Solar Power World May 2025

May 2025

www.solarpowerworldonline.com

Technology • Development • Installation

| ALSO INSIDE |

RENEWABLE PROSPECTS FOR AI DATA CENTER BOOM U.S. SOLAR PANEL TECHNOLOGY FALLS BEHIND CHINA NEW FIRE SAFETY TESTING FOR RESIDENTIAL BATTERIES

The

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05-372

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NOMINAL OPERATING AC VOLTAGE

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DC JUNCTION BOX

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ELECTRIC SHOCK HAZARD DO NOT DISCONNECT UNDER LOAD

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MAXIMUM DC VOLTAGE

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Includes 2023 Placement Guide

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#03-305 - 2023 NEC 706.15(C) ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEM DISCONNECT #03-303 - 2023 NEC 690.7(D)

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NOT FOR CURRENT INTERRUPTING

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VDC AMPS

DC JUNCTION BOX

PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER SOURCE

#03-396 - 2023 NEC 225.41(C) EMERGENCY DISCONNECT

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MAXIMUM DC VOLTAGE OF VOLTS PV SYSTEM:

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MAXIMUM AC POWER MAXIMUM AC CURRENT

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SINGLE 120-VOLT SUPPLY DO NOT CONNECT MULTIWIRE BRANCH CIRCUITS

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MULTIPLE SOURCES OF POWER

ELECTRIC SHOCK HAZARD

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RATED AC OUTPUT CURRENT NOMINAL OPERATING AC VOLTAGE

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PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM POWER SOURCE

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#05-215 - 2023 NEC 690.13(B)

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THIS IS BUILDING IS SUPPLIED BY MULTIPLE SOURCES OF POWER WITH DISCONNECTS LOCATED AS SHOWN:

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PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER SOURCE

PV SYSTEM kWh METER

PV SYSTEM DISCONNECT

#05-805 & 05-806 2023 NEC 690.31(B)(2)

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Largest Selection

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Metal Signs

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Code Compliance

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Vinyl Labels

ELECTRIC SHOCK HAZARD TERMINALS ON THE LINE AND LOAD SIDES MAY BE ENERGIZED IN THE OPEN POSITION

Special Price

WARNING

TURN OFF PHOTOVOLTAIC AC DISCONNECT PRIOR TO WORKING INSIDE PANEL

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Same Day Service

SOLAR PV SYSTEM EQUIPPED WITH RAPID SHUTDOWN

SALE

$39.00

#05-372 - 2023 NEC 110.27(C)

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Plastic Placards

#05-112 - 2023 NEC 690.12(D)

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UV Film Lamination

#05-109 - 2023 NEC 690.13(B) PV SYSTEM DISCONNECT

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Custom Items

2023 Pack - 88 Pieces

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NEC 2023 PACKS NEC 2020 PACKS NEC 2017 PACKS NEC 2014 PACKS NEC 2011 PACKS IN STOCK - NOW

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OF PV SYSTEM

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Staff SVP, SALES & STRATEGY Courtney Nagle 440.523.1685 cseel@wtwhmedia.com EDITORIAL Editor in Chief Kelly Pickerel kpickerel@wtwhmedia.com Managing Editor Kelsey Misbrener kmisbrener@wtwhmedia.com Senior Editor Billy Ludt bludt@wtwhmedia.com CREATIVE SERVICES & PRINT PRODUCTION Art Director Allison Washko awashko@wtwhmedia.com AUDIENCE DEVELOPMENT Director, Audience Growth Rick Ellis rellis@wtwhmedia.com Audience Growth Manager Angela Tanner atanner@wtwhmedia.com MARKETING VP of Operations Virginia Goulding vgoulding@wtwhmedia.com Webinar Manager Matt Boblett mboblett@wtwhmedia.com CUSTOMER SERVICE Customer Service Manager Stephanie Hulett shulett@wtwhmedia.com Customer Service Representative JoAnn Martin jmartin@wtwhmedia.com Customer Service Representative Tracy Powers tpowers@wtwhmedia.com Customer Service Representative Renee Massey-Linston renee@wtwhmedia.com Customer Service Representative Trinidy Longgood tlonggood@wtwhmedia.com LEADERSHIP CEO Matt Logan mlogan@wtwhmedia.com

First Word

Finding sure footing in 2025 When I try to find a topic for these introductions, I often come back to the admittedly surface-level thought that U.S. solar functions in fluctuating degrees of uncertainty. Then I sit with the thought a little longer and come up with something that’s timelier for that moment. However, this moment seems to be characterized by nothing but uncertainty.

It’s apparent how this presidential administration feels about renewables. The morning I wrote this, I read a proclamation published by the White House that it wishes to streamline project permitting, specifically citing a dire need to drill for more oil in the United States. Historic subsidies that have spurred solar construction at every market level are at risk of being rolled back.

In the coming months, we will witness the effects that blanket import tariffs have on solar components and project pricing. It's antithetical to this solar manufacturing renaissance we’ve experienced over the last few years.

These reality-affecting decisions, being made without our input, seem to come from a place out of our reach and out of touch with the needs of our world.

What we have is a country that yearover-year has shattered records for solar installation. There has never been this much renewable energy on our grids, and there will undoubtedly be more added, but it’s unclear whether 2025 will be another standout year for solar. I hope that it is.

In times of uncertainty, it’s best to focus on what is tangible. In this issue, we have some stories about maintaining what has already been built. The United States is home to more than 5 million solar projects generating more than 235 GW of clean electricity. From the few kilowatts on a residential rooftop up to the utility array covering several square miles, each of these solar projects needs upkeep to ensure that what the industry has already accomplished persists. What exists cannot easily be removed.

There has never been a straight path forward when it comes to solar progress.

Even when building the smallest project, an installer must adapt to the quirks of that local construction authority. While the goal has always been the same, the people that make this industry have evolved to solve the issues of their time.

Perhaps the sun cannot be seen on overcast days, but its light still passes through the clouds. Thanks for reading. SPW

SALES Ashley N. Burk 737.615.8452 aburk@wtwhmedia.com Jami Brownlee 224.760.1055 jbrownlee@wtwhmedia.com

Billy Ludt

Jim Powers 312.925.7793 jpowers@wtwhmedia.com

Senior Editor bludt@wtwhmedia.com

Danny Glazier 773.835.0800 dglazier@wtwhmedia.com

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SOLAR POWER WORLD

MAY 2025

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M AY 2 0 2 5 • V O L 1 5 N O 3 • W W W. S O L A R P O W E R W O R L D O N L I N E . C O M

4 The First Word

Operations 8 Keeping arrays humming O&M techs play pivotal role in large-scale solar upkeep

ON THE COVER

Solar O&M is no longer an afterthought for the largest developers in the U.S. Deploying well-trained technicians to regularly check on even the most far-flung sites is now standard practice.

Installation 12 Solar land stewardship D.C. university adds 7.5-MW array to unused land

Primoris Renewable Energy

Policy 16 AI’s renewable prospects AI data centers could accelerate renewable energy

Technology 20 Panels The U.S. falls behind China in solar manufacturing leadership

24 Inverters Switch to 2-kV solar projects brings big cost savings

26 Mounting Fixed-tilt racking is still a solid choice for some installs

20

28 Storage New UL testing addresses home battery fire concerns

Special Section O&M Trends Smart tech is changing the game in solar O&M. From using AI to catch problems before they happen to tightening bolts just right, this special section explores the innovations keeping solar arrays of all sizes running smoothly. PAGE 31

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TECHNICIANS BILLY LUDT SENIOR EDITOR

ARE VITAL TO MASSIVE SOLAR ARRAY UPKEEP

L

arge-scale O&M standards are changing. What once was an afterthought handled by third-party technicians is now an in-house business line for huge solar contractors like SOLV Energy and Primoris Renewable Energy.

As the scope of solar projects has grown, so has the need for technicians whose whole focus is preventive and corrective maintenance of solar arrays.

“I think it took from 2008 through 2017 that we, as an EPC, put a gigawatt in the ground,” said Reegan Moen, VP of business development for services at SOLV Energy, a utility-scale solar EPC with an O&M program. Now, SOLV is maintaining individual arrays pushing 700 MW and pursuing contracts for projects larger than 1 GW. Without this tailored oversight from O&M techs, a project in the range of hundreds of megawatts can underperform and result in massive financial consequences for stakeholders.

“It’s not like it was 10 years ago. If you miss [daily performance goals] by a few pennies, maybe it was a few thousand

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dollars,” Moen said. “Nowadays, the projects are so big, you miss it by a few pennies, and it’s hundreds of thousands of dollars, and it can affect your internal bottom line.”

Keeping the plant on As the size of solar projects has increased, the methods of maintaining them have evolved, especially as new O&M standards and technologies enter the scene.

With each project having different demands, there is no rigid metric for how many technicians to place on a solar array. Billy Watts, VP of O&M services with Primoris Renewable Energy, a large-scale solar EPC, said the company generally employs four technicians at a 250-MW solar project.

“We try to have people at the site at all times,” Watts said. “Just in case … something’s down, it doesn’t take two or three days to get someone there.”

O&M technicians do not need to be electricians, although having some electrical knowledge is helpful. Primoris works with technical high school and

college programs to build O&M technician curricula and expand the hiring pool for this career. The company also prioritizes hiring military veterans.

SOLV, meanwhile, aims to hire technicians directly from the local contractors that construct its projects, keeping jobs within communities.

O&M technician training covers safety practices necessary for working within a live electrical plant. Technicians become certified to handle, repair and replace specific components from original equipment manufacturers to preserve warranties and keep the array running.

Their work is a combination of preventive and corrective maintenance.

Daily tasks are delegated from monitoring and data sets pulled from their respective arrays. These sources can pinpoint certain components that are underperforming or malfunctioning.

A typical day for a technician would first begin with checking system monitoring to ensure all inverters are functioning. If a particular area isn’t producing as expected, technicians will

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Operations

A SOLV Energy O&M technician wearing arc flash-resistant equipment checks a combiner box. Maintaining solar projects at this scale poses some safety risks.

SOLV Energy

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A solar O&M technician with Primoris Renewable Energy checks wire management on a solar tracker project.

Primoris Renewable Energy

check panels, combiner boxes or wires for issues. Regular maintenance would then be performed, such as greasing solar tracker drives, tightening bolts and visually inspecting components.

Regular array upkeep Inverters require the most attention, because their failure can heavily impede a solar array’s production. Fans and filters can become clogged with debris, especially in dusty environments.

Substations similarly have filters and HVAC systems that require regular checks. Fuses inside combiner boxes can overheat and blow, as well. If not properly lubricated, tracker drives can seize and stop moving, cutting a panel row’s production.

Each element of the array has different methods for upkeep, but if something breaks, Moen said it’s best practice to keep a stock of replacement components as backup. Long lead times for replacement components can be the difference between a profitable or nonprofitable array.

Besides solar technology, site maintenance also includes the land itself.

Many solar trackers have integrated articulating posts that work on steeper inclines and reduce the need for grading land, but some land may need to be disturbed to build access roads and establish water retention measures.

This means technicians are responsible for ensuring stormwater outlets are unobstructed to avoid runoff that could wash away access roads.

Landscaping and agricultural abatement requires regular attention either with mowing equipment or livestock such as sheep. Project owners are increasingly concerned with reducing long-term grounds maintenance costs.

“Previously, it was all about CapEx — get the project built — but there was no consideration, really, of what does OpEx mean, and how much does it cost to mow a site five times? That’s going to eat into your budget,” Moen said.

Tools of the maintenance trade Solar O&M technicians aren’t simply equipped with hand tools and electrical meters to tackle maintenance on these large project sites. They’re in constant contact with remote operating

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Operations

centers (ROC) that help them address areas of underperformance and act as an additional layer of safety, especially on more remote sites.

Sending a person out into an active power plant of this scale poses risks, so using technologies like drones reduces the inherent danger and amount of labor necessary to complete this work. Technicians can fly drones along fence lines to ensure they’re intact. Drones can also inspect for hotspots and use on-board GPS to mark where replacements are needed.

“The days of being a technician and just going out there and doing it and no paperwork — those days are gone,” Watts said. “You need a technician that’s not only technically sound but also has the ability to type and work in computerized systems.”

While performing maintenance on electrical components, technicians wear full-body arc flash suits. They always work at least in pairs as a safety precaution. “Safety seconds” watch over the person performing the maintenance, remaining in frequent contact with the ROC. On more remote solar sites, SOLV gives technicians satellite phones and has contracted with helicopter services in case anyone needs evacuated.

“These bigger projects nowadays are not cookie-cutter squares, nice ground, previously a cornfield,” Moen said. “These are found by developers, and they happen to be close to an interconnection or a [transmission] line, and they could be hours away from population.”

O&M technicians are responsible for upkeep of all technologies on a solar array — including storage, power electronics and the solar panels themselves.

SOLV Energy

One branch helping the other Large-scale solar project maintenance remains in a state of flux, because arrays will continue to be built at larger capacities and in places further from population centers. O&M service runners are trying to make projects pencil while dealing with details like meeting prevailing wage requirements county-by-county, stockpiling enough equipment to make immediate replacements and ensuring technicians are trained to work safely in sometimes perilous conditions.

Watts said that while Primoris both builds and maintains solar projects, the two services are connected. The company takes lessons from each side to improve how the other works.

“The main thing is getting that [O&M] information and turning it back in so that we can build a better site,” he said. SPW

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University extends 138-year support of D.C. community with local solar array BILLY LUDT • SENIOR EDITOR

The Catholic University of America had other development options for this 40-acre plot but opted to build a community solar project.

Standard Solar

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Installation

T

he Catholic University of America (CUA) had 40 acres of undeveloped land on its West Campus in Washington, D.C., and instead of building a new entrance to the school as it had originally planned, it is now home to the capital city’s largest community solar project.

Having any land untouched by construction in a city like D.C. is rare, not to mention highly valuable. But the Catholic Church, and by extension CUA, owns more property than most organizations.

“I think we’re the largest landowner in D.C., other than the federal government, which is part of why we were able to develop a 25-acre solar array on site,” said Gabrielle Choate, director of campus sustainability for CUA. This 7.5-MW solar array occupies part of the 40-acre plot on CUA’s West Campus, with the remaining land left to heritage trees and a tree nursery. The project was developed by Standard Solar, which had worked with CUA on a series of rooftop arrays and a solar carport between 2009 and 2012.

“The university has already taken advantage of a lot of net-metering opportunities on their other buildings … so this was a way for them to build on their previous commitments,” said Chuck VonDrehle, senior project manager at Standard Solar.

The more-than-century-old university hired Standard Solar in late 2020, and for the next year, the developer worked with the university, the city and neighborhood commissions to design and approve the community solar project.

This community solar project came online in June 2024 and Standard Solar is leasing the land for the next 20 years, but the developer models its projects for a 35-year operating lifespan. The array can host about 1,100 subscribers and is open to residents of all eight wards in D.C. CUA is subscribed to 12% of the array’s total production.

“They could have sold the land, which is super valuable in any urban area.

They could have redeveloped it into townhouses or even academic buildings, and they still preserve that right or choice down the road, because this is an interim

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use over the next 20 years, and 20 years is a short time for the life of a university," Finnerty said.

The West Campus array is concealed on three sides by its natural surroundings and has no direct neighbors. Prior to construction, the site was a mix of open land covered in wild shrubs and remnant forest. The land slopes southward and was slightly graded to accommodate the south-facing solar array.

Some trees had to be removed to build the system, but many were donated to the District Dept. of Transportation’s Urban Forestry Division to be milled and given to regional schools and at-risk youth programs for student projects and building infrastructure. Another portion of that wood was mulched and used on CUA’s community garden and walking paths. The remaining trees were deemed important to the site, so installers driving piles gave a wide berth to roots of heritage trees.

The array is composed of FLEXRACK

by QCells Fixed Tilt Series racking, CPS

275-kW string inverters and ZNShine Solar 540-W solar modules. Solar panels were installed at a 20° tilt and placed far enough away from the trees to avoid any shading. The power electronic components of the array were instead placed in the shade.

The ecological condition of that land will improve as a native pollinator seed crop is cultivated on the plot over the next few years. Local beekeepers have already placed hives at the university to bolster that biomass, as well.

During development, new fiber optic communications lines, transformers and utility feeder cables were replaced and upgraded for the grid to receive the new capacity of this community solar project.

Standard Solar had to design the array with two separate grid-tie points, owing to the 3-MWAC interconnection limit for community solar projects in D.C. “We were maximizing the project size to fit some of the public policy restrictions for the community solar programs per

Catholic University of America facilities are seen above the trees lining the community solar project. The project is located just across from campus.

Standard Solar

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Installation

interconnection and also working with the existing grid line capacities with the local utility,” said John Finnerty, director of business development at Standard Solar.

Although it’s hard to spot the array from on campus, students have access to its monitoring software and production data for academic purposes, and Standard Solar is regularly holding tours of the project site.

The university was founded in 1887 and currently has a student body of 5,000, with 12 schools and 53 buildings spread across 176 acres.

CUA established its Office of Campus Sustainability in 2022, which spearheads initiatives guided by Pope Francis’ call to address climate change. CUA commissioned a solar project that is serving the greater D.C. community — a community it has been in for 138 years.

"I'm really proud of the university for it. I mean, there's a lot of uses of the land potentially, so it's really great that we've decided to move the needle on renewable energy within the district, within the nation," Choate said. "I don't know of other universities around that have anything like this." SPW

A native seed crop was sown on the site of the community solar project at the Catholic University of America. For the next 20 years, this array will provide renewable energy credits for the university and D.C. residents.

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AI data center boom could boost renewables KELSEY MISBRENER MANAGING EDITOR

— WITH THE RIGHT DRIVERS IN PLACE

I

n order to train models to accomplish many tasks previously performed by humans, artificial intelligence data centers need one thing, and a lot of it — energy. AI "hyperscalers" — massive cloud-computing organizations — are giving public utilities an unprecedented challenge as companies seek a reliable energy base load at the lowest possible price. A recent Berkeley Lab report found data centers could rise to 12% of U.S. power consumption by 2028 — up from 4.4% in 2023.

While the prospect of these clients with 24/7 energy demands could be tantalizing to utilities looking for reasons to build new baseload generation, experts say they should be wary of these hyperscaler promises. Chinese AI company DeepSeek has claimed that generative AI can work with less energy, but it remains to be seen whether or how soon U.S. companies will follow that lead

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to invest in energy-efficient operations.

With many data centers also doing speculative planning across many different utility territories to find the best deal, it becomes tough to determine their real-life energy needs.

"There's not a lot of good reason to think that all those data centers are going to get built," said Karl Rábago, a renewable energy developer who previously worked as a utility executive, commissioner and federal executive at the U.S. Dept. of Energy. "As somebody who's been a regulator but also sort of a developer and other things will tell you, there's no way data centers are building that much demand at today's rates."

Hyperscalers are eager to make backroom deals with utilities on low rates for their demand, and they often succeed, eliminating the motivation to internally increase efficiency and use less power, Rábago said.

"If the legislators and the regulators and the utility are all willing to bend over backwards for your load, then you'd be dumb not to play that," he said.

Utilities may be wising up to the risk of data centers not needing as much energy as they’re forecasting. Dominion Energy's latest rate proposal includes a new rate class for high-energy users, such as data centers, to "ensure these customers continue to pay the full cost of their service and other customers are protected from stranded costs." Users within that rate class would be required to make 14-year commitments to pay for the requested power, even if they use less.

If utilities continue the trend of higher rates with long-term agreements for hyperscalers, adding co-located renewables to their energy mix could

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become more advantageous to data center operators.

Data centers and renewables Many of the biggest hyperscaler companies have a history of investments in renewable energy. Microsoft and Google are the Top 2 companies on the EPA's Green Power Partnership National Top 100, with green power making up 100% and 107% of their total energy use, respectively.

"A lot of the big names that come to mind have been deeply committed to renewables for quite some time, and in the last several years have been very involved not just in purchasing renewable energy from their power providers but

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also engaging in project development themselves and helping get new projects built," said Jennifer Martin, CEO of the Center for Resource Solutions, a nonprofit that offers green certifications for corporations. "For me, it's not surprising that they would want to continue their renewable energy commitments as they're looking at this new source of load growth for themselves."

Over the past few years, these companies have signed solar PPAs with developers like Silicon Ranch, Avangrid and EDP Renewables, motivated largely by internal clean energy goals.

"Data centers were some of our first customers, and they've just continued to grow since that time," said Adrian

ock

Markocic, senior director of market strategy at Silicon Ranch. "Since they're the ones driving the load growth, in parallel with that, they're also going to be one of our largest customers."

Silicon Ranch had 2.5 GW under contract with data center clients in 2024, including with data center developer Tract, in which Silicon Ranch matches existing solar projects in the pipeline with Tract's regional needs.

"There was a point in time when a green electron was the most valuable electron. Well, we've now come to a point in time where the most valuable electron is the one that comes to market first, and solar provides that electron," Markocic said.

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Tract develops data center parks that pre-plan transmission capacity, water, sewer, roads and foundations to provide customers with immediate-use campuses. Silicon Ranch assists Tract with site acquisition and interconnection processes for utility-scale solar and battery projects.

“Our relationship with Silicon Ranch has developed over the past two years based on a joint recognition that delivering speed and certainty for tomorrow’s data center scale cannot rely on the processes and commercial models that have supported data center growth to date,” said Grant van Rooyen, Tract CEO and managing partner, in a news release.

Matching data center energy needs with existing solar projects in the pipeline is the prospect of Nora Esram's white paper for the American Council for an Energy Efficient Economy (ACEEE), "Turning Data Centers into Grid and Regional Assets."

"Eventually, we need to build more generation and transmission. But in the next three-to-five years, we can meet that demand by looking at what we already have — assets on the grid — to figure out, how do you optimize existing assets?" said Esram, former senior director for research at ACEEE and current CEO of the New Buildings Institute.

“Eventually, we need to build more generation and transmission. But in the next three-to-five years, we can meet that demand by looking at what we already have.”

Nora Esram • New Buildings Institute

A 2024 study by Berkeley Lab revealed nearly 2.6 GW of total generation and storage capacity was awaiting connection to the grid — over 95% of which was for zero-carbon resources like solar, wind and battery storage.

Although existing assets are plentiful, an additional push from state policy is necessary for data center developers to pursue renewables as their electricity demand soars, Esram said. These policy drivers could add state incentives for data centers that incorporate efficiency standards and contribute to the regional grid as a virtual power plant and/or microgrid.

"I think the problem is we do not have an easy way to measure what is considered a 'good behavior' data center yet. But that said, I think we know it's just a matter of getting a consensus of what that looks like, and have policymakers recognize that kind of measurement is the right way to know if this data center is a sustaining investment for their regional grid or state or region," Esram said.

The country is still figuring out how to manage the potential energy boom by hyperscaler AI data centers, but renewable energy could play an important role — with the right incentives in place. SPW

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PATENT FIGHTS

HOBBLE U.S. SOLAR

MANUFACTURING Kelly Pickerel • Editor in Chief

SEG

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Panel Technology

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his past year has been the season for intellectual property (IP) battles within the solar panel space. Most global solar panel manufacturers are involved in patent infringement lawsuits in U.S. courts in some way — either suing or being sued over tunnel oxide passivated contact (TOPCon) technology. Who has the right to produce advanced n-type solar panel designs in the United States means more than just determining ownership of a novel technology. Drawn-out legal fights could set the United States even further behind China in solar panel manufacturing ability.

Without access to n-type TOPCon cells, American panel assemblers are defaulting to p-type passivated emitter rear contact (PERC) cells for their domestic designs.

P-type cells have reached their maximum efficiency, but n-type cells can still become even better. While Asian brands continue to grow their n-type output, American brands are stalled out with their — still respectable, but ultimately inferior — p-type designs.

“There’s nothing wrong with p-type, it’s just that n-type is the next evolution,” said Elissa Pierce, solar module technology and markets research analyst for Wood Mackenzie. “P-type is being phased out because of its lower efficiencies. A lot of the top Chinese manufacturers are not even doing PERC anymore.”

Wood Mackenzie has found the Chinese solar panel manufacturing market to be producing 25% PERC and 75% n-type. Alternatively, Pierce is tracking 51.5 GW of operating module capacity in the United States, with 49% PERC, 30% n-type and 21% thin-film.

“It’s rare to come across new PERC capacity in China and even Southeast Asia,” she said. “The U.S. is definitely a little behind there.”

American solar panel manufacturers know they’re behind too. Jim Wood, CEO of Houston-based solar panel assembler SEG Solar, said his company would be more profitable if it could make n-type

panels, but the company only has access to p-type.

“Globally, the issue isn’t the same as it is in the United States. Everywhere else, they’re continuing to scale n-type,” he said. “If you’re leveraging more watts over the same fixed costs on a daily basis, it’s much better. We’re disappointed that we can’t do that in the United States.”

Technology review A conventional crystalline silicon solar cell consists of silicon wafer layers doped with various chemicals to encourage power production through a p-n junction. A positively charged p-type wafer layer and negatively charged n-type wafer layer are combined, with the thicker, lower layer noting the cell distinction. A p-type wafer usually is doped with boron, which has one fewer electron than silicon (making it positively charged). An n-type wafer

In general, n-type cells are more efficient and have longer lifespans than p-type cells, but p-type cells are more common and slightly cheaper to manufacture.

Now, a refresher on PERC and TOPCon: PERC cell technology was first developed in the 1980s and adds an extra layer to the rear-side of a silicon cell. Since PERC has been around so long and is the default silicon technology, it’s typically applied to p-type cells. PERC properties can be used with n-type cells, although that’s usually called high-efficiency passivated emitter rear totally-diffused (PERT) technology. Introduced in 2013, TOPCon pairs a tunneling oxide layer with an n-type PERT cell. The thin oxide layer on top of the cell acts as a barrier to contain unabsorbed light, making TOPCon cells more efficient and more powerful.

Generally, PERC cells are great, but TOPCon are better, especially in bifacial setups where they can absorb even more light from both sides of the module. Not all n-type designs are assumed to be TOPCon — back-contact and heterojunction technology (HJT) designs are both rooted in n-type structures — but having a TOPCon license is a surefire way to access n-type advantages.

“It’s rare to come across new PERC capacity in China and even Southeast Asia. The U.S. is definitely a little behind there.”

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Elissa Pierce • Wood Mackenzie

is doped with phosphorus, which has one more electron than silicon (making it negatively charged).

Although the first solar cell invented by Bell Labs in 1954 was n-type, the p-type structure became more dominant due to demand for solar technologies in space.

P-type cells proved to be more resistant to space radiation and degradation, and their tech trickled down to the consumer market.

In the last decade, more solar manufacturers began adopting n-type structures as “high-efficiency” became a stronger marketing tool. The use of phosphorus instead of boron in n-type cells provides immunity to boron-oxygen defects, which cause decreased efficiency and purity in p-type structures. N-type cells are therefore more efficient and not affected by light-induced degradation.

American manufacturing market The growing U.S. silicon solar panel market has depended on imported cells as the upstream supply chain gets established, and PERC cells have been a straightforward buy. Only two cell outfits are now in operation — Suniva in Georgia and ES Foundry in South Carolina — and the pair is making PERC designs, as neither explicitly has TOPCon licensing.

That doesn’t leave many options for domestic panel assemblers to get ahead.

SEG Solar, which sources cells from Southeast Asia and eventually its underconstruction facility in Indonesia, started assembling solar panels last year and

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averages 4,000 modules daily. Wood said customers are requesting p-type panels for the same reason SEG is stuck using PERC cells — the unknowns around n-type ownership in the United States.

“The market would really prefer n-type. You’re getting better energy density on rooftop and ground-mount sites. The world moves around internal rate of return, and they’re getting better returns on their project using n-type,” he said. “Unfortunately, there are some challenges in the United States with n-type, so we have seen many developers and IPPs pivot back to p-type. We’re having requests for very large quotes, out to 2027, for p-type. The issues around IP are scaring customers, and they’re buying what they feel is safe.”

In Tomball, Texas, Imperial Star Solar is operating a 2-GW solar panel assembly facility that is also using p-type PERC cells. Marvin Yang, sales and business development manager, said Imperial’s customers may not be specifically requesting n-type designs, but they are demanding higher power classes.

“Many customers prioritize power output to fit their system design, focusing on higher power within specific form factors to meet both output and compatibility requirements,” he said.

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Manufacturing lines at SEG Solar’s Texas facility.

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“Looking ahead, Imperial Star Solar anticipates a trend toward larger and more powerful panels. For domestically manufactured panels, the key will be striking a balance between technology, pricing and form factors to enable clients to optimize their system designs with reliable offerings.”

Pierce with Wood Mackenzie said once some of the IP lawsuit dust settles, existing PERC cell manufacturers like Suniva and ES Foundry can easily upgrade to TOPCon production.

“Many manufacturers are doing PERC right now and have everything in place to upgrade to TOPCon,” she said. “But there’s a lot of hesitancy. Not everyone has the money and lawyers that [global firms] have, so they don’t want to risk a lawsuit.”

There will be some American-made n-type TOPCon designs soon enough, especially as global names with patents like Canadian Solar, Qcells and Trina (through T1 Energy) finish building their own cell factories in the United States, but non-affiliated panel assemblers won’t have access to that exclusive tech. Only one

new name has recently secured a TOPCon license: Talon PV. Talon PV expects its 4-GW cell factory near Houston to be operational next year, and the company is licensing n-type TOPCon technology from First Solar, which gained the silicon patent through an acquisition. Talon has signed a cell supply deal with SEG Solar — a significant domestic advantage for the fellow Texas manufacturer.

“We chose to work with Talon and have a lot of confidence in their ability to deliver n-type next year. A lot of the calls I’m responding to are companies wanting to pivot from p-type to n-type with Talon, because they have some comfort around that,” Wood said.

Not only could SEG Solar then produce better-performing panels, the company could also receive more incentives for manufacturing n-type designs. The manufacturing production tax credit within the IRA (45X) credits panel manufacturers 7¢/W on each produced module.

“You go from a 550-W p-type to a 595W n-type and you’re getting significantly

more incentives per module coming off the line. You’re selling and producing more, so your economy of scale is much better,” Wood said. “We would greatly prefer to only be making n-type modules in Houston.”

Pierce said the U.S. manufacturing market could actually benefit from lengthy TOPCon patent infringement lawsuit timelines — it might push new domestic manufacturers to immediately jump to HJT. This n-type technology does require extra production steps to add amorphous silicon into the mix, but if every new factory in the United States is a blank page, it’s possible to look beyond TOPCon. “The U.S. is kind of in a good position, because everything is being built brand new. If you’re just building something brand new, then why not go to heterojunction?” Pierce said. “Everyone really thinks HJT is the next step after TOPCon. TOPCon is the intermediary, just because of how easy it is to convert from PERC. It’s harder to make that jump from PERC to heterojunction.” SPW

The first module off Imperial Star’s Texas manufacturing line.

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Inverter Technology Kelsey Misbrener • Managing Editor

Large-scale solar market starts shift to 2-kV projects In this uncertain time for the large-scale solar industry, with federal incentives up in the air and tariff wars on overdrive, any potential cost savings are welcomed. A change from 1.5-kV to 2-kV solar projects could provide just that to developers.

When voltage increases, current decreases, while power output remains the same, per the equation power (P) = voltage (V) times current (I). Allowing for less current while increasing voltage has many positive implications for system costs and designs.

"We're going to really enable the reduction of balance-of-system (BOS) costs by going to 2 kV," said Brian Nelson, renewables segment leader at ABB. "You're going to be able to add roughly 10 more modules per string, which means fewer strings per megawatt, which means fewer combiner boxes, which means less wiring. When current decreases, we can actually improve efficiencies through resistive losses."

ABB stopped making inverters in 2019 but is still involved in solar through its BOS manufacturing. The company makes the switch-disconnector, one of the elements in a utility combiner box. All elements of an array must be rated to 2 kV, including that switch, surge protectors and fuses.

Manufacturers are slowly announcing 2-kV compatible products but still waiting on standards to catch up to allow widespread deployment.

"We're trying to enable what the module OEMs are doing, what the inverter OEMs are doing, because we're the guts, or some of the guts, on the inside," Nelson said. "One of the limiting factors to how quickly 2 kV will take off is the supply of these components."

Just a handful of module-makers, including JinkoSolar and Trinasolar, have received UL certification for 2-kV panels, and racking manufacturers like 24

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Sungrow’s 2-kV inverter at an international pilot project. Sungrow

GameChange are also beginning to verify that their tracker products are compatible with 2 kV. "I've been really bullish about the speed at which this is happening. I think the more people that know it exists, the faster it'll be adopted. But yeah, absolutely need folks like GameChange out there saying, 'Hey, we're ready,'” Nelson said.

GE Vernova is one of the few inverter manufacturers with a 2-kV inverter deployed on a project in the United States. It's been in operation since midJanuary and has been running smoothly since then.

"GE Vernova has lots of mediumvoltage power electronics, so 2 kV is not anything that concerns us. It's just a good step for the industry to take in solar and storage," said Owen Schelenz, GE Vernova's power electronics leader.

The unnamed entity executing that pilot project gave GE Vernova the push to roll out the 2-kV FLEXINVERTER, and the company expects more interest from there.

"Everybody's trying to find that one thing to do to differentiate themselves a bit more. So I think the first to actually do

this at scale and install 30% fewer inverters, 30% fewer strings is likely going to be the one that then is a bit more competitive, that then forces others to follow, if we take history as a guide," Schelenz said. "There's going to be some time here to evaluate the pilot, and then after that, it's going to go pretty rapidly, because savings are savings."

Sungrow has made a 2-kV version of its SG 3600 inverter that is currently deployed on two utility pilot projects overseas. Utilities are the first to test new voltages like 2 kV since they're mostly subject to their own regulations vs. thirdparty developers that must follow stricter standards under utility purview.

"We are actively right now looking to team up with a U.S. entity that wants to try this out," said Daniel Friberg, director of product and engineering at Sungrow.

Friberg understands the industry hesitation to start working on 2-kV projects when standards aren't yet in place, but thinks it's up to manufacturers like Sungrow and others to start building their case.

"It has to be a push from the stakeholders, including inverter suppliers, to push for a change," he said. "Get some of the big utilities to install some

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Inverter Technology

of these, and then you de facto have these operating in the system. When people see that, that would lead to an enormous pressure on the standardization organizations to adopt and change."

Once developers can build with 2-kV components without utility preapproval, some projects that were on the edge of penciling may become viable.

"This is going to help projects become more cost-effective," Schelenz said.

"It might enable a few more projects, because now we have a better return."

The transition from 1 kV to 1.5 kV took around three years. Schelenz and Friberg expect this next jump to take about the same amount of time, but it won't end there. Manufacturer working groups are already looking ahead to 3-kV architectures.

"3 kV — now, you've got to get into supply chain issues that are maybe not as readily available as 2 kV," Schelenz said.

"I can find 2-kV cables. I can find 2-kV

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fuses. There's lots of stuff that's already available for 2 kV." A more immediate next step will be an increase to 2 kV for storage systems.

"Those conversations have been also happening, because similar advantages play into the battery world as they do in the PV world. You get less cables, you get more power density, which is a big deal for battery energy storage sites," Schelenz said.

Smaller string inverter-based projects may take more time to adopt 2 kV, but ABB is working on 2-kV-compatible circuit breakers for when that time comes.

"The big needle-mover is going to be the gridscale stuff, but the C&I space is very exciting as well," he said. SPW

ABB’s 2-kV switch was recently certified by UL. ABB

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Mounting Technology Billy Ludt • Senior Editor

Fixed-tilt racking still has a place in utility-scale solar Single-axis solar trackers have become the dominant structural choice for largescale solar construction in the United States, but there are scenarios where using fixed-tilt racking still makes the most sense.

Solar trackers have the advantage of generating more energy by pointing modules toward the sun. Mobile racking was installed in more than half of U.S. utility-scale solar projects starting in 2017, according to the U.S. Energy Information Administration.

American tracker manufacturers have stepped up to fulfill the domestic demand.

U.S. manufacturers produced 37 GWDC of solar trackers in 2023, a year where 32.4 GWDC of new solar was built in the country.

Fixed-tilt remains popular among ground-mounted projects in the distributed generation market and is still a viable racking choice for utility-scale arrays. It’s ideal for environments where trackers might falter — in high winds, heavy snow loads and steep topographies.

The lack of moving parts makes fixedtilt more suited to regions with extreme wind conditions, like the hurricane-prone Southeast. Trackers are programmed to stow module rows flat to reduce resistance

in high winds, which could negate the benefits of these more expensive mounting options if it’s happening too much.

“A lot of times, in order to accommodate those conditions, you’re not really tracking anymore, so you’re not getting the benefit of the tracker,” said Dave Wilson, director of engineering at OMCO Solar, a fixed-tilt and solar tracker manufacturer. “You’re essentially a fixedtilt system during those conditions.”

While trackers are making strides in adapting to uneven landscapes, fixed-tilt racking has a longer history of working

Installers place modules on a fixed-tilt racking unit. APA Solar Racking

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Mounting Technology

on these sites. Each fixed-tilt unit is relatively small and can angle panel bays at shorter intervals than a tracker. Having higher slope tolerances reduces the grading necessary to prepare a solar project site, as well — a costly prospect in solar construction.

Additionally, standard fixed-tilt models are more lightweight than trackers, meaning fixed-tilt can be deployed in tougher soil conditions, like rock and sand, while requiring less engineering for foundations. Trackers have adopted specialized foundations like ground screws and helical piles to ensure they still work in those conditions.

But in the solar market, they originated in fixed-tilt construction.

“There is a lot of different loads that go into a tracker,” said Josh Von Deylen, CEO of APA Solar Racking. “It is a moving piece, so when you get into some poor soil conditions, like very soft soils, maybe a helical foundation with a fixed-tilt solution is a much better option.”

Fixed-tilt can also be installed at higher system density than trackers. Tracker arrays must account for inter-row shading, when one solar module row casts shade on another. By reducing panel angles and tightening rows, fixed-tilt projects can significantly increase their generation without the worry of shade, all while using less land.

Fixed-tilt costs Fixed-tilt racking costs less to manufacture than trackers thanks to fewer components involved. The simpler design results in fewer truckloads of racking components to sites and less specialized labor requirements on install days.

“If the labor rate is low, you might not care as much. If the labor rate is high, and if there’s prevailing wages driving the labor rates up, or you’re in some part of the U.S. that has high labor rates, that goes into the mix as well, and that pushes it toward fixed,” said Matt Kesler, director of solar technology at OMCO Solar.

Using fixed-tilt racking reduces the level of operations and maintenance required on a project post-construction too. With no parts to keep moving, O&M duties shift to upkeep of the site itself and electrical components.

Trackers will likely stay the popular choice for utility-scale solar projects. However, when the wind is too strong, the land is too uneven or the cost is too much, fixed-tilt racking could be the right fit. SPW

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In certain cases, fixed-tilt racking can make more sense than trackers, like on very hilly land and in regions with high winds.

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Storage Technology Kelly Pickerel • Editor in Chief

New UL testing shows how residential batteries react to fires

With residential batteries often installed near household objects and additional batteries, specific safety testing was needed.

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When large-scale energy storage systems catch fire, there are understandably many headlines and safety reviews that follow, due to their scale and greater risk to property and life. A January 2025 fire destroyed nearly 300 MW of the Moss Landing energy storage facility in Santa Cruz, California, closing a nearby highway and temporarily evacuating 1,200 residents. No injuries or deaths were reported, but the situation has placed more scrutiny on battery installation safety.

Local fire officials knew how to handle the emergency at Moss Landing — which was ultimately blamed on thermal runaway and a fire suppression system failure — due to standards like UL 9540 and NFPA 855. These two standards provide assurance to installers and safety

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personnel that batteries, when installed correctly, are safe for operation. And now, additional testing from UL assures compact neighborhoods that residential energy storage systems are installed with safety as the highest priority.

Residential focus UL first offered the UL 9540 standard for safety of energy storage systems and equipment in 2016, and batteries receive the certification by using certified products and completing 9540A testing.

The 9540A test method purposely pushes the batteries into thermal runaway to see how flames spread. The batteries can’t pass or fail the test, but their reaction in a fire helps inform fire personnel how best to handle them in emergency situations

— whether that means installing specific fire suppression systems or requiring more space around the units to thwart a bigger blaze.

The 9540A test looks at what happens to one energy storage system alone. In residential setups, multiple batteries are often installed beside each other or in stacked designs. Fire marshals requested more testing data for these common residential designs, and UL responded in 2024 with the 9540B testing method for systems 20 kWh or smaller.

“9540A will test one energy storage system: What happens in a fire condition?

What happens if there are faults inside the energy storage system?” said Michael Slowinske, director of principal engineering with UL Solutions. “9540B

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Storage Technology

looks at if that system is installed on a wall, under an eave, under a ceiling [or] next to other energy storage systems.”

With residential energy storage systems commonly mounted in garages or basements, there were concerns about combustible items nearby, such as gasoperated lawn equipment, natural gas furnaces, paint cans or aerosols — things not associated with utility-scale battery projects. UL 9540B looks at how a battery fire may spread to nearby items, including additional energy storage systems.

“For wall-mounted units, we initiate a fire in one, which is called the initiating unit. Then there are other target units mounted next to or above or below.

We see what happens in the target units,” Slowinske said. “If [batteries are] intended to be mounted under an eave, we would simulate that by building a wall with an eave, which helps capture heat.”

Whereas 9540A testing is required to get the full UL 9540 listing, 9540B is voluntary. Certain jurisdictions, especially

in markets with a high residential battery deployment rate, may want to see 9540B test results to better train emergency personnel on what to do in case of an accident.

“The fire service wants to know when they’re responding to a call what they’re running into. They want more information and detail on the size of the fire and how the fire can spread,” Slowinske said. “All of that information is part of a 9540A and 9540B test report. It informs the installer, the building owner and the fire service how these behave in a fire situation, and that helps them be ready for their response.”

While still relatively new, some battery manufacturers are already voluntarily completing the 9540B testing, Slowinske said. Many jurisdictions in California, one of the country’s largest residential battery markets, have required large-scale fire testing on residential energy storage systems, and 9540B was designed to support the request. Manufacturers

completing the testing can more quickly sell their products in this coveted market.

The National Fire Protection Association is currently gathering information on a proposed new standard for battery safety, due to the technology’s increasing use in an array of applications, including home energy backup.

“Currently, codes and standards exist which address aspects of battery safety, but there is no single, comprehensive code that harmonizes all pertinent codes and standards as the bigger picture,” NFPA stated. “Creating a new standard specifically addressing fire, electrical, life safety and property protection issues related to batteries will allow focused attention on the unique challenges posed by batteries.”

More safety codes may be coming to the residential battery space, but at least fire safety is being taken more seriously now with UL 9540B testing. SPW

UL 9540A testing only focuses on one individual battery. Multi-battery setups like this one have different safety considerations.

FranklinWH

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AI and other smart technology is transforming the landscape of solar installation, adding new quality assurances and highlighting potential failure points before they happen.

In this special section on solar operations and maintenance, we take a look at new tool features that ensure proper bolt torquing and algorithms that help predict problems in advance on large solar arrays. We also highlight the latest strategies for pest control on rooftop solar projects. SPW

A Solar Power World Special Section

Milwaukee Tool

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Moving beyond reactive: How predictive maintenance is transforming solar operations in the age of AI Will White • solar application specialist • Fluke Corporation Matthew Messer • former founder and CEO • American Solar Company This year, the U.S. solar industry reached a major milestone, surpassing 5 million solar installations. This figure is expected to double by 2030 and triple by 2034. As solar adoption continues to accelerate, ensuring the efficient maintenance of these assets becomes increasingly important. Solar asset management and O&M is key to maximizing system performance and longevity. Traditionally, solar maintenance has been categorized into two approaches: reactive and preventive.

Reactive maintenance addresses issues only after they occur, while preventive maintenance schedules inspections and repairs to avoid problems in the first place. While both methods are widely used, the emergence of AI is ushering in a new paradigm of maintenance that can predict problems before they occur. By

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leveraging AI, operators can improve energy output, reduce downtime and cut costs.

The evolution of solar asset management The debate between reactive and preventive maintenance has long been a topic of discussion, but predictive maintenance is proving to be the future of asset management. In an era where data is king, harnessing the power of insights to maintain solar assets is not just smart — it's necessary. Unplanned downtime costs industrial manufacturers around $50 billion annually. Predictive maintenance, in contrast, can increase productivity by 25%, reduce breakdowns by 70% and lower maintenance costs by 25%.

AI, combined with data from sensors and monitoring systems, gives asset owners a competitive edge. Algorithms

can analyze meteorological data to optimize energy generation, while AIdriven tools predict when and where maintenance is needed based on realtime performance data.

The integration of AI into solar O&M is already underway, with more than 50 potential applications identified in the energy sector and a $13 billion investment in AI technologies.

Companies like SenseHawk and Raptor Maps use drones with thermal imaging to inspect solar installations and detect anomalies such as hotspots, defective panels and shading issues. Fluke, a tool manufacturer, is enhancing the capabilities of their products with AI too. Last year, the company acquired Azima DLI, an AI-powered condition monitoring and vibration analytics platform to enhance their remote monitoring capabilities. SmartHelio uses AI to optimize solar array cleaning

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schedules based on real-time data, illustrating the growing role of AI in maintenance.

A decade ago, solar O&M tools lacked the sophistication we see today. Now, AI is enabling a level of predictive insight that was once unimaginable. AI algorithms can analyze vast datasets, from aerial thermography photos to sensor readings from solar modules, identifying small anomalies that signal potential issues before they escalate.

The future of solar AI’s role in predictive maintenance is set to be transformative, fundamentally changing how solar assets are managed.

Advanced technologies such as dronebased thermal imaging, AI-driven soiling detection, machine learning algorithms for inverter diagnostics and AI-based weather pattern analysis are changing traditional approaches to maintenance. For example,

AI models are increasingly being used to predict solar irradiance by analyzing weather patterns from satellite data. These models can learn from historical weather data and identify complex patterns to predict future solar irradiance with high accuracy.

Inverters are especially susceptible to failures that can cause significant energy losses. Machine-learning algorithms are being deployed to analyze inverter error logs and operational data, enabling the prediction and diagnosis of faults. This capability allows operators to optimize resource allocation by dispatching maintenance crews only when necessary.

This targeted approach also minimizes labor costs and reduces downtime.

Researchers at the University of Lisbon developed a machine-learning algorithm that monitors inverter subsystems and sends alerts when anomalies arise. By analyzing data and comparing variables

against historical benchmarks, the algorithm can identify faults such as grid overvoltage, undervoltage and overfrequency. Tests on ground-mounted PV systems show this approach effectively predicts and classifies inverter failures, highlighting its potential to boost the reliability and efficiency of solar projects.

As solar installations expand globally, the ability to maintain these systems efficiently over decades becomes increasingly important. AI is leading the way in this shift and driving innovation in the solar industry. According to a recent study, 77% of companies plan to transition to predictive maintenance in the near future, with AI seen as the key enabler of this evolution. The widespread adoption of AI-powered solutions is poised to enhance solar energy’s reliability, ensuring that installations continue to produce clean power. SPW

Predictive maintenance using AI and other tools can ensure maximum uptime for solar projects. Fluke

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Accurate torque values mean less time spent on O&M later Kelly Pickerel • editor in chief • Solar Power World During racking and panel installation at large-scale solar projects, thousands and thousands of bolts must be fastened at just-the-right torque level to ensure the array stays together. Too tight and the bolts can damage the long-term structural integrity of the system. Too loose and things could wiggle out of place. That’s why proper torquing at installation is an important factor in successful operations and maintenance.

Mark Kelly, group manager of product marketing at Milwaukee Tool, said he has seen audits of solar projects that show a broad distribution of torque values, with

some sites having upward of 80% of bolts at incorrect levels despite passing quality checks.

“Incorrect torquing is a common problem on solar projects,” Kelly said.

“The traditional two-step method, which involves first fastening the bolt with an impact wrench and then manually torquing it with a click-style torque wrench, is highly dependent on operator technique. This can lead to poor torque repeatability and significant over-torquing.”

There are various tools and techniques that can bring consistency to torquing.

Torque sticks absorb additional impacts when they reach a preset torque level.

Some installers avoid using batterypowered tools to prevent under-torquing due to low battery voltages. Still more technicians rely on markers to record a bolt’s tightness to see if it moves over time.

All of these suggestions aren’t 100% reliable, though. Milwaukee aims to improve this area for solar installers. The company’s M18 FUEL impact wrench is available with TORQUE-SENSE, a sensor that helps with repeatable torque values.

Smart tools such as torque sensors help avoid some of the most common failure points on solar projects.

Milwaukee Tool

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Milwaukee’s ONE-KEY platform captures all installation data in one place.

“This tool provides repeatable torque results, ensuring consistent and reliable fastening, which is crucial for the quality and safety of solar installations,” Kelly said.

It’s not a physical add-on to the existing impact wrench like a torque stick, as all the brains are in the impact wrench itself. Instead of a two-step process, one tool delivers the needed torque value.

Milwaukee also offers ONE-KEY technology, a platform that records every trigger pull, capturing data such as target torque levels and error reports. The recorded data helps identify potential issues early, allowing for proactive maintenance and reducing downtime.

Kelly said access to ONE-KEY data can be customized based on a project’s needs, but typically individual installers, EPCs and asset managers can see the torque numbers.

“EPCs can access data to help ensure torque control settings are being utilized and to manage tool usage across multiple projects. Project managers can track tool performance, utilization and maintenance schedules to optimize project efficiency,” he said. “Quality assurance teams can use the data to verify that installations meet required standards and to generate reports for auditing purposes. Individual tool owners can customize settings, track tool location and monitor usage to prevent loss and ensure proper maintenance.”

Using automated tools like these takes away some of the guesswork around the necessary maintenance on a solar project’s thousands of bolts. Everything must still be properly checked throughout a system’s lifespan, but at least project owners know the bolts were torqued correctly the first time.

“Ensuring accurate and repeatable torque application is crucial for the safety, reliability and longevity of solar projects,” Kelly said. SPW

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Top strategies to keep pests out of rooftop solar arrays Marshall Poland • founder • Slick Tools LLC

CritterBlok Solar Animal Guard Clip by Slick Tools secures wire mesh to panels.

Pests threaten the performance and longevity of solar systems long before a chewed wire exposes the problem.

Reduced energy generation and costly structural damages are at stake, and as much as racoons may be responsible for them, they’re not the ones held accountable.

For solar installers and contractors, understanding and implementing the latest effective pest exclusion solutions is not just a value-added service. It’s a critical part of ensuring the long-term viability of solar investments and the health of client relationships. In other words: it’s time to retire the plastic zip ties.

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Understanding the threat of pests to solar panels Animal problems can occur anywhere, and sometimes in very concentrated, seemingly inexplicable ways. One neighborhood may experience large infestations while solar users across town remain unaffected. One house may be pest-free until a neighbor installs a critter guard, and the evicted animals move next door.

While specific pest situations vary by region (or even neighborhood block), the table on the right shows the most common troublemakers for PV systems.

Pest Type

Potential Damage to Solar Panels

Birds (Pigeons, Sparrows, Gulls)

Droppings block sunlight; nesting debris obstructs airflow; damage to wiring.

Rodents (Squirrels, Rats, Mice)

Chewing on wires causing ground faults and fire hazards; nesting debris; potential for roof rot.

Other Wildlife (Raccoons)

Physical damage to roof; tunneling into attic.

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Raccoon damage underneath an array.

Looking specifically at residential flushmount solar systems, there are several proven strategies installers can use to avoid infestations and damages.

The latest physical barrier strategies Physical barriers are a reliable method for protecting solar projects. When installed correctly, these barriers seal off the perimeter of a solar array between the roof and the module frame. These are the different physical pest barriers for solar arrays: Fencing material options Advancements in wire mesh materials and tools continue to make it a leading choice for pest prevention. Typically available in rolls with widths of 4 to 10 in., wire mesh can be cut and shaped to fit specific dimensions of a solar array. Any wire mesh worth its weight is made from galvanized steel and coated with PVC or polyester to enhance its durability and corrosion resistance.

To streamline the install process, specialty tools for transporting, dispensing and cutting coiled wire mesh are available.

Several manufacturers also offer pre-cut wire mesh panels to accommodate nonuniform surfaces, like tile roofs. These recent developments can significantly reduce installation time.

Another physical barrier option is perforated sheet metal, typically made from corrosion-resistant aluminum with a black polyester coating. The key difference here is the attachment method, which is further explained below.

Lastly, wire spikes are a deterrent available primarily to prevent birds from perching and nesting on or around solar panels. While effective against birds and relatively easy to install (they can be adjusted to conform to non-uniform roof surfaces), they may leave openings for rodents or other small mammals to get through.

Attachment methods Another important consideration in pest exclusion is the attachment method for the chosen deterrent. Installers need to weigh

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the ease of installation, integrity and longevity of the methods available.

Rail mount The rail mount method attaches wire mesh directly to the PV racking components — not the modules themselves. This allows for easier serviceability in the future, as PV modules can be removed without disturbing the barrier. This method provides strong attachment points capable of resisting snow and wind loads, and uses inexpensive self-tapping screws for attachment. The rail mount method is typically used in conjunction with wire mesh C- or L-channels.

Specialty clips Specialty clips, like the ubiquitous J-hooks consisting of a hooked wire and pushnut, attach wire mesh directly to the

PV module frame and are quick to install.

The downside of all such clips is that they must be removed and replaced during any future service on the PV array. Fortunately, there are several new clips on the market that grip mesh more securely than J-hooks and are easier to remove and reuse.

While the installation speed and low cost of J-hooks are attractive, installers must weigh that against their durability and serviceability. Note that most specialty clips require the PV module frame to have a flange on its underside, which is not present on certain modules.

Adhesives The appeal of adhesive (typically doublesided tape) attachment is its broad compatibility with PV modules. A strong attachment is possible if installers wait for temperatures to fall within the required

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The Hog Ring Gun by Slick Tools is used to join sections of wire mesh fencing for solar critter guard.

range and clean the mating surfaces meticulously. Unfortunately, the more durable an adhesive bond, the more difficult it is to remove and replace if the PV array requires service down the road.

Installers should carefully consider the age and health of the array (and its likelihood of requiring future service) before using this style of attachment.

Installation best practices Following these best practices during installation is key to achieving optimal and long-lasting results for physical barriers: Bending mesh wire The integrity of a wire mesh barrier is vastly improved when creased along its length. Bending mesh into an L- or C-channel allows for longer spans between attachments because the creases add stiffness and strength.

Secure joining techniques In the past, installers have used plastic zip

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ties to join multiple sections of wire to create a continuous barrier around the solar array. These have proven ineffective for long-term use due to exposure to UV rays that degrade the plastic, causing them to become brittle and break over time. Instead, installers can opt for durable alternatives like metal hog rings and stainless steel zip ties. Metal hog rings are an economical and efficient solution, especially when used with a specialized hog ring tool, which allows for quick installation.

Considering non-physical pest deterrents While physical barriers offer the most reliable long-term solution, there are other strategies that use light, high-frequency sound or smells to make environments less appealing to animals. Non-physical deterrents may be worth considering for specific use cases — particularly

A squirrel’s nest underneath solar panels.

large commercial sites where physical exclusion is not economical — but their effectiveness varies.

Protecting the lifespan and performance of solar arrays is important to system owners, and thus to installers’ reputations and client relationships.

Fortunately, recent innovations in fencing and attachment products — and the tools to transport, fold and cut wire mesh — make it easier than ever to incorporate a strong pest exclusion strategy into solar installation. SPW

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