5.6 New breeding techniques

increase yields and profitability and reduce potential adverse environmental and health effects associated with pesticide use. In China, for example, more than 90 percent of cotton growers have adopted GM varieties. However, urban consumers are still resistant to the adoption of GM technologies for food crops. The government is sensitive to this resistance and sees wider adoption of GM technology not as a technical issue but as a public relations and awareness issue.

New breeding techniques, including genome editing A new generation of techniques known as new breeding techniques can help the East Asia region develop more resilient and nutritious crops. The new breeding techniques include a variety of techniques that introduce genetic mutations indistinguishable from the processes of natural breeding. Genome editing (GE) has already been used in agriculture in China, Japan, and Korea. Many activities are at the experimental stage (FAO 2019c). Current projects and initiatives include research into commercially and nutritionally important crops such as rice and wheat (box 5.6). China has invested significantly in GE as part of a wider, technology-based push to improve agricultural output, and is about to become the global leader. Differences in regulation between the European union and other countries such as the united States have created potential barriers to the use of GE, however. In 2018, the European union declared that GE crops should be subject to the same stringent regulations as conventional GM organisms (Callaway 2018). Elsewhere, as in the united States, decrees and enforcement ordinances are generally encouraging of GE (FAO 2019c; Green 2018).

New breeding techniques

new breeding techniques (nBTs) include techniques such as genome editing (GE), reverse breeding, and agro-infiltration, with GE attracting the most attention. Whereas genetic modification involves the artificial transfer of genes between organisms that are not bred, or the introduction of genes from outside an organism’s genome, GE methodologies (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats [CRISpR] and transcription activator-like effector nucleases [TAlEn]) introduce genetic mutations that can be indistinguishable from those found in natural breeding. CRISpR has become the preferred GE technique because of its simplicity and efficiency.

In agriculture, the nBT trend seems positive because it can help strengthen resistance to pathogens in crops such as rice and tomatoes, and prolong shelf life. In the united States, GE crops are already on the market, including a browning-resistant mushroom, a waxy maize that produces higher starch, and an improved storage potato. Berkeley-based Caribou Biosciences is also using GE to create droughtresistant corn and wheat.

China has invested in GE technology since 2014. It has at least 20 research groups across the country dedicated to GE use in agriculture. Chinese scientists have used GE technology to create soybean mutants that can adapt to low altitude areas, paving the way for the breeding of new soybean varieties. The soybean mutants exhibited late flowering, improved height, and an increased number of pods, providing a basis for the breeding of soybean varieties that grow well in low altitude regions. Many activities are at the experimental stage. Current projects and initiatives include research on commercially and nutritionally important crops such as rice and wheat (resistance to powdery mildew), and cold-resistant, lean-body-mass pigs. The first GE product, high oleic soybean oil, was successfully commercialized without the regulations applied to genetically modified crops.

Sources: Cohen 2019; FAO 2019c; Green 2018.

Microbiomes Microbiomes have the potential to improve crop resilience and reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.9 The plant microbiome refers to the environment of microorganisms in and around the roots, in the soil, on the leaves, and within the plant itself. When applied directly to the surface of seeds and to plants, microbiome technologies can complement or replace agricultural fertilizers and pesticides. The results are impressive: higher yielding, healthier crops that are more resistant to drought and are tolerant of lower levels of nitrogen application, higher temperatures, saline soils, and pests. Companies are now trying to identify the organisms that are most beneficial in different environments and to create products based on them. For example, the company Indigo has brought to market microbial products for corn, wheat, soybeans, and rice (WEF 2018). For further details, see appendix E.

Livestock feed additives Feed additives for improved growth and health of livestock are another area of intense innovation. The private sector is the driver, responding to the swiftly growing market segment globally. The rapid sales growth of feed additives in the East Asia and pacific Region is mainly attributed to the growing animal protein production and animal feed industry (3 percent growth between 2017 and 2018) (Meticulous Research 2020). Innovations in feed ingredients have the potential to support improvements in efficiency and profitability of livestock production, reduce the environmental footprint, and improve animal health and welfare. For instance, interest in identifying alternatives to antibiotic use is driving some of the research (liu et al. 2018). probiotic feed additives (FAO 2016; Mitchell 2019), multi-carbohydrase feed enzyme technology for nonruminants, nucleotides, and yeast-based supplements (Bedford 2018; liu et al. 2018) are examples that have shown potential to improve animal immune systems, regulate gut microbiota, and reduce the negative impacts of weaning and other environmental challenges.

The changing preferences of urban consumers have increased interest in food produced off farms and from alternative sources. Consumers increasingly prefer safe, fresh, and more nutritious food produced closer to where it is consumed. pressures related to rising food demand, the continuing loss of good agricultural land and farmers to other uses, and the demand for a reduced environmental footprint have further stimulated this interest.

Urban agriculture urban agriculture—the growing of plants and the raising of livestock within cities and peri-urban areas (RuAF Foundation 2018)—shows increasing potential for delivering safe food with limited environmental costs. urban farming is not new; it has been practiced in semiurban areas and in backyards in Asian cities for ages. However, it has gained in importance in parallel with global megatrends and evolving technology (such as vertical farming, integrated sensors, controlled lighting). According to estimates for 2030, urban farming may be valued at $40 billion, half of it in the Asia region (Ecosperity 2018a).10 urban farming has many benefits, including improved food security and freshness of food, resilience to disruptions in the food chain, a reduced

environmental footprint through efficient water and nutrient use, and lower costs through reduced use of inputs, transportation, and storage. For example, indoor vertical farming in Japan can save up to 99 percent of water compared with outdoor field farms (Ecosperity 2018a). livestock production in peri-urban areas can, however, pose an increased risk of emerging infectious diseases (World Bank 2010). urban farming technology has reached a point at which the physical constraints, such as land, water, and weather conditions, can be overcome to some extent. urban farming can be practiced in fields and backyards, but increasingly it takes place on rooftops and building walls and in deserted industrial buildings and balconies. Vertical farming (food grown in vertical layers), integrated sensors, hydroponics (plants growing in a nutrient solution), and controlled lighting allow cities to use small plots of land to grow crops faster (Ecosperity 2018a). Although vertical farming is still small scale worldwide, the COVID-19 pandemic has stimulated interest and investment in vertical farming globally (Financial Times 2020a). urban farming can also entail low-tech applications (for example, growing kits and information packs).

The highly urbanized, technology-savvy nations of Japan and Singapore are the frontrunners in urban farming, but developing East Asian countries follow. Several cities, including Beijing, Shanghai, and Tokyo, are all seeing upticks in urban farming. There are key differences regarding urban agriculture across East Asia in the level of adoption and commercialization as well as the technology used. Japan and Singapore (box 5.7) have invested heavily in automated production, hydroponics, and vertical farming. Singapore recently announced that it aims to increase its food self-sufficiency from the current 10 percent to 30 percent by 2030 in response to disruptions in food imports caused by COVID-19 (pwC and FIA 2020). Most of this additional food is expected to come from its urban farming systems. Rapidly urbanizing China is also embracing urban farming (box 5.7).

Barriers to urban farming are context-specific. Barriers typically include land scarcity, high up-front capital and energy costs, uncertain regulations, and entrenched consumer behavior (box 5.7). Citizens might lack access to the financial or natural resources (such as land, seeds, water, and fertilizers) and the knowledge needed to set up production. Middle-income East Asia can, however, use a range of levers to encourage urban agriculture, from streamlining regulations to providing technical assistance and funding (Green 2018).

Protected agriculture protected farming for high-value vegetables and fruit has also gained ground, often in association with urban farming and drip irrigation. Asia accounts for 75 percent of the agricultural area under protected farming worldwide (lamont 2009). protected agriculture is typically practiced on farms but is a common practice in urban farming as well. It covers a range of practices from low-cost polytunnels made of recyclable materials, which rely mostly on natural solar energy input, to very expensive and sophisticated plant factories, which exclude natural solar energy and rely almost exclusively on artificial energy input (Kang et al. 2013). plastic use is common in protected agriculture (appendix A). For example, plastic film, tunnels, and irrigation pipes have contributed to enhanced crop growth and product quality and have reduced water