The Asian Context

Participatory Budgeting in Asia 159

allow disadvantaged groups a voice in policy making.This is in contrast to purely representative democracy,which presupposes absolute bureaucratic efficiency.A combination ofdirect and representative democratic governance institutions is likely to be the most functional.As Edwards notes, “Without sustained public pressure (as in participatory democracy), governments rarely fulfill the promises they make on election day.But without elections,it is difficult to reconcile the different interests and agendas that exist in civil society”(2002,cited in McGee 2003,p.9).

Effective participatory democracy depends on the quality ofdeliberation in the process.Deliberation emphasizes “eliciting broad public participation in a process which provides citizens an opportunity to consider the issues, weigh alternatives,and express a judgment about which policy or candidate is preferred....It is distinguished from ordinary,thin modes ofpublic involvement by the breadth and quality ofparticipation”(Weeks 2000,cited in McGee 2003,p.10).

Participatory democracy is not tokenistic.It presupposes decision-making processes that are not dictated primarily by interest group politics but byrationality.Ifparticipative practices are to deliver on the promise of improving the quality ofdemocratic governance,enabling conditions for good-quality deliberative processes should be in place.These include theincentives citizens face,their skill levels,and the quality ofinformation available in the process.

Meaningful and effective citizen participation in public choices also improves trust in government and commitment to the tradeoffs made. Together with improved budget transparency,participation can build social cohesion,which can lead to the very tangible benefit ofincreased tax collection.

The Asian Context

Russell-Einhorn (forthcoming) distinguishes between background factors affecting the effectiveness ofcitizen voice initiatives and factors that have to do with institutional design,resource availability,and capacity.The first set ofconstraints is usually embedded in the social and political environment and includes sociocultural,political,and administrative traditions,legacies, and reforms.In this regard,the Asian context is marked by supportive legal frameworks,active civil societies,and a relatively recent history ofcitizen-led constitutional change,often set against a longer history ofpolitical patrimony and elitism.