throughout the city that disconnect themselves from the grid at the request of the distribution company. Instead, the stations use batteries and are contributing to the decongestion, when necessary, of Barcelonaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s electricity grid and at the same time helping to stabilize the grid at system operator level. In diagram X the structure of the pilot project is being explained. By the end of 2018 the pilot results will be collected.26

FLEXIBILITY FROM RADIO BASE STATION

Source: SmartNet (2018)

TSO REE

AGGREGATORS

ENDESA DSO IMS

A.R.E.A

T

DANSKE COMMODITIES

ENDESA DSO AGGREGATOR

D

ENDESA EMS

VODAFONE IMS

V2W B2G

VODAFONE CLOUD

D-FACTS REGULATED MARKET

UNREGULATED MARKET

184

FORTALEZA, BRAZIL Coelce is the main provider of electricity distribution and transmission for the state of Ceará, and noticed there was a high rate of delinquency and theft of electricity in the low-income communities in Fortaleza. Also, it was visible that this population suffered from high incidence of disease, which was related to inadequate waste collection systems and these communities showed the highest number of solid waste dump in the environment.

August 2006, the Ecoelce program was developed to recover the value of the wasted resources and return this value to the local population. The program encourages the idea of responsible waste management by “paying” clients who adopt good practices. This payment is done in credits that can be exchanged for electricity. A person or community can become a client and apply for a Ecoelce card, with the waste collected and separated he can go to a collection site, where it is weighed and its market price of each material is being assessed. This value is turned into credits and added to the Ecoelce card. Monthly these credits are being debited by Endesa and exchanged for electricity. The credits can also be donated to NGOs.

Coelce has agreements with local recycling companies, who are responsible for processing the waste and manufacturing new material from it. For both the companies and the population it offers benefits: - Respond to the federal government’s enforcement of electricity inclusion (increase geographical coverage to the most impoverished areas, including slums) - Reduce corporate losses related to unpaid bills - Allow electricity access to segments of population with limited economic resources - Improve the company’s commitment to local community development - Foster waste recycling and educate population about the importance of recycling Currently, the company runs this program throughout the entire state of Ceará, having covered 184 communities, but it started in 2006 with pilot projects in 4 low-income communities in its capital city Fortaleza.27

IN PERSPECTIVE 185

TOP DOWN - BOTTOM UP APPROACH

Source: Christof (2012)

COMMUNITY

TOP DOWN

BOTTOM UP

A.R.E.A 186

M: COMMUNITY At the scale of a community or neighborhood, the great advantage of getting the people concerned involved is more conventional. This is where a top-bottom and bottom up approach meet. Communities are considered as key arenas of transforming policies into actions, where technical configurations intersect with socioeconomic interests. 28 For the three action areas of the sustainable energy goal “Affordable and Clean Energy for All”, the UNDP focuses on technical assistance at policy and institutional levels, as well as on on-the-ground investments ranging from nationwide efforts to local community level support. 29 Ever since 1992 the UNDP has a specific focus on community based innovation programs, as through direct empowerment of communities there is better reach to individuals and communities to promote rights, to enhance their environmental management system, to advise on financial investments and innovations for sustainability and strengthening the individual- and communal voice in national and international policy processes. Currently, there are community-based projects running in 119 countries through support of the UNDP.30

IN PERSPECTIVE

Usually, the size of a community is convenient for creating a closed circle. It is suitable for a project in which support from close components is needed, but in which an individual can contribute. Communities can operate as independent clusters. Think about creating a mini-grid by installing independent renewable energy sources that are interconnected and therefore complementary. The supermarket chain SuperBrugsen, in Høruphav, Denmark, shows an example of how such a mini-grid can function.31 The Solarkiosk, implemented in several African countries, shows how an independent unit, as being the core of a community, can enable sustainable economic development. Looking at the three qualities in AREA’s framework concerning the energy topic, these two examples will show how a community can act upon the involvement of multiple. While the district heating system, provided by the Superbrugsen supermarket is a small-scale extension of a city’s Smart Grid, it tackles the target of Responsive design, which falls under the goal of High Performance. In terms of Low Environmental Impact, the project ensures a minimal production of emissions and waste. For this, a community based strategy, involving all actors, needed to be conducted. The small intervention of a SolarKiosk enables many improvements on a social, economic and ecological scale. It enables a strong community cohesion, since collaboration improves the functionality of the system.

It supports a local economy as the SolarKiosk enables people to become entrepreneurs and set up an own market. The SolarKiosk also shows how to utilize localized resources, in this case the sun; an energy source that is abundant in central Africa.

187

HØRUPHAV, DENMARK

The SuperBrugsen supermarket is used as a heat supplier for the neighborhood of Høruphav, Denmark. An innovative CO2 refrigeration system is installed, that not only keeps the supermarket’s supplies fresh and provides the store itself with heating, but also channels its heat surplus into the district heating network, hence provides the neighborhood with heating. The system works according to the cogeneration of electricity and heat. Its surplus can supply 16 surrounding standard homes of 130m2 with heat annually. Eventually, the system is responsible for the reduction of 34% of CO2 emissions and saves the community about €27.800 a year.32 Another very beneficial element of introducing a supermarket into the district-heating network, is that it is capable of balancing a fluctuating supply. In fact, heating

can come from any energy source, but supermarkets with this refrigeration system installed can function as storage for the fluctuating energy supply from renewable sources such as wind and solar power.

The principle of district heating is typical for the entire country. Yet the district heating system covers 98% of the heat demand in Copenhagen. The system will play a very important role in urban areas as to phasing out fossil fuels and utilizing renewable energy and heat surpluses. The type of fuel to use is flexible and the system is very energy efficient. Denmark’s goal is to have the system developed by 2035 for both large-scale areas as small-scale areas and running on waste and biomass completely. Adding supermarkets to a smart grid is equal to 20% of the wind energy in the European Union.33

DISTRICT HEATING SUPERBRUGSEN SUPERMARKET

Source: Danfoss (2018)

Dry Cooler

Heat Reclaim

Cold Storage Tanks

Heat Storage Tanks

Solar Energy

HVAC

Battery Storage

SUPERMARKET Lighting

A.R.E.A

E-mobility

Danfoss Smart Store

Refridgeration case

Floor Heating

Compressor pack

Energy Well for Heatpump and Cooling

Snowmelting

Demand Response

District Heating (Sell execessive heat)

188

BOTSWANA & ETHIOPIA - SOLARKIOSK Worldwide, 1.5 billion people are living in communities that are not connected to a traditional electricity grid, because it is too expensive or too difficult. Even for some of the communities that are connected, electricity remains unaffordable and unreliable. The costs for these unsustainable energy solutions, result in negative impact on health, environment and local income, while regularly there is an abundance of sunshine in the countries these communities are located in. Solar kiosk introduced the so-called E-HUBBS in 2012. These are autonomous and modular business units, designed by the German company Graft, empowering sustainable economic development.

The E-HUBBS are produced of materials that can be manufactured locally and are easy to assemble, even on difficult terrain. A basic E-HUBB integrates 1-4 kWp of PV-capacity. Generally the E-HUBBS provides the following: Solar products, charging, internet, cooling, medicine, FMCG’s (Fast Moving Consumer Goods), Wifi, Tools, Tech products.

Every E-HUBB enables further business, because every local entrepreneur can start a restaurant, movie theatre, beauty salon or something similar. This way the E-HUBB can become a social and economic centre for the community. At night or in inadequate weather conditions, the E-HUBB is powered by the energy that is stored in its battery pack, so it can operate continuously. An expanded E-HUBB unit can also supply surrounding institutions such as schools with energy. While in use, the E-HUBB also collects all possible data varying from energy use to financial performance, in order to be able to improve its performance.

Concludingly, goals that are being achieved by implementing the Solar Kiosk E-HUBBS are empowering sustainable economic development, providing clean energy service, quality products and sustainable solutions and fostering local entrepreneurs.

Currently there are E-hubbs in three continents, in six countries.34

DIFFERENT APPLICATIONS OF THE SOLARKIOSK

Source: SolarKiosk (2018)

REFUGEE CAMP

MARKET PLACE

HEALTH CENTER

IN PERSPECTIVE

BUSINESS HUB & WATER PURIFICATION

189

LEED CREDIT CATEGORIES & CERTIFICATIONS

Source: LEED (2018)

SUSTAINABLE SITES

INNOVATION IN OPERATIONS & REGIONAL PRIORITY

WATER EFFICIENCY

INDOOR ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY

ENERGY & ATMOSPHERE

MATERIALS & RESOURCES

BUILDING C

U.S. G RE

EN

EN

BUILDING C

CIL UN O

U.S. G RE

BUILDING C

CIL UN O

EN

CIL UN O

U.S. G RE

BUILDING C

CIL UN O

U.S. G RE

A.R.E.A

EN

LEED CERTIFIED

LEED SILVER

LEED GOLD

LEED PLATINUM

USGBC

USGBC

USGBC

USGBC

BASIC CERTIFICATION 40-49 POINTS

SILVER CERTIFICATION 50 - 59 POINTS

GOLD CERTIFICATION 60-79 POINTS

PLATINUM CERTIFICATION 80 - 110 POINTS

190

S: BUILDING Of the three qualities for the topic of energy that AREA aims for, looking into the scale of buildings is especially necessary in terms of High Performance. According to the IEA, both the heating as the cooling of buildings are estimated to account for roughly half of the global energy consumption in buildings.35 This fact creates the opportunity to reduce energy consumption and related emissions and improve energy security, with buildings as the key players. In the energy revolution, energy-efficient and low carbon technologies are needed, since the current energy supply is dominated by fossil fuels and the demand is growing rapidly. Installment of solar power units, or energy supply from other renewable sources and energy efficient building method, together result in a Low Environmental Impact.

While in developed countries, high tech buildings - yet equipped with passive systems, designed according to the LEED* requirements, the opportunity in developing countries lies in building on knowledge of passive technologies, as used in the traditional vernacular architecture. Untutored builders of the vernacular had an admirable talent for suiting buildings to their environment. An example of how a passive building system, yet high tech, often applied to large-scale buildings, is implemented in developing countries, can be found in the Amstelkwartier in Amsterdam, the Netherlands, where a 76 meter high hotel emerges, which is one of the most sustainable in Europe with a LEED-Platinum certificate.36 Moreover, there are many more official energy guides for buildings such as BREEAM.

IN PERSPECTIVE

The lesson that can be learned from looking at the building examples in Amsterdam and North-Africa, is that solutions of passive building, providing energy efficient solutions with a low environmental impact are not necessarily complicated.

The Amstelkwartier hotel is a beautiful solution for a large scale building located in a fast world, but the villa’s in North-Africa show that vernacular building solutions are often designed closely related to their natural environment.

Solutions for developing countries, for growing economies with an increasing demand for housing and other buildings, can be derived from local building traditions; architects who have the task to develop in these countries, can thoughtfully analyze works of the preceding local builders.

191

AMSTERDAM, NL

A.R.E.A

The most important feature for the sustainability concept of the hotel, managing the indoor climate, is the flexible façade, the so-called “Chameleon Skin”. This façade consists of aluminum screens and responds immediately when a guest leaves his room or is asleep. The opening and closing of these screens regulate and ensure the room to stay cool in summer and warm in winter. This way, it saves 65% on the heat supply, 90% on cooling and 50% on ventilation. The appearance of the façade changes continuously, depending on the presence of the guest, on the weather and the time of day.

is executed with a specific foil that only permits a certain color spectrum. The restaurant of the hotel processes the products from the greenhouse. The hotel also engages a heat pump, thermal storage and a combined heat and power system (CHP). Against the principle of the architects of designing a self-sufficient building, the building is also connected to Amsterdam’s district heating. Remaining energy demand is being generated by biomass, grey water is being used for flushing the toilets and rainwater for watering the greenhouse.

Closed Circles According to an installation design from ARUP, the hotel is based on four closed cycles for the different flows: CO2, waste, water and energy. The upper floor has a very important role, as it hosts the hotel’s greenhouse that absorbs all of its CO2 emissions. In the greenhouse the newest vegetable- and fruit growing and fish farming technologies are being used, growing on compost coming from the restaurant’s kitchen. The metal free glass roof

For the bearing structure, 5.000 tons of concrete has been recycled, originating from the former Shell Tower that was located close by. All the material that is used for the hotel is coming from a local resource and is recycled. One of the goals of during the construction process was to limit the amount of construction waste. This was achieved by reducing the use of prefab materials. After all, fewer loads means less CO2, less nuisance and less waste.37

192

ARAB VILLA’S

For many centuries, Muslim Arab cultures have built according to a climatic responsive strategy, determining the shape of their villa. Especially in North-African context, the vernacular architecture is the translation of a passive construction system. The main characteristic of these villa’s is the organization of spaces around a central courtyard. This courtyard heats and cools the adjacent rooms.

In summer, the courtyard provides two natural ventilation mechanisms. First of all, a microclimate arises within, with shades areas and plants and water features that humidify and refresh the air. Transverse ventilation is a result of the wide openings to the courtyard on one side and on the other side, small openings in the external walls, which enable the extraction of hot air. In the North-African countries, this ventilation is amplified by the orientation, as the prevailing wind is coming from the direction of the Mediterranean sea. Secondly, the courtyard allows a chimney ventilation effect as it is opening to the sky. The decorative openings above the doors, situated in the walls facing the courtyard, optimize this chimney effect when being closed. The small spaces around the courtyard have a cupola as a roof that also facilitates the evacuation of hot air on the inside.38

EXISTING WIND IN THE COURTYARD

Source: Adli-Chebaiki (2015)

The galleries on the inside of the courtyard provide the cool of long shadows at evening time. At daytime the sun heats up the gallery walls, but the thick brick walls and floors protect from direct sun radiation. At nighttime cool air descends into the courtyard, entering the rooms through the openings in the walls.

The courtyard is also laid out with vegetation and water bodies that humidify and refresh with cool air. The material used for the villa’s construction is baked earth brick. These have a thermal capacity that adapt to diurnal changes and are an effective insulation material. The color of the villas is white, that reflect 70% of solar radiation. Doors of the villa are usually large and can be opened completely to optimize the ventilation to cool the room. Within these doors, often smaller doors are located, the size of a human. Partially opening and closing these doors can speed up or slow down air circulation.

The roof terraces are enclosed with low walls as railings, in which two types of conduits are located. One of these leads the rainwater that is collected on the roof terrace through the walls to the underground reservoir, whereby it crosses internal walls of rooms and cools them. The second type of conduits is made to evacuate the smoke of lamps that are used at night. During the day these allow circulation of fresh air.39 ARABIC EXTRAMURAL TYPOLOGY

Source: Adli-Chebaiki (2015)

IN PERSPECTIVE 193

A.R.E.A

194

XS: DETAIL

Not only in terms of a building detail, small scale interventions are of large influence when it comes to achieving the energy goals of AREA’s framework or the UN SDG’s. For developing countries, provision of a secure energy supply is one of the most pressing issues, to which can be contributed by smallscale off-grid, cost effective sustainable solutions. Besides, energy needs are different from those in the West because of differences in the requirements of energy services. While space heating is important in the West, satisfaction of basic human needs such as cooking and lighting are of paramount importance in developing areas. For many low- and middleincome groups in rural areas and low-income groups in

urban areas, biofuels are the primary fuel because of a lack of access to efficient energy technology. For the energy needed for cooking and lighting, they depend on their own labor, on animal power or fuel wood, and other types of biomass, which have a high price in terms of human time and labor. While women have a lower status in these often largely patriarchal societies, it is their responsibility to collect the fuel, carry, process and use it; without having a say in the choice of fuel, the usage method and the technology adaption. Improvement of the kind of energy provision will enable women in developing countries to climb the ladder of development.43 In a study to explore the effect of electrification on women’s lives in rural India, an Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP) Energy Survey was used.44 Its outcome indicated that electrification reduced the amount of time spent by women on household chores and increased their leisure time. Compared to women in households without electricity, the women in households with electricity spend less time on collecting fuels, fetching water and cooking, and instead spend more time on earning an income, reading and watching television. It also increased the time women spent on reading through the day, as reading in the evening was made possible.45 Multiple comparable studies have been proven the same nexus between electrification and the status of women in their society. While, as has been mentioned before, these areas are usually abundant in renewable energy sources (e.g. solar power), small-scale, solar driven units are a convenient solution, of which implementation is highly achievable.

A great initiative to enable this process can be found in rural India, where the company Rural Spark introduced a small, independent kit of products that provide households with their self-obtained energy supply, independent of a grid.46 When joining Rural Spark, one joins a network of many other entrepreneurs with different energy sources. Rural Spark facilitates the trading of energy surpluses between these Local Energy Suppliers. While projects related to electrification to enhance and restrict women’s opportunities are being executed at different scales, this project indicates the importance to look at access to energy on a detail intervention scale, as its impact can be large for societal matters. While this project thrives on people’s own motivation to generate energy in a sustainable way, probability to succeed is relatively high. The small scale, independence and modularity of the projects structure and products make it easier and more reliable to implement than the implementation of a micro-grid.47 Rural Spark’s approach shows a great example according to AREAs framework, as it is an holistic approach that positively influences multiple sustainability goals, within

IN PERSPECTIVE

A building’s performance in terms of energy efficiency is for a large part due to the way its has been detailed. To effectively cut on energy demand per building, proper insulation and tight detailing make the largest difference. This makes the scale of detail especially important when it comes to fulfilling the Energy section of AREA’s framework to gain the quality of High Performance. When proper detailing and insulation would be applied to a large scale of the global building stock, it would be responsible for a major difference in global carbon emissions. A recent study conducted by researchers from Boston University and the University of North Carolina illustrates the tremendous effects that increased insulation in residential, single-family homes in the US can have on carbon emissions, pollution and our health. This study simulated the economic, health and environmental benefits of increasing the insulation up to the standards of the IECC 2012 (International Energy Conservation Code) of the entire stock of residential, single-family homes in the US. These results were astounding, as with this single change the reduction in carbon emissions for electricity from fossil fuels would decrease by 80 million tons per year. This would cause a 3.4% reduction in residential electricity consumption. An additional 30 million tons would be eliminated from residential combustion using oil and natural gas, which is equal to a 9% reduction.40 One of the first official initiatives that had set up a standard for energy efficiency in a building was the Passive House Institute, founded in Germany. This institutes provides guidelines that reach from the overall scale of a building expressed in ambitions to achieve, to construction guidelines for the very small scale of a building detail. Currently their principles are widely known and used for buildings all over the world. Many comparable standards and labels have been established, such as BREEAM, LEED, Minergie and Net-Zero standard. 41 The Passive House standard consists of a set of guidelines that relate to the heating and cooling demand, to the primary energy source and to maximum air leakages.42 When construction is done according to these principles, a highly energy efficient building is the result.

195

A.R.E.A

196

both a socio-economic field as an environmental field. While its origin lies in a small-scale objective; empowering a rural society, the wider project ambition aimed for the transition towards renewable energy sources and to stimulate social equalities.

IN PERSPECTIVE 197

GERMANY - PASSIVHAUS

Since its foundation in 1996, the Passive House Research Institute in Germany has collected an extensive database in regard to research on and development of construction concepts, building components, planning tools and quality assurance for energy efficient buildings. The constant improvement and development upon algorithms and software tools for the determination of energy balances, has put the institute on a leading position in the field of research on energy efficient building methods. This research is being shared on an open source platform called “Passipedia”. Not only does this platform provide a clear instruction on how to plan for passive building in its Passive House Planning package, it also connects to its network of approved manufacturers of energy efficient components with in-depth consultancy on product development and optimization. At the same time, the institute operates as an independent testing and certification center for both buildings as building components, such as wall constructions windows, doors, connections, ventilation systems and compact systems.48 Requirements for the Passive House certificate relate to the space heating demand (in warmer climates rather to space cooling demand), to the renewable primary energy demand for domestic application, to airtightness and to PASSIVE HOUSE PRINCIPLES

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Meanwhile, Europe counts more than 20.000 buildings certified by Passive House regulations. Recently this has been topped up by 1200 examples in the US. Many similar institutes and certificates have followed their example.49

ADEQ U

A

ST

Y TEG RA

V TE

Thermal Bridge free design Superior windows Ventilation with heat recovery Quality insulation Airtight construction.

For each of these principles PHI offers specific instructions and proposals on construction and materialization.

Looking at for example a window detail (fig. ), it is advised to ensure a high insulation value, meaning in both the frame as the window, to apply triple pane glazing with a high solar heat gain coefficient, to apply low emissivity coatings such as sealed argon or krypton gas to fill the inter pane voids, to apply air seals and to apply thermal break window frames.

ENTILATION

Source: Passive House Institute (2015)

EXTRACT AIR >

< SUPPLY AIR

USE WINDOW HO S

AIRTIGH T

N

S ES

A.R.E.A

PASS IV E

thermal comfort in winter and summer. These criteria can be achieved through smart design and implementation of the five Passive House Principles.

OUTDOOR AIR

EXHAUST AIR

SUPPLY AIR

EXTRACT AIR

SUPPLY AIR

TH E

SULATIO N L IN MA

SUPPLY AIR

SUB SOIL HEAT EXCHANGER OPTIONAL

BRIDGE RE

D

DESIGN

EXTRACT AIR

AL RM

D CE U

TH ER

SOLAR PANEL OPTIONAL

198

BIHAR, INDIA - RURAL SPARK Responding to the objective to support human and economic development through electrification, Rural Spark has developed a set of products that independently or collectively enables electrification of households in rural India. Currently, 400 million people in India lack access to clean, safe and sustainable energy.

This product kit provides a solution through the concept of smartly distributed networks and thereby enables to leapfrog the traditional centralized grid, which is expensive, outdated and resource intensive. To ensure continuity of the project in these rural and sometimes remote areas, Rural Spark aimed to set up a reliable market. Together with the organization “Smart Grids India” they investigated extensively how to effectively embed such a market in this specific social context.

By introducing a product kit that enables to share and trade the self-obtained energy, a market led by private entrepreneurs comes into existence. Indian villagers become local energy suppliers in the network, who generate, use and sell energy. By trading energy surpluses with other locals, supply and demand are linked. Besides, becoming resilient entrepreneurs taking ownership of the system, they generate additional

income, which increases their livelihood and purchasing power.50 The basic energy kit consists of a renewable energy source (most often this is a PV-panel), a Spark Station that warns when storage runs out balance, Smart cubes that store the energy obtained by the energy source, Spark Led Lamps and access to the Rural Spark service platform.

The Spark Station allows buying and selling energy from the Rural Spark network. Selling surpluses to others allows for additional income and increases efficiency as all the energy generated is actually being used. The Smart cubes are modular battery packs that store the surpluses and they can be used to power many types of applications.

On the service platform, new entrepreneurs are being registered and the trading takes place. To reactivate the smart cubes with new energy when it has run out, a prepaid system is used; after payment the smart cube is reactivated.

Currently Rural Sparks introduced their products in two communities, one in Bihar and one in Jharkhand. Many Indian families have now benefitted of their newly implemented, reliable energy system.51

RURAL SPARK ENTREPRENEUR KIT

Source: Rural Spark (2018)

- PV Panel - Spark Station - Spark Share Cubes - Spark Chargable LED Lamps & LED Bulbs - Spark Service Platform IN PERSPECTIVE 199

INCLUSIVE & ADOPTABLE

LOS SO FC UL TU RE SO CIO -E CO NO CU EC LT ON U O VA

XL XL

L XL

L

EMISSIONS

INEQUALITY

RE D RI

XS

RS STE SA DI

PRIMARY FUNCTIONS & AMENITIES

NETWORK OF ASTRUCTURE INFR

S

WA TER SC AR CI TY DI SA ST ER E NC LIE SI RE

XS

CONFLICT

D CE U SK

N TIO VA E PR DE TH AL HE S& IC M L& L XS RA ICA MS E LU M

M

L MLO W

ENVIRO

L NMENTA S IMPACT

RES OUR CE DE PLETION

CE IG R FO R S E

H M

P

XS

ER GY

RE SO UR CE S

L XL

AN

DA L E BL & E

XL

H

& Y LIT BI LO MO Y IT RS VE DI BIO

A.R.E.A

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S

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E NG A CH TE A M CLI

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XL L

200

XL: COUNTRY SWEDEN

SUBSIDIZES ENERGY EFFICIENT RENOVATIONS FOR THE EXISTING BUILDING STOCK XL XL XL

Minimising energy demand Contributing to local culture Optimising durability

KENYA

SUPPLIES IITS INHABITANTS WITH SMALL-SCALE INDEPENDENT SMART GRIDS XL XL XL

Having a resilient energy network Having access to energy supply Optimising durability

L: CITY BARCELONA, SPAIN

TRANSFORMS THE CITY’S GRID INTO AN EFFICIENT GRID WITH NO WASTE ENERGY L L L

Minimising energy demand Producing minimal emissions and waste Having a resilient energy network

FORTALEZA, BRASIL

RECYCLES WASTE TO PROVIDE ELECTRICITY

L

Encouraging awareness of energy usage

L

Being economically affordable to a widespread public

L

Enabling equal opportunities

M: COMMUNITY HØRUPHAV, DENMARK

IMPLEMENTS DISTRICT HEATING THAT CAPTURES HEAT EXCESSES FROM SUPERMARKETS M

Optimize energy source to use

BOTSWANA & ETHIOPIA ARE HOME TO SOLARKIOSKS, PROVIDING A BASE FOR EMPOWERED COMMUNITIES M

M

Producing minimal emissions and waste

M

M

Applying responsive design principles

M

Encouraging strong community cohesion Utilising localised resources Support localised economy

S: BUILDING AMSTERDAM, THE NL

S S S

Allowing for flexibility Using renewable resources Applying responsive design principles

PROVIDES VERNACULAR IDEAL FOR PASSIVE HOUSING

S S S

Applying passive design principles Utilise localised knowledge Contributing to local culture

XS: DETAIL BIHAR, INDIA

ENABLES GENDER EQUALITY BY CREATING A SECURE ENERGY SUPPLY TO HOUSEHOLDS XS XS XS

Enabling equal opportunities Supporting localised economy Having access to energy supply

GERMANY

INITIATES THE PRINCIPLE OF THE PASSIVHAUS, THAT PRODUCES ITS OWN ENERGY CONSUMPTION XS XS XS

Passive design principles Setting an example Responding to local preferences

Throughout this investigation, it became clear that there are decent technologies and solutions that apply to the built environment that could be widely used to (partially) replace the current system that is running on burning fossil fuels.

These are technologies and solutions that could drastically contribute to diminishing current CO2 emissions.

Throughout every scale, the evaluated case studies prove that developing countries are in advance when it comes to development towards a sustainable situation in terms of energy. On one hand, because these countries don’t need to clean up an existent system that has now polluted the world for over a century. On the other hand because these countries stand closer to the more vernacular solutions in terms of skills and knowledge, and therewith have the possibility to leapfrog the situation in which developed countries are now.

In Sweden, for example, there is much activity concerning renovation of the existing building stock, which is a great initiative in terms of safekeeping local cultural values.

Besides, this measure avoids a large part of demolition waste as currently 92% of the existing Swedish building stock is built before 1990. At the same time there is an initiative in Kenya by the World Bank that provides a self-sufficient, offgrid solution, which prevents from subsequent interventions to save energy because these Kenyan households run on 100% renewable energy from the first moment energy is provided.

Further zooming into the scale of a city, again it shows how Europe’s energy-related measures are corrective.

Barcelona’s buses now drive on electricity derived from sun energy, but the type of transport system remains the same. While it will take decades to reshape the embedded behavior of the population of the developed countries, these antidotal solutions often seem most apposite. In Fortaleza, again there is an example of how providing energy access concurs with an immediate implementation of a more sustainable system compared to the notorious. The value of the recycled product is being transferred to a credit to purchase electricity, benefiting either local users and businesses as the environment (moreover Coelce does not mention the source of this electricity).

IN PERSPECTIVE

DEVELOPS SUSTAINABLE HOTEL WITH SOLAR ADAPTED SKIN

ARAB’ WORLD

CONCLUSION

At a community scale bottom-up and top-down approaches meet. This is the scale where there is an advantage of getting the people concerned involved in a project. A community can operate as an independent cluster, as it prevails in the Danish town Høruphav where district heating is implemented that captures heat excesses. In Høruphav 201

this effort saves 34% of the annual CO2 emissions. The SolarKiosk is an initiative that is implemented worldwide in developing countries that functions as a new center point for a community’s energy provision. The solarkiosk provides the community with solar energy and has strong focus on empowering individuals to establish their own businesses and activities with this new provision, but can also supply connected facilities and therefore has the ability to function as a smart grid. While the Solarkiosk implements a system, completely independent from the existing energy sector, it has the ability to render sustainable correctly all at once.

A.R.E.A

On the scale of a building, the example of the Amstelkwartier Hotel in Amsterdam shows innovative climate solutions.

Still, these types of solutions require a lot, and expensive materials and very precise skills, which make it limited to a select group of societies in terms of affordability and adoptability. At this scale, due to the fact it does not concern energy provision, there is a chance to crib vernacular solutions. The Arab villa’s show that the vernacular building traditions are the uttermost sustainable, as the design has been consciously adapted to its climate context and therefore requires no additional heating or cooling facilities.

Also, these local materials sustain for centuries. In terms of climate design for buildings, there is a great opportunity for developing countries to skip the unsustainable Western solutions for heating and cooling, but be exemplary for passive solutions. A secure supply of energy is only necessary for additional electricity. Still, a completely passive society is not expedient, as it will always adhere to the standard of the developed world. Energy supply is very important to establish a equal healthcare system and education standard in order to adjust social equity worldwide.

Throughout all these scales, measures done in the developed world are corrective towards its population’s behavior, but little or nothing is focused on thoroughly cutting in consumption patterns. These solutions seem to be relevant as these societies are so set in their unsustainable ways, stuck in their high consumerism. However, these types of measures require too much time, as they are depending on increasing financial capacity and political stability, which are both not the case in many countries, currently nor in the near future. Also, the solutions towards sustainable systems in developed countries are far more complex, though these solutions seem to be at hand in developing countries where there is space for progression. There is a crucial opportunity to do early interventions in the countries that are now seeing a rapid development. Copying the standard patterns of the developed countries will lead to the same deficiencies and these are the patterns need to be breached. Many

disadvantages such as polluting emissions can be leaped immediately and a sustainable system, consciously taking in account social, economic and environmental consequences, can be introduced correctly at once. This has been demonstrated by some of the case studies in the developing world, which fit into AREA’s framework for that reason. The framework’s purpose is a holistic approach and encourages each project to make conscious decisions towards social equity, economic effects, the resources that support a project and the resilience of a project towards a disaster, likewise these case studies.

202

IN PERSPECTIVE

203

“Earthquakes don’t kill people, buildings do.”

A.R.E.A 204

DISASTER RESILIENCY

IN PERSPECTIVE

ISABELLA VAN DER GRIEND

205

ABSTRACT

Currently, almost half of the world’s population live in hazard prone areas. To prevent these people from being subject to devastating disasters, planning for an environment that reduces the human impact on hazard intensity and frequency, as well as improve the capability of communities to recover from hazard events, is crucial. Such planning is generally referred to as sustainable development, which aims to harmonize social, economical and environmental sustainability to create resilient environments. Resilient environments have the ability to be exposed to sudden changes and obstacles, such as hazards, without complete devastation. Instead, these environments learn from the exposure to the obstacles and become more resilient for the future.

Within AREA’s framework for a resilient built environment, the topic of Disaster Resiliency comprises of three goals that are Primary Functions & Amenities, Reduced Risk and Network of Infrastructure. The following chapter will discuss cases that span from country wide policies that encourage resilient development to detailing for safe and durable structures. Of particular interest is the lessons that can be shared between developing and developed countries’ different approaches to disaster resiliency strategies which can be unified to provide a path towards fulfilling AREA’s framework.

XL: COUNTRY JAPAN

HIGHLY VULNERABLE YET LEADERS IN DISASTER RISK PREPAREDNESS & MANAGEMENT

L: CITY COLOMBIA

INFLUENCED THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE HYOGO FRAMEWORK

VICTORIA, AUSTRALIA EMERGENCY PLANNING FOR BUSHFIRES AFTER THE BLACK SATURDAY FIRES

CLIMATE CHANGE VULNERABILITY Source: Nature Climate Change

LOW VULNERABILITY, GOOD PREPERATION LOW VULNERABILITY, POOR PREPERATION HIGH VULNERABILITY, GOOD PREPERATION HIGH VULNERABILITY, POOR PREPERATION TROPICAL CYCLONES PEAK WIND SPEAKS (in km/h) Source: Nathan World Map of Natural Hazards (2011)

ZONE 0: 76-141 ZONE 1: 142-184 ZONE 2: 185-212 ZONE 3: 213-251 ZONE 4: 252-299 ZONE 5: â&#x2030;¥300 RISK ZONES OF EARTHQUAKES

Source: Global Seismic Hazard Assesment Program (GSHAP)

A.R.E.A

SEISMIC ZONE I SEISMIC ZONE II (LEAST ACTIVE) SEISMIC ZONE III (MODERATE) SEISMIC ZONE IV (HIGH) SEISMIC ZONE V (HIGHEST)

S: BUILDING CHRISTCHURCH, NZ

PHYSICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL RESILIENCE TO STRENGTHEN COMMUNITIES

LAGOS, NIGERIA

UTILIZING LOCAL MATERIALS AND RESOURCES TO BUILD A FLOATING STRUCTURE

208

M: COMMUNITY ODISHA, INDIA

NETWORK OF EARLY WARNING SYSTEMS AND CYCLONE SHELTERS

NEW ORLEANS, U.S.A

THE MAKE IT RIGHT FOUNDATION USING CRADLE TO CRADLE DESIGN APPROACH

NUWAKOT, NEPAL

PROMOTING RISK AWARENESS AND PREPAREDNESS THROUGH EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS

IN CONTEXT

XS: DETAIL NOMI, JAPAN

CARBON FIBER RODS PROVIDE THE TENSILE STRENGHT TO WITHSTAND EARTHQUAKES

GUJARAT, INDIA

DEVELOPING & DEMONSTRATING SUSTAINABLE TECHNOLOGIES THAT ARE CULTURALLY SENSITIVE

209

FIGURE 1: CONTRIBUTION OF EACH HAZARD TO GLOBAL AVERAGE ANNUAL LOSS

FIGURE 2: ECONOMIC LOSSES RELATIVE TO GDP

BY INCOME GROUPS (1990-2013) % OF GDP 0.18 0.16 0.14

EARTHQUAKES

FLOODS

0.12 0.10 0.08

WIND

STORM

0.06 0.04 0.02

16% STORM SURGE 49.8 BILLION US$

FIGURE 3: DISTRIBUTION OF DISASTER MORTALITY BY INCOME GROUP (1990-2013) A.R.E.A

UPPER MIDDLE INCOME

LOW INCOME

LOWER MIDDLE INCOME

Source: Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction 2015

HIGH INCOME

HIGH INCOME

1% TSUNAMI 3.7 BILLION US$

UPPER MIDDLE INCOME

33% FLOODS 104 BILLION US$

LOWER MIDDLE INCOME

14% WIND 44 BILLION US$

LOW INCOME

36% EARTHQUAKES 113 BILLION US$

210

DISASTER RESILIENCY INTRODUCTION Increase in population growth and urbanization, changes in land use, increasing poverty, unsustainable development in construction and infrastructure, inadequate intuitional systems, and various other factors have increased the vulnerability of populations as well as occurrence of disasters.

Economic losses from disasters such as earthquakes, tsunamis, cyclones and flooding’ have increased since 1990 to about two-hundred billion USD and about three-hundred billion USD losses in the built environment. These economic losses are the amount countries should be setting aside each year to cover losses in the event of a disaster. However, since these economic loses are only a fraction of the global GDP, disaster risk tends to be underestimated even though it is responsible for most displacement and development setbacks. Climate change has altered hazard levels and has worsened disaster risk, increasing the population of people living in vulnerable areas. However, the effects of climate change are unequally distributed, and with the gap between upper and middle class growing, there is an increase of risk inequality as low-income households are forced to occupy highly vulnerable hazard zones. Global patterns predict that as the world is becoming increasingly urbanized, sixty percent of the development remains to be unbuilt and these developments are most likely to occur in countries with weak capabilities to ensure proper disaster risk management. 1

The built environment plays a very large role in the realization for disaster resilience. Firstly, it is hugely responsible for the environmental degradation causing the intensification and increased frequency of natural hazards6. Secondly, it provides the primary shelter and infrastructure of necessary resources such as food, water and energy, necessary in the event of a disaster. Thirdly, it brings people together and influences their physical and psychological wellbeing crucial for recovery in post-disaster contexts. Sustainable development in the built environment therefore requires

The United Nations has been leading the world towards creating safer communities and ensuring sustainable and resilient developments through the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, established at the 2015 World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction in Sendai, Japan.

The United Nations International strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) along with members of the UN, NGOs and other stakeholders participated in the conference to develop a framework which sets out standards and targets for risk reduction. It prioritizes the understanding of disaster risk, the need to strengthen governance for disaster management, the importance of investment in resiliency, and establishing successful response, recovery and reconstruction systems. To assess the global progress of the framework, seven global targets have been established which include lowering disaster mortality and the number of affected people to one hundred thousand people, respectively, by 2030. Additional goals include, reducing the economic losses due to disasters in relative to GDP and reducing disaster damage to infrastructure, critical health and educational facilities, and work towards developing their resiliency. The Sendai framework aims to increase the amount of countries with national and local disaster risk reduction strategies and enhance international cooperation in developing countries through supporting implementation of the framework. Lastly, the framework aims to significantly increase the availability of and access to hazard warning systems and information on disaster risk and assessments to more citizens by 2030. 2 (Figure 5) The current worrying trends of Disaster Resiliency in the built environment makes it a crucial topic to deal with to ensure future sustainable development. The implementation of the Sendai framework and the realization of these goals requires management of disaster risk and resiliency on various levels, from national to local governance to building codes and details. An analysis of disaster management through comparing developing and developed country’s various approaches to relevant policies, plans, and mechanisms will give examples to successful and unsuccessful implementation of disaster risk management and resiliency according to goals set within AREA’s framework for a resilient built environment. These projects are located in various socio-economical and geographical contexts, thus giving an understanding to how in order to successfully achieve the goals set out in AREA’s framework, disaster resiliency requires an integral approach.

IN PERSPECTIVE

Currently, almost half of the world’s population live in hazard prone areas4. To prevent these people from being subject to devastating disasters, planning for an environment that reduces the human impact on hazard intensity and frequency, as well as improve the capability of communities to recover from hazard events, is crucial. Such planning is generally referred to as sustainable development, which aims to harmonize social, economical and environmental sustainability to create resilient environments5. Resilient environments have the ability to be exposed to sudden changes and obstacles, such as hazards, without complete devastation. Instead, these environments learn from the exposure to the obstacles and become more resilient for the future.

the creation of a strong socio-economic foundation whilst reducing the pressure on the planet’s vulnerable environmental systems.

211

XL: COUNTRY In support of the Sendai framework, the UNISDR compiled a set of guidelines to support national implementation of the framework. These guidelines were established in collaboration between national authorities, organizations, and other leading experts with focus on the Sendai Framework’s first Priority for Action; understanding risk, which is the basis for all measure of disaster risk reduction.

The National Disaster Risk Assessment (NDRA) guidelines are intended to guide countries to establish national systems for understanding risk and provide a central repository for risk information available to the public. The system would also frequently update the countries risk vulnerability and improve necessary disaster risk management strategies and development plans. The NDRA guidelines also aim to give a holistic understanding of the different aspects which contribute to increasing disaster risk capacities, including direct and indirect impacts. Including physical, social, economic, environmental and institutional impacts as well as other risk drivers such as climate change, poverty,

inequality, and governance. This national framework intends to help countries develop the tools and methods to offer further guidance on disaster risk reduction.3 The guidelines focuses on understanding disaster risk as a basis for reducing disaster risk through a three-stage process; preparing and scoping, conducting risk analysis and using the results for management and development decisions.

Similarly, to AREA’s framework, the National Disaster Risk Assessment recognizes that in order to understand disaster risk, risk and resiliency are at the core to achieving the UN WA Sustainable Development Goals. Natural hazards contribute to reversing nations efforts in sustainable development growths. Also many of the SDGs account for drivers of risk, for example poverty, inequality, poor infrastructure, and weak governance. An holistic approach must be applied in the understanding and assessment of disaster risk at a national level.

DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT

Exposure

Destruction of a site of cultural significance Nonquantifiable

Direct

S CAP AC ITI E

RS IVE DR

Hazard

CONTROL S TO IM TIE I PA C C A P

KS

K

A.R.E.A

LYING DISAST DER ER N RI U & S

Understanding disaster risk components and their interlinkages informs DRM measures

Property Damage

IMPACTS

Lost Education

Indirect

DRM measures can target various components to reduce disaster risk

Reduce existing risk

CA

Prevent Reduce creation of existing risk new risk

Quantifiable

Business interruption and loss of income

Vulnerability

FIGURE 4: Holistic understanding of disaster risk empowers effective and comprehensive disaster risk management Source: UNISDR

212

FIGURE 5:

CHART OF THE SENDAI FRAMEWORK FOR DISASTER RISK REDUCTION 2015-2030 GOAL Prevent new and reduce existing disaster risk through the implementation of integrated and inclusive economic, structural, legal, social, health, cultural, educational, environmental, technological, political and institutional measures that prevent and reduce hazard exposure and vulnerability to disaster, increase preparedness for response and recovery, and thus strengthen resilience

PRIORITIES FOR ACTION There is a need for focused action within and across sectors by States at local, national, regional and global levels in the following four priority areas.

PRIORITY 1 Understanding disaster risk

PRIORITY 2 Strengthening disaster risk governance to manage disaster risk

PRIORITY 3 Investing in disaster risk reduction for resilience

PRIORITY 3 Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response, and to «Build Back Better» in recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction

GUIDING PRINCIPLES

Engagement from all of society

Shared responsibility between central Government and national authorities, sectors and stakeholders as appropriate to national circumstances

Full engagement of all State institutions of an executive and legislative nature at national and local levels

Coherence of disaster risk reduction and sustainable development policies, plans, practices and mechanisms, across different sectors

Protection of persons and their assets while promoting and protecting all human rights including the right to development

Decision-making to be inclusive and risk-informed while using a multi-hazard approach

Accounting of local and specific characteristics of disaster risks when determining measures to reduce risk

Empowerment of local authorities and communities through resources, incentives and decisionmaking responsibilities as appropriate

«Build Back Better» for preventing the creation of, and reducing existing, disaster risk

Addressing underlying risk factors cost-effectively through investment versus relying primarly on postdisaster response and recovery

The quality of global partnership and international cooperation to be effective, meaningful and strong

IN PERSPECTIVE

Primary responsibility of States to prevent and reduce disaster risk, including through cooperation

Support from developed countries and partners to developing countries to be tailored according to needs and priorities as identified by them

Source: UNISDR preventionweb.net

213

JAPAN

Being one of the most vulnerable countries to various devastating hazards, Japan has become a leading example in Disaster Management, ensuring that the government, along with their people, are prepared and equipped to handle a disaster.4 During the World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction in Sendai, Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe promised to set aside four billion USD for the following four years to assist other countries in disaster preparedness. Japan will oversee the training of forty thousand people that will be able to mitigate appropriate policies and act as regional leaders in disaster preparedness. The Prime Minister also advised countries to increase private to public collaboration and invest in more disaster resilient infrastructure to help put greater priority on disaster preparedness. Since the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami in March 2011, a disaster that left eighteen thousand people dead or missing, Japan has revised its disaster prevention law three times to increase their capacities to prevent and prepare for disasters. The country has also increased their number of tsunami evacuation facilities by about eight thousand from the previous two thousand which they had in 2010. The government has also made progress of increasing the amount of seismic proof homes as well as providing instate earthquake-sensitive electricity breakers to prevent the outbreak of a fire proceeding an earthquake in urban areas.5 The current Disaster Management System in Japan is led by the Minister of State, who is responsible for policy making and overall coordination on response for large-scale disasters. Japan is composed of a three-tiered administration which consists of the national government, prefectures, and municipalities.

Disaster prevention plans and roles are established in correspondence to each stage of administration. If a disaster where to occur, the Cabinet office leads the response team according to each level of disaster. In the event of a large-scale disaster, the Prime Minister calls upon an Emergency Response Team made up of related ministries and agencies within thirty minutes of the incident. A cabinet meeting is then organized at the Extreme Disaster Management Headquarters, led by the Prime Minister, to establish policies and coordinate emergency procedures. This system has seen to reduce disaster morality by efficiently responding in the event of a disaster and leading a quick road to recovery by setting out specific roles for each relevant organization or administrative body.

Japan provides an example of a disaster management system and strategies which successfully fulfill targets of disaster resiliency within AREA’s framework. The threetiered system allows for disaster management to be decentralized which enables more involvement with governmental agencies and strong coping capabilities throughout each region. This type of system contributes to a strong network of infrastructure by providing a resilient network of institutions and a distributed network of communications. The national government, along with local governments, is constantly refining building codes and working towards increasing the percentage of resilient and secure structures. Financial aid is provided through the government to assist with building assessments and retrofits.6 The Japanese government’s active participation to ensuring safe planning and structures are key aspects to fulfilling AREA’s framework for a Resilient Built Environment.

A.R.E.A

FIGURE 6: JAPAN DISASTER AND RISK PROFILE

Source: preventionweb.net

HAZARD FREQUENCY

55.4% 17.6% 12.8% 6.1% 4.1% 3.4% 0.7%

STORM EARTHQUAKE FLOOD LANDSLIDE VOLCANO EXTREME TEMP OTHER

HAZARD MORTAILITY

91.1% 4.5% 2.2% 2.2%

EARTHQUAKE STORM EXTREME TEMP OTHER

HAZARD CONTRIBUTION TO AAL

43.8% 24.5% 15.5% 6.2% 5.9% 4.1%

EARTHQUAKE STORM SURGE VOLCANO WIND FLOOD TSUNAMI

214

FIGURE 7: COLOMBIA DISASTER AND RISK PROFILE

Source: preventionweb.net

HAZARD FREQUENCY

51.9% 18.5% 13% 7.4%

FLOOD LANDSLIDE EARTHQUAKE VOLCANO

3.7% 2.8% 2.8%

HAZARD MORTAILITY

STORM WILDFIRE OTHER

46% 33.7% 16.8% 3.5%

EARTHQUAKE FLOOD LANDSLIDE OTHER

HAZARD CONTRIBUTION TO AAL

82.4% 17.2% 0.4%

EARTHQUAKE FLOOD OTHER

COLOMBIA

However, in 2010 and 2011 Colombia experienced extensive small-scale disasters that occurred over an eighteen-month period which destroyed ninety percent of the countries municipalities and caused billions of dollars in economic losses. Although the Colombian National System for Disaster prevention reduced the disaster death tolls, the extent of damage called to question the systems effectiveness. The system decentralized disaster responsibilities to local governments, but often

these governments lacked financial and technical support causing them to become dependent on support from a national level. There were no clear risk transfer mechanisms or financing strategies, meaning that nongovernmental specialized agencies such as the Fund for the Reconstruction and Social Development of the Coffee-Growing Region (FOREC) had to be created to help the reconstruction process following the 1999 earthquake. Recognizing the Colombian government to be inefficient, authorities put nongovernmental organizations in charge of relief efforts, further weakening the national disaster risk governance.8 Disaster risk management was predominately understood only in terms of disaster preparedness and recovery, rather than risk prevention and reduction. The system did not consider environmental management, social and economic developments, and land use planning.

In an analysis of the Colombian risk management system within AREA’s framework, it is evident that the country lacks the network of infrastructure to support and protect societies in the event of a disaster. There is lacking a strong distributed network of institutions at a local level, resulting in a strong dependency on a centralized system and little involvement in the private sectors. New legislation in 2012, has handed responsibilities of disaster risk management to the state and the population, with the critical responsibilities in the hands of the President. The law emphasizes three main components; risk knowledge, risk management and disaster management, all of which are essential to reducing risk within the AREA framework. Many of the cases of disasters which have occurred in Colombia are circumstantial, the events brought light to the defects in risk reduction strategies and have pioneered proper risk management programs for other countries.9

IN PERSPECTIVE

On November 13th, 1985, the Nevado del Ruiz Volcano erupted in Colombia, killing nearly twenty-two thousand people. A few weeks before the eruption the M-19 guerrilla group took siege of the Palace of Justice in Bogotá and killed one hundred people. This disaster in conjunction with the volcanic eruption triggered an uproar with the government’s failure to respond appropriately to both incidents. The Colombian government, despite having received warnings volcanic activity and hazard maps from scientific organizations several months before the disaster, did not evacuate the vulnerable population.

The government was heavily blamed for the casualties that resulted from the volcanic eruption. Since the government was unable identify risk, issue appropriate warnings, preparedness, areas of evacuation and response teams during the volcanic disaster. Recognizing the need to reform the disaster management system, the government formed the National System for Disaster Prevention and Response in 1989. The new system used a comprehensive approach to implement risk reduction policies as well as restructure and specify governmental roles between ministries, departments, and organizations. The Colombian National System for Disaster Risk management became a model for risk governance for other countries and was a major influence in the development of the Hyogo Framework in 2005.7

215

FIGURE 8: DISASTER RISK REDUCTION AND LOSS TRENDS IN COLOMBIA Source: UNISDR with data from national loss databases; World Bank

LOSSES IN MILLION US$

PEOPLE KILLED Armero

2,000

La Nina

People killed Losses in million US$ Relevant DRM policy

25,000

Armenia 20,000

1,500 15,000 Rainy Season

1,000

.3567 10,000 R2=0

Paez

Paez 500

5,000

Creation of the National Disaster Relief Fund 1st Colombian Earthquake Resistant Building Code

Creation of the National System for Disaster Prevention and Response

National Plan for Disaster Prevention and Response Building codes revised

Hyogo Framework for Action

20 12

2008

20 10

1994

20 05

1985

19 98

1979 1981

19 89

1975

19 84

Manizales

New Law 1523 of 2012 establishing the National Policy on DRM Focus on sustainable developement

Creation of the Adaptation Fund; 3rd Colombian Earthquake Resistant Building Code

A.R.E.A

STATE BUILDING POVERTY REDUCTION

DISASTER RISK REDUCTION

DEVELOPEMENT

HUMANITARIANISM

CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTION FIGURE 10: DR as Common Ground Source: GSDRC.org

DISASTER RESPONCE CONFLICT SENSITIVITY AND PEACE BUILDING

216

L: STATE Although resiliency is a shared responsibility across all levels of governance, state authorities play a crucial role within disaster risk management as they are the middleman between national government authorities and local communities. State governments are responsible for emergency management, land use planning, development regulations and environmental protection; all in which are essential components of disaster resilience. Within most countries, each state varies in socio-economics and degree of vulnerability to natural hazards, therefore disaster resilience is approached differently. Disaster risk assessments should therefore be performed on a state level to gain a strong understanding of the status of vulnerability and use their knowledge to develop appropriate roles for all stakeholders at all levels.10 The roles of states authorities concerning disaster resilience strategies should include educating and providing information on hazard vulnerabilities, provide emergency series to their communities, mitigate risks to the built environment through land use planning and building regulations, and to create institutions to promote resiliency within communities and private sectors. (Figure X) State leaders are typically in charge of funding and approval of new infrastructure so state wide assessments are crucial for integration of disaster resiliency into infrastructure decisions.

Water, transport, energy and health are crucial industries that may cause major disruptions in the event of a disaster.11 Each state should play a role in developing in developing resilient tragedies for its own crucial infrastructure.

Building codes are typically established at a national level but implemented and regulated at a state level.

At a state level standards should be set for design and construction of new buildings but then enforced at a local level. Councils should match zoning with development applications to ensure appropriate resiliency measures in new buildings. For example, after the Black Saturday

States should provide open platforms of data regarding hazard vulnerability to better inform citizens and organizations across emergency management, land use planning, and safety measures. This data should include hazardous zones for various disasters and impact data such as losses, deaths and inquiries. State officials also hold a strong responsibility to ensure community awareness between local governments, business and community groups. There must be an understanding of the needs, strengths and weaknesses across the communities.

Socially vulnerable areas are often in high-risk zones and less equipped to withstand so it is important to states to recognize these aspects to ensure proper recovery.

Odisha, a state of India, provides a leading example of a state legislation that has provided the resources for its communities to properly spread awareness and resources to protect and recover from disasters.

GOVERNANCE AND POLICY

FUNDING AND INVESTMENT

IN PERSPECTIVE

Land use and planning is the state government’s strongest tool to mitigate natural disaster risk. Frameworks should be set out for different land developments to assess vulnerabilities and engineering requirements for particular areas. State planning regulations typically do not prioritize disaster risk because many other pressures, political or economical, take priority. Several tools to help state governments manage disaster vulnerability applying zones of areas which are at high risk, regulating minimum floor levels for flood zones, creating buffers zones between bushland or coastlines, setting building material requirements, and several other guidelines. Responsibility lies within the state governments to ensure resilient disaster risk planning policy frameworks and guide local governments implementation of these policies.

bushfires in Victoria, building standards were significantly strengthened and reinforced across the state, so that homes in bushfire prone areas are required to have metal flyscreen’s and other bushfire protection.12

COLLABORATION WITH BUSINESS AND COMMUNITY

FIGURE 10: State Government toolkit for driving Resilience Source: Building Resilience to Natural Disasters in Our States and Territories

217

VICTORIA, AUSTRALIA

A.R.E.A

On February 7th, 2009, communities in Australia’s southern state of Victoria experienced the worst bush fires in history which became known as ‘Black Saturday’.

The temperature had reached a record high of 46.4°C with extremely strong winds and low humidity.13 The area over the past week had experienced the longest drought and the most severe heat wave, leading the state Premier and the Chief Fire Officer to issue severe fire warnings. By the afternoon of the seventh, bush fires swept across the state killing one hundred seventy-two lives and about two thousand homes, what became known as the ‘Black Saturday’ bushfires.14 The Australian government had implemented ‘Prepare, stay and defend, or leave early’ policies, also known as ‘Stay or go’ for bushfire risk management. The policy was strongly criticized proceeding the bushfires as it was too simplistic and lacked leadership and emergency plans. The ‘Black Saturday’ bush fires brought light to the issues that the policy assumed a level of preparedness in households.

The ‘Stay or go’ presumed householders were aware of their risk vulnerability to fires and if residents are more unlikely to prepare if they do not believe the risk to be a threat. The policy also assumed people had an overall knowledge on how to mitigate fire risk such as installing water sprinkler systems and cutting down flammable plants. The state government authorities also assumed householders had the capacity to manage their property and undertake risk-reduction actions before and during the event of a fire.15 After the investigations of the Black Saturday bush fires several critiques arose regarding the “Stay or go” approach to disaster risk management. Early evacuation was the safest option as a large portion of fatalities were from people who chose to shelter passively. A small amount of people died from taking active defense so it can be concluded that people who are well alert and

prepared are most able to save themselves and their properties in the event of a fire. The success of the ‘Stay or Go’ policy depended upon whether the vulnerable population understood their risk and limitations, whether they were knowledgeable on what to do and act appropriately if there were an unexpected change in plan.16 Despite early warnings from state officials that stressed the severity of the fires, many of the people were not able to prepare and take action because of the lack of emergency planning. Learning from the causes and responses to the Black Saturday bushfires, the Victorian Bushfires Royal Commission has influenced many changes to bushfire risk management. Some of their revisions include encouraging high bushfire risk properties be abandoned and improving warning systems. The ‘Stay or go’ approach was changed in 2014 to the phrase ‘Leave and live’ to encourage people to leave early instead of ‘wait and see’. The policy is still criticized for inadequately advising residences on how to be prepared and not giving clear indicators for when to leave. A major challenge is to encourage people to leave early as a precaution as it becomes disruptive to everyday life.17 The case of the Black Saturday Bush Fires shows which aspects of AREA’s framework the state authorities were missing to ensure strong disaster resiliency. The main issue lied within the network of communications since governmental officials assumed that the communities were generally knowledgeable on proper procedures and prepared to handle such a disaster. As high fire risk days become more frequent and people become increasingly vulnerable to fires due to climate change, it is important that the state of Victoria spreads proper knowledge on fire safety and appropriate response plans to the local governments to ensure strong resiliency.

218

ODISHA, INDIA The state of Odisha in India has dramatically reduced the number of deaths due to disasters over the past decades because of its improvement in disaster risk management.

After the super cyclone that hit the state on the 29th and the 30th of October in 1999 which killed almost ten thousand people, the government established the Odisha State Disaster Management Authority (OSDMA).18 The goals of OSDMA are to serve as the main nodal agency for recovery, coordinate between departments for reconstruction, UN agencies, international, national and state NGOs, bring awareness to disaster preparedness at all state levels, and create a network of relevant organizations for disaster management. 19 In October 2013, Cyclone Phailin hit the same area in Odisha which was a storm of similar intensity to the cyclone of 1999.

The state government evacuated one hundred and ten thousand people to safety and lowering the death toll to about twenty people.20 This can be attributed to the establishment of OSDMA with their implementation early warning systems and construction of over two hundred cyclone shelters.21 With the development of OSDMA, Odisha has become a leader in disaster management. The state has put emphasis on community-based organizations to empower disaster preparedness and rescue. There are twenty Cyclone Management Centers established in

high risk regions that train young volunteers in response and recovery across the state. All trainees are equipped to tackle floods, building damages, cyclones, biological and nuclear disasters. The cyclone shelters provide emergency housing with top communication systems and technologies that are essential during disaster recovery but they also serve as communication hubs all year around. 22 Additionally the Odisha government has planned to build the State Institute of Disaster Management (SIDM) in Gothapatna to provide another training hub for people living in vulnerable areas, fire department personnel and oďŹ&#x192;cials. OSDMA prioritizes disaster alertness and has taken initiatives to creating a network of weather forecasting systems across the state, to enhance disaster warnings.23 Odisha provides a leading example of how disaster resiliency can be achieved at a state level. OSDMA has established a resilient network of infrastructure which encourages strong communication between institutions and communities which is essential in the event of a disaster. The state has put in great eďŹ&#x20AC;orts to provide proper training and communication to ensure risk awareness and preparedness. The network of weather forecasting and warning systems protect the livelihood of vulnerable communities and minimize the degree of disaster.

IN PERSPECTIVE 219

M: COMMUNITY The Sendai Framework for disaster risk reduction recognizes need for governance at a global, regional and local level.

Disaster risk management has been predominately seen as a top-down approach with lack of community based programs. The top down approach to disaster management has been noted to be inaffective because it overlooks the implementation affects to local communities. Developers have recognized that the key disaster resiliency is through community participation, thus putting locals at the center of all resilient development. Contrastingly, community based disaster management takes a bottom up approach, understanding that vulnerable citizens are best suited to identify needs and the necessary strategies to ensure preparedness and fast recovery.24

A.R.E.A

UN-Habitat has recognized that local participation is the key to ensure sustainable and resilient development. Local government is the closest authority level to citizens and play an important role in providing the resources and services to protect the community and reduce vulnerability to disasters.

UN-Habitat’s City Resilience Profiling program has identified “Ten Essentials” to facilitate the Sendai Framework at a local level. These ten steps include; organization for disaster resilience, identifying and understanding current and future risk scenarios, strengthening financial capacity for resilience, practicing resilient development and design, maintaining up-to-date data on risk vulnerability, investing in disaster prevention infrastructure, strengthen institutional resiliency, educate the community on disaster risk reduction through public programs, enforcing building and planning regulations, protecting our ecosystems and natural storm buffers, implementing effective early warning systems, and supporting community organizations to build back better after a disaster. These Ten Essential are critical indicators for monitoring disaster risk reduction and are critical stems to developing more resilient communities.25 Community base Disaster Management focuses on engaging and empowering populations to address the root causes of their vulnerabilities, though addressing the social, economic and political inequalities which leave communities susceptible to disasters.26 Government and non-government organizations tend to implement and initiate community programs on disaster reduction however, these programs do not last once their external support has ended. These programs are often unsustainable due to their lack of engagement and participation amongst community members. By actively involving local persons in the process of identifying, analyzing, monitoring and evaluating disaster risks, communities can better reduce their vulnerabilities and enhance their capacities. Communities should therefore become the decision makers and actors of disaster risk management initiatives.

220

IN PERSPECTIVE

221

NEW ORLEANS, UNITED STATES

Three days prior to Hurricane Katrina, a category three storm, the city of New Orleans issued early warning systems declaring a state of emergency. The city, already laying below sea level, experienced severe flooding due to the failure of the cities levees to protect the city.

The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) had already anticipated the failure of the levees in the event of such a catastrophic cyclone, however lack of adequate warning and evacuation procedures resulted in thousands of deaths. A majority of the population who inhabited the highly flood prone areas were of lower class and did not have the capability or resources to escape within the evacuation order which was given only 24-hour before the storm. The disaster management plans assumed that people would evacuate by car, not takingin to consideration the populations which do not have access to cars, the disabled, or the elderly.27 The failure of flood protection infrastructure, failure to predicts the magnitude of the disaster, and the poorly managed response and relief eďŹ&#x20AC;orts intensified the preexisting conditions of social vulnerability and equality.

Following the disaster, many issues needed to be addressed in terms of disaster preparedness and recovery, as well as the issues of inequality and social vulnerability to disasters. As the city discovered the weaknesses in disaster resiliency within their community, the city saw this as an opportunity to build back resilient.

New Orleans invested heavily in flood defense systems, improve catastrophe modeling, redevelopment of their

emergency response and development of more resilient communities.28 The Make It Right foundation established

by Brad Pitt in 2007 had the ambition to rebuild onehundred and fifty safe, sustainable and aďŹ&#x20AC;ordable homes in the neighborhood of the Lower 9th Ward in New Orleans. Designed by various star architects, the homes are all LEED certified and use the Cradle to Cradle design approach. This means that all buildings use materials which are safe and can be recycled, renewable energy is used, water is clean, improvement is continuous, all while honoring social equality and human dignity.29 The foundation provides a library to share their knowledge with the community on construction methods, materials, energy systems and other data which help benefit landowners. Make it Right is one of the several post Katrina rebuilding program in New Orleans which reduces disaster risk through creating homes that are resilient and accessible to everyone.

The Make It Right Foundation not only achieves many of the goals within disaster resiliency according to AREAâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s framework by following safe planning and resilient strategies, the program also fulfills many of the social and economic goals within the framework. The homes give homage to the historical facades of New Orleans thus contributing to the local culture and responding to local preferences. The foundation recognized the importance of preserving neighborhood cohesion to ensure long term social empowerment, which would thus enhance resiliency by engaging multiple actors.

A.R.E.A 222

NUWAKOT, NEPAL

The Community Based Disaster Management project

has help realized various initiatives to protect and bring educate Nepali communities in flood, earthquake, landslides and other disaster prone areas. One of their projects was constructing earthquake resistant buildings in Hatauda and Sarlahi, which are two high seismic zones. The community worked together to build a school in Hetauda and a Community center in Sarlahi, and has inspired the municipality to work together to build more earthquake resistant community buildings. Community Based Disaster Management Projects have also been established in towns like Jagatradevi which is at high risk of flooding or soil erosion. Locals work together to construct stone walls and plant trees to protect against landslide risk zones across the village. During times of disaster preparedness, the community works together, keeping aside gender and cast inequalities, to protect their village.31 CBDRM in Nepal has achieved many of the goals set out in AREA’s framework by promoting reduced risk awareness and preparedness through educational programs. This program has also allowed for a resilient network by encouraging strong community cohesion to ensure proper mitigation strategies and a distributed network of communications and disaster risk knowledge. Also throughout the program there is a strong emphasis on enabling equal opportunities and ensuring understanding which are targets within Socio-Economic and Heath topic within the framework.

The Nepal Community Based Disaster Management program shows how a program or project can achieve various goals under different themes within AREA’s framework.

IN PERSPECTIVE

The Gorkha Earthquake that hit Nepal in 2015 killed nearly nine thousand people and later trigged several avalanches and thousands of landslides, leaving thousands of Nepalese homeless. Not only did the earthquake, landslides, and avalanches severely affect the livelihood of the communities, but it also caused a lot of damage to the agricultural land, resulting in further loss of properties and assets. In rural areas such as Nuwakot in Nepal, agriculture is the main source of food and employment and these areas are highly vulnerable to natural calamities. Succeeding the Gorkha catastrophes, The United Nations Development program established the Community Based Disaster Management (CBDRM) project in Nepal, recognizing the need to strengthen emergency preparedness, landslide prevention, and develop safe agriculture developments. The project was initiated in 2006 by districts most vulnerable to floods, landslides, and monsoons. The goal of the project is to ensure the livelihoods of people with high risk to natural disasters and protect common property and community resources through improving the local knowledge of disaster preparedness and disaster response skills.

By providing training programs, local community members development leadership skills to empower the local communities on proper risk reduction strategies through the application of indigenous knowledge and local available resources. The program emphasizes the importance of women participation by giving woman a voice within the community to implement proper disaster management, mitigation strategies, development planning decisions and information spreading. 30

223

S: BUILDING The policies and practices of national and community level are eďŹ&#x20AC;ective in reducing the risk vulnerability of populations.

However disaster risk must also be understood through the architecture of our buildings. Hazards are not only increasingly disastrous because of climate change, they are causing an increase in mortalities and destruction because of poor and unsafe construction of our buildings. In order to reach the targets set out in the Sendai framework and the UN sustainability goals we must build resilient and sustainable. The architecture must be able to withstand possible disasters and prepare for local changes in climate.

When building resilient, a design must take into the various scenarios of common use to disastrous situations that could challenge the strength or capacity of the building or danger its inhabitants. So, as climate change is increasing the frequency and intensity of disasters, it is crucial to consider the characteristics of the built environment to ensure resiliency.32 Building with resiliency is a process that not only considers typical use scenarios and stresses but must consider disastrous situation, whether it be human induced or environmental, which could contest the strength of the structure. It is also important to consider future climatic conditions, and design for the changes in environment, such as rising sea levels or temperature variations. The local environmental conditions play a key role when designing for resiliency as well being connected to a resilient network of resources, institutions, energy and communications.

A.R.E.A 224

IN PERSPECTIVE

225

CARDBOARD CATHEDRAL, SHIGERU BAN

On the 4th of September 2010 Christchurch, New Zealand was hit by a series of earthquakes from a previously undiscovered fault system in The Canterbury Planes.33 The first of these quakes was recorded as a 7.1 magnitude earthquake from The Greendale Fault line, located 10km below ground level. This, the first of a series of earthquakes, surprisingly had minor damage to the city’s major buildings and infrastructure, with a relatively small of building collapsing or falling into disrepair. The main damage in the city was seen in residential homes with many people having household damage caused by flooding and liquefaction, the process of the ground turning into a liquid like substance caused by saturated soil and the adverse shaking caused by earthquakes, which resulted in many dwellings sinking. Although this caused relative disruptions to the lives of local residents in Christchurch, victims of households affected by liquefaction were quickly aided by community engagement projects and student volunteers who organized themselves through social media.34 However, although many found themselves with minor house repairs which they were able to amend in a relatively quick time period, on the 22nd February 2011 Christchurch was again hit by a 6.3 magnitude earthquake. This time, the fault line was closer to the city center and only 5km below ground, resulting in 185 fatalities, hundreds of people injured, and catastrophic damage to the intercity.35

A.R.E.A

After the 2011 earthquake the city center had been designated as a no-go zone, being named the red zone, with restricted access to only official personnel. The red zone contained many of Christchurch’s public and civic buildings which represented the character of the city, most notable The Christchurch Cathedral, one of the cities most important landmarks. Despite having undergone earthquake strengthening measures before the 2010 earthquake, during the 2011 earthquake the tower of the cathedral collapsed, causing major damage to the building, leading to it becoming no longer safe for use.36 The building played an important role in the community, not only for religious presence but also for its architecture and the sense of being which it

brought to the people. After the collapse, it was decided that the building would need to be demolished and a new 21st Century cathedral would be constructed.

However, knowing that the construction process would undoubtedly take a number of years, it was concluded that a temporary cathedral must be put in place.

Reverend Craig Dixon called upon Architect Shigeru Ban, who had constructed a temporary church in Kobe, Japan after the 1995 earthquake, to lead the construction for a new architectural icon for Christchurch.

The result was a Cardboard Cathedral, which is comprised of 98 cardboard tubes and eight steel shipping containers surrounded by beautiful colored mosaic of glass tessellating triangles.37 This building is an exemplary project which fulfills AREA’s Doughnut framework for Human Resilience in several key aspects. The structural system for the cathedral combines both roof and walls into one element, not only streamlined the construction process, but also creates a secure structural system which can resist potential further natural disaster. This contributes to achieving two of our eight goals within our framework; Primary function and Amenities and Reduced Risk. Within the targets of Primary Functions and Amenities, the building contributed to minimizing human vulnerability by providing safe shelter, which also interrelates with goals within Reduced Risk by providing a secure structure and enabling immediate recovery. The choice of building material also contributes to the goals of inclusive and adoptable, available and affordable, and having low environmental impact. The frame was constructed using structural paper tubes, which are available worldwide and also local to Christchurch, Sonoco, a global packaging manufacturer, which had recently opened a new factory on the outskirts of the city. By using cardboard, Shiguru Ban utilized renewable and local resources to reduce the extraction, production, and distribution of building materials. Although originally planned as a temporary structure, the building has successfully contributed to the cultural and economics of the Christchurch community, and because of its durability the building will serve as an icon for the city for many more years to come.

226

IN PERSPECTIVE

227

FIGURE 10: MARKOKO FLOATING HOME AXONOMETRIC

ROOF Aluminium/Thatch Bamboo joists hardwood beams PHOTOVOLTAICS 20 panels 174Wp

FRAME hardwood

WALLS Bamboo Aluminium

A.R.E.A

PLATFORM FRAME Aluminium/Wood

BARRELS Plastic

Source: NLE Architects Makoko Research Publication

228

MAKOKO FLOATING SCHOOL, NLE ARCHITECTS Lagos, Nigeria’s largest city, is one of the fastest growing Mega cities in the world and will be just behind Tokyo as one of the largest cities in the world. Along with this densification, Lagos, like many other coastal cities throughout the world, is becoming increasing vulnerable to the rising sea levels caused by climate change.38 Makoko, a slum off the Lagos Lagoon, is one of those communities which is working towards making their buildings flood resistant. The buildings are currently supported on stilts to avoid water but increase in rainfall and rise in sea level has inspired NLE Architects to adapt to the climate changes. NLE Architects, in partnership with the United Nations Development Program, has designed the Makoko Floating school, as a building prototype for the waterfront community in Nigeria. The building utilizes local materials and resources, such as bamboo and timber, to produce architecture which fulfills the needs of the community while adapting to the local culture.

The triangular building is designed uses an A-Frame structure to form a thousand-square foot play area.

On the second floor are the classrooms which are more privatized with operable louvers. Green space surrounds the classrooms with an additional playground area below. The roof houses an additional open air classroom along with solar panels and a rainwater catchment system. The structure sits on top of two-hundred plastic barrels to allow for the building to float and rise with the water levels. The plastic barrels not only serve as a flotation platform but they also provide storage to collect rainwater from the roof. The barrels take advantage of the reuse typical plastic barrels, abundant in the area, and

its’ modularity allows for a simple construction process that can be replicated for different programs.39The school served as a pilot project to address the social and physical needs in a community facing the ramifications of climate change and rapid urbanization. Its modular typology allows for the architecture to be replicated for other typologies and improve not only the community of Makoko, but also the broader region of coastal cities in Africa. 40 The design approach addresses disaster resiliency at various levels; from a global perspective by looking at the increasing number of cities lying below sea level down to the detail of how a modular floatation system can float with the rising flood levels.

Kunlé Adeyemi, the lead architect on the project, labeled the school “indigenous, ecological, local materials, self sustaining, economical, adaptable, moveable, safe”41 all concpets that relate to AREA’s framework. The use of local resources and labour, its resiliency towards flooding, and its ability to provide the community with amenities were all taken into consideration in the realization of the school. The project gained international recognition and was nominated for several architectural awards for its resilient and humanitarian spirt. However the project has also been heavily debated for its success because of its collapse after a heavy rain storm in 2016. The structure was claimed to be unsafe by student’s parents and the school headmaster, so the building was hardly utilized after it was built. Although having failed as a physical structure and institution, the ideas behind the project can be seen as a successful approach to AREA’s framework for a resilient built environment.

IN PERSPECTIVE

FIGURE 11: STRUCTURE CONCEPT Increasing tropical rainfall

Increasing sea levels

LOCAL MAKOKO TECHNOLOGY

=

+ GLOBAL FLOTATION TECHNOLOGY

DERIVED SOLUTION

Source: NLE Architects Makoko Research Publication

229

XS: DETAIL Disaster resiliency can be achieved all the way down to the structural detail of our buildings to create more safe and resilient environments. There are various technologies and building methods that allow structures to withstand severe disasters. An earthquake proof design can be achieved by allowing the structure to flex and absorb the earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s vibrations using expansion joints, for example. When designing for buildings in high hurricane or flood zones, it is important to consider wind loads, heavy precipitation and water levels. To achieve a resilient design, details must be analyzed to ensure the building is well-sealed and there is a proper drainage for a sudden increase in rainfall or sea level rise. This could be designed with the use of stormresistant louvers to block wind and rain or flood barrier walls to prevent flooding.42 Various building technologies and details can greatly contribute to a buildings ability to survive a disaster, and therefore should be thoroughly analyzed to ensure safe and resilient environments.

A.R.E.A 230

JAPAN

The leading Japanese textile manufacturer, Komatsu Seiren, has recently engineered a new thermo-plastic carbon fiber composite called the Cabkoma strand rod.

When the company proposed to transform their factory headquarters to also accommodate for additional exhibition, oďŹ&#x192;ce and laboratory space, architect Kengo Kuma saw this as an opportunity to showcase their innovative rods. Recognizing that the building does not follow seismic codes, the Kuma wrapped the building using the carbon fiber rods to strengthen the seismic resistance. The Cabkoma strands create an organic, fabric like appearance, to illustrate the lightness and strength of the new technology.43 The Cabkona rods are made of knitted carbon fiber tow, covered in an aramid fiber. Each rod has seven layers to give the tensile strength of approximately eight and

a half thousand pounds, about equal strength of steel reinforcement, however considerably smaller and lighter.

The rods were attached on to the roof of the building on â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;jigsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; and then anchored into the ground along the exterior of the building. On the inside of the building the rods were also used in the lobby to form a lattice shear wall between the building columns. 44 The positioning of the rods are computer calculated to respond to the horizontal seismic forces and motion from various directions.45 Architect Kengo Kuma believes that the rods are not only an innovative for seismic reinforcement, they also have the potential to change earthquake construction.46 The carbon fiber rods show an example of how disaster resiliency can be achieved right down to a detail element of a building. Not only do they allow for the building to be safe and secure, they also enable a sense of understanding and awareness toward building seismic proof.

IN PERSPECTIVE 231

NATIONAL CENTRE FOR PEOPLE’S ACTION IN DISASTER PREPAREDNESS

National Centre for People’s Action in Disaster Preparedness, (NCPDP) is a Gujarat based organization that was founded in October 2000 by an architect/ engineer couple Rajendra and Rapul Desai. It is part of Centre for Eco-centric Development and People’s Action (CEDP), founded by the same couple, which focuses on sustainable development through a bottom-up approach and believes in the need for people’s own involvement to build sustainable and resilient environments47.

A.R.E.A

NCPDP was founded after 7 years of involvement in several earthquake-ravaged regions in India as an alternative to the traditional reconstruction approach that had been proven to be inefficient and unsuccessful in terms of risk reduction, sustainability and cost48. In the traditional approach the government had promoted technology, new construction materials and building typologies, which would ensure more secure buildings than those that had been lost. Modern building materials such as brick, cement mortar and reinforced concrete was advertised across all media-channels alongside new plans and layout to suit these materials. This approach was rapidly adopted in post-disaster contexts by affected people who were scared of the traditional building materials and the vernacular architecture that had fallen and caused the loss of their loved ones49.

However, what NCPDP noticed, in particular during their projects in earthquake-struck Latur in 1993, was that the long established culture of self-built houses and non-engineered buildings in India led to incorrect use of the new technology and materials proposed by the government, which in most cases resulted in rebuilding even less secure buildings than those fallen50.

Furthermore, the new materials and typologies that had been copied from urban environments and different climatic zones of India resulted in buildings that were costly and unsuitable for its location in terms of use and climate. The environmental impact of these buildings was also much greater than the traditional ones that were built from local and renewable materials, and had been contextually adapted for over thousands of years51.

NCPDP’s approach was instead focused on improving the quality of buildings and their disaster resistant features whilst bringing viable, eco-friendly and sustainable technologies that helps people reduce their vulnerability against future disasters52. As the organization believed in the necessity for people to understand the structural implementations, and details, crucial for seismic safety, over 30 000 pamphlets on damage assessment and response was distributed53. These were accompanied by practical workshops to visualize the material. Part of this visualization was the construction of typical houses

(vernacular and modern) using ‘normal’ detailing and seismic detailing. The houses were then placed on a shake table to demonstrate their different performance during an earthquake. In this way the population got a deeper understanding of the necessary detailing which otherwise was often neglected. Furthermore, the existing mistrust of local, economical and sustainable building materials was also eradicated, as the house with modern materials with ‘normal’ detailing proved as vulnerable as the traditional ones in the test. The organization described it as building knowledge about the inside of the building rather than purely its external appearance54.

Along these types of events, which were public and attracted as many as 600 people in some villages55, the organization also held workshops in the construction of foundation, floor, wall and roof systems of buildings using different common materials. These workshops also included the alternative of retrofitting each structural system if they had only been partially damaged. The materials for the workshop were produced on site to ensure, and showcase, the quality of them as well as to provide an incentive for a new employment sector within the village that could promote future resilience and sustainable development56.

The Capacity Building Program by NCPDP successfully planned for improved sustainability and resilience in the built environment by integrating the important goals from the framework for a resilient built environment. Most importantly they provided an approach to sustainable development that could be scaled up and used in different scenarios and locations. Their main feature of success seems to have been rooted in the recognition that unless the people themselves understand and adopt sustainable and resilient measures they will remain vulnerable despite financial compensation and good designs. The organization’s project management focused on constantly integrating the three aspects of sustainable development resulted in a program which embedded efficient, low-impact and safe design in the everyday life of the people they worked with by also showing them how it would benefit them financially, culturally and in the long-term.

The project by NCPDP proves that even a small thing such as the common understanding of structural details can have greater impact for sustainable development than the construction of technically sustainable buildings.

It also reimburses the key component of planning for an improved and resilient built environment being the integration of the eight goals covering social, economical and environmental sustainability through every stage of the project.

232

Village workshop using models:

IN PERSPECTIVE

Examples of information communicated through NCPDP pamphlets:

233

RE D RI

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INCLUSIVE & ADOPTABLE

M

XL

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L

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EMISSIONS

INEQUALITY

S

NETWORK OF ASTRUCTURE INFR

XS

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RS STE SA DI

PRIMARY FUNCTIONS & AMENITIES

E NC LIE SI RE

LOS SO FC UL TU RE SO CIO -E CO NO CU EC LT ON U O VA

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D CE U SK

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RES OUR CE DE PLETION

XS

P

AN

H

IG R FO ER

H

S

EN

E NG A CH TE A M CLI

PO LLU TIO N

L

M

ER GY

RE SO UR CE S

M

M

L AI AV FOR AF

& Y LIT BI LO MO Y IT RS VE DI BIO

A.R.E.A

SS

AB DA L E BL & E

CE

XS

234

CONCLUSION

XL: COUNTRY JAPAN

HIGHLY VULNERABLE YET LEADERS IN DISASTER RISK PREPAREDNESS & MANAGEMENT XL

Resilient network of institutions

Distributed network of XL communication XL

COLOMBIA

INFLUENCED THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE HYOGO FRAMEWORK

XL XL

Promoting risk awareness Promoting risk preparedness

Enabling inmediate recovery

L: CITY VICTORIA, AUSTRALIA EMERGENCY PLANNING FOR BUSHFIRES AFTER THE BLACK SATURDAY FIRES L

Providing distributed network of communications

ODISHA, INDIA

NETWORK OF EARLY WARNING SYSTEMS AND CYCLONE SHELTERS L

Encourages strong community cohesion

L

Promotes risk awareness and preparedness

L

Provides resilient network of institutions

M: COMMUNITY NEW ORLEANS, U.S.A

THE MAKE IT RIGHT FOUNDATION USING CRADLE TO CRADLE DESIGN APPROACH

The increase in natural disasters which the planet has been facing, makes the need to plan for a resilient built environment ever more necessary. This can be achieved through the integration of the AREA framework for a resilient built environment throughout all scales; from national legislation to construction detail. Disaster resiliency is multifaceted, which must take into consideration not only policies and programs at national and local levels but also consider the practical elements within a structure to provide for a safe space.

The collection of projects which deal with disaster resiliency through various scales and countries, demonstrate how each goal within AREA’s framework can be achieved across different social, economical and environmental regions of the planet in highly vulnerable areas. Each case study provides an understanding of how disaster resiliency must be understood in relation to the wider goals of AREA’s framework for a resilient built environment. The project which fall short of certain aspects bring light to the various factors which need to be considered, whether they be cultural, environmental or economical.

NUWAKOT, NEPAL

PROMOTING RISK AWARENESS AND PREPAREDNESS THROUGH EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS

M

Contributes to local culture and preferences

M

Promotes risk awareness and preparedness

M

Provides secure structures and safe planning

M

Encourages strong community cohesion

M

Economically affordable to the widespread public

M

Enables equal opportunities

S: BUILDING CHRISTCHURCH, NZ

LAGOS, NIGERIA

UTILIZING LOCAL MATERIALS AND RESOURCES TO BUILD A FLOATING STRUCTURE

S

Supports a localized economy and contributes to local culture

S

Encourages strong community cohesion

S

Utilising localised resources and labour

S

Allows for flexibiity and sets an example

S

Uses renewable resources and optimizes circular life-cycle

S

Producing minimal emissions and waste

IN PERSPECTIVE

PHYSICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL RESILIENCE TO STRENGTHEN COMMUNITIES

XS: DETAIL NOMI, JAPAN

CARBON FIBER RODS PROVIDE THE TENSILE STRENGHT TO WITHSTAND EARTHQUAKES

GUJARAT, INDIA

DEVELOPING & DEMONSTRATING SUSTAINABLE TECHNOLOGIES THAT ARE CULTURALLY SENSITIVE

XS

Utilising localised resources and labour

XS

Sets an example and ensures understanding

XS

Ensure understanding and promotes risk awareness

XS

Contributing to local culture and responds to local preferences

XS

Promotes risk awareness and preparedness

XS

Supports a localized economy

235

IN CONCLUSION

CONCLUSION ATELIER FOR RESILIENT ENVIRONMENTAL ARCHITECTURE We live on a finite planet. On the visual realization of this from the production of the Blue Marble photograph from space the environmental movement was able to leapfrog into the forefront of public debate. Along with the Black Marble series, we are now able to physically see the expansion of human industrialism and energy usage across the surface of the planet.

The move towards urbanization is taking place both in cities that are already formed, but also in cities that have yet to be built. The advancements in technology, in particular mobility and resources, has allowed cities to become decentralized and more remote. With the population growth that is taking place happening within these urban areas, more stress is being put on urban built environments to produce a good standard of living for the people living within them. So far, since the mass urbanization of the industrial revolution, the increase in this standard of living has been fueled on economical, and social gluttony. Now we must improve upon our living conditions in the built environment to enable them to become economical, social, and ecological, preparing them, and us, to be sustainable and resilient, and face up to the challenges of the future. These challenges are rapidly accelerating and to meet them we must vastly rethink the way we design our built environment to withstand them. Population and urbanization means that more people are located in centralized areas across the earth, meaning that more resources have to be produced within or imported to these areas in order to support the increased urbanized inhabitants. The production and distribution of these resources is currently the main cause of the changing climate which we see on the planet today, with energy production through the burning of fossil fuels powering the industrial nature of this urban expansion. Due to this, the earth is becoming further depleted of itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s natural resources and the pollution which the burning of them is destabilizing our natural ecosystem. This, in turn, is adding to the amount of recurring natural hazards across the planet. In combination with population growth, more and more people are inhabiting places on the earth which are becoming ever more vulnerable to natural hazards, creating more widespread and frequent disaster globally, causing a threat to human life.

In response to this architects and designers need to understand that it is no longer only necessary to design to be sustainable, there is now an ever growing need to design in resilience to the built environment. In understanding this we also need to spread this knowledge to the wider population, expanding our design services along with it to make the design of the build environment inclusive for everyone

who partakes in it. In that sense, this book has outlined an analysis and design framework for constructing the built environment of the future. Through attaining the eight key goals in this framework any design project can be related to solving the global problems which are a threat to human resilience, whilst addressing the needs of the people who it is designed for, in creating a social foundation. The aim of this framework is to enable a comprehensive approach to design which creates an equilibrium of economical, social, and ecological resilience in the built environment in which we inhabit. The achievement of these goals is non-hierarchical, with each goal interrelating to another, meaning that any set of goals can be achieved at any point throughout the project to contribute to the wider aim of a resilient built environment. Through defining these goals within the wider topics of Socio-Economics & Health, Mobility & Resources, Energy, and Disaster Resilience we can understand the wider aim which each of the individual goals are trying to achieve. 1. Socio-Economics & Health; The provision of a social and economical equilibrium which promotes good mental and physical health, 2. Mobility & Resources; The provision of resources and transportation which are contextually relevant and locally available and aďŹ&#x20AC;ordable, 3. Energy; The provision of a high performance renewable energy source which is linked to a network of infrastructure, 4. Disaster Resilience; The provisions of safe spaces which are linked to key infrastructure and amenities. These four key topics enable designers to navigate the complex structure of sustainable development, giving them key focus areas in which they can achieve resilience. By employing this method of design every person, in every design project, has the capability to contribute to the wider goal of sustainable development, alleviating the threats for human resilience, through achieving their own needs, in a social foundation.

Through dissecting this framework in these four topics, we have showcased key examples of projects which achieve the goals for human resilience set out in our framework.

These projects range throughout a vast array of scales, as our profession in the built environment, along with many others, expands to be relevant globally, whilst still, retaining a deep importance in the detail of how things are built and how materials joined together. Not all of these reference projects are what would initially come to mind in the scope of the architectural professions role in the design of the built environment. There are buildings, yes, but there are also structures of politics and governmental policy, both on a global and national scale, there are alternative financial currency models, and training and education programs. The reasoning that these examples are not all necessary built constructions of architectural objects is that we believe that

in order to design in resiliency architects and designers need to become far more interdisciplinary and allow their role to cross over professions. They need to become lawyers, builders, politicians, shop keepers, diplomats, community organizers, accountants, artists, anthropologists, farmers, teachers, students, workers, and so on. In managing our everyday life, we play out multiple roles, using a wide abundance of skills, at any given time to overcome the latest challenge we face in any given day. In our profession, we must not disconnect from this multi-faceted organism which we engage in throughout everyday life. We must leave the constraints of the traditional process of design behind and realize that we are capable of far more than producing nice objects in the form of a building. We are problem solvers, and the greatest problem of them all lies on our doorstep. As a profession we will not be able to overcome it alone, but as a population in which everyone has the ability to design whether it be architecturally, financially, politically, or socially, we may just be able to make the cut. The purpose of what you have read in this book is not to conform you to a certain set of design thinking or tools, but to open your mind up to the possibilities in which design in a considered way can allow us to sustain life on a habitable planet for the forthcoming future, for generations yet to come.

ENDNOTES INTRODUCTION 1. Gregory A Petsko, The Blue Marble, Genome Biol (2011) 12: 112. https://doi.org/10.1186/gb-2011-12-4-112 2. R. Buckminister Fuller, An Operating Manual for Spaceship Earth, (1969, Lars Muller Publishers) 3. Al Gore, An Inconvenient Sequel: Truth to Power, Directed by Bonni Cohen & Jon Shenk, 22.48 4.Space X, SpaceX Launches DSCOVR Satelitte to Deep Space Orbit, last edited 11 February 2015, http://www.spacex.com/ news /2015/02/11/spacex-launches-dscovr-satellite-deep-spaceorbit 5. International Energy Agency, Key World Energy Statistics, http:// www.iea.org/publications /freepublications /publication/ KeyWorld2017.pdf, p34 6. Greg Keeffe, Means Means Means: An Adventure in the Technoscape, (Manchester,Manchester School if Architecture, 2007) 7. Ibid.

2. ibid 3. UN Environment 2017 4. ibid 5. WWF, “Living Planet Report 2016” ed. Natasja Oerlemans (2016) https://www.footprintnetwork.org/content /documents/2016_ Living_Planet_Report_Lo.pdf 6. International Monetary Fund. 2016. World Economic Outlook: Subdued Demand: Symptoms and Remedies. Washington, October.

7. The E7 refers to the economic group formed by China, India, Brazil, Mexico, Russia, Indonesia, and Turkey 8. The G7 refers to the economic group formed by Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, United Kingdom, United States of America 9. International Monetary Fund. 2016. World Economic Outlook: Subdued Demand: Symptoms and Remedies. Washington, October.

10. World Bank 2015 11. UN Environment 2017

8. City Limits London, City Limits: A Resource Flow & Ecological Footprint Analysis of Greater London, http://www.citylimitslondon. com/downloads/Complete%20report.pdf

12. Wealth Foundation 2012

9. BBC, Trump tariffs: US President imposes levy on steel and aluminium, last edited 8th March 2018, https://www.bbc.com/ news/world-us-canada-43337951

14. WWF, “Living Planet Report 2016”

10. Atelier for Resilient Environmental Architecture, In Conversation:Greg Keeffe, (Delft, Delft University of Technology, 2018), p31

16. British Petroleum, Annual Report & Form 20-F 2013, (London, BP plc, 2013)

11.The Guardian, The world passes 400ppm carbon dioxide threshold. Permanently, last edited 28th September 2016, https:// www.theguardian.com/environment /2016/sep /28/ the-worldpasses-400ppm-carbon-dioxide-threshold-permanently 12. Johan Rockstrom et al., Planetary Boundaries: Exploring the Safe Operating Space for Humanity, Ecology & Society: 14 (2009, The Resilience Alliance), https://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol14/ iss2/art32/ 13. Melissa Malouf Belz, Spirit of Place and the Evolution of the Vernacular House in Kannaur, Himachal Pradesh, India, (1995, University of Massachusetts, Amherst)

IN FIGURES 1. United Nations Department of Economic & Social Affairs, 2017 Revision of The World Population Prospects, https://esa.un.org/ unpd/wpp/, accessed 26/02/2018

13. Food and agriculture Organization of The United Nations

15. ibid.

17. Tristram Stuart, Waste: Uncovering the Global Food Scandal, (London, W.W. Norton & Company Ltd, 2009) 18. UNESCO, “The United Nations World Water Development Report”, 2016 < http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002440/244041e. pdf> 19. According to UN’s Food and Agricultural Organization 2017, < http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat /water_use/index.stm> 20.Groundwater storage trends for Earth’s 37 largest aquifers from UCI-led study using NASA GRACE data (2003 – 2013), < https:// www.nasa.gov/jpl/grace/study-third-of-big-groundwater-basinsin-distress> 21. See UNISDR’s graph in, “Daily Chart August 29th 2017,” The Economist (2017), <https://www.economist.com/blogs/ graphicdetail/2017/08/ daily-chart-19f>

22. United States Environmental Protection Agency, “Global Emissions by Gas”, (2018) <https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/ global-greenhouse-gas-emissions-data> 23. Olivier, J.G.J. et al. “Trends in Global CO2 and Total Greenhouse Gas Emissions”. (2017) <http://www.pbl.nl/sites/default/files /cms/ publicaties/pbl-2017-trends-in-global-co2-and-total-greenhousegas-emissons-2017-report_2674.pdf> 24. Comstock, M. “Building Design and Construction: Forging Resource Efficiency and Sustainable Development” (2012) <https:// www.usgbc.org/Docs /Archive/General/Docs19073.pdf> 25. International Energy Agency (IEA), “World Energy Outlook” (2017) <https://www.iea.org/weo2017/> 26. United States Environmental Protection Agency, “Particate Matter (PM) Pollution”. (2018) <https://www.epa.gov/pmpollution> 27. Apte, J.S. et al. “Addressing Global Mortality from Ambient PM2.5.”

(2015). <https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26077815> 28. Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation’s Global Burden of Disease Project and the Health Effects Institute, “State of Global Air/2017 - A Special Report on Global Exposure to Air Pollution and its Disease Burden”. (2017) <https://www.stateofglobalair.org/ sites/default/files /SOGA2017_report.pdf>

37. Neil Smith, “There is No Such Thing as a Natural Disaster,” Social Science Research Council (2006), <http://understandingkatrina. ssrc.org/Smith/> 38. “Understanding Disaster Risk.” China - Disaster & Risk Profile | PreventionWeb.net. Accessed June 26, 2018. https://www. preventionweb.net/risk.

39. Anthony Leiserowitz & Peter Howe, “Climate CHange Awareness and Concern in 119 Countries”, 2015 < http://climatecommunication. yale.edu/publications/analysis-of-a-119-country-survey-predictsglobal-climate-change-awareness /> 40. 2017 Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction: Revealing Risk, Redefining Development. Geneva, Switzerland: United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction, 2017.

41. ibid

IN THEORY 1 United Nations, “Transforming our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development,” United Nations (2015), < https:// sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content /documents/21252030%20 Agenda%20for%20Sustainable%20Development%20web.pdf> 2 Club of Rome, ”About Us – History”(2018) < https://www.clubofrome.org/about-us/history/>

29. Arslan, A. and Aybek, A. “Particulate Matter Exposure in Agriculture” (2012) <http://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs /38344/ InTech-Particulate_matter_exposure_in_agriculture.pdf>

3 Dag Hammarskjöld Library, ”UN Documentation: Environment” (2018) < http://research.un.org/en/docs /environment/conferences>

30. UNESCO, “The United Nations World Water Development Report”, 2016 < http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002440/244041e. pdf>

4 UN, ”Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future” (1987) < http://www.un-documents.net/our-common-future.pdf>

31. Hannah Ritchie and Max Roser - “Causes of Death”. (2018) Published online at OurWorldInData.org. < ‘https://ourworldindata. org/causes-of-death’ >

5 ibid.

32. World Health Organisation “Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene” (2017) 33. The World Bank, “What a Waste Report 2012”, 2012 < https:// siteresources.worldbank.org/INTURBANDEVELOPMENT/ Resources/336387-1334852610766/ What_a_Waste2012_Final.pdf> 34. ibid.

35. ibid.

36. Brian Kahn, The World Passes 400ppm Carbon Dioxide Threshold.

Permanently., The Guardian, 28th September 2016, https://www. theguardian.com/environment /2016/sep/28/the-world-passes400ppm-carbon-dioxide-threshold-permanently

6 Kate Raworth, ”A Safe and Just Space for Humanity: Can We Live Within the Doughnut?”, Oxfam, (2012) < https://www.oxfam. org/sites /www.oxfam.org/files /dp-a-safe-and-just-space-for-humanity-130212-en.pdf > 7 ibid.

8 Dag Hammarskjöld Library, ”UN Documentation: Environment” (2018) 9 UN, ”The Millennium Development Goals Report” (2015) < http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/ MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf> 10 ibid.

11 Rockström et. Al, ”Planetary Boundaries: Exploring the Safe Operating Space for Humanity” (2009) < https://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol14/iss2/art32/> 12 ibid.

13 Kate Raworth, “Doughnut Economics: Seven Ways to Think Like a 21st Century Economist,” Chelsea Green Publishing: London (2017) 14 Kate Raworth, ”A Safe and Just Space for Humanity” (2012) 15 ibid.

16 Kate Raworth, “Doughnut Economics” (2017) 17 Kate Raworth, “Doughnut Economics” (2017)

32 Janet L. Sawin et al, “REN 21’s Renewables Global Status Report” (2018) 33 Maxx Dilley et.al, “Natural Disaster Hotspots – A Global Analysis,” World Bank (2005), < http://documents.worldbank.org/ curated/ en/621711468175150317/pdf/344230PAPER0Na101official0use0only1. pdf>

34 UN, ”Global Assesment Report on Disaster Reduction” (2015) < https://www.preventionweb.net/english/hyogo/gar/2015/en/ gar-pdf/GAR2015_EN.pdf> 35 ibid.

IN PERSPECTIVE

18 Kate Raworth, in interview with AREA (2018)

SOCIO-ECONOMICS & HEALTH

19 UN, ”The Sustainable Development Gaols Report: 2017” (2017) < https://unstats.un.org/sdgs /files/report /2017/TheSustainableDevelopmentGoalsReport2017.pdf>

1. The International Monetary Fund, Globalization: Threat or Opportunity, (IMF Publications, 2000)

20 Kate Raworth, ”A Safe and Just Space for Humanity” (2012) 21 CIB & UNEP-IETC, “Agenda 21 for Sustainable Construction in Developing Countries: A Discussion Document”, CSIR Building and Construction Technology (2002) <http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/Focus/Agenda%2021%20BOOK.pdf> 22 Maggie Comstock et.al, “Building Design and Construction: Forging Resource Efficiency and Sustainable Development”, UNEP: Sustainable Buildings and Climate Initiative (2012) 23 Willmott Dixon, “Briefing Note: The Impacts of Construction and the Built Environment” Document No. FM-RE-07 Revision B (2010) <https://www.willmottdixon.co.uk/asset/9462/download> 24 Data retrieved from the World Bank statistics (2011) 25 Thomas Wells, “Sen’s Capability Approach”, Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2016) < http://www.iep.utm.edu/sen-cap/> 26 Kate Raworth, in interview with AREA (2018) 27 Willmott Dixon, “The Impacts of Construction and the Built Environment” (2010) 28 Janet L. Sawin et al, “REN 21’s Renewables Global Status Report”, REN 21, (2018) < http://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/17-8652_GSR2018_FullReport_web_-1.pdf>

2. Gavin Bridge, Grounding Globalization: The Prospects and Perils of Linking Economic Processes of Globalization to Environmental Outcomes, Economic Geography 78, no. 3 (2002): 361-86. doi:10.2307/4140814.

3. Kate Raworth, Doughnut Economics: Seven Ways to Think Like a 21st Century Economist, (2017, Random House Buisiness Books, London) 4. Based on statistics from; International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database, 2017, http://www.imf.org/external/ pubs/ft /weo/2017/02/weodata/index.aspx, accessed 27/12/2017 5. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, World Economic Situation and Prospects: 2018, (New York, United Nations Publications, 2018), p142 6. Based on statistics from; Populstat, http://www.populstat.info/, accessed 27/12/2017 7. ibid 8. United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2014), World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision, Highlights (ST/ESA/SER.A/352), p20 9. Credit Suisse Research Institute, Global Wealth Report: 2017, (Zurich, Credit Suisse Research Institute, 2017)

29 Maggie Comstock et.al, “Building Design and Construction” (2012)

10. Alastair Parvin, Architecture for the People by the People, TED 2013, https://www.ted.com/talks/alastair_parvin_architecture_ for_the_people_by_the_people#t-314444

30 Janet L. Sawin et al, “REN 21’s Renewables Global Status Report” (2018)

11. Atelier for Resilient Environmental Architecture, In Conversation: Kate Raworth, (Delft, Delft University of Technology, 2018), p15

31 Maggie Comstock et.al, “Building Design and Construction” (2012)

12. Based on the population of the United Kingdom as of February 2018

13. Her Manjesty’s Government, PM commits to government-wide drive to tackle loneliness, 17 January 2018, https://www.gov.uk/ government /news /pm-commits-to-government-wide-drive-totackle-loneliness

Economy in Developing Countries”, Chatham House: The Royal Institute of International Affairs (2017) <https://www. chathamhouse.org/publication/wider-circle-circular-economydeveloping-countries>

14. Patrik Schumacher calls for the privatisation of public space, Keynot Lecture, World Architecture Festival, Berlin, 2016

9 BBC News, “Russia Halts Gas Supplies to Ukraine After Talks Breakdown” (2015) < https://www.bbc.com/news/worldeurope-33341322>

15. ibid 16. The Economist, How Bitcoin Mining Works, https://www. economist.com/the-economist-explains /2015/01/20/how-bitcoinmining-works, last edited January 20th 2015

10 Oxfam, “Haiti: The Slow Road to Reconstruction – Two Years After the Earthquake”, Oxfam Briefing Note (2012) < https://www. oxfam.org/sites/www.oxfam.org/files/haiti-reconstruction-twoyears-after-earthquake-100112-en.pdf>

17. Lilac Housing, http://www.lilac.coop/resources/

11 Felix Preston & Johanna Lehne, “A Wider Circle?” (2017)

18. Orkidstudio, 1k House & Sustainable Development, https:// orkidstudio.org/blog/1k-house-sustainable-development /63/

12 Maggie Comstock et.al, “Building Design and Construction” (2012)

19. Trade Union Council, Home Working up by a Fifth Over the Last Decade, https://www.tuc.org.uk/news/home-working-fifth-overlast-decade-tuc-analysis-reveals

13 Ellen McArthur Foundation, “The Circular Economy Overview” (2016)

20. Second Home, https://secondhome.io/ 21. Dezeen, SelgasCano’s Louisiana Pavilion to be reused as a school in Kenya’s Kibera slum, https://www.dezeen.com/2016/02/11/ selgascano-kibera-school-pavilion-louisiana-ar t-museumcopenhagen-kenya-nairobi-slum-humanitarian-architecture/ 22. Alastair Parvin, Architecture for the People by the People, https://www.ted.com/talks /alastair_parvin_architecture_for_the_ people_by_the_people#t-756786, 13:00

MOBILITY & RESOURCES 1 WWF, “Living Planet Report 2016” ed. Natasja Oerlemans (2016) < https://www.footprintnetwork.org/content /documents /2016_ Living_Planet_Report_Lo.pdf> 2 Ellen McArthur Foundation, “The Circular Economy Overview” (2016) <https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/circulareconomy/overview/concept> 3 Willmott Dixon, “Briefing Note: The Impacts of Construction and the Built Environment” Document No. FM-RE-07 Revision B (2010) <https://www.willmottdixon.co.uk/asset/9462/download> 4 ibid.

5 Maggie Comstock et.al, “Building Design and Construction: Forging Resource Efficiency and Sustainable Development”, UNEP: Sustainable Buildings and Climate Initiative (2012) <http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/Focus/Agenda%2021%20BOOK.pdf> 6 Willmott Dixon, “The Impacts of Construction and the Built Environment” (2010)

14 Paul Ekins & Nich Hughes, “Resource Efficient Urbanism” in Resource Efficiency: Potential and Economic Implications, ed. by International Resource Panel (2017) 15 Paul Ekins & Nich Hughes, “Resource Efficient Mobility” in Resource Efficiency: Potential and Economic Implications, ed. by International Resource Panel (2017) 16 Maggie Comstock et.al, “Building Design and Construction” (2012) 17 CIB & UNEP-IETC, “Agenda 21 for Sustainable Construction in Developing Countries: A Discussion Document”, CSIR Building and Construction Technology (2002) < http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/ Focus/Agenda%2021%20BOOK.pdf> 18 ibid.

19 Paul Ekins & Nich Hughes, “Resource Efficiency” (2017) 20 Andreas Renz & Manuel Zafra Solas, “Shaping The Future of Construction: A Breakthrough in Mindset and Technology”, World Economic Forum (2016) 21 Paul Ekins & Nich Hughes, “Resource Efficiency” (2017) 22 Felix Preston & Johanna Lehne, “A Wider Circle?” (2017) 23 HM Government, “Industrial Strategy: Government and Industry in Partnership for Construction 2025”, London (2013) <https://www.gov.uk/government /publications/construction2025-strategy> 24 CIB & UNEP-IETC, “Agenda 21 for Sustainable Construction in Developing Countries” (2002)

7 Paul Ekins & Nich Hughes, “Resource Efficiency: Potential and Economic Implications”, ed. by International Resource Panel (2017)

25 ibid.

8 Felix Preston & Johanna Lehne, “A Wider Circle? The Circular

26 The Green Construction Board, “Low Carbon Routemap

for The UK Built Environment” (2013) <http://www. greenconstructionboard.org/otherdocs /Routemap%20final%20 report%2005032013.pdf>

46 ibid.

27 ibid.

47 Suzanna Knight, “’Tesla’ of Eco-Villages Opens in Almere”, Let it Grow (2017) < https://letitgrow.org/city-culture/new-regenvillages-eco-village-almere/>

28 ibid.

48 Felix Preston & Johanna Lehne, “A Wider Circle?” (2017)

29 Liliana Miranda & Liliana Marulanda, “Sustainable Construction in Developing Countries: A Peruvian Perspective”, in Agenda 21 for Sustainable Construction in Developing Countries, CIB & UNEPIETC (2002)

49 ibid.

30 Camilo Giribas, “This Rope Reinforcement is an Innovation in The Structure of Adobe Buildings” (2017) <https://www.bloglovin. com/blogs/arch-daily-375859/this-rope-reinforcement-system-isan-innovation-5476307029> 31 Paul Ekins & Nich Hughes, “Resource Efficient Urbanism” (2017) 32 See for example “Plan Melbourne 2030” (2017) <https:// www.planmelbourne.vic.gov.au/current-projects/20-minuteneighbourhoods>

50 Ruchi Kumar, “A Blueprint for India’s ‘Smart Villages’”, The Hindu (2018) < http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/ablueprint-for-indias-smart-villages/article22386999.ece> 51 Suzanna Knight, “’Tesla’ of Eco-Villages Opens in Almere” (2017) 52 Ruchi Kumar, “A Blueprint for India’s ‘Smart Villages’” (2018) 53 ibid.

33 Michael Batty, “Big Data, Smart Cities and City Planning”, in Dialogues in Human Geography 3,3 (2013): p.274-279

54 Pranava Kumar Chaudhary, “Bihar’s Kedia Village an Iconic Success Story in the Eco-Agri Revolution”, Times of India (2016) < https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/Bihars-Kediavillage-an-iconic-success-story-in-the-Eco-Agri-Revolution/ articleshow/52606587.cms>

34 Jan Doroteo, “Norman Foster Explains How Drones in Rwanda Could Lead the Way for New Cities”, ArchDaily (2016) <https:// www.archdaily.com/789122/norman-foster-explains-how-dronesin-rwanda-could-lead-the-way-for-new-cities>

55 Carol Lemmens & Chris Luebkeman, “The Circular Economy in The Built Environment”, ARUP (2016) <https://www.arup.com/ publications/research/section/circular-economy-in-the-builtenvironment>

35 UN Global Issues, “Big Data for Sustainable Development” (2017) < http://www.un.org/en/sections /issues-depth/big-datasustainable-development /index.html>

56 ibid.

36 Paul Ekins & Nich Hughes, “Resource Efficient Mobility” (2017)

58 ibid.

37 ibid.

59 CIB & UNEP-IETC, “Agenda 21 for Sustainable Construction in Developing Countries” (2002)

38 Michael Batty, “Big Data, Smart Cities and City Planning” (2013) 39 ibid.

40 Foster + Partners, “Droneport Project” (2015) <https://www. fosterandpartners.com/projects /droneport /> 41 MyClimate, “Cable Cars Reduce CO2 in Medellin, Colombia”, MyClimate: Protect our Planet (2012) < https://www.myclimate. org/uploads/tx_news /Projectstory-Medellin-web.pdf>

57 ibid.

60 See “ARUP: Circular Building” (2016) < http://circularbuilding. arup.com/> 61 Nangkula Utaberta & Nurhananie Spalie, “Evaluating the Design and Construction Flexibility of Traditional Malay House”, The National University of Malaysia, International Scientific Conference (2011): p.683-688 62 See “ARUP: Circular Building” (2016) < http://circularbuilding. arup.com/>

42 ibid.

63 ibid.

43 ibid.

64 ibid.

44 Based on principles adapted by MASS Design Group doing work for Sustainable Development in Central Africa. See <https:// massdesigngroup.org/>

65 ibid.

45 Paul Ekins & Nich Hughes, “Resource Efficient Urbanism” (2017)

67 Geoffrey Hammond & Craig Jones, “Embodied Energy and Carbon in Construction Materials” in Institution of Civil

66 ibid.

Engineers EN2 (2008) <http://opus.bath.ac.uk/12382/1/ Hammond_%26_Jones_Embodied_energy_%26_carbon_Proc_ICEEnergy_2008_161%282%29_87-98.pdf> 68 Maggie Comstock et.al, “Building Design and Construction” (2012) 69 Geoffrey Hammond & Craig Jones, “Embodied Energy and Carbon in Construction Materials” (2008) 70 ibid.

71 Carol Lemmens & Chris Luebkeman, “The Circular Economy in The Built Environment” (2016) 72 ibid.

73 Junko Edahiro, “Rebuilding Every 20 Years Renders Sanctuaries Eternal”, Japan for Sustainability (2013) < https://www.japanfs. org/en/news/archives /news_id034293.html> 74 Lloyd Alter, “Lightweight Prefab Wood Framing System Goes Together Without Nails”, Treehugger (2017) < https://www. treehugger.com/green-architecture /lightweight-prefab-woodframing-system-goes-together-without-nails.html> 75 Junko Edahiro, “Rebuilding Every 20 Years Renders Sanctuaries Eternal” (2016) 76 ibid.

77 ibid.

78 Lloyd Alter, “Lightweight Prefab Wood Framing System Goes Together Without Nails” (2017) 79 ibid.

ENERGY 1. Usama Al-mulali, Abdul Hakim Mohammed, (2015) “The relationship between energy consumption and GDP in emerging countries”, International Journal of Energy Sector Management, Vol. 9 Issue: 1, pp.77-93, <https://doi.org/10.1108/ IJESM-04-2013-0006> 2. Ibid.

3. UN-Habitat, (2018) “Energy” < https://unhabitat.org/urbanthemes/energy/> 4. Ren21, (2018) “Renewables 2018 Global Status Report” < http:// www.ren21.net /status-of-renewables/global-status-report/>

the first SDG7 Review at the UN High-Level Political Forum 2018” <https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg7> 8. United Nations, (2018) “The Sustainable Development Agenda” <https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment /developmentagenda/> 9. UK Government, (2018) “Green Deal: energy saving for your home” <https://www.gov.uk/green-deal-energy-savingmeasures> 10. European Commission, (2017) “Country Report Sweden 2017 Including an In-Depth Review on the prevention and correction of macroeconomic imbalances” <https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/ info/files /2017-european-semester-country-report-sweden-en. pdf> 11. Scandinavian-Polish Chamber of Commerce (SPCC), (2018) “Energy use in Sweden” <https://www.spcc.pl/node/17808” 12. Ren21, (2018) “Renewables 2018 Global Status Report” < http:// www.ren21.net /status-of-renewables/global-status-report/> 13. Ibid.

14. The World Bank, (2018) “The World Bank In Kenya” <http:// www. worldbank.org/en/country/kenya/overview> 15. The World Bank, (2018) “The 2018 Global Off-Grid Solar Market Trends Report” <https://www.lightingafrica.org/publication/ executive-summary-2018-global-off-grid-solar-market-trendsreport /> 16. Hans Lind et al, (2016) “Sustainable Renovation Strategy in the Swedish Million Homes Programme: A Case Study” <http://www. mdpi.com/2071-1050/8/4/388/htm> 17. Statistics Sweden, (2016). “Nearly 4.8 million dwellings in Sweden” <https://www.scb.se/en/finding-statistics/statisticsby-subject-area/housing-construction-and-building/housingconstruction-and-conversion/dwelling-stock/pong/statisticalnews /dwelling-stock-2016-12-31/> 18. Swedish Energy Agency and the National Board of Housing, Building and Planning, (2016) “Multiple benefits of energy renovations of the Swedish building stock” <https://www. copenhageneconomics.com/dyn/resources/Publication/ publicationPDF/4/384/1484917593/copenhagen-economics-2016multiple-benefits-of-energy-renovations-of-the-swedish-buildingstock.pdf> 19. Ibid.

5. International Energy Agency (IEA), (2017) “World Energy Outlook” <https://www.iea.org/weo2017/>

20. The World Bank, (2017) “Kenya: Off-grid Solar Access Project for Underserved Counties -Combined Project Information Documents / Integrated Safeguards Datasheet”

6. UN-Habitat, (2018) “Energy” < https://unhabitat.org/urbanthemes/energy/>

21. McLaren, Duncan; Agyeman, Julian (2015). “Sharing Cities: A Case for Truly Smart and Sustainable Cities.” MIT Press.

7. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, (2018) “Accelerating SDG7 Achievement: Policy Briefs in Support of

22. US Department of Energy, (2015)”A Common Definition for Zero Energy

Buildings” 23. Migliavacca, G. (2015). “The SmartNet Project” <http:// smartnet-project.eu/wp-content /uploads /2016/03/SmartNetBrochure.pdf> 24. Coelce Group Endesa, (2010). “COELCE (GROUP ENDESA) ENCOURAGES RESPONSIBLE WASTE MANAGEMENT WITH CREDITS ON ELECTRICAL BILL IN FORTALEZA (BRASIL)” 25. Migliavacca, G. (2015). “The SmartNet Project” <http:// smartnet-project.eu/wp-content /uploads /2016/03/SmartNetBrochure.pdf> 26. Ibid.

27. Coelce Group Endesa, (2010). “COELCE (GROUP ENDESA) ENCOURAGES RESPONSIBLE WASTE MANAGEMENT WITH CREDITS ON ELECTRICAL BILL IN FORTALEZA (BRASIL)” 28. Peterson, (2017) “The application of municipal renewable energy policies at community level in Denmark: A taxonomy of implementation challenges” 29. UNDP, (2016) “Communities and local sustainable development solutions” 30. Ibid.

31. Danfoss, (2015). “Local residents stay warm thanks to supermarket’s cooling system” <https://www.danfoss.com/en/ service-and-support/case-studies/dcs/local-residents-stay-warmthanks-to-supermarket-s-cooling-system/> 32. Ibid.

33. Progrss, (2016). “How Danish Supermarkets Are Making Cities Energy Efficient” <https://progrss.com/sustainability/20160428/ how-danish-supermarkets-make-cities-energy-efficient /> 34. SolarKiosk, (2018). <https://www.solarkiosk.eu/b2b/> 35. IEA, (2018). “Technology Roadmap Energy-efficient Buildings: Heating and Cooling Equipment”. <https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/ buildings_roadmap.pdf> 36. Passive House Institute, (2018). “Superior energy efficiency in buildings”. <http://passivehouse.com/01_passivehouseinstitute/01_ passivehouseinstitute.htm> 37. Ibid.

38. L. Adli-Chebaiki et al., (2015) “Vernacular Housing in Algiers: A Semantic and Passive Architecture”. Int. J. of Design & Nature and Ecodynamics. Vol. 10, No. 2 (2015) 154–164 <http://citeseerx.ist.psu. edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.735.1669&rep=rep1&type=pdf> 39. Ibid.

40. Reeder, L. (2010) “Guide to Green Building Rating Systems: Understanding LEED, Green Globes, ENERGY STAR, the National

Green Building Standard, and More” <https://onlinelibrary.wiley. com/doi/pdf/10.1002/9781118259894.index” 41. Jonathan Levy, May Woo, Stefani Penn, Mohammed Omary, Yann Tambouret, Chloe Kim and Saravanan Arunachahan.

“Carbon reductions and health co-benefits from US residential Energy Efficiency Measures” (2016). < http:// iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/11/3/034017/ meta;jsessionid=453A5BA99C74E0C82D1712BA255619FC.c4> 42. Esmap, (2004). “The Impact of Energy on Women’s Lives in Rural India”. <https://www.esmap.org/sites /default /files/esmapfiles/The%20Impact%20of%20Energy%20on%20Women%27s%20 Lives%20in%20Rural%20India.pdf> 43. Orlando, M. B. Et al. (2018) “Getting to Gender Equality in Energy Infrastructure : Lessons from Electricity Generation, Transmission, and Distribution Projects”< 44. Ibid.

45. Rural Spark, (2018). <http://www.ruralspark.com/about-us/> 46. Ibid.

47. Passive House Institute, (2018). “Superior energy efficiency in buildings”. <http://passivehouse.com/01_passivehouseinstitute/01_ passivehouseinstitute.htm>

DISASTER RESILIENCE 1 United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction. Global assessment report on disaster risk reduction. 4th ed. (Geneva, United Nations, 2015). P.193 2 United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction. Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030. (New York, United Nations, 2015), p.10-12 3 United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction, Words into Action Guidelines: National disaster risk assessment: 2017, (New York, United Nations, 2017), p. 20 4 Toshinori Ogata. “Disaster Management in Japan.” Japan Medical Association Journal: JMAJ. June 1, 2016. Accessed January 10, 2018. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/ PMC5059167/.

5 Mina Pollmann, “4 Years Later, What Japan Can Teach the World About Disaster Preparedness,” The Diplomat, March 18, 2015, accessed January 23, 2018, https://thediplomat.com/2015/03/4years-later-what-japan-can-teach-the-world-about-disasterpreparedness/ 6 Simms, James. “Japan’s Authorities Move to Impose Tougher Building Standards.” Ft.com. April 27, 2015. Accessed April 13, 2018. https://www.ft.com/content /664099e8-ccc9-11e4-b5a500144feab7de.

7 United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction. Global assessment report on disaster risk reduction. 4th ed. (Geneva, United Nations, 2015). P.29

8 ibid, p.34 9 ibid, p.34 10 “Building Resilience to Natural Disasters in Our States and Territories.” Deliotte Access Economics, February 2017, 4856. Accessed April 9, 2018. https://www.preventionweb.net / files/56004_abrbuildingresilienceinourstatesand.pdf.

11 ibid, pg. 51 12 ibid, pg. 56 13 Australian Business Roundtable for Disaster Resilience & Safer Communities. Building resilience to natural disasters in our states and territories. (Australia, 2017) P.45-48 14 Bonnie Malkin. “Australian ‘Black Saturday’ bush fires response was ‘inadequate’.” The Telegraph. July 31, 2010. Accessed January 4, 2018. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news /worldnews/ australiaandthepacific/australia/7919914/Australian-BlackSaturday-bush-fires-response-was-inadequate.html.

15 John Handmer and Saffron O’Neill. “Examining bushfire policy in action: Preparedness and behavior in the 2009 Black Saturday fires.” Environmental Science & Policy 63 (2016) p. 30 16 ibid, p. 32 17 ibid, p. 41

26 Salajegheh, Sanjar and Nasrin Pirmoradi. “Community Based Disaster Risk Management (CBDRM) and Providing a Model for Iran.” International Journal of Engineering Research and Development. 60-69.

27 United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction. Global assessment report on disaster risk reduction. 4th ed. (Geneva, United Nations, 2015). P.24 28 Wharton Risk Management and Decision Processes Center.

Beyond Katrina: lessons in creating resilient communities. (Illinois, 2005) p.6 29 Make It Right. Accessed January 31, 2018. http://makeitright. org/.

30 United Nations Development Programme. Nepal Community Based Disaster Management Practices 2006-2006. Edited by Anne-Isabelle Degryse-Blateau. February 25, 2010. Accessed January 9, 2018. http://www.np.undp.org/content/nepal/en/ home/library/crisis_prevention_and_recovery/community-baseddisaster-management-practices--2006-2008.html.

31 United Nations Development Programme. Nepal Community Based Disaster Management Practices 2006-2006. Edited by Anne-Isabelle Degryse-Blateau. February 25, 2010. Accessed January 9, 2018. http://www.np.undp.org/content/nepal/en/ home/library/crisis_prevention_and_recovery/community-baseddisaster-management-practices--2006-2008.html.

18 United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction. Global assessment report on disaster risk reduction. 4th ed. (Geneva, United Nations, 2015). P.44

32 “Resilient Design: Is Resilience the New Sustainability?”

Inhabitat Green Design Innovation Architecture Green Building.

Accessed January 31, 2018. https://inhabitat.com/resilient-designis-resilience-the-new-sustainability/.

19 Orissa State Disaster Mitigation Authority. India: Orissa State disaster management policy: 2005. (India, 2005)

33 Gerard Smyth, When a City Falls, (Christchurch, Journeyman Pictures Ltd, 2011) 15:10

20 Shruti Kedia and Sourav Roy. “What the world can learn from Odisha, India’s most disaster-ready state.” YourStory.com.

September 11, 2017. Accessed January 5, 2018. https://yourstory. com/2017/09/odisha-disaster-preparedness/.

34 ibid, 8:39

21 United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction. Global assessment report on disaster risk reduction. 4th ed. (Geneva, United Nations, 2015). P.44 22 Orissa State Disaster Management Authority. Accessed January 09, 2018. http://www.osdma.org/ ViewDetails. aspx?vchglinkid=GL000&vchplinkid=PL042.

23 Kedia, Shruti. “What the world can learn from Odisha, India’s most disaster-ready state.”

24 Ewert, Christopher J. “Intersections: Community-based disaster management.” Mcc.org. 2014. Accessed January 9, 2018. https:// mcc.org/media/resources/1390.

25 UN-Habitat. City Resilience Profiling Programme. Accessed January 3, 2018. https://unhabitat.org/urban-initiatives/ initiatives-programmes /city-resilience-profiling-programme/.

35 New Zealand Police, Christchurch Earthquake, www.police. govt.nz/major-events/previous/christchurch-earthquakes, accessed 11 November 2017 36 Barrie, Andrew, Bridgit Anderson, and Stephen Goodenough.

Shigeru Ban: Cardboard Cathedral. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 2014.

37 Frearson, Amy. “Shigeru Ban Completes Cardboard Cathedral in Christchurch.” Dezeen. December 29, 2015. Accessed April 16, 2018. https://www.dezeen.com/2013/08/06/shigeru-bancompletes-cardboard-cathedral-in-christchurch/.

38 NLE Architects: Shaping the Architecture of Developing Cities.

Makoko Floating School research report 2012. (Amsterdam, 2012).

P.55 39 “Makoko Floating School / NLE Architects.” ArchDaily. March 13, 2013. Accessed January 31, 2018. https://www.archdaily. com/344047/makoko-floating-school-nle-architects.

40 NLE Architects: Shaping the Architecture of Developing Cities.

Makoko Floating School research report 2012. (Amsterdam, 2012).

P.72 41 Zeijl, Femke Van. “The Rise and Fall of the Floating School.”

Zam Magazine. July 11, 2016. Accessed April 16, 2018. https://www. zammagazine.com/chronicle/chronicle-26/436-the-rise-and-fallof-the-floating-school.

42 “Resilient Design: Is Resilience the New Sustainability?”

Inhabitat Green Design Innovation Architecture Green Building.

Accessed January 31, 2018.

43 “Kengo Kuma protects Japanese office building with carbon fiber curtain.” Designboom | architecture & design magazine. April 07, 2016. Accessed January 31, 2018. https://www.designboom. com/architecture/kengo-kuma-earthquake-resistant-komatsuseiren-fabric-laboratory-fa-bo-japan-04-06-2016/.

44 “Cabkoma Strand Rod.” Komatsu Seiren. Accessed January 31, 2018. http://www.komatsuseiren.co.jp/cabkoma/en/.

45 “Kengo Kuma protects Japanese office building with carbon fiber curtain.” Designboom | architecture & design magazine. April 07, 2016. Accessed January 31, 2018. https://www.designboom. com/architecture/kengo-kuma-earthquake-resistant-komatsuseiren-fabric-laboratory-fa-bo-japan-04-06-2016/.

46 “Cabkoma Strand Rod.” Komatsu Seiren. Accessed January 31, 2018. http://www.komatsuseiren.co.jp/cabkoma/en/.

47 Rajendra Desai and Rupal Desai, “Citizen Architects in India,” in Beyond Shelter – Architecture for Crisis, ed. by Marie J Aquilino (London: Thames & Hudson, 2011), p. 87-102 48 Rajendra Desai and Rupal Desai, “Projects And Activities in 3 Years Following Kutchch Earthquake of January-26, 2001,” National Centre for People’s Action In Disaster Preparedness (2017), <http://www.ncpdpindia.org/kutchh_earthquake.htm> [accessed 1 November 2017].

49 Desai, “Citizen Architects in India,” 50 Ibid.

51 Ibid.

52 Ibid.

53 Rajendra Desai, “Capacity Building for Long-Term Preparedness - First Step In Disaster Rehabilitation,” International Conference of Managing Seismic Risk For Developing Countries (2004), <http://www.ncpdpindia.org/images/Capacity%20 Building/Capacity%20Building%20for%20Long-term%20 Preparedness%20First%20Step%20In%20Disaster%20 Rehabilitation.pdf> [accessed 1 November 2017].

54 Desai, “Projects And Activities in 3 Years Following Kutchch Earthquake” 55 Desai, “Citizen Architects in India,”

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