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Vol. 80 • No 5
Contents SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2026
10 ways to use lean
principles for a maintenance plan Cover Image courtesy: Adobe Stock
VIEWPOINT 5 | Plants without a succession plan are vulnerable to disruption In addition to keeping pace with technology, succession planning with staff is vital to plant success.
INSIGHTS 8 | Next-gen VFDs: Experts reveal the trends shaping motor control The next generation of VFDs demand greater security, but they also open a world of improved motor control functionality and efficiency.
SOLUTIONS 13 | Ten ways to use lean principles for a maintenance plan Many companies have embraced lean manufacturing concepts but haven’t always extended those insights to maintenance procedures.
16 | How to write and evaluate a plant’s emergency drills The value of an emergency drill lies in its ability to reveal performance data and expose operational weak points.
p.8
22 | Focus spill disaster teams with the stop, contain, report response Spills can be mitigated when employees understand safety, containment, reporting or escalation responsibilities.
p.16
26 | Circuit protection: The unsung guardians of electrical, power systems Circuit protection devices are critical yet often overlooked components that keep modern electrical systems safe, reliable and resilient.
p.31
31 | How to ensure arc-flash labels match the way a plant runs What can be done when arc-flash labels don’t match the way a plant is running? Learn ways to ensure electrical safety is managed correctly.
36 | Why valves and seals are important in compressed air systems
p.36
Manufacturing maintenance professionals should understand valves and seals within compressed air systems.
PLANT ENGINEERING ( Vol. 80, No. 5, ISSN 0032-082X, USPS PUBLICATION #790920 ) is published bimonthly by Arrowfly, 1111 Superior Ave., Suite 1120, Cleveland, OH 44114. Periodicals postage paid at Cleveland, OH and additional mailing offices. POSTMASTER: Send address changes to PLANT ENGINEERING, 1111 Superior Ave., Suite 1120, Cleveland, OH 44114. PLANT ENGINEERING copyright 2026 by Arrowfly. All rights reserved. PLANT ENGINEERING is a registered trademark of Arrowfly used under license. Circulation records are maintained at Arrowfly; 1111 Superior Ave., Suite 1120, Cleveland, OH 44114. Publications Mail Agreement No. 40685520. Return undeliverable Canadian addresses to: 1111 Superior Ave., Suite 1120, Cleveland, OH 44114. Rates for non-qualified subscriptions, including all issues: USA, $120/yr; Canada/Mexico, $150/yr (includes 7% GST, GST#123397457); International air delivery $260/yr. Except for special issues where price changes are indicated, single copies are available for $30 US, $35 foreign. Please address all subscription mail to: PLANT ENGINEERING, 1111 Superior Ave., Suite 1120, Cleveland, OH 44114. Printed in the USA. Arrowfly, does not assume and hereby disclaims any liability to any person for any loss or damage caused by errors or omissions in the material contained herein, regardless of whether such errors result from negligence, accident or any other cause whatsoever. PLANT ENGINEERING does not endorse any products, programs, or services of advertisers or editorial contributors. Copyright© 2026 by Arrowfly. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, or by recording, or by any information storage or retrieval systems, without written permission from the publisher.
Plant engineering — www.plantengineering.com
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CONTENT
INSIGHTS
CONTENT SPECIALISTS/EDITORIAL
VIEWPOINT
AMARA ROZGUS, Editor-in-Chief ARozgus@Arrowfly.com
SHERI KASPRZAK, Executive Editor SKasprzak@Arrowfly.com MICHAEL SMITH, Art Director MSmith@Arrowfly.com AMANDA PELLICCIONE, Marketing Research Manager APelliccione@Arrowfly.com
EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD H. LANDIS “LANNY” FLOYD, IEEE Life Fellow JOHN GLENSKI, Principal, Automation & Digital Strategy, Plus Group, A Salas O'Brien Company MATTHEW GOSS, PE, PMP, CEM, CEA, CDSM, LEED AP, Senior Vice President, CDM Smith
CONTRIBUTORS WANTED Are you a subject matter expert in one of these topics? Would you like to write an article on one of the topics below? If so, please submit an idea to: www.plantengineering.com/contribute-to-plant-engineering • Circuit protection in electrical/power systems • Compressed air systems • Environmental health • Expert Q&A: Plant automation • Expert Q&A: VFDs and VSDs • Fall protection guidelines • Lean maintenance • Lubrication and grease • Preventive maintenance • Remote monitoring • Safety training for emergencies
Arrowfly Contributor Guidelines Overview Content For Engineers. Arrowfly focuses on engineers sharing with their peers. We welcome content submissions for all interested parties in engineering. We will use those materials online, on our website, in print and in newsletters to keep engineers informed about the products, solutions and industry trends. The link below gives an overview of how to submit press releases, products, images and graphics, bylined feature articles, case studies, white papers and other media. * Content should focus on helping engineers solve problems. Articles that are commercial in nature or that are critical of other products or organizations will be rejected. (Technology discussions and comparative tables may be accepted if nonpromotional and if contributor corroborates information with sources cited.) * If the content meets criteria noted in guidelines, expect to see it first on the website. Content for enewsletters comes from content already available on the website. All content for print also will be online. All content that appears in the print magazine will appear as space permits, and we will indicate in print if more content from that article is available online. * Deadlines for feature articles vary based on where it appears. Print-related content is due at least three months in advance of the publication date. Again, it is best to discuss all feature articles with the content manager prior to submission. LEARN MORE AT: www.plantengineering.com/contributeto-plant-engineering
Plant engineering — www.plantengineering.com
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Plants without a succession plan are vulnerable to disruption In addition to keeping pace with technology, succession planning with staff is vital to plant success.
F
and history of their facilities. They or 19 years, I have had the know why a system was designed a privilege of being connected certain way, which recurring probto Plant Engineering in some lems require special attention and capacity, first as a senior ediwhat early warning signs should not tor and most recently as editor-inbe ignored and cannot afford chief. During that time, the to let that expertise walk out brand, the audience and the door. the manufacturing world it Effective succession planserves have changed draning starts with identifymatically. It has been a priving critical roles and critical ilege to help guide Plant knowledge. Which positions Engineering through many would create the greatest disof those changes. Amara Rozgus, ruption if they were suddenThe publication has sharpEditor-in-Chief ly vacant? Which employees ened its technical focus, hold specialized process knowledge, expanded its educational mission maintenance history or customer and through webcasts, grown its online supplier relationships? Which tasks presence and strengthened its enewsare understood by only one or two letters and ebooks. people? As I step away from this role, I do From there, companies should so with appreciation for the audience, document procedures, create mencontributors, advisers and colleagues toring relationships and give emergwho have made this work meaningful. ing leaders opportunities to learn Succession planning often is treatbefore a crisis occurs. Cross-trained as a human resources exercise or a ing should be intentional, not occaleadership topic reserved for the execsional. Younger employees should be utive suite. It should be much more invited into problem-solving discusthan that. In a plant environment, sions, shutdown planning, reliability succession planning is about contireviews and capital project convernuity, safety, productivity and knowlsations. Experienced workers should edge transfer. It is about making sure be given time and support to teach, the organization does not lose years of coach and record what they know. experience when one person retires, Succession planning also requires changes roles or leaves unexpectedly. a culture that values knowledge That challenge is becoming more sharing. Employees should not feel urgent as baby boomers retire at a that sharing expertise reduces their rapid pace. Many of these employvalue. It increases the organization’s ees have spent decades learning the resilience. PE equipment, processes, shortcuts, risks September/October 2026
|5 9/28/26 10:50 AM
TO BE READY FOR WHAT’S NEXT. The market evolves. Capabilities must evolve with it. Weldbend continues to invest in new, updated equipment to expand its already extensive capabilities. As the market demand increases, we are working to scale with it to keep our valued distributors supplied with domestic carbon steel butt-weld fittings and carbon steel flanges.
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INSIGHTS VFD/VSD
Next-gen VFDs: Experts reveal the trends shaping motor control The next generation of variable frequency drives demand greater security, but they also open a world of improved motor control functionality and efficiency. Our expert panel discusses the latest VFD trends. Question: What are some of the current trends for variable frequency drives and variable speed drives (VFDs and VSDs) for industrial and manufacturing facilities?
Learning
Objectives
u
•U nderstand the latest trends in variablefrequency drives (VFDs) and variable-speed drives (VSDs). •A nalyze the proper applications for various VFDs and VSDs. • I nvestigate the efficiency and energy savings potential for VFDs and VSDs.
Dan Furrow: The Cyber Resilience Act (CRA), which aims to safeguard connectable devices against cyber-attacks, will have a major impact on VFDs. Although these requirements are specific to Europe, global manufacturers will need to ensure that their products are compliant as well. The demand to improve manufacturing efficiency and reduce multiple points of failure is also driving an interest in VFDs. Beyond just controlling the speed of a motor, VFDs can provide critical intel into the state of equipment across the plant floor. By measuring several critical data points, they can determine if a process is running as intended and, in some cases, alert to issues before they happen — all without the need for extra sensors. Kevin Wahl: Rapid adoption continues, observing a trend including smaller horsepower motors (<10HP) for all loads. Michael Blass: One growing trend in VFD technology is the increase in integrated safety functionality. These capabilities can help manufacturers improve machine and workplace safety while reducing the need for additional external components. Integrating more safety functions directly into the
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drive can simplify system design, reduce installation requirements and make certain safety improvements more cost-effective. For manufacturers modernizing existing equipment, these advancements can provide opportunities to improve safety without requiring the same level of additional hardware or significant investment that may have been necessary in the past. Q: What long-term trends do you see for VFDs and VSDs, looking ahead to the next six to 12 months? Dan Furrow: Long-term, manufacturers will need to put a greater focus on ensuring their devices (including VFDs) are secure against cyber threats. We’ve seen several high-profile attacks on industrial infrastructure, with no sign of slowing down. Manufacturers that don’t have robust cybersecurity strategies in place will find themselves at greater risk. Over the next year, predictive maintenance will also continue to take center stage. Instead of relying on preventive maintenance strategies that are calendar-based, manufacturers are beginning to investigate how equipment is being used to predict component failure and avoid potential downtime. It’s analogous to a fuel gauge in a car. What began as a simple “full” or “empty” reading is now much more pinpointed as the car’s technology can leverage specific driving patterns to predict how many miles can be driven on one tank of gas. Kevin Wahl: Group installs are trending — especially for climate-control-driven by industrialized data center applications. Q: What are the primary advantages of using VFDs in motor control applications compared to other methods, such as soft starters or direct-online starting? Plant engineering — www.plantengineering.com
9/28/26 10:52 AM
Participants
Michael Blass
Design Team Manager Concept Systems, Inc. Albany, Oregon
Kevin Wahl,
BSME Lead Consultation Engineer Southwire LLC Carrollton, Georgia
FIGURE 1 : Modern VFD installations combine flexible motor control with increasingly sophisticated communication and diagnostic capabilities. Courtesy: Concept Systems Inc.
Edward Tom: When it comes to VFDs in a motor control application, one overlooked advantage is the reduction in stress in the system. Electrically, the large reduction in current when starting a motor across the line will result in less stress in the wiring feeding the VFD. Mechanically you can control the acceleration of the motor, reducing the amount of stress that mechanical components like belts, pulleys or gearboxes will see. Michael Blass: VFDs can improve both the quality and efficiency of hardware installation compared with other motor control methods. They also provide greater flexibility through speed control, allowing customers to make adjustments that are not possible with fixed-speed applications. Even in systems traditionally designed to run at a constant speed, that added adjustability can be valuable for fine-tuning equipment performance and accommodating changes in process requirements. This combination of installation efficiency and greater control can make VFDs a versatile option for many industrial motor applications. Kevin Wahl: Energy savings (affinity curves), tighter control parameters tied to the process automation, real time diagnostics and cost considerations are improving. Q: How do you select the appropriate size and rating of a VFD and VSD for a specific motor application? What are the key factors that need to be considered in this process? Edward Tom: There are three things that you need when selecting a VFD — voltage, horsepower and current. Ensure the VFD's voltage rating matchPlant engineering — www.plantengineering.com
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es that of your incoming power, the horsepower and current of the VFD is equal to or greater than the motor's rating. Edward Tom Dan Furrow Kevin Wahl: InvertProduct Manager, Drives Senior Vice President and er duty rating on motors, Yaskawa America, Inc. General Manager load application (torque Waukegan, Illinois U.S. Industrial, or speed), conducGlobal Accounts and International Markets tor lengths, grounding Wesco schemes, 125% full load Atlanta, Georgia amps considerations and group ampacities. Inclusion of disconnects, lock out, tag out (LOTO). Michael Blass: Selecting the appropriate VFD starts with understanding the motor horsepower requirements based on the mass and acceleration of the load, along with whether the application requires fixed or variable speed operation. The motor’s service factor should also be considered, as it may require selecting a VFD one horsepower size above the motor’s rated horsepower. Beyond sizing, the application’s safety requirements are an important consideration, including how safety functions u will be integrated into the control system and whethu Integrated safety er that communication will be hardwired or handled functionality is a top through a serial communication network. trend for VFDs and VSDs. VFDs can produce harmonics that may affect the u Manufacturers should power system and other connected equipment. What put an increased focus are the most effective methods to mitigate harmonic on securing their drives distortion in VFD applications? from cyber threats. Michael Blass: Line-side reactors are a standard u Artificial intelligence (AI) will have a profound method for mitigating harmonics in VFD appliimpact on VFDs from a cations. By adding impedance on the input side of predictive maintenance perspective. the drive, they can help reduce harmonic distor-
Insights
September/October 2026
|9 9/28/26 10:52 AM
INSIGHTS VFD/VSD
FIGURE 2 : This multi-drive control panel illustrates how VFDs can provide flexible, individualized motor control across complex industrial systems. Courtesy: Concept Systems Inc.
‘
Troubleshooting common faults is like putting together a puzzle. Take it one pieceat a time. — Edward Tom, Yaskawa America Inc.
’
tion and limit its impact on the electrical system and other connected equipment. Depending on the application and the level of harmonic mitigation required, filters and transformers can also be used to provide additional protection. Selecting the appropriate solution depends on the characteristics of the facility’s electrical system, the VFD installation and the sensitivity of other equipment connected to the system. Edward Tom: When it comes to line harmonics, there are multiple ways to reduce harmonics. Each one will depend on how much you want to reduce the harmonic distortion. Adding line impedance like a line reactor or DC link choke will provide you some harmonic mitigation benefits, but if you're needing more, consider methods like 12-pulse input, harmonic filter or an active front end drive like a matrix drive. Dan Furrow: Harmonics are a system issue, not a problem tied to just a single piece of hardware. However, we recommend incorporating both active and passive harmonic filters that are right sized for the system as they can help mitigate any harmonics that are created by the drive. Incorporating Active Front End (AFE) units can also eliminate harmonics caused by an individual VFD. These AFEs can also be used to help with line regeneration and eliminate the need for braking modules. Q: What are the key differences between scalar control and vector control techniques in VFDs? In which scenarios is each method preferred? Edward Tom: There are certainly a lot of nuances when it comes to scalar versus vector control, but in general, the key difference is how the motor is controlled and what the result rotational speed is. In scalar mode or V/Hz mode, the VFD will output a set frequency, and the rotational speed of the motor can vary based on load, i.e. the greater the load, the higher the slip, the slower the motor will rotate. In vector control, it will try and achieve a
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rotational speed that lines up with the speed reference provided. That way, if you want the motor to be rotating at 1,234 RPM, it will make the necessary adjustments to provide the torque and frequency to have the motor rotating at 1,234 RPM. Dan Furrow: Vector control is best suited for higher torque at lower speeds. This can be useful in extruder applications, positive displacement pumps, conveyors and other similar applications. Scalar control is preferable when the application doesn’t require precise torque control or fast, dynamic response. This method is most often utilized in applications where cost and simplicity are the driving factors, such as fans and pumps. Michael Blass: Scalar (V/Hz) changes motor speed by changing the frequency of the voltage output to the motor. While vector control changes aspects of the motor flux and torque independent of each other. Scalar is best for basic applications like pumps and conveyors. Vector is generally used for complex applications like cranes, elevators and other high-starting torque applications. Q: How do you assess the efficiency and energy-saving potential of a VFD installation in a motor-driven system? Are there any standard methodologies or tools for this evaluation? Michael Blass: Unlike across-the-line starters, which run a motor at a fixed speed regardless of actual process demand, a VFD adjusts motor speed and torque to match the load. This can provide significant energy savings in variable-load applications such as pumps and fans. Efficiency can be evaluated by comparing the system’s operating profile, motor load, run time and energy consumption before and after VFD implementation. Manufacturer sizing tools and energy calculators can also help estimate potential savings and payback. Edward Tom: Fan and pumps are usually the easier applications to estimate the energy-savings potential since most will have similar energy usage profiles when comparing either damper or valve when using a motor across the line compared to a drive and the affinity curves. Dan Furrow One way to measure the added efficiency of a VFD is by looking at the motor speed reduction. Many VFD manufacturers can provide charts that show energy savings based on motor Plant engineering — www.plantengineering.com
9/28/26 10:52 AM
FIGURE 3 : A multi-drive control panel demonstrates how VFDs can provide flexible, individualized motor control
speed reduction, but organizations can typically expect a 50% energy savings by reducing motor speed by just 20%. Q: VFDs can cause bearing currents and shaft voltages in certain motor types. What are the best practices to prevent or minimize these issues and ensure the longevity of motors? Kevin Wahl: Specialized cables designed to mitigate the impacts of high-frequency noise on motor bearings and ground circuits is a core focus area for us. Care needs to be taken to create a continuously bonded shield path from the VFD to the motor load without interruption, for example, a filter disconnect. Dan Furrow: Two of the best things that manufacturers can do is focus on proper VFD cable selection and grounding practices. VFD systems are often subject to harsh environments, voltage spikes and radiated noise. In this setting, non-VFD cables can not only cause motors to fail prematurely, but broadcast noise that affects nearby machines. Built with proper insulation and shielding and by following installation best practices, such as limiting the distance between the motor and VFD, the right VFD cable can help extend the life of the motor. Edward Tom: There are a variety of methods to help with this. Shaft brushes can help with this, but with the trade-off of mechanical wear and replacement when worn out. You can use output filtering like an output line reactor, dV/dt filter or sine wave filter to help reduce the peak voltage of the pulses at the motor terminal. When it comes to an all-in-one VFD solution, a multilevel output can help greatly as it sends out stepped pulses that keep the surge voltage lower. Michael Blass: Bearing currents and shaft voltages generally arise from either improper grounding or incompatible hardware. Using VFD rated motors and cabling along with insuring good frame grounding can go a long way to prevent these problems. However, in some large horsepower applications, bearing currents and shaft voltages are not preventable. In these cases, shaft grounding rings are the best solution to eliminate these issues. Q: How do you troubleshoot common problems with VFDs, such as overvoltage, undervoltage and overcurrent faults? What are the best practices for diagnosing and rectifying these issues? Dan Furrow: The first step is to identify when the problem is happening. Does the issue occur when the motor starts up, when it slows down or at some other point in the process? Having this information in-hand can help diagnose the issue. Another recommended best practice is to uncouple the drive from the load to try to recreate the fault. Following these steps should help diagnose the issue, determine whether it originates from the drive or the application and then take steps to resolve it. Plant engineering
September/October 2026
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across complex industrial systems. Courtesy: Concept Systems Inc.
Edward Tom: Troubleshooting common faults is like putting together a puzzle. Take it one piece at a time. First determine what the symptom is, which is like finding the pieces that fit together correctly to build the outside border. Next, find the cause of the symptom, which will involve some trial and error as you test and look for it. After you've found the root cause, you'll be able to determine a solution for it. Eventually these common problems will stop looking like a 5,000-piece puzzle, but more like a 100-piece puzzle. Kevin Wahl: We often see that stray/leakage currents not contained with a shielded cable will often appear as an over-voltage fault or ground fault. Over-voltage can be created by improper conductor size or length. High-frequency compo-
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INSIGHTS VFD/VSD
Q: What impact will artificial intelligence (AI) have on the drive market and manufacturing as a whole? Short- and long-term?
FIGURE 4 : Integrating
FIGURE 5 : Redundant drive panel that provides a
VFDs with PLCs and other
VFD backup in case on the unit fails. Speed control
automation hardware
is still maintained along with energy savings.
allows drives to operate
Courtesy: Yaskawa America Inc.
as part of a coordinated control system rather than as standalone motor controllers. Courtesy: Concept Systems Inc.
nents on the VFD output will inversely impact the impedance of the conductor, leading to over-voltage trips. Q: With the advancement of semiconductor technology, what new trends and features are emerging in modern VFD designs?
‘
We’re seeing AI increasingly being utilized to treat the motor as a sensor.
’
— Dan Furrow, Wesco
Dan Furrow: It’s important to remember that the number one killer of electrical components is heat. Advancements in semiconductors — and technology overall — has reduced the footprint of components, which has greatly improved heat dissipation. As a result, original equipment manufacturers can build smaller panels. This can be attractive for manufacturers where space is at a premium. Kevin Wahl: Semiconductor technology will increase power output, while increasing switching frequencies. Thus, the issues created by high-frequency noise may remain. Some of these newer platforms will include active filtering in their circuits to offset this. The market is still adapting here with price points and footprint.
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Kevin Wahl: I anticipate we will see VFD tech that will inherently perform diagnostics and smarter output control built on models, with or without feedback. Dan Furrow: Not surprisingly, AI is having a massive impact on the overall drive and manufacturing market, both in positive and potentially challenging ways. On one hand, AI and sensors can utilize data to greatly enhance predictive maintenance efforts and extend the overall life of VFDs, motors and machines. However, AI can also be utilized by bad actors in cybersecurity attacks, as we’ve seen in several recent high-profile incidents. Mitigating these risks to reap the benefits of AI applications will continue to be important. Q: What are the key differences and trade-offs between using VFDs with synchronous motors versus induction motors? When would you choose one type of motor over the other in a VFD application? Dan Furrow: Generally speaking, synchronous motors offer a higher power density and greater efficiency. Induction motors are more common in industrial applications as they’re typically easier to replace and repair and have shorter lead times. The main tradeoffs to consider are upfront cost versus total cost of ownership. Q: In critical applications, such as those involving pumps or fans, what are the considerations for implementing redundancy and fault-tolerant configurations with VFDs? Edward Tom: The two main things to consider are how critical is the application and what's acceptable when operating in a fault condition. For the first item, if it's a very critical system, consider either a redundant VFD configuration where a second VFD will come online if the other faults or a bypass where you operate the motor across the line if there's a VFD fault. PE Plant engineering — www.plantengineering.com
9/28/26 10:52 AM
ENGINEERING SOLUTIONS
COMPRESSED AIR
John Schmitt, Kaishan USA, Loxley, Alabama
Ten ways to use lean principles for a maintenance plan Many companies have embraced lean manufacturing concepts but haven’t always extended those insights to maintenance procedures. Learn 10 tips to apply to compressed air systems.
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any industrial companies have embraced the core concepts of lean manufacturing, implementing 5S principles (sort, set in order, shine, standardize and sustain), kanban workflow management systems and other lean concepts. But while they’ve applied them to production applications, they haven’t always extended them to their maintenance processes, missing an important opportunity to improve operations, reduce downtime, eliminate waste, conserve energy and cut costs. And they have very rarely extended those principles to compressed air maintenance. Here are 10 ways that lean principles can be applied to maintenance. High-level concepts use compressed air for illustration purposes. Nearly every plant relies on compressed air, a proverbial fourth utility, joining electricity, water and natural gas in providing plants with basic services. The first broad concept involves taking a gradual approach.
1. Slow down
You don’t have to do everything at once. Or by tomorrow. Go step by step, taking one at a time. Focus first on energy costs, because that’s where your company incurs most of the lifetime cost of any piece of plant equipment, air compressors especially. The cost of the machine is simply a fraction of the total cost of ownership. The good news: you can start small, with minimal budget. In fact, many steps in the lean journey are free. Plant engineering — www.plantengineering.com
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You can, for instance, purchase inexpensive flow monitors one quarter, then add energy monitoring the next. You can scale up as your budget allows.
2. Focus first on mission-critical
functions Spend your time on the things that matter. The functions or processes that will take production down. After all, downtime is the most wasteful thing that can happen in an industrial plant. Most manufacturers consider overall equipment effectiveness the gold standard for tracking manufacturing productivity. It helps identify unplanned downtime relative to the machine's availability. Structure initial key performance indicators around that core concept and stay constantly focused on what matters.
3. If it doesn’t add value, it’s waste
Learning
The most important advance in adopting a lean manufacturing approach is that it takes aim at some u time-honored concepts, such as preventive mainte• Understand the nance (PM). importance of applying lean principles to the Lean maintenance experts would tell you maintenance of production that doing PM based on the calendar can easequipment. ily lead to waste. Changing parts, just because • Learn how to identify and you’ve reached a certain time interval, is a claseliminate waste across the sic example of over-processing. Almost as bad as plant floor. under-processing. • Gain insight into the If you’re looking at a calendar to determine importance of transitioning from traditional preventive when you should change a part, you’re looking in maintenance to realitythe wrong place. To achieve a lean organization, based predictive you need the right maintenance at the right time. maintenance.
Objectives
September/October 2026
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ENGINEERING SOLUTIONS COMPRESSED AIR
FIGURE 1: Leaks are the purest form of waste, costing the average company 20% ti 30% of the compressed air they produce. Courtesy: Kaishan USA
Sigma DMAIC process — define, measure, analyze, improve and control. In an air compressor system, specific power (measured in cubic feet per minute per kilowatt hour or cfm/kWh) measures compressor efficiency by comparing the output per unit of electrical energy. It is the North Star of energy measurements, so calculate that figure regularly. Other measurements you’ll want to track in a compressed air system include: • Discharge temperature • Surface temperature of the motor • Motor current • Oil analysis (see Figure 2) • Dewpoint
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An interesting
possibility is that a good operator may have a “gut feel” that something is going poorly but have no empirical data on which to base those observations. We may find that advanced measurement techniques sometimes validate
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the operator’s gut.
No more, no less. Preventive maintenance is not really a best practice, just the most basic approach or the minimum requirement to preserve your warranty protection. In many cases, it’s a relatively low bar. Use the real-world data, the actual conditions in your plant, to drive maintenance. Do what your machine is telling you. If that sounds more like predictive than PM, that’s a good thing. Lean maintenance is PM.
One possible exception to the “can’t see” rule is that new sensor systems, enhanced by the internet of things and artificial intelligence, may well be able to capture and evaluate measurements that are too subtle for a typical operator to perceive or allow you to act before an unplanned shutdown. An interesting possibility is that a good operator may have a “gut feel” that something is going poorly but have no empirical data on which to base those observations. We may find that advanced measurement techniques sometimes validate the operator’s gut.
4. Waste is all around us
6. Keep it clean.
In a compressed air system, it’s not unusual for leaks in your system to cost 20% to 30% of the compressed air produced (see Figure 1). As a result, you’re paying for something that adds zero value. So, leaks are the purest form of waste you can have. Another good example from the world of compressed air is header pressure. Set it too high and you waste a tremendous amount of air, energy and money. You cause more leaks and make the ones you already have leak faster.
5. You can’t improve what you can’t see
That means not only making sure you measure the right things but also tracking those measurements and establishing a baseline. You need to know where you are today and what “normal” looks like. You’ll want to follow the Lean Six-
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You’ll want to apply the 5S principles across the plant floor. After all, keeping machines and the shop floor clean is one of the easiest steps you can take. And it doesn’t require the approval of the finance department. Does “clean” matter? In some cases, it may be critical. In a cement plant, for instance, we’ve seen cement dust accumulate over time on machines and workstations. That’s not simply unappealing; it’s a hazard, especially when that dust clogs the fins and coils of a heat exchanger cooling an air compressor, a variable-speed drive or any other equipment that requires heat removal. Another example: cleaning up an air compressor oil leak. Keeping the floor clean not only eliminates a slip-and-fall hazard but also quickly alerts you to Plant engineering — www.plantengineering.com
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Incorporating your CMMS A COMPUTERIZED maintenance management system is the backbone of the lean process, because it captures all the data you need. But it’s not magic: • First, you can’t analyze data that exists only on scraps of paper or in someone’s head. • Second, it won’t work properly if you use it only for preventive maintenance scheduling. The goal is to put all the data into the system and start the transition from preventive to predictive maintenance.
any oil leaks. If you haven’t cleaned up yesterday’s oil spill, you probably won’t be able to tell if the oil on the floor is new. The 5S theory also extends to your compressor room and parts crib. You’ll want to eliminate excess inventory, especially obsolete parts or spares in your storeroom. More than one planned downtime has been unnecessarily extended because someone thought they had a usable filter in the stockroom but found that it only fit a compressor that’s now in a landfill.
7. Only implement changes
you can sustain Your exciting new advance won’t do your company any good if it’s abandoned in a few months and your people revert to the “old way.” Not only is that a waste of time, but it’s also a black eye for your lean maintenance efforts. So don’t take on something if you know it is not sustainable in your organization. Start small and scale.
8. Dig deeper
Don’t take the easy way out. Make sure you identify root causes. A classic example from the compressed air world is oil carryover. You may notice a problem and send a crew out to change a downstream filter. Then, the problem recurs in a week or two. In the case of oil carryover, the root cause could be several things: a clogged scavenge line, an overfilled oil reservoir, the use of a pirated part — such as a separator or filter — or even off-brand lubricants. Plant engineering — www.plantengineering.com
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9. Pay attention
FIGURE 2: Capturing
You can have all manner of sensors and devices, but if no one is paying attention to — and acting on — alerts, you’re not going to get to the promised land. All of this is pointless unless you act. One essential lean process is visual observation. Watch for those visual cues. And, more importantly, keep your key performance indicators (KPIs) and alerts simple and easy to understand and obvious to anyone who walks by. More than one company has saved a tremendous amount in expenses because a night watchman or a cleaning crew saw a flashing red light and reported it. So follow the “keep it simple” principle and keep your KPIs and alerts simple and easy to understand.
an oil sample is a great example of a predictive maintenance technique that most compressed air manufacturers require. Using the sample results, you can determine whether you need to change your compressor oil more frequently and the presence of various impurities can provide early warning of other issues, such as bearing failure. Courtesy: Kaishan USA
10. Don’t be too proud
(or cheap) to ask for help In the world of compressed air, we tell all our customers the best thing they can do to ensure the efficient operation and lifespan of their equipment is to work with a consultant or an expert who deals with these problems daily. You need someone you can rely on who can be there in your facility when you need help or can guide you in important decisions on upgrades and new acquisitions. A solid relationship built on trust will more than pay for itself in the long run. The right consultant can help establish a lean maintenance program, identify the right KPIs to track, set up remote monitoring and chart a path to predictive maintenance. They’ll probably want to start with an air audit so everyone knows exactly where you stand. PE John Schmitt is a marketing product manager at Kaishan USA. September/October 2026
| 15 9/29/26 10:08 AM
ENGINEERING SOLUTIONS SAFETY STANDARDS
Herbert Post, TRADESAFE, Las Vegas
How to write and evaluate a plant’s emergency drills The real value of an emergency drill lies in its ability to reveal performance data and expose operational weak points rather than just recording basic participation numbers.
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any emergency drills end with a sign-in sheet, evacuation time and a “completed” status, but a successful emergency drill should prove more than participation. It should show whether people recognized the emergency, made the right decisions, moved safely, communicated clearly, accounted for everyone, included visitors and contractors and corrected weak points afterward. The real value of a drill is not the event itself, but the performance data it reveals.
Learning
Objectives
u
• Learn which drill metrics reveal actual emergency readiness instead of paperwork compliance.
• Understand how to
identify performance gaps in evacuation, accountability, communication and supervision.
• Know how to turn drill
findings into corrective actions with clear ownership and follow-up.
Know the drill operational details Emergency drill records focus on basic compliance data: date, time, number of participants, evacuation completion time, observer names, general comments and signatures. Those details are useful, but that record often misses harder operational questions: • Did employees recognize the alarm? • Did they move without waiting for informal confirmation? • Did supervisors sweep assigned areas? • Were contractors included? • Was the headcount accurate? • Did communication reach high-noise, remote or outdoor work areas? A drill that does not answer those questions may end with a completed form, but it does not expose the weak points that determine emergency performance.
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Compliance versus readiness metrics Emergency drills, measured using basic administrative indicators, help demonstrate that the drill was planned, conducted, observed and recorded. However, they rarely explain whether the workforce responded correctly. Readiness metrics assess what happened during the drill, measuring observable behavior and decision-making under simulated emergency conditions. Readiness metrics measure observable performance: • Alarm recognition • Route selection • Evacuation flow • Accountability accuracy • Contractor and visitor inclusion • Communication quality • Supervisor execution • Corrective-action closure
What makes a drill metric useful? A drill metric is useful only if it helps leaders make better decisions. Strong metrics have five qualities: • Observable: Someone can see, time, count or verify the behavior. • Behavior-based: The metric measures what people did, not what the procedure says. • Risk-based: The result connects to delayed evacuation, missing personnel, poor communication, command confusion or exposure to a hazard. • Repeatable: The same metric can be used across shifts, departments and drill scenarios. Plant engineering — www.plantengineering.com
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• Actionable: A poor result leads to a specific corrective action with an owner and verification method. Use this format: Expected action + observation point + acceptable standard + correction owner For example, packaging employees begin evacuation within 30 seconds of alarm activation at Line 3 without waiting for supervisor confirmation. Delays caused by alarm confusion, poor audibility or informal confirmation are assigned to the packaging manager and verified during the next drill or spot check. Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OSHA)’s guidance emphasizes that emergency action plans should be site-specific, including emergency conditions, evacuation policies, reporting mechanisms and alarm systems. A metric turns that requirement into evidence: not “the plan exists,” but “the plan worked at this location, with these people, under these conditions.”
Eight drill metrics to pay attention to Once leaders define what good performance looks like, they can measure the parts of the response most likely to break down under real conditions. The following metrics target common points of failure in industrial emergency response and give plant leaders a clearer view of actual drill performance (see Figure 1). METRIC 1: Alarm recognition and initial response The first readiness gap often appears before anyone starts moving. OSHA’s Employee Alarm System rule requires alarms to be perceivable above ambient noise or light levels and distinctive enough to signal evacuation or other emergency actions under the plan. Translated into plant language: employees must hear or see the alarm, understand what it means and know what action to take. Measure: • Time from alarm activation to first visible response Plant engineering — www.plantengineering.com
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• Number of employees who continue working • Number who wait for a supervisor or coworker • Number who ask what the alarm means •C orrect response by alarm type
FIGURE 1: Key emergency drill metrics help identify readiness gaps before a real incident occurs. Courtesy:
An acceptable standard should define the expected response by area. Employees in each observed area should begin the correct protective action within a defined time, such as 30 seconds, without waiting for supervisor prompting or peer confirmation. In a packaging area, alarm recognition may fail because employees rely on visual cues from line leads. In a maintenance shop, grinders, compressed air and hearing protection may mask the alarm. In a yard, tank farm or outdoor utility area, distance, weather and radio coverage may determine whether the alarm is perceived.
TRADESAFE
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Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OSHA)’s guidance emphasizes that
METRIC 2: Route selection and exit decision-making Evacuation time alone can hide route failure. A facility may report a four-minute evacuation, but that number does not show whether employees used assigned exits, avoided the simulated hazard, selected safe alternate routes or moved through congested areas.
emergency action
Measure: • Percentage using assigned routes • Wrong-exit use • Movement toward the hazard • Use of shortcuts • Confusion at intersections, gates or stairwells
mechanisms and
plans should be site-specific, including emergency conditions, evacuation policies, reporting
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alarm systems.
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ENGINEERING SOLUTIONS SAFETY STANDARDS
• Correct alternate-route selection when a primary route is blocked
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An acceptable standard should require employees to use assigned routes unless the scenario blocks that route. When a primary route is unavailable, employees should select the correct alternate route without moving toward the simulated hazard or waiting for a supervisor to redirect them. Observers should be placed at intersections, stairwells, gates and exterior routes where wrong turns are most likely.
An acceptable standard should require accountability to reconcile employees, visitors, contractors, temporary workers and known off-area personnel before an all-clear is considered. The process should also define how supervisors report missing-person information, who receives it, how dis-
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crepancies are escalated and how re-entry is controlled.
METRIC 3: Evacuation flow and bottlenecks If the last person reaches the assembly area in seven minutes, leadership still needs to know why. Did employees delay at workstations? Did one exit carry most of the traffic? Did a turnstile, badge reader, gate, stairwell or narrow corridor create a choke point? Measure: • Time to first movement • Time for last person out of each area • Bottleneck location and duration • Exit use by group • Pedestrian conflicts with vehicle routes • Assembly-area congestion An acceptable standard should identify both movement time and obstruction points by area. For example, the drill may require the last person to leave each department within a defined time while also confirming that no exit, gate, turnstile, stairwell or assembly-area entrance creates uncontrolled congestion.
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METRIC 4: Accountability accuracy Accountability is not complete when someone says, “Everyone is here.” It is complete when that statement is verified. Measure: • Time to reconcile headcount • Missing-person errors • Extra-person errors • Roster accuracy • Visitor and contractor inclusion • Supervisor reporting format • Escalation time for discrepancies An acceptable standard should require accountability to reconcile employees, visitors, contractors, temporary workers and known off-area personnel before an all-clear is considered. The process should also define how supervisors report missing-person information, who receives it, how discrepancies are escalated and how re-entry is controlled.
METRIC 5: Contractor and visitor inclusion Contractors are often missed because they sit outside normal department rosters. They may enter through security, report to a maintenance planner, work under a permit or move between areas. Visitors, truck drivers, inspectors, vendors and temporary workers create the same challenge. Measure whether: • Contractors hear and understand the alarm • They know the assembly area • Hosts or escorts confirm their status • Sign-in logs match muster-area counts • Remote contractor work areas are checked • Truck drivers and yard personnel are included The risk increases during shutdowns, outages, construction, confined space work, electrical work, roof work, hot work or tank cleaning. These jobs often place people away from normal employee traffic and outside supervisor visibility. Contractor orientation should assign emergency routes and muster points before work begins. Sign-in records should identify the host, work location, accountability group and expected crew size. Plant engineering — www.plantengineering.com
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Table 1: Weak versus strong emergency communication during a drill Weak communication
Strong communication
Proceed according to procedure.
Evacuate through the north exits. Do not use the south corridor. Report to assembly area 2.
TABLE 1: This compares the difference between a weak and strong emergency communication during a drill. Courtesy: TRADESAFE
Assembly-area leads should have access to contractor and visitor information during the drill, not after the event is over.
METRIC 6: Emergency communication quality A message was not communicated because it was sent. It was communicated when the right people received it, understood it and acted correctly (see Table 1). Measure: • Time from alarm to first official instruction • Message clarity • Consistency across supervisors • Public address audibility in high-noise areas • Radio discipline • Text or phone alert delivery • Communication to remote areas • Language comprehension Drills should test whether communication works under actual plant conditions: machinery noise, hearing protection, radio congestion, outdoor work, poor reception, shift change and multilingual work groups. The goal is controlled communication. An acceptable standard should require instructions to be specific, location-based and consistent across PA announcements, radio communication, text alerts and supervisor direction: “Evacuate through the north exits. Do not use the south corridor. Report to assembly area 2.”
METRIC 7: Supervisor execution Supervisors are often the difference between orderly response and improvised response. Employees may know the route, but supervisors control pace, discipline, sweeps, accountability, escalation and re-entry prevention. If supervisors hesitate, the workforce usually follows that uncertainty. Plant engineering — www.plantengineering.com
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Measure whether: • Supervisors know their assigned role • Area wardens sweep their zones • Supervisors check isolated rooms, restrooms, maintenance areas, labs and storage spaces •L eaders direct employees calmly •T hey report status clearly • They manage accountability at assembly areas • They escalate missing-person information properly An acceptable standard should define what each supervisor, warden or area lead must do before reporting clear. That may include sweeping assigned zones, checking restrooms and isolated rooms, directing employees away from blocked routes, reporting status in a standard format, escalating missing-person information and preventing re-entry until authorized.
Insights
METRIC 8: Critical operations u and shutdown behavior Critical operations may include placing equipDrill insights ment in a safe state, closing valves, stopping a prou Emergency drills cess, securing energy or transferring control. The often prove only that a drill occurred, not that key is knowing what must be done, who does it, employees responded how long it takes and when the person must abanwell; this article will don the task and evacuate. show plant leaders how Measure whether: • Trained employees know which tasks to perform • Tasks are completed without unnecessary delay • Employees understand when to abandon the task and evacuate • Equipment, valves, panels or controls are accessible • The task creates conflict with evacuation timing
to measure emergency training through observable performance.
u While many
organizations treat an emergency drill as a mere compliance checkbox, a truly effective program uses behavioral readiness metrics to evaluate whether employees recognize alarms, select safe evacuation routes and maintain accurate accountability under simulated conditions.
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ENGINEERING SOLUTIONS SAFETY STANDARDS
Turning drill data into corrective actions Federal Emergency Management Agency’s Exercise Guidance uses after-action reporting and improvement planning to document strengths, areas for improvement, performance issues and corrective actions. The same discipline applies to industrial drills: every meaningful finding needs an owner, a deadline and a verification method.
FIGURE 2: How to score drill findings using a clear three-level rating system: effective, vulnerable or failed. Courtesy: TRADESAFE
A strong corrective action includes: • Observed gap • Risk created • Affected area, shift or group • Corrective action • Owner • Due date • Verification method • Follow-up drill or spot check
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Emergency drills are not valuable because they satisfy a schedule. They are valuable because they expose the exact points where a real incident would become slower, less controlled or more
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dangerous.
If a shutdown step is necessary during an emergency, it should be preauthorized, assigned to trained personnel, limited in scope, timed and governed by a clear abandon-and-evacuate trigger. Any task that depends on improvisation during the alarm condition should be removed from the emergency response expectation. A drill should verify whether trained employees know the task, can complete it safely within the allowed time and understand exactly when to stop the task and evacuate.
How to build a simple drill scorecard The categories below follow the core readiness metrics identified in the outline. Use a scorecard before, during and after the drill (see Figure 2). Red findings require direct ownership, a due date and verification. They should not be closed by saying the topic was “reviewed with employees.” Review may be part of the fix, but the finding is not closed until improved performance is verified.
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For example, if two supervisors used outdated rosters during accountability, the corrective action is not simply “remind supervisors to use current rosters.” The plant should define where current rosters are accessed, who maintains them, how supervisors retrieve them during an alarm and how the process will be tested. Closure occurs when a follow-up drill or spot check confirms that supervisors can reconcile the headcount accurately with the current roster.
The real value of a drill Emergency drills are not valuable because they satisfy a schedule. They are valuable because they expose the exact points where a real incident would become slower, less controlled or more dangerous. A strong drill program measures recognition, movement, route selection, supervision, communication, accountability, contractor inclusion, shutdown behavior and corrective-action closure. It tests the emergency action plan against actual people, actual noise, actual staffing patterns, actual contractors and actual physical constraints. A drill should end with evidence: what worked, what failed, who owns the fix and how the site will verify improvement before the next emergency. PE Herbert Post is the VP at TRADESAFE. Plant engineering — www.plantengineering.com
9/28/26 10:54 AM
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9/28/26 10:41 AM
ENGINEERING SOLUTIONS SAFETY STANDARDS
Lania Sibley, CITGO Petroleum Corp., Cicero, Illinois
Focus spill disaster teams with the stop, contain, report response Spills can be mitigated when employees understand safety, containment, reporting or escalation responsibilities.
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pills rarely happen at a convenient time. They happen during loading and unloading, in aging pipe runs, around tank farms, near drains, inside production areas or at the worst possible location — close to water or at an infrastructure that cannot easily be shut down. In the first minute, the quality of a facility’s spill response can determine whether the event remains manageable or becomes a safety, environmental, operational and compliance problem. The stop-contain-report framework gives employees a simple sequence to follow under pressure. It does not replace a facility’s written emergency action plan, spill prevention plan, safety data sheets (SDS) or regulatory reporting obligations. Instead, it translates those requirements into a practical field response: protect people, stop the source if it is safe to do so, contain the material before it spreads and report the incident quickly with accurate information.
Why spill response starts before the spill Many manufacturing facilities handle oils, lubricants, fuels, coolants, solvents, additives or other specialty fluids. The most common spill sources are often not dramatic failures; they can include worn piping, deteriorated hose, open valves, leaking tanks, transfer errors, overfills, failed gaskets or maintenance issues in older infrastructure. When preventative maintenance is underfunded or inspection routines are informal, small warning signs can become large releases.
FIGURE 1: CITGO Emergency Response Team conducting a boom deployment drill to ensure employees understand their roles and know how to prevent oil or waste from contaminating waterways. Courtesy: CITGO Petroleum Corp.
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Plant engineering — www.plantengineering.com
9/28/26 10:56 AM
Preparedness matters because a spill creates urgency and confusion. If employees are unsure who is in charge, where spill kits are located, which personal protective equipment (PPE) is required, how to isolate equipment, whether the release is incidental or requires escalation or who needs to be notified, the response can become improvised. That improvisation can delay containment, expose workers, increase cleanup costs and create gaps in documentation.
The first priority: protect people Before employees try to stop or contain anything, they should make sure people are safe. The safe responder at the scene should quickly assess whether there is an immediate life safety hazard: fire, explosion, risk, corrosive exposure, slip hazard, electrical hazard, confined space involvement or a release moving toward busy areas. If a situation is unsafe, employees should move away, warn others and activate the facility’s emergency response process. STEP 1: Stop the source, only if it is safe: “Stop” means preventing additional material from being released. In practice, this may include closing a valve, shutting down a pump, stopping a transfer, uprighting a container, isolating a leaking line, placing a damaged drum into overpack, activating an emergency stop or securing equipment. The objective is to stop the flow before the spill grows. STEP 2: Contain the spill before it spreads: Once the source is stopped or while trained personnel are working to stop it, the next priority is containment. “Contain” means keeping the materials from spreading to people, equipment, drains, soil, waterways, traffic paths, ignition sources or other processes. Timely response is important because a spill that reaches a drain, canal, river, stormwater system, wastewater treatment process or unprotected floor joint can become much more difficult and expensive to control. Secondary containment, if available, can dramatically reduce risk. A site designed so spilled oil or product flows into an oil-water separator, controlled collection pit or contained process area has more time to respond and fewer pathways to the environment. Facilities without secondary containment should identify the most likely flow paths and stage spill materials at those locations. STEP 3: Report quickly and accurately: “Report” means notifying the right people internally and externally with enough information to Plant engineering — www.plantengineering.com
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FIGURE 2: A guide to
make decisions. Internal reporting should happen the three actions that immediately through the facility’s chain of comhelp control a spill, promand: supervisor; emergency response team; envitect people and speed ronmental, health and safety (EHS); operations response. Courtesy: leadership; corporate management; security; mainCITGO Petroleum Corp. tenance; or incident command, depending on the site’s structure. External reporting depends on the material, quantity, location, pathway and applicable regulations. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) National Response Center (NRC) is the federal point of contact for reporting oil, chemical, radiological, biological and etiological discharges into the environment in the United States. Reports to the NRC can trigger the National Contingency Plan and federal response notifications. The EPA guidance also notes that the Spill Prevention, Control and Countermeasure and Facility Response Plan rules are designed to help facilities prevent, prepare for and respond to oil discharges. u Facilities should not wait until cleanup is complete • Understand why spill to begin reporting; escalate if needed. Reporting response begins with obligations vary based on jurisdiction, material, protecting people and quantity, pathway, permits and applicable law. assessing hazards before attempting to stop or Once people are protected and the scene is contain a release. under control, responders can move into the practi• Learn how stop-containcal sequence that guides the rest of the response.
Learning
Objectives
Putting the framework into action The following are examples of considerations CITGO Petroleum Corp. has found useful when adapting the stop-contain-report framework to site-specific response plans during the first critical minutes of a spill. 1. Confirm the scene is safe. Make sure employees are protected, the area is isolated and no one is
report supports faster, safer decisions during the first critical minutes of a spill.
• Know how preparedness
activities, such as training, drills, spill kit readiness, documentation, maintenance and escalation planning, can reduce risk and improve response outcomes.
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ENGINEERING SOLUTIONS SAFETY STANDARDS
FIGURE 3: Secondary containment helps keep spills controlled at the source, limiting spread to drains, soil, equipment and waterways while giving responders more time to stop, contain and report safely. Courtesy: CITGO Petroleum Corp.
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Facilities can often benefit
from the following lessons learned and identifying them in advance can help facilities train employees to slow down, protect themselves and make safer decisions during the first critical minutes of a spill
’
response.
exposed to vapors, fire risks, electrical hazards or unknown chemicals. 2. Identify the product. Check labels, process knowledge, shipping papers or the SDS. Confirm hazards and PPE before approaching. 3. Stop the source if safe. Close valves, stop pumps, shut down transfers, secure equipment or isolate the release within the worker’s training and authority. 4. Contain the spread. Block the drains, protect waterways and keep the material within a contained area. 5. Report Internally. Notify supervisors, EHS, emergency response team members, maintenance, operations and leadership according to site plan. 6. Escalate externally when required. Contact outside responders or regulatory agencies if the spill is beyond site capability or threatens the environment. 7. Document and clean up safely. Record what happened, preserve photos, use compatible materials and dispose of it properly. 8. Review and improve. Identify root causes, assign corrective actions, update training, verify corrective actions.
When to handle in-house and when to escalate Not every spill requires a specialized response team, but every facility should define the line clearly depending on its site conditions. A spill may be handled in-house only when employees are trained, the material is known, hazards are understood, PPE is available, the release is small and controlled, there is no serious exposure risk and cleanup can be completed safely using routine procedures.
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Escalate when the material is unknown, the spill is uncontrolled, the material is highly toxic, the spill enters or threatens water or drains, evacuation may be needed, fire or explosion is possible, the release exceeds facility response capability or responders would need to enter a hazardous area to stop the flow. One of the most dangerous assumptions is that the spill size alone determines seriousness. A few ounces of the wrong chemical in the wrong place can require more urgent action than hundreds of gallons contained inside a protected area. Decision-making should be based on hazard, exposure, pathway and capability.
Lessons learned from spill preparedness Even well-intentioned teams can make errors when a spill creates pressure, confusion or concern about downtime. Facilities can often benefit from the following lessons learned and identifying them in advance can help facilities train employees to slow down, protect themselves and make safer decisions during the first critical minutes of a spill response. Identify proper PPE: Employees may grab the nearest gloves or absorbents without checking whether the material requires chemical-resistant gloves, face protection, respiratory protection or other controls. SDS provide critical information about hazards, protective measures, emergency controls and safe handling. Facilities should train employees to use SDS information quickly, not just store the documents for compliance. Clean before documenting: In the urgency to restore the area, teams may forget to take photos, record the source, identify the flow path or collect employee statements. Documentation supports Plant engineering — www.plantengineering.com
9/28/26 10:56 AM
root-cause analysis, regulatory reporting, insurance review and corrective action. If it is safe, photos should be taken before cleanup changes the scene. Do not let spill kits become decoration: Spill supplies are only useful if they are stocked, visible, accessible, compatible with site materials and located where spills are more likely to occur. Kits blocked by objects, missing drain covers or stocked with the wrong absorbents slow down response. Do not assume drains are protected: Employees should know where floor drains, storm drains, trenches and outfalls lead. Drain protection may be a critical consideration depending on site conditions. Train and practice: Without preventive training and regular drills, teams may be unsure of safety protocols, notification order, equipment locations or role assignments. During an actual incident, that uncertainty can quickly turn into delay.
How to improve spill preparedness Preparedness improves when spill response is treated as an everyday operational responsibility, not just an emergency procedure. The steps before give teams a practical way to strengthen readiness before the next accident occurs. • Build a clear response plan. The plan should define roles, notification steps, evacuation criteria, escalation triggers, spill kit locations, PPE requirements, waste handling, documentation forms and agency reporting contacts. Preventive training should be built into this plan. Facilities should train employees not only on emergency response steps, but also on how to prevent releases through pre-use inspections, careful transfer procedures, housekeeping, valve verification, container labeling, drain awareness and early reporting of leaks and near misses. • Make product knowledge part of preparedness. Employees should be trained on the specific products used at the facility, including common names, labels, hazards, required PPE, spill behavior, incompatible materials, disposal requirements and environmental risks. A worker who knows the product can respond faster, report more clearly and avoid using the wrong neutralizer or cleanup method. • Practice realistic drills. A tabletop exercise is useful, and it’s also important that facilities also Plant engineering — www.plantengineering.com
PLE2610_MAG_SPILL_V2msFINAL.indd 25
run field drills. Practice a leaking transfer hose, an overfilled tank, a release near a drain, a spill at a loading rack or a waterfront scenario. Measure how long it takes to recognize the event, notify leadership, select PPE, stop the source, block drains, deploy absorbents, document and report the incident. • Connect maintenance to spill prevention. Preventive maintenance is spill prevention. Inspect aging piping, hoses, valves, tank connections, pumps, secondary containment, overfill protection and transfer equipment. Track near misses and small leaks as leading indicators, not housekeeping problems. • Make documentation easy. Use a one-page spill report form that captures time discovered, material, estimated quantity, source, location, responders, PPE used, stop actions, containment actions, notifications, photos, disposal path, root cause, correction actions and verification. • Review every incident and near miss. The goal is not blame; it is learning. Ask what failed, what worked, whether employees had the right supplies, whether reporting was timely, whether PPE was correct and what permanent control would prevent recurrence.
‘
Spill supplies are only use-
ful if they are stocked, visible, accessible, compatible with site materials and located where spills are more
’
likely to occur.
Short-term preparedness activities Facilities looking for immediate improvement can start with three high-impact actions. • First, inspect every spill kit, drain cover and PPE cabinet. Replace missing supplies and move kits closer to likely spill points. • Second, conduct a short drill on one realistic scenario and evaluate response time, communication and role clarity. • Third, review the top chemicals or products handled on site and confirm that employees know u what PPE is required and when to escalate. Spill insights Maintenance should also review recent leaks, u A stop-containdrops, valve errors, overfills, transfer issues and report framework can near misses. Patterns often reveal the next likely help facilities protect people, control release spill location. If the same pipe section, hose, pump quality and strengthen or operator task keeps appearing, corrective action preparedness before the P should be prioritized before a larger spill occurs. E next spill occurs.
Insights
Lania Sibley is a HSSE Manager at CITGO Petroleum Corp. at the CITGO Lubricants blending and packaging plant.
u Preparing for spill
response and containment takes preparation and requires a planned response.
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ENGINEERING SOLUTIONS MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL
Nicholas DiLuiso and Tyler Brennen, CDM Smith, Boston
Circuit protection: the unsung guardians of electrical, power systems Circuit protection devices are critical yet often overlooked components that keep modern electrical systems safe, reliable and resilient. These technologies prevent faults, protect equipment and safeguard people across residential, commercial, industrial and utility power systems.
Learning
Objectives
u
• Understand the purpose
and importance of circuit protection by learning how electrical faults such as overloads, short circuits, ground faults and surges threaten electrical systems and how protective devices mitigate these risks.
• Identify and differentiate
key protection technologies, including fuses, circuit breakers, ground fault circuit interrupters, arc fault circuit interrupters, surge protection devices and medium-voltage relaying systems, to understand how each device operates and where it is applied.
• Recognize the role of
coordinated protection in ensuring electrical system reliability — including complex medium-voltage grids — and how digital relays and smart grid automation improve overall power system resilience.
C
ircuit protection a foundational yet often overlooked technology. These systems function as the unsung guardians of electrical infrastructure, protecting assets, preventing fires and ensuring reliable service, scaling from the smallest home appliance to the largest, most critical power grids.
Why electrical protection is needed To understand why we need protection, we must first look at the basic forces of electricity. Think of it like water in a pipe: Electrical current is the flow rate, voltage is the pressure pushing the flow and resistance is anything slowing it down. These forces must be balanced, but all circuits are vulnerable to several invisible, dangerous faults that occur when conditions exceed safe design limits. The two most damaging electrical faults involve too much current. An overload occurs when a circuit consistently draws more flow than its safe limit, often because of too many devices connected to the same circuit. The resulting sustained heat degrades insulation and plastic, making it the leading cause of long-term electrical fires. Conversely, a short circuit is the most catastrophic fault, happening when a low-resistance path (like frayed wiring) connects two conductors. Resistance drops to nearly zero and the current can instantly surge to explosive levels, causing violent arcing and immediate equipment destruction.
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Two additional threats also require protection. A ground fault occurs when current finds an unintended path to the ground, such as through a metal enclosure. This condition presents a potential risk to human life because current can pass through
FIGURE 1: Utility-scale electrical substation infrastructure supporting the safe and reliable distribution of power, where circuit protection systems play a critical role in preventing large scale failures. Courtesy: CDM Smith
Plant engineering — www.plantengineering.com
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a person touching the fault, leading to severe or fatal shock. An overvoltage condition occurs when the circuit pressure (voltage) rises suddenly, often because of lightning or utility switching. These high-pressure surges can instantly destroy sensitive electronic components. Overload, short-circuit, ground-fault and overvoltage conditions can result in equipment damage, unplanned downtime and serious safety hazards if not properly controlled. Therefore, protection devices, which are specifically designed to mitigate these conditions before equipment damage or worse, occur are essential.
Electrical fuses and breakers, the core protectors The safe and reliable operation of any electrical system, from a simple home circuit to a massive power grid, relies on overcurrent protection devices (OCPDs). These critical components are designed to automatically and rapidly interrupt the flow of electrical current when it exceeds safe design limits, preventing damage to wiring and equipment while mitigating fire hazards. Fuses and circuit breakers are the two primary OCPD categories. Fuses: A fuse is the quintessential example of protection through intentional material failure. It is the electrical system’s sacrificial lamb, designed to permanently break the circuit when a fault occurs to protect the load. At the core of a fuse is the fuse element, a conductive wire or strip calibrated to melt when heated. The governing principle is that I2R heating (Joule heating) causes the element’s temperature to rise. When the current exceeds the fuse’s ampere rating for a sufficient duration, the element reaches its melting point and blows, creating an open circuit. This ensures quick isolation of the system’s faulty section, whether the cause is a short circuit or a prolonged overload. Fuses are characterized by their simple mechanics, leading to diverse applications based on voltage and current requirements: • Cartridge fuses: Cylindrical devices housed in an insulating fiber or ceramic tube, commonly used in control panels and motor circuits. • Blade fuses (automotive fuses): Feature a nonencased metal strip for low-voltage direct current systems. • High-voltage fuses: Used in utility distribution and substation equipment, these are often Plant engineering — www.plantengineering.com
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FIGURE 2: Example of electrical equipment damage resulting from abnormal operating conditions, highlighting the hidden risks present within electrical systems. Courtesy: CDM Smith
filled with arc-quenching materials like borax or use compressed gas like sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) to safely interrupt the high-energy arc that forms during interruption. Fuses are simple, reliable, cost-effective and fast-acting during short-circuit events, which makes them well-suited for many basic protection applications. Because they have no moving parts to wear out, they offer robust performance. Their primary limitation is that they must be replaced after clearing a fault, resulting in additional maintenance and downtime. • Circuit breakers: A circuit breaker is an electromechanical reusable guardian that performs the same protective function as a fuse but is designed to be easily reset after a fault condition is corrected, providing significant operational flexibility and reduced maintenance costs. The circuit breaker relies on two distinct mechanisms to handle the two primary types of faults: • Thermal trip (overload protection): This action handles sustained overloads where current exceeds the beaker rating. It uses a bimetallic strip composed of two metals with unequal thermal expansion rates. The heat generated by the continuous overcurrent causes the strip to bend and mechanically trip the circuit breaker contacts. This is a time delayed mechanism because the bimetal strip must heat and deform before tripping, allowing for harmless, temporary current spikes while ensuring operation under sustained overloads.
‘
The safe and reli able operation of
any electrical system, from a simple home circuit to a massive power grid, relies on overcurrent protection devices
’
(OCPDs).
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ENGINEERING SOLUTIONS MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL
However, they are generally more complex, expensive and require periodic testing to ensure the mechanical trip mechanism’s integrity.
FIGURE 3: Examples of overcurrent protection devices, including a fused disconnect switch (left) and a Molded-Case circuit breaker (right), which automatically interrupt excessive current to protect electrical conductors and equipment from damage. Courtesy: CDM Smith
Insights
u
Electrical insights u This article examines
core components of an electrical defense system: fuses, circuit breakers, motor starters and relays.
u It also detail modern
electrical safety essentials like GFCIs, AFCIs and SPDs.
u This article will examine
their vital roles, which are increasingly essential in complex and sensitive electrical systems.
• Magnetic trip (short-circuit protection): This mechanism provides instantaneous interruption for short circuits and extreme overcurrent. A short circuit generates an enormous current surge, which passes through a solenoid (electromagnet). The resulting powerful magnetic field instantly pulls an armature, bypassing the thermal mechanism and tripping the breaker contacts in milliseconds. This rapid response is crucial for minimizing damage from catastrophic faults. Circuit breakers are scaled and specialized based on the fault current they must interrupt: • Molded-case circuit breakers: Enclosed in a rugged insulating case and used for main distribution feeders and heavy industrial loads. They often feature adjustable trip settings, providing customization for specific applications. • Miniature circuit breakers: Smaller versions used in lighting panels. They offer a more compact footprint and often lack adjustable settings. • Air/gas/vacuum circuit breakers: Employed in high-voltage transmission and distribution networks, these use sophisticated techniques (SF6 gas or vacuums) to effectively extinguish the high-energy arc and safely interrupt power. Unlike fuses, circuit breakers can be reset after a fault once the issue has been addressed. They also offer more sophisticated features, including customizable selective coordination via settings and integrated ground-fault/arc-fault protection.
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Advanced circuit protection Modern electrical systems demand robust safety measures to protect both people and equipment from multiple hazards. Advanced alternating current circuit protection technologies have become essential components in commercial and industrial environments, addressing risks such as electric shock, fire and equipment damage. By integrating specialized devices that detect faults and mitigate surges, these systems form a comprehensive defense against the most common and dangerous electrical threats. Ground fault circuit interrupters (GFCIs) protect against electric shock by monitoring the current flowing into and out of a circuit. When a small imbalance is detected, typically 4 to 6 milliamperes, the device interrupts power to prevent current from passing through a person or unintended grounding path. These are especially critical in wet or damp environments like bathrooms and kitchens. Arc fault circuit interrupters (AFCIs) are designed to reduce the risk of electrical fires caused by damaged wiring or loose connections. These devices analyze current waveforms and detect high-frequency components (typically in the 40 to 100 kilohertz range) associated with series or parallel arcing faults, disconnecting power when hazardous arcing conditions are identified. Surge protection devices (SPDs) limit damaging voltage spikes caused by lightning strikes or utility switching events by diverting excess energy away from sensitive equipment. SPDs are rated by their nominal discharge current, voltage protection level and maximum continuous operating voltage. They are typically installed at service entrances or distribution panels to protect downstream equipment. When applied together, these devices provide layered protection against overloads, short circuits, ground faults, arc faults and overvoltage, preventing potential damage to sensitive electronics. Medium-voltage electrical protection Medium-voltage electrical systems, generally operating between 1 and 35 kilovolts, are the Plant engineering — www.plantengineering.com
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FIGURE 4: Example of layered personnel protection, showing an upstream arc fault circuit interrupter circuit breaker (left) supplying a downstream ground fault circuit interrupter receptacle (right) to mitigate arc-fault and ground-fault hazards. Courtesy: CDM Smith
backbone of electrical distribution networks. They serve as the intermediary between high voltage transmission and low-voltage use, ensuring reliable power delivery to industrial and commercial facilities. Circuit protection in these systems is both a safety measure and a necessity for maintaining grid stability and protecting expensive equipment. This section covers the importance of medium-voltage circuit protection. Utility grids and power plants handle immense electrical loads, making fault isolation critical. A single fault in a medium-voltage circuit can cascade through the distribution system, causing outages and equipment damage. Circuit breakers, fuses, relays and other protective devices act as the first line of defense, limiting fault currents and isolating faults. This isolation prevents critical failures in generators, transformers and switchgear, reducing repair costs and ensuring utility plant operations. Medium-voltage protection is fundamental to grid reliability and resilience. Protective relays are the brain of a medium-voltage protection system. They continuously monitor current, voltage and frequency and they isolate the circuit when faults occur. Digital relays offer advanced functions, such as fault location, event logging, remote communication and selective coordination. This ensures that only the faulted circuit is isolated, preserving service for unaffected areas. Without accurate relay Plant engineering — www.plantengineering.com
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‘
Selective coordination is both an art and a science, ensuring that protective devices
’
operate in a logical sequence during faults. operation, protection systems would be slow and ineffective, jeopardizing both equipment and personnel safety. Selective coordination is both an art and a science, ensuring that protective devices operate in a logical sequence during faults. In medium-voltage systems, proper selective coordination means downstream devices clear localized issues while upstream devices remain intact. Engineers achieve this through time-current curves and selective settings, balancing speed with reliability and safety. Poor selective coordination can lead to unnecessary outages, increasing stress on equipment and risking power outages. Therefore, coordination is essential for maintaining system function and isolating affected electrical equipment. The transition to smart grids introduces automation and real-time analytics into medium voltage protection. Self healing grids use sensors, relays and automated switches to detect faults and reroute power within several cycles. This capability drastically reduces outage durations and September/October 2026
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ENGINEERING SOLUTIONS MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL
‘
The takeaway is clear: Circuit protection is the foundation of electrical reliability, system
’
integrity and human safety.
enhances resilience against natural disasters or equipment failures. Integration with smart grid technology enables preventative maintenance and creative load management, creating a more sustainable and efficient energy infrastructure. Medium-voltage circuit protection is essential in modern electrical engineering. From protecting utility grids and power plants to promoting intelligent, self-healing networks, these systems ensure operational functionality, safety and efficiency. As power systems become more complex and automated, robust medium-voltage protection solutions will be paramount for building resilient and futureready grids.
The foundation of electrical safety The takeaway is clear: Circuit protection is the foundation of electrical reliability, system integrity and human safety. These systems manage threats such as overloads, short circuits, ground faults, arc faults and overvoltage. Devices ranging from fuses and circuit breakers to GFCIs, AFCIs, SPDs and protective relays work in coordinated layers to isolate faults, maintain service continuity and reduce potential hazards. Every watt flowing through modern power systems relies on these essential protections. The reliability of our power-dependent future will remain directly tied to their robustness and intelligence. PE Nicholas DiLuiso is an electrical engineer at CDM Smith. Tyler Brennen is an electrical engineer at CDM Smith.
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ENGINEERING SOLUTIONS
ARC FLASH AND ELECTRICAL SAFETY Herbert Post, TRADESAFE, Las Vegas
How to ensure arc-flash labels match the way a plant runs
What can be done when arc-flash labels don’t match the way a plant is running? Learn ways to ensure the electrical safety is managed correctly.
A
n arc-flash label can be accurate and current — but still wrong for the way the plant is running. The label on the switchgear gives a qualified worker a number: incident energy, arc-flash boundary, nominal voltage, working distance and sometimes a personal protective equipment (PPE) category or PPE note. Those values are useful only when the electrical system matches the assumptions behind the arc-flash risk assessment. Modern plants make that harder. A lineup can change through generator operation, uninterruptible power supply (UPS) bypass, photovoltaic (PV) export, utility service changes, closed ties, temporary feeds or maintenance switching. The worker sees one label. The system may have several valid hazard profiles. The failure point is configuration control. If the plant cannot confirm which operating mode is active, the label becomes a fixed answer attached to a variable system.
For plant managers, the issue is not whether the label was correct on the day it was printed. The issue is whether the plant can prove the label is still correct the moment a worker opens equipment, changes a lineup, troubleshoots a fault or restores production after an outage.
What an arc-flash label represents An arc-flash label is the field-facing result of calculations, not a live reading. IEEE 1584: Guide for Performing Arc-Flash Hazard Calculations provides models and analytical processes for determining predicted incident thermal energy and the arc-flash boundary for three-phase alternating current systems from 208 volts (V) to 15 kilovolts; IEEE also states that the guide does not provide PPE recommendations. A typical label depends on modeled inputs such as: • Utility fault current and transformer impedance
TABLE 1: Common operating changes can alter the electrical assumptions behind an arc-flash label and what controls help keep that label reliable in the field. Courtesy: TRADESAFE
Table 1: Arc-flash labels Operating condition
What changes electrically
Label risk
Practical control
Utility upgrade
Fault current, upstream clearing, transformer impedance
Label may understate or overstate exposure
Trigger engineering review before relying on existing labels
Generator backup
Source strength, clearing time, coordination
Utility-mode label may not apply
Model generator mode and identify it on procedures or labels
UPS bypass
Source path and protective device behavior
Rare lineup may carry high consequence
Require bypass-specific switching and hazard communication
PV export or DER mode
Fault contribution and backfeed paths
Source assumptions may be incomplete
Document import, export, islanding and transfer cases
Closed tie
Fault path and source combination
One label may not fit both lineups
Treat tie closure as a configurationcontrolled event
Plant engineering — www.plantengineering.com
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ENGINEERING SOLUTIONS ARC FLASH AND ELECTRICAL SAFETY
FIGURE 1: Sample arc
• Generator contribution
flash label. Courtesy: TRADESAFE
• Protective device type, settings and clearing time • Working distance • Equipment enclosure and configuration • Tie-breaker status • Source paths, transfer switches and major loads
Learning
Objectives
u
• R ecognize why one static arc-flash label may not represent every operating mode in a multisource facility.
• E xplain how source
configuration, available fault current and protective-device clearing time affect incident energy.
• E valuate when mode-
specific labels, QR-linked study data, switching controls or arc-flash study updates are needed.
Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OSHA) 2024 arc-flash guidance describes incident energy as heat energy measured in cal/cm² and notes that the estimate helps determine the arcflash boundary, incident energy at the working distance and PPE required for permitted energized electrical work. On the other hand, NFPA 70E: Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace supports safe work practices intended to reduce exposure to shock, electrocution, arc flash and arc blast hazards and OSHA identifies it as a resource for employers addressing those hazards. The label supports the decision. It does not make the decision.
Why multisource plants complicate arc-flash assumptions There are many arc-flash assumptions. Utility service: A utility transformer replacement, feeder change, service transfer or upstream
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protection update can raise or lower available fault current at the plant. That change can move a breaker or fuse into a different part of its time-current curve. A static arc-flash label based on the old utility condition may no longer reflect the clearing time used in the original study. Generator backup: Generator operation can create a different fault-current profile than normal utility service. The generator may contribute less current, but protective devices may clear more slowly or coordinate differently. A label based only on utility mode may not describe exposure during outage recovery. UPS bypass and battery discharge: UPS bypass is often used during maintenance, troubleshooting or failure response — the same conditions that may put workers in front of open equipment. Bypass operation can change the source path, impedance, available fault current and the protective device expected to clear the fault. A label based on the normal UPS lineup may not apply when the load is on maintenance bypass, static bypass or an alternate feed path. PV export and distributed energy resources (DER): PV systems, battery energy storage systems and other inverter-based resources add control-dependent behavior. A 2024 U.S. Department of Energy Office of Scientific and Technical Information report notes that inverter-based resources have fault-current characteristics unlike traditional rotating-machine generators, with behavior that can vary by control scheme, manufacturer and model. A static arc-flash label based on normal utility service may not reflect the plant’s actual exposure when the system is exporting, islanding, transferring sources or creating a backfeed path that was not part of the modeled case. Closed-tie and maintenance configurations: A normally open tie closed for redundancy, maintenance or load transfer can combine sources, redirect fault current or change which protective device operates first. Temporary switching can also create a lineup no one calls “normal,” yet production treats as routine because it has been used before. A static label is weak in this condition because the worker sees the same equipment face while the system topology behind it has changed. Plant engineering — www.plantengineering.com
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Understanding label drift Arc-flash labels usually lose reliability through ordinary plant activity, not obvious neglect. A transformer is replaced, a relay setting is adjusted, a rental generator is connected or a UPS bypass remains in service longer than planned. Each change may look manageable by itself, but any one of them can affect available fault current, clearing time, source path or protective device coordination. That is why arc-flash risk assessments should not be treated as permanent records. They need review when major electrical modifications occur and should be periodically reviewed even when no obvious change has been documented. The label can become outdated the day after it is installed if the electrical lineup changes enough to invalidate the study assumptions. A multisource arc-flash program also fails when ownership is vague. Plants should assign clear authority for decisions that can change the arc-flash basis, including: • Approving closed-tie operation • Placing equipment in UPS bypass • Connecting rental generators or temporary feeds
• Changing relay settings, trip units, fuse types or maintenance switches • Releasing work based on a mode-specific arc-flash label • Deciding when engineering review is required before energized work proceeds Without assigned ownership, “verify the label” becomes a slogan instead of a control. A configuration-control process should answer three questions before work begins: which electrical lineup is active, which study case applies and whether the field label is valid for that operating mode. A practical configuration-control program should include: • Current single-line diagrams: Source paths, ties, transformers, protective devices, transfer equipment, UPS paths, DER connections and major loads must match the field. • Defined operating modes: Normal utility, generator backup, UPS bypass, PV import/export, closed-tie operation, maintenance shutdown and emergency temporary feed should be named conditions. • Mode-to-study mapping: Each approved mode should identify applicable study assumptions, label basis, PPE guidance and engineering notes.
‘
Arc-flash risk assessments should not be treated as permanent records. They need review when major electrical modifications occur and should be periodically reviewed even when no obvious change has been
’
documented.
Table 2: Common drift points Drift point
Why it matters to the label
New transformers, MCCs, switchboards, motors, drives or standby generators
Changes fault current, load profile or source contribution
Utility service upgrades, alternate feeds or transformer replacements
Changes the available fault current used in the study
Relay changes, trip-unit adjustments, fuse substitutions or coordination revisions
Changes clearing time, often the key driver of incident energy
Rental generators, bypass feeders, construction power or temporary switchgear
Creates a lineup that may not exist in the permanent arc-flash model
UPS bypass operation or closed-tie operation
Changes source paths and may alter which protective device clears first
Single-line diagrams that no longer match field wiring
Breaks the link between the study, the label and the actual equipment
Emergency modes not included in the original study
Leaves workers relying on normal-mode labels during abnormal operation
TABLE 2: Common points where plant operations drift from the original arc-flash study and why each change can make an existing label unreliable. Courtesy: TRADESAFE
Plant engineering — www.plantengineering.com
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ENGINEERING SOLUTIONS ARC FLASH AND ELECTRICAL SAFETY
FIGURE 2: Practical arc-flash labeling strategies for facilities that operate equipment in multiple electrical modes. Courtesy: TRADESAFE
• Controlled switching changes: Switching orders, permits or procedures should identify when a lineup changes the arc-flash basis. • Controlled protection data: Relay settings, trip units, fuse types, maintenance switches and coordination settings should be treated as safety-critical records. • Defined review triggers: Source changes, protection changes, equipment additions and temporary power arrangements should trigger engineering review. OSHA’s arc-flash guidance emphasizes hazard identification, assessment, prevention, control, worker participation and access to up-to-date safety information — exactly the management structure needed when labels depend on operating mode.
Labeling strategies for multiple operating modes Multimode labels: Multimode labels work when equipment is routinely operated in a limited number of defined configurations, such as normal utility, generator backup or closed-tie operation. Instead of forcing one value onto equipment with more than one hazard profile, the label identifies the incident energy or PPE requirement for each approved operating mode. This strategy is useful only when the modes are clear, controlled and easy for the qualified worker to verify in the field.
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Worst-credible-case labels: Worst-credible-case labeling gives the worker one conservative value based on the most severe realistic operating condition. This can simplify field decisions in plants where operating modes change often or where workers cannot easily verify the active source configuration before work begins. The tradeoff is that overly conservative labels can drive higher PPE, larger boundaries, longer setup times and more restrictive work planning than some tasks require. Supplemental operating-mode signage: Supplemental signage is useful when the arc-flash label cannot fully explain the condition that makes it valid. Switchgear, transfer switches, UPS bypass cabinets, tie breakers, generator paralleling equipment and motor control centers may need direct field prompts such as “verify tie position before energized work” or “label applies to normal utility mode only.” The purpose is to interrupt assumption at the point of work. QR-coded study references: QR codes can connect the field label to controlled documentation such as single-line diagrams, study cases, switching procedures, equipment records or revision history. This is valuable for supervisors, engineers and qualified workers who need fast access to current arc-flash information without searching through binders or disconnected files. The limitation is practical: devices may be unavailable, restricted, damaged, out of service or difficult to use in PPE. Temporary labels: Temporary labels should be used when a temporary electrical configuration creates a real exposure that is not covered by the permanent label. Rental generators, bypass feeders, construction power, temporary switchgear and commissioning lineups can change available fault current, source paths and clearing behavior. The common failure is allowing “temporary” power to remain in place without temporary hazard communication. Stop and verify labels: Stop and verify labels are appropriate when equipment can be fed from more than one source or when the arc-flash value depends on a condition that is not obvious from the equipment face. This includes double-ended switchgear, UPS-fed equipment, PV backfeed paths, closed-tie systems and transfer arrangements. The label should tell the worker what must be verified before relying on the arc-flash information, not Plant engineering — www.plantengineering.com
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‘
More information is not automatically
safer. The label must be legible, durable, located where the decision is made and written for the person standing in front
’
of energized equipment.
simply warn them that danger exists. This strategy only works if the worker has authority to pause the job and a clear escalation path to engineering, operations or supervision. More information is not automatically safer. The label must be legible, durable, located where the decision is made and written for the person standing in front of energized equipment.
most: Is the system in the condition the label assumes? In a simple, single-source installation, that answer may be easy. In a plant with generator backup, UPS bypass, PV export, closed ties, temporary feeds and maintenance lineups, it requires operating-mode discipline. The safest facilities connect engineering studies, field labels, switching control, protective setting records, lockout/tagout and worker verification. They do not ask the label to carry information the plant has failed to control. The goal is not more paperwork. It is preventing a worker from trusting a precise number that belongs to the wrong electrical lineup. In a multisource plant, arc-flash safety depends on more than the label. It depends on knowing which system the label describes. PE
Insights
u
Arc-flash label are the start Herbert Post is the VP at TRADESAFE. of the decision The arc-flash label should never be treated as a shortcut around the question that matters 26_009313_Plant_Engineering_OCT Mod: August 31, 2026 12:19 PM Print: 09/01/26 page 1 v2.5
Arc-flash insights u An arc-flash label is only
reliable when the electrical system is operating under the conditions used in the study.
u Multisource plants
complicate that assumption because available fault current and clearing time can change across utility service, generator backup, battery discharge, PV export, UPS bypass, closed-tie operation and maintenance configurations.
u The risk is not simply an
outdated sticker; it is a false sense of certainty at the point of work. Modern arc-flash programs need stronger configuration control, clearer operatingmode assumptions and labeling strategies that reflect how the plant runs.
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9/29/26 10:13 AM
ENGINEERING SOLUTIONS COMPRESSED AIR
Spencer Hall, Hitachi Global Air, Michigan City, Indiana
Why valves and seals are important in compressed air systems
Manufacturing maintenance professionals should understand valves and seals within compressed air systems.
C
Learning
Objectives
u
• Learn about the various
types of valves and seals used in a compressed air system.
• Review predictive
maintenance programs for valves and seals within a manufacturing facility.
• Understand the potential consequences of component neglect and improper form, fit and function.
ompressed air systems are getting more complex as technology advances. However, new technology still requires a basic service and maintenance routine. Learn to effectively and efficiently control these systems, specifically valves. There are many types of valves in compressed air systems: solenoid valves, blow-down valve (BDV), pressure regulators, pressure relief valves (PRV), minimum pressure control valves (MPCV), inlet valves, shuttle valves, check valves, thermal valves and more. Each of these components serves a specific function to ensure the equipment runs as designed. One of the most common issues with compressed air systems is proper sizing of the air compressor, air piping and receiver. All the valves listed above are subject to premature failure due to high load/unload cycle counts or running unloaded for an extended amount of time. In terms of modulation, lack of inlet modulation is a common service call. We find one valve failure can cause other valves to fail — usually seal and diaphragm failures in the control system are the culprit. A pressure regulator out of adjustment or worn diaphragm can cause control components to wear prematurely due to high load/unload cycle count. The results are often expensive repair costs along with efficiency decline. Inlet modulation can provide significant energy savings over time. Failed and/or neglected compressor control valves can lead to high energy costs.
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Important valves in compressed air systems The MPCV in a compressor system is no doubt one of the most important control valves on a compressor. All the control valves play an important role, but this one can make or break the operation like no other. Due to its location, the MPCV is exposed to the worst conditions in the control system. Every cubic foot of air per minute that feeds a process passes through this valve. The compressed air in this location of the discharge system is hot and humid. The valves, seals and related components in this area are susceptible to scale and corrosion. Depending on the application, the condition of the MPCV can deteriorate at an alarming rate. A good maintenance routine to service this MPCV will provide years of reliable control. An MPCV serves two purposes: • Prevents sump tank pressure from dropping below the minimum required to maintain safe cooling and lubrication flow. • Prevents backflow of plant air to the sump. The BDV is probably the second most important valve on the compressor package for system control. With each load cycle, there is a chain of events that occurs: when a load signal is initiated, load solenoid changes state, inlet valve opens, BDV closes, MPCV opens, flow and pressure increases. As pressure reaches the unload setpoint, inlet valve modulation Plant engineering — www.plantengineering.com
9/28/26 11:02 AM
Minimum pressure check valve
‘
Compressed air is considered the fourth utility, behind
’
electricity, water and gas.
has reached its maximum and the reverse occurs: load signal drops off, control solenoid changes state, inlet valve closes, MPCV closes and the BDV dumps all the hot humid air to the atmosphere. Without a properly functioning BDV, there is risk of overloading the drive motor, over pressurizing the plant and lifting the PRV (see Figure 2).
Controlling a compressed air system Advancements in control and monitoring technology of compressed air systems can greatly improve efficiencies. These advanced systems can provide early warnings of control issues that can be addressed quickly. Compressed air is considered the fourth utility, behind electricity, water and gas. However, compressed air is completely in control of the manufacturing facility, unlike the other three. How you control compressed air systems can make a huge difference in cost of operation. Start by doing some basic evaluations: • For new compressor applications, evaluate projected demand. Determine the production equipment required cubic feet per minute to operate, determine compressor type and size and determine receiver tank size. Downstream filtration should also be factored in. • Have an air audit performed on an existing system. Processes likely have changed over the years or leaks have developed in the system. Air audits will reveal how the compressor is running over a period. The return on investment of an air audit can be quick. • Control valves, such as inlet, blow down, MPCV and load solenoid should be maintained periodically to ensure the most robust, efficient and reliable system as possible. • Compressors with inlet valve modulation and variable displacement should be considered if demand fluctuates drastically from shift to shift. Plant engineering — www.plantengineering.com
PLE2610_MAG_VALVES_V3msFINAL.indd 37
Variable speed drives are also options along with the above control methods. Paying attention to a manufacturing process changes and compressed air demand is key. Plant air demands come and go as production changes. For new compressor sizing, contact a local distributor for an air audit to find the best compressor for an application.
FIGURE 1: Airflow and the inner workings of a Minimum Pressure Control Valve, one of the most critical control valves of an air compressor. Courtesy: Hitachi Global Air Power
Understand seal materials Knowing the difference in available seal materials is crucial when selecting a replacement component. The manufacturer has already completed the homework for you in selecting a component with the proper seal material. Therefore, pay attention when selecting original equipment manufacturer (OEM) versus non-OEM replacement parts. Cheaper is almost never better. Buna is a popular seal material in the compressed air industry. One question that comes up regularly: is it Buna or Buna-N? Which is it? Manufacturers of components sometimes drop the -N when adding descriptions to their component seal material. Buna and Buna-N are often used interchangeably to indicate the material used is a synthetic rubber. However, there is a name distinction within the Buna family: • Buna-N (Nitrile rubber) is made from butadiene and acrylonitrile. Buna-N is known for its excellent chemical resistance properties used in seal, gasket and hose applications. September/October 2026
| 37 9/28/26 11:02 AM
ENGINEERING SOLUTIONS COMPRESSED AIR
Discharge system
FIGURE 2: A flow diagram that shows a basic oil flooded compressor discharge system. This includes control related valves, components, lubrication and cooling systems. Courtesy: Hitachi Global Air Power
• Buna-S (styrene butadiene rubber) is made from butadiene and styrene. Buna-S is known for its abrasion-resistant properties such as tires, conveyor belts and use in high-temperature applications. Other common seal materials found in the compressed air industry are ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM) and Viton. • EPDM is also a synthetic rubber made from a specific combination of polymers. This material offers strong outdoor-element and ultraviolet resistance, making it useful for roofing materials and automotive parts. • Viton is a high-performance synthetic rubber called Fluoroelastomer (FKM). Viton is available in three grades: Viton A, B and F. These different grades of Viton indicate the difference in fluorine content. The higher the fluorine content, the greater the resistance to harsh chemicals such as acids and solvents. Viton is a great material for valves and seals exposed to chemicals, oils and high temperatures up to 400°F. Seals have a finite lifespan in any application. Seals are often referred to as “soft goods” and can be in the form of O-rings, gaskets, lip seal, U-cup, V-ring, mechanical, labyrinth and carbon ring
38 | September/October 2026 PLE2610_MAG_VALVES_V3msFINAL.indd 38
seals, just to name a few. Typically, seals are used to contain process air, oil or gas to a certain design specification.
Compressed air predictive maintenance Seal and valve failures are most often caused by normal wear and tear. Seal degradation can be detected by oil visibly leaking at the compressor package or fouling downstream production equipment. To prevent failures, a maintenance program should be proactive and predictive. Take the following measures to help avoid any potential seal/component failures: • Oil sampling: This will help provide early warning signs of caustic, contaminated conditions. These conditions can cause seals to swell, crack and wear. • Vibration measurements: This predictive maintenance tool can detect issues far in advance and may provide insight into other component failures. • Following manufacturers’ maintenance recommendations: This is key to a reliable compressor system. Typically, the “soft goods” can be replaced during routine maintenance service calls. Scheduled maintenance downtime is far less expensive than in-service downtime. There really are no definitive cut-in-stone maintenance procedures. Each compressor application has its own unique maintenance challenges. Yes, timers can indicate when to change fluid and filters, but there are so many other opportunities to increase the reliability of your compressor system. The state of a compressor room makes a difference too. There are consequences for installing an investment in adverse conditions. Dirt-clogged heat exchangers will increase compressor discharge temperatures and initiate fluid degradation. These conditions can shorten the life of valves and seals in your compressor control system. Fluid degradation and increased acid levels will attack seals and sealing surfaces, bearings and heat exchangers. Plant engineering — www.plantengineering.com
9/28/26 11:02 AM
FIGURE 3: A chart that shows OEM versus nonOEM oil filter performance for particulate count and efficiency percentage. Courtesy: Hitachi Global Air Power
OEM versus non-OEM parts The topic of OEM versus non-OEM parts includes both valves and seals. The equipment manufacturer designs compressor packages to meet certain specifications. Flows, pressures and temperatures are taken into consideration when components are selected for the package design. Changing the design specifications of equipment can be detrimental. Valves are typically actuated with an air signal or electric input from a control device, pressure switch, controller or a programmable logic controller. Installing a non-OEM valve can lead to performance and reliability issues. Many service calls are generated when someone has cut corners and ordered components online and they just didn’t work out. For example, in BDVs, these valves are selected by temperature, pressure and flow by the manufacturer’s specification. There are many suppliers that will sell a valve with similar form and fit but that does not function as it’s intended. Installing a BDV that has the incorrect flow can cause control issues, create a short-cycle condition or create an over-pressure condition during unload. This can cause components such as inlet valves, control solenoids, pressure switches and minimum pressure valves to have excessive wear. Oil condition and sampling are also a part of the OEM conversation. Contaminated oil can crePlant engineering — www.plantengineering.com
PLE2610_MAG_VALVES_V3msFINAL.indd 39
‘
Understanding the roles of various valves and
seals and the consequences of neglecting them can reveal opportunities to optimize the reliability
’
and lifespan of a compressed air system.
ate havoc in a compressor system. Oil foaming and carry-over can damage downstream equipment, and high particle counts can wear out seals and damage bearings. Additionally, there are many pirate parts being sold online. Oil filters are easy to u duplicate but may not perform to the same stanu As compressed air dard (see Figure 3). A valve or seal manufacturer systems become more complex, proper sizing, might ask, “Are you using OEM parts and fluids?” valve selection and Understanding the roles of various valves and routine maintenance seals and the consequences of neglecting them can remain critical to controlling efficiency, reveal opportunities to optimize the reliability and reliability and energy lifespan of a compressed air system. With propcosts in compressed air operations. er maintenance, correct component selection, and u Effective compressed attention to routine service requirements, these air management critical parts can perform as designed and help depends on maintain system efficiency. Take a moment to look understanding valve functions, seal materials, over a compressor system with fresh eyes — mainpredictive maintenance tenance teams may spot an opportunity to boost and the risks of improper P performance before small issues become big ones. E control or non-OEM
Insights
Spencer Hall is the OEM application engineer with Hitachi Global Air Power.
components, all of which can significantly impact performance and life cycle costs.
September/October 2026
| 39 9/28/26 11:02 AM
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