A RADICAL RESPONSE TO SEA LEVEL RISE SENIOR DESIGN THESIS BY WOOD CHENG
STUDIO BROOKS/CLIFFORD 2019-2020 1
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TABLE OF CONTENTS 1
introduction pgs. 4-19
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exploration pgs. 20-29
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response pgs. 30-41
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appendix pgs. 42-45
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bibliography pgs. 46-52
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4
1
introduction
5
“
"don't reach out for me,” she said "can't you see i'm drownin' too?" it's rough out there high water everywhere
”
B o b Dy l a n , H i g h Wat e r ( F o r C h a r l e y Pat t o n )
BACKGROUND sea level rise: a global issue In recent months, ‘No Wake’ signs have been erected all around Key Largo, Florida. Designed to remind boaters to slow down and avoid creating waves that could otherwise damage the surrounding areas, they are usually placed around lakes and other waterways. But these newly installed signs on Key Largo are found on streets, not rivers, and they are meant for cars, not boats. On this island in Monroe County, severe flooding, thanks to sea level rise, has become an almost everyday reality for residents during the fall king tide season. Yet the effects of sea level rise are not felt only in isolated parts of the world. In Shanghai, a mere 1.5 foot rise in sea level could displace as many as 13 million inhabitants. Alexandria, Egypt’s second-largest city, saw seven deaths during a flood of historical proportions in 2015 and faces as much as a 47 percent decline in the agricultural sector by 2060 due to the farmland being lost to saltwater infiltration. A climate vulnerability assessment conducted on Fiji by the World Bank recommended a $4.5 billion intervention merely to prevent the island from sinking, a figure equivalent to almost 100 percent of Fiji’s own GDP. The truth is, for many coastal cities and low-lying islands around the world, sea level rise is a Goliath of an issue. As our seas rapidly warm and expand thermally, and ice sheets and glaciers melt at ever-increasing rates, so too does our fear of the inevitable grow that living on dry land will one day be a luxury exclusive only to some. 6
B RISB ANE, AUST RALIA i n 201 1
m iam i, U.S. in 2017
kansai internationa l a i r por t, osa k a , j a pa n i n 201 8
7
which cities are most affected by sea level rise? a l o o k at t h e c i t i e s w o r s t h i t by a g l o b a l 3 ° C t e m p e r at u r e r i s e
alexandria, egypt miami, united states elevation: 6.56’ affected: 2.7 million risks: flooding through porous limestone bedrock
elevation: 16.40’ affected: 3 million risks: flash floods caused by narrow canals
rio de janeiro, brazil elevation: 16.40’ affected: 1.8 million risks: shoreline flooding at lower elevation beaches
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osaka, japan elevation: 78.74’ affected: 5.2 million risks: typhoons and storm surges
shanghai, china elevation: 13.12’ affected: 17.5 million risks: flooding of yangtze and huanpu rivers
9
hard-protect strategies
breakwater
floodwall
dike
living shoreline
dunes
floating island retreat strategy
soft-protect strategies
revetment
store strategy
coastal protection methods
seawall
floodable plain
raised ground
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sea level rise: current solutions? The impending threat of global sea level rise has sent cities around the world scrambling to protect their coastlines. Usually, one or a combination of different flood management strategies - consisting of hard protect, soft protect, store and retreat subcategories are deployed to shield cities from seawater infiltration. The Netherlands have a head start on other countries around the world, having implemented a system of dikes in the early 14th century and continue to grow their arsenal of protection strategies today with a new dredged sand barrier to protect its southwestern coast. Work on MOSE, a $5.5 billion tidal gate solution, will be complete by 2022 with the aim of protecting Venice and its lagoon from high tides.
dikes, nijmegen, netherlands
Yet environmental engineers remain skeptical about the efficacy of such systems in the long run. Many of were indeed designed to protect cities even into the foreseeable future, but sea level rise models are constantly improved and updated according to the levels of emission current at the time. The IPCC, which publishes assessment reports reviewing the latest climate science, highlights an alarming increase in projected sea level rise that has grown in every report stretching back as far as 1990. The IPCC’s fourth assessment report in 2007 predicted a likely SLR of 26-59 cm by 2100 based on model projections, but their most recent fifth assessment report in 2014 now estimate 52-98 cm by 2100. If projections have changed so drastically during a span of only seven years, how can we expect older protection systems to keep up with the ever-rising sea level rise predictions?
ipcc sea level rise projection, 1900-2100 sea level (cm)
Perhaps it is time to start entertaining approaches that embrace this change.
mose, venice
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slr projection (ipcc, rcp 8.5) slr projection (ipcc, rcp 2.6) observed slr a s s e s s e d l i k e ly r a n g e
105 90 75 60 45 30 15 0 -15
2100
2090
2080
2050
2070
2060
2030
2040
2010
2020
1990
2000
1980
1950
1970
1960
1930
1940
1910
1920
-30 1900
After all here is only so high that we can build a sea wall, and there is only so long that we can protect against erosion with dredged sand. The issue is that, for many cities, it is not a matter of whether they will be flooded – it is a matter of when.
year
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site: miami, US a l o o k at t h e c h a l l e n g e s o f a s i n k i n g c i t y ( m i a m i b e a c h )
BAY SIDE
A LT O N R D
MERIDIAN AVE
2.4 FT
2.51 FT
2.83 FT
FLOODING FROM I N T R A C O A S TA L WATERWAY
F L O O D I N G F R O M U N D E R G R O U N D I N F I LT R A T I O N D U E T O e l e vat i o n a b o v e wat e r ta b l e
l o c at i o n o f s e c t i o n in miami beach, fl
Miami, the first frontier standing between the US and the vast Atlantic Ocean, will be the first to go. The south-eastern Florida city sits a mere 6.562’ above sea level. Yet geographically, this is not the only problem it faces in its battle against rising sea levels. The South Florida peninsula contains the only sub-tropical climate in the US mainland, meaning high exposure to hurricanes and high rainfall events. Out of all Category 3 to 5 hurricanes that hit the Atlantic Coast of the US between 1851 and 2008, 39% struck Florida. On 12
FLOODING DURING HURRICANE SEASON
WASHINGTON AVE
OCEAN DR
BEACH
2.83 FT
5.18 FT
11.14 FT
FLOODING FROM NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN
a c o m b i n at i o n o f r i s i n g s e a l e v e l s, l o w and porous limestone bedrock
top (or shall we say underneath) of all this, Miami sits on Quaternary Key Largo limestone overlain by oolitic facies of Miami limestone. As sea levels rise, the porous bedrock allows saltwater to seep up from below. Consequently, many traditional coastal protection methods are ineffective in Miami. Dikes, like those found in the Netherlands, do not work as water would flow under them and through the bedrock. Retreat strategies are also impossible to implement, because areas of higher elevation have already been developed. Out of all cities most affected by sea level rise, Miami is definitely the problem child. 13
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site: miami, US a l o o k at t h e c h a l l e n g e s o f a s i n k i n g c i t y ( n o r t h e a s t m i a m i )
porous limestone bedrock wat e r ta b l e s o l i d m e ta m o r p h i c r o c k
19th CENTURY MIAMI SLOUGHS
rivers filled in, h o u s i n g b u i lt o v e r existing sloughs
20th CENTURY development
flooded housing r e m o v e d, pa r ks b u i lt over existing sloughs
21st CENTURY approach
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the foolish man builds his house on...limestone? In the neighborhoods of Miami, especially those in the northeast such as Arch Creek, residents bear the consequences of negligent city planning in the early 20th century. In an effort to take advantage of the booming property market in the 1920’s, developers built on any land that was available to them. Marshy, freshwater streams were filled in and entire neighborhoods were constructed on them, failing to recognize that the region sits on low bands of porous limestone. Today, these neighborhoods are bearing the brunt of irresponsible development. During king tides, water bubbles up through shower drains and storm drains, spreading fecal bacteria and other noxious substances it picks up along the way. Homes built in these areas have been classified by the Federal Emergency Management Agency as ‘repetitive loss properties’ and are no longer eligible for the National Flood Protection Program. Proposals have begun to restore the natural hydrology of these neighborhoods, relocating the residents that live in these high-risk zones and returning the sloughs to their original wetland habitat. These spaces would become greenway parks that store freshwater, creating ecosystems for wildlife. Former homeowners living in these areas would relocate to foreclosed homes on higher ground. However, socially, there are issues with this proposal. Many of those living on the higher ridges tend to be lower-income, African-American communities. Speculators are looking to snap up properties in these areas that are rising in value, leading to protests that relocation promotes ‘climate gentrification’.
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mapping the damage p r o j e c t e d m i a m i f l o o d z o n e s u n d e r 2 ° C & 3 ° C t e m p e r at u r e r i s e
opa-locka bal harbour
north miami
surfside miami shores
hialeah
north bay village
medley
miami beach miami springs
wynwood miami international airport
miami beach
fontainebleau
downtown miami
miami
westchester
fisher island
coral gables coconut grove
virginia key
south miami key biscayne
pinecrest
1 °C GL OB AL TE MP R ISE N O R M A L I Z E D BY 2 0 3 0
2 °C GL OBAL TE MP R ISE N O R M A L I Z E D BY 2 1 0 0
This triple whammy - water threatening from above ground, below ground, and from the coast - spells disaster for Miami. Jeff Goodall, renowned author of The Water Will Come: Rising Seas, Sinking Cities, and the Remaking of the Civilized World, predicts that “Miami as we know it today there’s virtually no scenario under which you can imagine it existing at the end of the century.” And for good reason - all sea level rise data projections point towards Miami being entirely flooded under a presumed 2 °C which we are expected to see by the turn of the century. In fact, if the sea level rises just 12 inches - a figure achievable by 2040 - as much as 20 percent of Miami’s area will be flooded. 16
effect of 1°C temp rise on miami ethnic groups opa-locka bal harbour
north miami
surfside miami shores
hialeah
north bay village
medley
miami springs
wynwood miami international airport
miami beach
fontainebleau
downtown miami
miami
westchester
fisher island
coral gables
virginia key
coconut grove
south miami key biscayne
pinecrest
white hispanic black asian
effect of 1°C temp rise on miami s i n g l e f a m i ly h o u s i n g opa-locka bal harbour
north miami
surfside miami shores
hialeah
north bay village
medley
miami springs
wynwood miami international airport
miami beach
fontainebleau
downtown miami
miami
westchester
fisher island
coral gables coconut grove
virginia key
south miami key biscayne
least expensive
pinecrest
most expensive
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so what next for miami? Philip Levine, former mayor of Miami Beach, established a $500 million plan in 2013 to install pumps that drain flooded parts of the city back into Biscayne Bay. As many as 90 pumps are currently in operation for Miami Beach alone, which covers only 8 square miles. For now, these pumps have kept the city mostly dry during king tides, but they remain hardly a viable solution for the rest of Miami, which spans over 55 square miles. Additionally, at a certain point, it becomes counter-intuitive to install pumps, because the sheer energy required to maintain their operation could cause more global harm than good in terms of fossil fuel consumption, which in turn furthers the impact of climate change and subsequently sea level rise. Instead, we need to implement a response to sea level rise that is more future oriented. But to do so, we need to identify the changing demographics of a city that will become more and more inundated. It is interesting to note that under the conditions of a 1 °C change in global temperatures (that we could see within 30 years), it is in fact the wealthy that are most affected. Those that live on Miami Beach and surrounding island communities will be the first to lose their properties to flooding. As the situation worsens, we could potentially see a shrinking upper class as they cut their losses and relocate to dry land elsewhere. But what happens to the other extreme of the economic spectrum – a population that works minimum-wage jobs in the tourism, hospitality and food industries? Our maps (pg. 17) show that in fact, many of the lower-income, African-American communities living in the Little Haiti/Brownsville neighborhoods are largely unaffected by the prospect of sea level rise. However, sea level rise brings with it the looming threat of gentrification – as other neighborhoods flood and these remain dry, the value of homes in these areas will soar. The poor will be pushed out and replaced by a burgeoning middle class that might not have the means to relocate to other cities. Where will lower-income communities go then, if there is no more dry land? The prospect of a flooded Miami gives us the opportunity to build new neighborhoods in place of ones that will inevitably be abandoned in a rush to escape the water. These new communities will promote living with the reality of rising water levels, rather than pushing against it. They will be designed with the recognition that sea levels will continue to rise, and thus offer flexibility to accommodate both a changing climate and a changing population. Only by radically rethinking traditional city concepts will we keep Miami’s communities from sinking in the near future.
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radical city concepts bridge city (1963), yona friedman A proposed bridge spanning the English Channel, the Bridge City houses a motorway and railway in the core of its giant exoskeletal structure. Surrounding the circulation are offices and warehouses that could streamline the flow of goods to its built-in port. The revenue generated by a combination of rent and tourism would theoretically cover the construction costs of the project.
t o k y o b ay ( 1 9 6 0 ) , k e n z o t a n g e In the midst of rapid population growth thanks to industrialization, Tange’s 1960 Plan for Tokyo experimented with the idea of creating a city in the air over Tokyo Bay. Based on the movement of metabolist architecture, the proposal featured a central highway system suspended 40 meters above the ground, with other programs branching away from the main circulation. Tange emphasized the importance of flexibility, allowing for future expansion further into Tokyo Bay.
plug-in city (1964), archigram The Plug-In City explored the idea of creating a central megastructure with modular residential units plugging in to the frame. A giant crane becomes the centerpiece of the city, a dictating the very composition of the structure. Designer Peter Cook describes the architecture as clothing for his city, changeable at all times depending on the specific needs of the communities that reside within. This concept was developed as a response to the rigid, modernist approach to suburbia and promoted a more nomadic lifestyle. 19
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exploration
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radical redesign composing the new miami grid
plan
section 22
If we are to rebuild Miami in an environment where man welcomes in the presence of water, we need to drastically rethink the city grid. Gone will be the old systems of two-dimensional grids with sprawl that stretches for miles. Sea level rise brings with it a need for flexibility and adaptability, things that we have already seen are impossible with a traditional neighborhood plan. My proposal for the new grid is inspired by renowned Dutch painter Piet Mondrian. His paintings pared down the complexity of art to its basic building blocks – the horizontal and the vertical, the rectangle and the square, the black and the white (with some red, blue and yellow too). These simple elements serve as an abstraction for the underlying intricacy of life. The contrasts emphasize Mondrian’s interest in dialectic relationships and reflect his belief that it is only in the face of conflict and subsequent resolution that we achieve human progress. Likewise, my proposed grid also simplifies architecture to its constituent parts – the site, the structure and the program. Only the first two are fixed; the flexibility of the program, in both size and location, is in direct opposition against the rigidity of the structural grid around it. Yet this allows a relationship between the two elements. The grid, enormous, stately and incredibly complex in its repeated simplicity, provides infinite possibilities for objects to arrange themselves within it. The program, almost chaotic in nature with its blocks of differing sizes and functions, carries almost a whimsical carelessness. It needs only find its desired form within, without regard for the grid that provided it the freedom to do so. The grid is the giver, and the program the taker. But the program is not entirely devoid of responsibility. It must continuously find new forms, to adapt to the needs of the current situation. It must seek to create hierarchy by deciding where blocks are stacked, and how. Will they penetrate the grid horizontally in the x-direction or the y direction? Will they go in vertically? These possibilities allow relationships not only between blocks, but around them too. The act of stacking creates negative spaces that are invaluable to any neighborhood, producing pseudo-outdoor spaces that could serve as important social hubs. And when blocks are replaced and rearranged, the quality of these spaces change as well. Thus, there is a dialectic relationship formed between the rigid grid and the dynamic program.
arrangement 1...
...and arrangement 2...
. . . a n d 3 ou t of in f in it y!
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radical redesign arranging the new miami grid
CENTRAL CIRCULATION CHAMBER
rooftop green space
20’ x 20’ x 20’ grid
existing buildings
s u s p e n d e d f r e e w ay s
WATER LEVEL BY 2100
w at e r l e v e l b o at l a u n c h / p a r k
This proposed grid would be superimposed on top of existing Miami infrastructure. The flooded buildings at ground level could be repurposed into communication or storage rooms, or even provide foundation for the structural grid. At the water level, buildings could be cleared to provide parks and docks, maximizing the interaction that people can have with the water that has infiltrated the city, while at the same time providing a floodable zone during high tide. Each ‘sector’ of the grid would also have a central circulation chamber that offices and residential units can connect to, providing vertical circulation all the way from sea level to the top of the megastructure. Each programmatic block would also have occupiable green roofs, creating the opportunity for small parks where people can socially convene. 24
20’ x 20’ x 20’ exoskeleton
a d a p ta b l e a n d reconfigurable units
existing buildings
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radical redesign choosing the new site two block site in south miami beach washington ave
collins ave
at
la
nt
ic
oc
ea
n
ocean dr
The nature of the grid superstructure offers plenty of opportunities for flexibility, and could theoretically cover all of Miami Beach. Though efficient, this is hardly a comfortable solution. Residents of the new Miami Beach would appreciate scenery and space to breath, especially as they are hemmed in within a somewhat dense grid structure. However, for the purposes of this thesis, we do need to pick a site - a ‘ground zero’, if you like for the implementation of the proposal. Therefore, a two-block site situated between Washington Avenue and Ocean Drive near South Beach was chosen. Many of the existing buildings on these two blocks are two to three storey restaurants, cafes and hotels that will be flooded within the next 20-30 years. The relatively consistent height of the buildings offers a good template on which to develop a prototype of the superstructure. The site is also located near the beach, providing potential interaction with the ocean. Of course, this is not the only site where the proposal will be built. The superstructure is flexible, and can sit on top of any existing buildings in Miami Beach. Each of these superstructures will host their own small. self-sufficient communities, akin to the neighborhoods that we see today in more traditional, dry, cities. They could be scattered throughout all of Miami Beach, allowing for visual breathing space. A central, elevated railway system could connect all of these separated superstructure communities should residents want to meet friends and family. However, the idea is to minimize the need to travel and thus reduce emissions, as all amenities and services residents need will be contained within each individual ‘neighborhood’. 26
miami beach i n t r a c i t y r a i l w ay
p r o p o s e d f u t u r e l o c at i o n s
ic ocea n atlant
l ta s a c o way a r er int wat
current site
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radical redesign new miami in section
towards miami beach
mixed-use programming
trans
(flooded) c
The most important facet of the superstructure development is zoning. Of course, we could make a simple box and stuff program inside of it, but that would be irresponsible design, not to mention a very visually convoluted and uncomfortable one. When we have such a flexible geometry, why not make use of its properties? To make the superstructure community a ‘breathable’ space amidst the dense grid, we need to carve out parts of said grid according to the program. The logical first step is to provide a central mean of transport that runs through the center of the superstructure community. The railway joins the proposed community and future communities together and provides the first location for a ‘carve’. This splits the 28
sport
towards atlantic ocean
mixed-use programming
public park
collins ave
structure into two smaller, more manageable, and less claustrophobic neighborhoods that contain all kinds of mixed-use program. The idea is that each superstructure is self-sufficient, providing places of work, leisure, entertainment and housing, so that it becomes essentially unnecessary to commute to other parts of Miami for employment or grocery shopping. Although the interstitial spaces created by the stacking of the programmatic boxes allow for parks and other green spaces, there is also a larger, single-level ‘deck’ near the flooded beachfront where the main public park is located. This park becomes a scenic balcony to look out into the flooded expanses of Miami Beach, and provides a habitat where shellfish and seafood can be grown and farmed. 29
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response
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radical response new miami in plan In a Miami where sea level rise has wiped out most of the industries that have sustained the city, we need to seek new ones that can help the city’s economy. Tourism, trade, and traditional agriculture will inevitably take a hit in Miami, so we need to radically rethink how this new superstructure community operates.
Miami might lose industries to rising ocean levels, but this in itself presents an opportunity to shift the focus to agriculture – aquatic agriculture, specifically. The public park area could become a seafood farm where mussels and kelp grow directly on the structure itself, and oysters and fish in pools and cages below it. To become a self-sufficient community, this calls for a change in lifestyle – foods that only grow on large expanses of dry land such as dairy and pork will need to be substituted with more of a seafood diet. Additionally, mussels and kelp are filter feeders and cleanse the water flowing into the canals under the superstructure.
oad s yste al ra ilr centr
urp
osi
ng
bui
ldi
ngs
building repurposed a s d e s a l i n at i o n p l a n t
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collin
s ct collin
washi
rep
s ave
m
ngton
ave
With the ground level of the existing buildings being entirely inundated, they can no longer be used for their original purposes. The proposal of this thesis is to move these functions up above the water in the new structural grid. Yet it would be a huge waste to simply abandon these buildings, which could still have useable floors in the foreseeable future before the water submerges them entirely. What, then, becomes of the flooded buildings? They can be repurposed into service facilities where submersion in water is less of an issue. These buildings can be converted into water desalination plants, sewage treatment, and server rooms. Large service pipes, like those seen on Piano and Rogers’ Centre Pompidou, snake throughout the structure, carrying gas, water and sewage run from the city above to these buildings or directly below ground. Other essential utilities, such as electricity, fiber-optic internet cables and phone lines can be embedded within the pole of the structure itself, with service hatches spaced consistently to allow for repairs.
tic oc ean farm
ed far m
icial f i lt e r
shellf
ish
ocean
ocean
dr
ct
sacrif
atlan
mussel seawe
i off
accessible c o m m u n i c at i o n s / power lines
ces
hou
sin
g
re ta il
sys
tem
sd e ta il
wat e r / s e wa g e service pipelines
pub l pro ic sp gra ace m
y nit mu r com ente c
sea boolean carved public square
foo
df arm
mussels/ seaweed farm growing on structure
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radical response overview of new miami
One of the key features of the super grid structure is the deck that extends out towards the Atlantic Ocean. It provides a communal gathering space for everyone within the superstructure community, offering pictureque views of the water that surrounds them, as well as glimpses of the sea that has flooded the existing city hrough apertures that are strategically cut into the deck. The defining aspect of this space is definitely the mussel and kelp farm. The multi-level deck allows all inhabitants of the community to come out and interact with the marine ‘farmland’. Workers are able to climb the poles and remove mussels and kelp for harvesting, as well as dive underwater to collect other shellfish grown in cages, such as oysters. This allows the community to be self sustainable in terms of food production, as well as potentially providing a source of income as an alternate means of farming to replace more traditional forms such as dairy farming, which are no longer possible due to the dearth of dry land. This marine wildlife has a significant positive impact on the water quality of the new flooded Miami community. The kelp, mussels and oysters thrive by consuming huge amounts of phytoplankton, bacteria and other particles, helping to filter out impurities in the water crashing in from the coastline.
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radical response defining the structure
The challenge of implementing this huge megastructure is keeping the modular units structurally sound, even when they are stacked many storeys high. Inspiration is drawn from Piano and Rogers’ Centre Pompidou, which focuses on flexibility, much like a Meccano kit. For this project, I have a adopted a similar gerberette and tension rod system, which holds up the concrete slabs and reduces the need for structure within each of the 30’ bays. This opens up the available space in the bay, something sorely needed as the structure is otherwise already very dense and somewhat intimidating. Each of the ‘boxes’ are bolted to the structure with L-brackets and C-brackets. This allows for 36
s ta i n l e s s s t e e l g e r b e r e t t e
L- b r a c k e t c o n n e c t i n g u n i t
s ta i n l e s s s t e e l t e n s i o n r o d c r o s s b r a c i n g
filled concrete slab service pipelines
structural truss system
an easy attachment and removal of each of the box units. In fact, the entire structural system is designed to be very flexible and expandable, with many of the structural units being identical and thus able to be produced off-site through factory prefabrication. The choice of materials must also be considered very carefully. As the grid is surrouded by sea water, salt spray will inevitably cover the structure. Thus, we can use stainless steel so that rust will not damage the integrity of the structure in the long run. The service pipelines, such as water, electricity, gas and communications must be protected in a concrete slab, insulated away from the sea spray which could wreak havoc on the resources that keep the city running smoothly. 37
radical response e n g a g i n g t h e wat e r
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Top left: View of the flooded Collins Avenue, underneath the suspended railway. Converted into a canal, allowing for boat launches and waterside strolls. Bottom left: View of canal, with pedestrian bridge connecting the two sides of the walkway. Above: Public deck, with accessible mussle and kelp farms and boat docks.
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radical response reflection
In a world that is seeing an ever-increasing population alongside an ever-increasing frequency of global disasters, relief must be sought, at least partly through architectural proposals. It is not easy how can we possibly change the status quo and radically redesign and respond to new environmental changes quickly? People like to remain in a state of comfort and familiarity, and usually react poorly to a drastic rethinking of urban planning norms. But in the vert recent past we have seen how a large scale disaster, though viral in nature and not cause by climate change, can cripple society’s infrastructure and force us to adapt to a new way of living. Unfortunately, like it or not, nature cares very little for human comfort, and like our ancestors, we must evolve to survive. And with the climate change stacking on consequence after consequence, we can only expect to see us pushed to adapt faster to more and more natural disasters. From the outset, the purpose of this thesis was to look at responding to the worst instance of sea level rise. For this, Miami was the perfect site, as its geographic and geologic properties will make the city unsalvageable in the near future. When walls make no difference, and water seeps in from everywhere, what direction is there to go but up? Thus the supergrid proposal was born. And while the proposal provides a brief glimpse into an alternate way of configuring a city, there are things far beyond the architectural that influence our ability to adapt to something as menacing as the impending rise of flood waters. How can we analyze the psychological impacts of living in a densely gridded city? How can we predict the demographic changes, and the socio-economic factors that will influence the liveability of this new city? At the end of the day, as much as architects like to view themselves as underappreciated visionaries with the capability to single-handedly solve the world’s issues, we know so little about the potential impacts of our designs. How can we identify success until we put them into practice, drop clients in, and monitor over years and years? This supergrid structure is merely one of many possible solutions. We are running out of time to find answers to our problems, so we must start testing our ideas now. If we start implementing them into our communities at a micro scale today, we can at least have a vague model of how well-received the proposal is so that we can make adjustments for the future. After all, architecture is for the people, and they deserve to live the rest of their lives free from the dangers of sea level rise.
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APPENDIX
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vellum 16 pa r a m e t r i c g r i d s p e a k e r s ta n d s
Grids are undoubtedly useful tools. If we can use grids to elevate a new city above rising waters, why not with speakers? To elevate my Wharfedale Diamond 10.1 speakers to ear level, solid sapele mahogany and birch plywood is used. The waffle structure provides both stability and weight, as well as excellent vibration isolation.
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7
bibliography
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“engineering ecologies” peter trummer
Peter Trummer talks about our modern shift to the creation of flora and fauna by way of genetic engineering. With the change in the way biological processes work, he tells us that we must practice engineering ecology. He gives the example of the octopus that had spent its life living in polluted water, and “when the octopus was transferred from the polluted to the unpolluted water, it almost immediately sank to the bottom and died”, showing us that the object not only needs its environment – it also becomes it. Trummer gives us three examples of how architectural practice can not only exist as a part of the environment, but in fact influence and bring out its actualizing potential. The first example is the Dutch approach to engineering ecology, which intervenes in the natural environment building up artificial sandbanks to protect the coastline from flooding. This in turn has introduced a new landscape and new habitats. The second is of context-specific objects such as the artificial beach animals designed by Theo Janssen that are wind powered and have walking behaviours that respond to the ground conditions. The last example Trummer provides is of the river Isar in Munich, which has had its underwater structure re-engineered to create artificial waves for surfing. Trummer presents the options that architecture makes available for us to influence our environment, such that we can make biotechnical progress as our ancestors did when they first tamed wild animals and created livestock. This approach is heavily relevant to my thesis, as the introduction of ocean into a new cityscape provides many options for me to not only change the natural movement of the water, but the habitats that will arise as a result of the engagement between man, the built environment, and sea life.
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“from object to field” s ta n a l l e n
Allen describes a field condition as a formal or spatial matrix capable of unifying diverse elements while respecting the identity of each. Each element is acted upon by forces, or a series of rules and parameters, that dictates how the individual element responds to the others. The resulting pattern or form is dictated from the bottom up, rather than the top down. For Allen, a field condition is achieved by creating small, insignificant transitions that, when repeated enough times, can create astonishing effects by way of formal permutations. He gives the example of the Mosque at Cordoba, that was designed with expansion in mind and was achieved by using a system of column spacing. Allen shows us that field conditions are achievable not only in two dimensions, but also in three. A moiré, for example, is the superimposition of two regular fields on top of each other, generating unexpected shifts in scale when viewed from afar. Allen encourages us to examine the smaller building block as the initial point of design, because it can lead to much greater flexibility, as well as improvisation. This particular essay is very helpful for the development of my thesis, as my concept involves the superimposition of a grid on top of an existing city grid, much like the moiré filed condition that Allen talks about. I also need to see the structural system as more of a field condition, such that I can allow flexibility in the future to respond to demographic and population changes that will be brought on by sea level rise. It also provides me with a case study in the Mosque at Cordoba which I can look at to explore how, historically, designing for expansion worked.
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“a d a p t i n g c i t i e s t o s e a l e v e l r i s e ” stefan al
In this book, Al explores the challenges wrought by a world facing a sea level rise crisis. He explores the unique issues faced by cities that are most affected by the threat of sea level rise, and gives us projected flood maps and loss figures to highlight the severity of flooding brought upon by climate change. Al shows us the methods that are being undertaken by Rotterdam, New York City, New Orleans, and Ho Chi Minh City to keep the cities from flooding over. He breaks these strategies up into four main categories. The first is hard-protect, which involves keeping the water out by providing a “solid and engineered demarcation between water and land.” The second is soft-protect, which looks to build up an in-between area of water and land that protects shorelines and promotes biodiversity. The third looks to store water, through built structures such as reservoirs, while the fourth looks to retreat, either further away from the coastline, or by building up over the water. It provides detailed diagrams of how each of the strategies work and how they are implemented in cities. Al’s book is massively helpful in conducting my initial research regarding sea level rise, as it provides a detailed overview in the existing that cities around the world are adopting or have already adopted to combat flooding. The detailed explanations of how each system works through drawing allows me to test each one against the conditions of my site in Miami, and conclude whether they will be effective or not in the long run.
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“the psychology of miami’s struggle to adapt to sea-level rise” galen a. treuer While other articles have provided me with technical and abstract information regarding strategies to address sea level rise, Treuer’s article gives me a brief view into the psychological and social challenges that activists face in a bid to affect change in Miami’s plan to protect against flooding. Treuer gives us useful information about the geography of Miami and the unique issues it faces due to a combination of a suboptimal tropical climate and a porous limestone bedrock. Treuer realizes that in the fight against sea level rise in Miami, the greatest challenge lies in the fact that many residents remain uncertain about the severity of the problem, leading to many short-sighted, quick-fix patches rather than planning for the long term. He tells us that this is because “the impacts are difficult to experience, occurring mostly in the future and spread across broad geographic areas.” He also identifies that a relative lack of collective action by the city lies in its lack of unified history, as many residents were born outside of the United States. This leads to a “lack of perceived past” that can make it difficult for people to invest in a collective future. In addition, Treuer, notes that those who have the means to leave are largely unfazed by the issue of sea level rise, as they view relocation as a viable option should flooding worsen. Treuer’s article gives we much greater oversight into the problems that Miami face when fighting sea level rise. It highlights that marked segregation between class and race does in fact negatively affect a city’s willingness to band together and discuss the issue. It has also shown me that the threat of rising sea levels cannot simply be tackled by introducing technological built solutions, but needs to be addressed at a social level too. Therefore, any architectural response to the rising sea levels in Miami needs to influence the mentality of the inhabitants there too.
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bibliography works cited Al, Stefan. Adapting Cities to Sea Level Rise. Island Press/Center for Resource Economics, 2018. Allen, Stan. “From Object to Field”, Architecture After Geometry, AD Profile 127, AD 67, 1997, pp. 24-31. Ann Conyers, Zella, et al. “Sea Level Rise in Miami Beach: Vulnerability and Real Estate Exposure.” Professional Geographer, vol. 71, no. 2, May 2019, pp. 278–291. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1080/00330124.2018.153103 7. Cheung, William W. L., et al. “Review of Climate Change Impacts on Marine Fisheries in the UK and Ireland.” Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, vol. 22, no. 3, 2012, pp. 368–388., doi:10.1002/aqc.2248. Kutz, Myer. Handbook of Environmental Engineering. John Wiley & Sons, 2018. Minta, Molly. “Sea Change.” Nation, vol. 309, no. 6, Sept. 2019, p. 4. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/ login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=138453287&site=ehost-live&scope=site. Molinaroli, Emanuela, et al. “Do the Adaptations of Venice and Miami to Sea Level Rise Offer Lessons for Other Vulnerable Coastal Cities?” Environmental Management, vol. 64, no. 4, 2019, pp. 391–415., doi:10.1007/s00267-019-01198-z. Nesmith, Susannah. “Miami Beach Readies for Sea-Level Rise.” Planning, vol. 81, no. 2, Feb. 2015, pp. 8–9. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=100831865&site=ehost-live&scope=site. Schalk, Meike. “The Architecture of Metabolism. Inventing a Culture of Resilience.” Arts, vol. 3, no. 2, 2014, pp. 279–297., doi:10.3390/arts3020279. Treuer, Galen A. “The Psychology of Miami’s Struggle to Adapt to Sea-Level Rise.” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, vol. 74, no. 3, May 2018, pp. 155–159. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1080/00963402.2018.1461970. Trummer, Peter. “Engineering Ecologies.” Architectural Design, vol. 78, no. 2, 2008, pp. 96-101., doi: 10.1002/ad.647. Wang, B., et al. “Potential Impacts of Sea-Level Rise on the Shanghai Area.” Journal of Coastal Research, 1995, pp. 151–166. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/25735706. Accessed 16 June 2020. Watson, Donald, and Michele Adams. Design for Flooding: Architecture, Landscape, and Urban Design for Resilience to Flooding and Climate Change. John Wiley & Sons, 2011. Williams, Kevan. “Higher Ground? Not so Fast: In North Miami, Flooding and Sea-Level Rise Have Spurred Talk of Relocation, as Well as Cries of ‘Climate Gentrification.’” Landscape Architecture Magazine, vol. 106, no. 8, Aug. 2016, p. 30. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bvh&AN=755184&site=ehost-live&scope=site.
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