OWLS Quarterly, Third Edition, September 2018

Edition III: The Cabinet of Curiosities September 2018

Oxford & Wimbledon Leading Scholarship

The Journal of the Academic Scholars of Oxford and Wimbledon High Schools

OWLS Quarterly, Edition III, September 2018

The Cabinet of Curiosities In this edition of OWLS Quarterly our Owls took on the challenge of curating in print form a cabinet of curiosities. Their selection of objects is deliberately eclectic and tries to capture something of the encyclopaedic collections of objects found in the cabinets of curiosities – those collections of Renaissance Europe onwards. Also known as cabinets of wonder, these were regarded by their gentleman owners (and yes, they were always gentlemen…) as microcosms of knowledge. Arguably the most famous of these (a room rather than a piece of furniture) belonged to John Tradescant and Elias Ashmole, both of whom were enlightened men who recognised the importance of drawing together objects that each represented a different sort of knowledge and achievement. Their domestic collections laid the foundation for what would later become public museum collections such as the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford. Here, then, we have imagined our own cabinet of curiosity; metaphorical shelves groaning and flexing under the weight of such varied and rich treasure.

Dr John Parsons, Director of Sixth Form (WHS) and Ms Rachael Pallas-Brown, Director of Sixth Form (OHS)

CONTENTS The Imperial Crown of Russia ............................................................................................................................ Page 2 My Grandfathers Shrapnel .................................................................................................................................. Page 4 Sappho: A Revolutionary? .................................................................................................................................... Page 5 Changing the Assumption that Space Exploration is a Waste of Time, Money & Resources .... Page 7 Alan Turing’s 1936 Paper on Computable Numbers with an Application to the Entscheidungs Problem: Why Turing is Commonly Considered the ‘Father of Computing’ .... Page 9 Gramática de la Lengua Castellana (1492) (Grammar of the Castilian Language)....................... Page11 The Hippocratic Oath ............................................................................................................................................. Page 13 The Leyden Jar .......................................................................................................................................................... Page 16 The Phonograph: The Beginnings of Sound Recording............................................................................ Page 19 The Ambassadors .................................................................................................................................................... Page 21 The Vitruvian Man – New Perspectives for Human Science .................................................................. Page 23 Thalidomide ............................................................................................................................................................... Page 24 The Foundation Volume of English Literature ............................................................................................ Page 27 Penicillin ...................................................................................................................................................................... Page 30 The Pill that Changed the World........................................................................................................................ Page 32 The Greenstone Heart ............................................................................................................................................ Page 34 The Tale of Genji – The World’s First Novel ................................................................................................. Page 37 Thornfield Hall of Charlotte Bronte’s Jane Eyre.......................................................................................... Page 39 Cabinet of Curiosities ............................................................................................................................................. Page 41 The First Credit card............................................................................................................................................... Page 43 The Greatest Invention of the 20th Century: Transistors ........................................................................ Page 45 Currencies in the Digital Age – The Brilliance of BitCoin ........................................................................ Page 48 1 Washing Machine .....................................................................................................................................................

Page 50 Der Löwenmensch - The Lion Man ................................................................................................................... Page 52

forerunners, represents the wider changing dynamics of Russian culture, as Peter the Great, and then Catherine the Great, both tried to assimilate elements of Western thinking and design into Russian life. Thus, the Imperial Crown harks back to the style of traditional Roman Crowns, which was fitting for the Russian rulers, who changed their official title to ‘Emperor’ or ‘Empress’ as of 1721.

Millie McMillan (WHS)

THE IMPERIAL CROWN OF RUSSIA

The very structure of the Imperial Crown reveals an abundance of symbolism and meaning, exposing the intentions of both the creator and commissioner. In the classical style, the crown has a ‘mitre’, reminiscent of bishops’ headdresses. Combined with the intricate ‘fleur-de-lis’ patterns (often associated with Catholic saints), this serves to reiterate the divine appointment of the Empress. Furthermore, this ‘mitre’ divides the crown into two different sections; in Roman tradition, this was representative of the two hemispheres – the East and the West parts of their vast Empire. Thus the designs of the Russian crown draws upon the majesty and power of its Roman Imperial predecessor, demonstrating the type of image that the Russian rulers wanted to present to their subjects. Yet perhaps the most striking feature of this beautifully ornate artefact is the 389 carat 2 spinel ruby, adorned with a diamond cross.

This Christian symbol pays homage to the prevalence of the Russian Orthodox Church within society, whilst also oozing with the elaborate splendour of the Royals, elevating them to a status far above that of the average Russian citizen.

The Russian Imperial Crown is a glimmering portal, a bejewelled window to the bygone days of the Tsars, the autocrats who once ruled over the mighty Russian Empire. First worn in 1762 at the coronation of Empress Catherine II, it was the ultimate symbol of grandeur and splendour. Despite the political upheaval that ensued in Russia throughout the 20th century, the great Imperial Crown is currently on display in Moscow, demonstrating how objects can outlive their era, and provide valuable insight into the inner workings of another age.

Though the crown was originally designed for Peter III’s coronation, his estranged wife Catherine launched a coup d’état, meaning it was first worn at her coronation.

The man who designed this ornately decorated masterpiece was Jérémie Pauzié, a Swiss jeweller famed for this creation, which contains almost 5,000 diamonds and features 74 pearls. Although the glittering glory of this crown is indicative of the extravagant spending of the Russian Imperial Court, interestingly, the design of the crown aimed to capture Western regal symbols. During Catherine’s reign, the wave of Enlightenment philosophy and rational thinking was sweeping through Europe; Catherine herself was one of the main proponents of this within Russia, as she sought to modernise her Empire. Indeed, the crown itself reflects this, as it replaced the traditional Cap of Monomakh 1, which was of Oriental origin. This shift away from the old crown, used at the coronations of Catherine’s

Whilst the tangible brilliance of this object enables one to make inferences about the elaborate lives led by members of the Russian Imperial Court, it is the underpinning symbolism of the crown that is most intriguing. The crown is a mechanism through which a monarch could assert the legitimacy of their claim to the crown; by cloaking themselves in the imperial heritage of their forerunners, they minimise disruption to the established status quo. Thus Catherine’s coronation was of vital strategic importance. Firstly, it happened only two months after the “natural” death of her husband, indicating the dynastical requirement for a speedy transition of power. Not only this, but it was necessary for Catherine to overtly display her regal power and authority, especially due to the fact she was not a member of the Russian nobility by blood; in fact, she was German. Thus the dazzling intricacies of the Imperial crown were more than simply a lavish ‘impulse buy’, but an important way of asserting Catherine’s supremacy. Traditionally, a monarch places the imperial

1

2

Massie, Robert K. Catherine the Great: Portrait of a Woman. UK: Head of Zeus, 2016, p. 288

Massie, Robert K. Peter the Great: His Life and Work. UK: Head of Zeus, 2016, p. 51 2

nostalgia is even used a marketing ploy, with the crown used in different adverts to instil a sense of patriotism.

It seems the Imperial Crown of Russia richly deserves its place in the Cabinet of Curiosities, due to the vastly different perceptions of its value, and the disparities in what it represents across changing regimes.

crown upon his or her own head, which serves as an emphatic reminder to the populous that the monarch is divinely appointed. Though this could sometimes be challenging, (the 4.08 kg crown could hardly be described as a light accessory), it set a necessary tone for the ruler’s regime. It established the unbreakable bond between the monarch and God, therefore providing further legitimacy to the autocratic rule of the Russian Tsar.

Bibliography Massie, Robert K. Catherine the Great: Portrait of a Woman. UK: Head of Zeus, 2016.

Although the Imperial Crown was a symbolic display of monarchical supremacy throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, this was to come to a shattering halt due to the societal upheaval as a result of the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution in Russia. Everything that had once been revered as sacred, items that were once the epitome of power and hierarchy, were sold or discarded. The prestigious Diamond Fund curated by Peter the Great was once a treasure trove of luminous gemstones, but by 1932, over 200 objects had been lost or sold, diminishing the size of the collection to a mere 71 objects 3. Only the crown jewels were saved from the mercenary grasp of the revolutionaries, safely locked away from the political strife in the Kremlin Armoury, Moscow, where nowadays they are on display.

Massie, Robert K. Peter the Great: His Life and Work.

UK: Head of Zeus, 2016.

Jacques, Susan. The Empress of Art: Catherine the Great and the Transformation of Russia. New York: First Pegasus Books, 2017.

Morgan, Diane. Fire and Blood: Rubies in Myth, Magic, and History. USA: Greenwood Publishing, 2008.

‘From Charlemagne to Hitler: The Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire and its Symbolism’, Dagmar Paulus, University College London https://www.charlemagneicon.ac.uk/files/2016/01/Paulus-2017-FromCharlemagne-to-Hitler.pdf (accessed 26/04/18)

The Russian Imperial Crown is a fascinating example of the longevity of objects; they bypass political upheaval and are a remnant of bygone days, in this case revealing the glittering world of Russia’s imperial ‘golden age’.

Yet perhaps what is most interesting when considering the impact of this object on our relationship with the past, is the fluctuating values that different societies impose upon the same artefact. For those in Catherine the Great’s Imperial Court, the Crown was revered for symbolising the divine right of the monarch, and for epitomising the wealth and strength of the Russian nobility. Meanwhile, the communist regime saw the crown, and the values it represented, as the antithesis of all things good, a demonstration of the corrupt nature of the old Russian system. In 1922, New York Times journalists were granted viewings of the Russian crown jewels, and it is said that they were allowed to place this once-sacred item onto their heads. This demonstrates the absurdly fluctuating value systems that different regimes project onto the remnants of the past, and it highlights the ideological differences that frame our perception of both the past, and the objects that inhabit it.

Imperial Crown of Russia, Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Crown_of_Rus sia (accessed 20/04/18) Jeremie Pauzie, Russi an Art Network, http://www.rusartnet.com/biographies/russianartists/18th-century/rossica/swiss/jeremie-pauzie (accessed 20/04/18) Monomakhs’s Cap, Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Monomakhs-Cap (accessed 24/04/18) Picture: Russian Crown Jewels, Famous Diamonds, http://famousdiamonds.tripod.com/russiancrownjewels .html (accessed 23/04/18)

Yet the Imperial Crown has since reappearance, proudly displayed on the Coat of Arms for the Russian Federation since 2000. Harking back to imperial 3

Jacques, Susan. The Empress of Art: Catherine the Great and the Transformation of Russia. New York: First Pegasus Books, 2017, p. 391 3

sites and see what they could find. It was on one of these trips that he found these strange menacing pieces of metal – pieces of metal that had come from the sky, dropped from one of those silhouette shapes. Perhaps it was this early interest in planes, and the fantastic flying machines that soared overhead, that caused my grandfather to choose the Royal Air Force when it was his turn for National Service in 1950. By then the war had of course ended – he was lucky that his father had returned safely from the war, and that most of his close family had survived. However, the glamour and excitement of flying had taken hold of him, and he was sent off to Ternhill to spend a year learning to fly small training aeroplanes. Later in his life, my grandfather would recall that year as one of the happiest times of his life. He wrote:

Hannah Gray (OHS)

MY GRANDFATHER’S SHRAPNEL COLLECTION My grandfather was seven years old when World War Two began and thirteen years old when it ended. Like many other young boys at the time, he collected shrapnel and competed with his friends for who had the best collection.

His remaining collection consists of two large (surprisingly heavy) pieces of bomb casing with dangerously sharp jagged edges. It is a small collection that doesn’t seemingly hold much significance… although it is actually a representation of how his past shaped the rest of his life.

At the end, when the results were published, I was second in class for the whole group, and I also won the educational class prize. I would have won the overall achievement if I had not run one of the training aeroplanes into the ditch one day – I had become a bit disorientated, and ran into the ditch, but the CO was very generous, the penalty wasn’t too great.

Perhaps granddad thought that he was also contributing to the country’s defense effort – in a delayed way, doing his bit, giving back to the country after World War II. Apparently, for a very short time, he considered training as a commercial pilot, although his career subsequently took a very different path. (Much later in life, during his retirement, he took up several opportunities to get behind the controls of a small plane.)

As a young boy, my grandfather John would have been well aware of the outbreak of war, even if he didn’t fully understand its significance. His own father served in both wars, and so would have told him stories of the First World War. In 1939, my great-grandfather was taken off to war for a second time, and my grandfather would have immediately seen the impact of the war on his small family – left at home with his younger brother and his mother to look after them. Although in the first few months of 1939 Britain experienced what was known as the ‘phoney-war’, soon there were aerial attacks on the nation’s capital, London. Living in Staines on the outskirts of London, my grandfather and his younger brother Peter began to see the German aeroplanes and their night-time bombing raids. He remembered one occasion of being driven up onto a hill from where they could see the fires in London burning through the night, illuminating the darkness like an eerie spectacle. In their small home with their mother, the young boys had a poster on their bedroom wall, showing the silhouettes of all the fighter planes and bombers flying at the time – both British and German – so that they could spot the different types as they flew overhead. The older brother, my grandfather, would then later escape the small avenue on which they lived with his friends, often cycling many miles to visit bomb

Granddad was something of a hoarder, and like many who grew up during the Second World War, he held on to many things that we might throw away today. For nearly 70 years he carefully kept his shrapnel collection, wrapped up in tissue in an old tin, then passed on down to my own father. Grandad also kept his flying helmet, flying cap and badges, and even a whole flying suit (later donated to a heritage museum). The whole experience of flying must have been very important to him. Growing up during the Second World War had a huge impact on my granddad. His family, and in particular his father, survived against the odds – not many servicemen survived both World Wars. My grandfather and his brother, like many many children in the UK, survived bombing raids, being evacuated, changing schools, disrupted education, rationing and food shortages. Unlike others, he was lucky not to have been torn to pieces by those sharp pieces of metal.

Perhaps that sense of survival and having come through shaped his later life. He was always a precise man, very 4

careful with money and possessions – perhaps rationing and doing without during the war had built this into him? He had a fascination with world events, was intrigued by mechanics and machines, and wanted his own sons to understand the legacy his own father’s generation had left for us. Those pieces of metal meant more to him that just a boyhood game.

Anna Jeffries-Shaw (WHS)

SAPPHO: A REVOLUTIONARY? Someone will remember us, I say, even in another time’ -Sappho Fragment 147

And those pieces of metal are a link to another world and another time. Although sharp and broken, there are parts of them that are smooth and perfectly curved, shaped and fashioned into perfect parts – parts of a bomb casing, precisely engineered and made in the factories of Germany during the late 1930s. It is incredible to think that they would have been handled by ordinary German workers, possibly women, or worse, slave workers from various ethnic groups rejected by the Third Reich. But they were made in factories where men and women were working for their war effort, for an effort and an ideal that (if they were not forced labourers) they believed in, something that they were doing for their country. These old pieces of metal in my granddad's metal tin were made to kill British men and women, to destroy our towns and cities, and to try and bring in a new rule, a new German occupation.

Pictured here is a page from the Anthologia Palantina, the collection of Greek poems and epigrams discovered in 1606 in the Palatine Library in Heidelberg. It is based on the lost collection from the 10th century, which in turn is based on older anthologies. It is in this that Plato is accredited with saying the following: ‘Some say the muses are nine - how careless - behold, Sappho of Lesbos is the tenth.’

Sappho is known for being the quintessential lyric poet of Ancient Greece; where Homer was referred to as ‘the Poet’, Sappho was ‘the Poetess’.

Sappho was writing within a tradition of lyric poetry created and dominated by men, however she frequently subverts the traditions of this genre and occupies herself with the world of women at the time: she is exclusively concerned with their everyday lives. Sappho is instrumental in our understanding about the women of Ancient Greece, however, as Philip Freeman rightfully points out ‘arguing from silence is a dangerous business’ 4. That is, speculating about her life and the lives of other women from what Sappho doesn’t say in her poetry can be unreliable. And so, curiously little is known of her personal life, as it is obscured by legend and mythology. The best source of information is the Suidas, a Greek lexicon compiled in the 10th century, from which we know that she was born on the island Lesbos to a noble family, where she lived most of her life in the city of Mytilene, apart from her family’s brief exile in Sicily shortly after 600 B.C.E. She married a wealthy man in Mytilene, and they had a daughter names Cleis. Sappho also headed a ‘thiasos’, or an academy of unmarried women. As was the custom at the time, wealthy families sent their daughters to live at these schools where they were taught proper social graces, composition, singing, and poetry recitation.

It is peculiar how someone my granddad had never met and was supposed to hate, had such a giant impact on his life and altered its course so much. Tiny aspects of the past seem irrelevant at the time, but as my granddad’s shrapnel shows, they can really have a much bigger impact than you know and can even determine some of your greatest passions.

Sappho’s poetry was renowned: Plato called her the tenth muse, Horace imitated her, and she inspired Ezra 4

Freeman, P. (2017); Searching For Sappho, W.W.Norton

5

own Greek dialect using common expressions and words in her poems. She had a graceful and elegant style; the lyric meter that she refined is now called the Sapphic meter 6, a type of lyric that influenced both Ovid and Catullus. Yet, ultimately it is the content of the poem itself which enthrals the majority. It is written as a reverent prayer to Aphrodite, and yet quickly becomes an intimate conversation between Sappho and Aphrodite. This is just one of the many examples of Sappho subverting the genre and manipulating the traditional Homeric gods to her own purposes.

Furthermore, for us in the 21st Century, we are fascinated as a society by what Sappho’s poetry can reveal about lesbianism in the Ancient World. Sappho here is part of the song, referring to herself by name through the voice of the goddess. This isn’t the only poem in which Sappho sings of her own desires, however it is one of the few in which she names herself.

It is arguable that she inserted herself as a character (like Dante did in his Divine Comedy) and the whole scenario of unrequited love is mere fiction, yet it is much more likely that it is a genuine prayer.

Furthermore, the reader (or audience for Sappho’s age, as lyric poetry would have been sung and performed with the lyre rather than read) is left in no uncertain terms that the object of Sappho’s desire is indeed a woman, as the gendered endings of the Greek language make clear. Thus, what remains is Sappho’s only complete poem unambiguously announcing that she is passionately in love with another woman.

Pound. Although little is known about Sappho’s life, she made a name for herself as the greatest lyric poet of all time, even in the male-dominated world of classic literature. During the span of Sappho’s life, the style of poetry was turning from the epic form—heroic stories narrated by the gods—to more personal narratives: much of her writing focused on the intimacy and passion of relationships between humans Her most well-known work is perhaps ‘Ode to Aphrodite’, often referred to as Fragment 1, is archetypal of her love poetry at the time. It is the only poem of Sappho which survives in its completeness and comes to us by way of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, a Greek historian and literary critic: Deathless Aphrodite of the spangled mind, child of Zeus, who twists lures, I beg you do not break with hard pains, O lady, my heart but come here if ever before you caught my voice far off and listening left your father’s golden house and came, yoking your car. And fine birds brought you, quick sparrows over the black earth whipping their wings down the sky through midair— they arrive. But you, O blessed one, smiled in your deathless face and asked what (now again) I have suffered and why (now again) I am calling out

Unfortunately, what we have of Sappho’s poems are just fragments; the great body of her work has been lost over the millennia. She’s reported to have written nine great volumes of verse that were known across antiquity and were often consulted by scholars in ancient libraries. Over the years, these were lost in fires, floods, wars; and during the fifteenth century, the Church destroyed what manuscripts they owned because they were considered immoral and indecent. Sappho’s homoerotic verses were the reason for her vilification.

Yet, homoeroticism wasn’t anything unusual at the time. Both men and women wrote poetry extolling the virtues of their same sex companions (whether sexual or platonic), and social and religious practices consisted of both single sex and mixed events. Famously, in Plato’s symposium, Aristophanes explains there were three genders: male, female, and androgynous, and each person was twice what they are now. That is, they had four hands, four legs, two heads, two sets of genitals, and so on. Yet they were split in two as punishment from the gods, and so desired to seek their other halves, thus forming homosexual or heterosexual couples

and what I want to happen most of all in my crazy heart. Whom should I persuade (now again) to lead you back into her love? Who, O Sappho, is wronging you?

For if she flees, soon she will pursue.

If she refuses gifts, rather will she give them.

If she does not love, soon she will love even unwilling.

Come to me now: loose me from hard care and all my heart longs to accomplish, accomplish. You be my ally. 5 Dionysius quoting this poem in a book on literary composition shows us how it was not only Sappho’s subject matter which was revolutionary, but that her use of language also changed poetry. Written entirely in her 5

6

Translated by Anne Carson.

6

The form is defined as a stanza of three such verses followed by a verse consisting of a dactyl followed by a spondee or trochee

respectively. He even praises the relationship between two men, since such couples favour boldness, intelligence, and masculinity, both in themselves and in others, though curiously little is said about his views on lesbianism. Perhaps this says nothing positive, the implication that if the relationship between two men is the purest form of love, since they are the ‘superior’ sex, the love between two women, the ‘inferior’ sex, is the least pure of all. This idea pervades through the centuries, with early 20th Century writers attempting to portray Sappho as a proper Victorian lady, attempting to edit and reinterpret even her most blatant homoerotic desires. And so, perhaps Sappho’s poetry illustrates just how patriarchy will seek to reinterpret and blatantly misrepresent anything that challenges its preconceived view of the world

Margaret Lister (OHS)

CHANGING THE ASSUMPTION THAT SPACE EXPLORATION IS A WASTE OF TIME, MONEY & RESOURCES. Space exploration is the ongoing investigation and exploration of celestial bodies in and beyond our solar system by means of continuously evolving and growing space technology. The study of space is carried out mainly by astronomers with telescopes and also the physical exploration of space is conducted both by unmanned robotic space probes and human spaceflight.

Although astronomy in fact predates recorded history, it was the development of large and considerably efficient rockets during the mid-twentieth century that allowed physical exploration of space to be possible. Common arguments in favour for exploring space include advancing scientific research, national honour, ensuring the future survival of humanity, and either uniting different nations or developing military and strategic advantages against other countries. However, some people argue that we shouldn’t be ploughing all of this money, time and resources, which are in limited supply, into exploring space.

The reception of her poetry shows just how revolutionary she was. Sappho set the foundation for lyrical poetry, influential art, and women's voices more generally. Her work inspired generation after generation of young women and men and remains as poignant today as it was 3,000 years ago. She has been repeatedly censored and vilified yet is arguably renowned as a result. Her claim in Fragment 147 came to fruition: in another time, we do remember her.

Bibliography Freeman, P. W.W.Norton

(2017);

Searching

For

Sappho,

Lefkowitz, M. & Fant, M. (1992); Women’s Life in Greece and Rome, Duckworth

Why do we care if there was water on Mars at some point in the last few thousand years? Especially when these same astro-physicists, engineers, mathematicians, chemists and alike could have be applied to finding better ways to solve humanity's impending energy crisis, or to feeding the millions of starving and impoverished people around the world, and generally endeavouring to improve life on Earth first. It seems fair that the needs of humanity should come first; while there are people on Earth who need help, they should receive help. And the money needed for aid should not instead go to sending robots to other planets that are thousands of light years away (and so irrelevant to life on Earth anyway). In this way it is argued that space exploration is too high a cost (NASA received over 16 billion dollars in 2005) to justify the benefits people see for it. It is argued that there are no direct benefits from space exploration. why bother spending money say on developing a pen that works in zero-gravity when you could instead use a pencil and save yourself a lot of trouble, especially given that only the tiniest proportion of Earth’s 7 billion inhabitants will ever experience zero gravity. What Earth does need, for example, is sustainable housing and more scientific research into neglected tropical diseases such as trichuriasis, of which

Blundell, S. (1995); Women in Ancient Greece, British Museum Press Carson, A. (2003); If Not, Winter, Virago Press Gill, C. (1999); The Symposium (Plato), Penguin Classics

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scientists have actually lost contact with the latest unmanned spacecraft sent to Mars, meaning those 156 million dollars spent to build the Mars Polar Lander were a waste. Then in September, again the $125m Mars Climate Orbiter mission also failed, after a mixup over metric and imperial measurements (you’d think they’d be a little more careful when risking millions of dollars especially when justified by the pursuit of scientific endeavour).There is a long history of failed missions to Mars, which stretches back 40 years, suggesting not many advancement have been made. In space flight missions at least 18 people have died, and millions of dollars have been spent on rovers that have been unsuccessful, however does that means we should give up? Obviously not. And NASA has also had many successes. And while it is very true that being an astronaut is a dangerous job, more people die from car crashes in one city in one month than people have died expanding exploration for the last forty years.

Furthermore, all astronauts know the risks and undertake them anyway, proving they truly believe in the intrinsic worth exploration. [4]

it is estimated that 800 million people are infected worldwide.

On the other side of the argument, people don’t realise the direct impact that space exploration has already had on our lives, for example, NASA created Velcro which is now used worldwide. Furthermore, non-stick pans were also created as a result of the space programme.

Even more significantly, satellites, a critical part of our society, exist due to space exploration: there are weather forecasting satellites, which help predict dangers such hurricanes and in doing so help prepare people.

Furthermore there is GPS, long range television satellites, long range communication satellites, which allow mobile phones, and of course we wouldn't have the internet without satellites either. How can we say space exploration is a waste of money when not only is knowledge invaluable but also compared to other areas of government spending (e.g. military), the cost of space exploration doesn't stand out- of the US’s total federal budget only 0.8 percentage of the budget went to NASA whereas 54 percentage went to the military. There have been space vehicles built privately for as little as $25m, nowhere near the figures of sending the US to Iraq.[1]

In the words of Cooper in Interstellar (2014), “mankind was born on Earth, it was never meant to die here.” and “We've always defined ourselves by the ability to overcome the impossible. And we count these moments.

These moments when we dare to aim higher, to break barriers, to reach for the stars, to make the unknown known. We count these moments as our proudest achievements. But we lost all that. Or perhaps we've just forgotten that we are still pioneers. And we've barely begun. And that our greatest accomplishments cannot be behind us, because our destiny lies above us.”[5] Finally curiosity is one of humankind's best and most deeply rooted values and it should be embraced not suppressed.

It is argued that we should learn more about Earth and the ocean before wasting time and money on space exploration (96 percentage of the oceans are still unexplored) and that any advancements made through space exploration were inadvertent and so can’t be used as a justified arguments for the continued funding of space exploration, as there is no way to guarantee any more innovations. For instance, the seabed, especially around volcanic regions, is relatively unexplored, as is Antarctica. [2] The scientific knowledge obtainable from our own planet, particularly organisms that inhabit locations with extreme conditions, arguably offers far more promise than that of space. As well as the fact that all the by-products of the space race could have been developed by commercial companies. However, when we take into consideration that our planet won't last forever and that space exploration offers a chance to find a new habitable planet and might even secure the future of the human race, it doesn’t seem like such as waste of time. [3]Of course the Earth should be explored too, but not at the expense of the space programme.

More of the money that goes into fighting wars should go into funding scientific research instead.

There is also the argument that space exploration has always been a gimmick. For Instance during the Cold War the USA was doing it to try and prove superiority to the USSR and vice versa; it has never really been about the science. Moreover, there are considerable dangers attached to space exploration; there are plenty of stories how NASA failed on some of its missions and risked the lives of their astronauts. Furthermore, NASA 8

his paper On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem. The ideas he put forward in the paper were influential in the development of technology, and the computers we use today still works on the same basic mathematical principles proposed by Turing so many years ago.

Kira Gerard (WHS)

Since Hilbert’s decision problem was introduced, Turing began to work on answering the question, and at last, in 1936, he finalised a paper in which he showed that the answer is no: there can be no way of solving all mathematical questions or devising an algorithm that accomplishes what Hilbert was asking for.

Unfortunately, shortly before Turing was due to publish his paper the American logician Alonzo Church released a paper proving the same thing. Initially Turing was unsure of whether he should still put forward his ideas: however, Church’s approach to showing that the Entscheidungsproblem is unsolvable was quite longwinded and very different from Turing’s proposed method. As a result, Turing submitted his groundbreaking paper containing a far more direct proof to the London Mathematical Society in May of 1936.

ALAN TURING’S 1936 PAPER ON COMPUTABLE NUMBERS WITH AN APPLICATION TO THE ENTSCHEIDUNGS PROBLEM: WHY TURING IS COMMONLY CONSIDERED THE ‘FATHER OF COMPUTING’

First edition: “On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem.”

In his paper, Turing set about proving that the decision problem could not be solved by proposing a theoretical machine that would be able to simulate any mathematical algorithm. This machine consists of an infinite ‘tape’ that is separated into squares and can have a maximum of one number written in each square. The tape essentially acts as the memory of the machine, storing data and instructions in numerical form.

Figure 1: A simple depiction of a Turing machine that is able to process three symbols: 0, 1, and blank The machine would also have a head that is able to scan the symbol on the square beneath it, erase or write symbols on the square it is currently resting on, as well as moving left or right one square at a time. Hence, the machine can be configured to perform various actions (for example, the machine may be configured so that when it encounters a blank space, it writes a 1 in the space and moves one block to the left). If we are able to programme more complicated configurations into the machine, it will be able to provide an accurate representation of any mathematical model we would like. 7

Source: www.theworldsgreatbooks.com/turing1.htm

In 1928, the German mathematician David Hilbert put forward his Entscheidungsproblem (decision problem): it asked whether it is possible to create an algorithm that is able to determine if any given mathematical statement can be proven using an established set of principles. In 1936, Turing’s response to this question was given in

Using this concept of a ‘universal machine’ (a machine that can simulate the work done by any other machine), Turing found that it is impossible for the machine (and therefore any computer program) to tell in advance g-machine/one.html, where a simple demonstration can be found.

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For a more detailed explanation on how a Turing machine works, visit https://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/projects/raspberrypi/tutorials/turin

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his revolutionary ideas were fundamental in shaping the future of computer science.

whether a given program will reach an end or produce an infinite sequence: the computer will only know if a mathematical sequence is finite once it has run the sequence and reached the end. This is now referred to as the halting problem and is one of the first examples of a decision problem that is undecidable. Therefore, Turing was able to show that there cannot be an algorithm that is able to solve any mathematical problem, as determining whether a program will be finite or not ahead of time is unsolvable. Hence, it was proven that Hilbert’s Entscheidungsproblem can have no solution.

Bibliography Hodges, A (1983) Alan Turing: The Enigma. London: Vintage.

BBC iWonder. (2018) Alan Turing: Creator of modern computing. [online] Available from: http://www.bbc.co.uk/timelines/z8bgr82#zqk8d2p DeHaan, M. (2012) The Turing Machine versus the Decision Problem of Hilbert. [online] Available from: https://www.decodedscience.org/the-turing-machineversus-the-decision-problem-of-hilbert/14072

However, the relevance of Turing’s 1936 paper today is not due to his proof itself, but the idea of a universal machine (now known as a Turing machine) that was expressed. A Turing machine was not only able to simulate mathematical algorithms, but also simulate another machine: it could do this as the tape had the ability to hold both numbers and instructions expressed in a numerical way – much like our contemporary devices. This theory was hugely important in the progress of computer science, as it allowed early computer engineers to see that in order to build a simple electronic computer it was not necessary to have a complicated system with many intricate instructions: all that is needed is a memory storage that could hold both data and code, as well as a few registers that are able to process this data. Turing’s writing showed that in creating this, the computer would be able to express any problem programmed into it, no matter how complex. A few years later, around 1945, physicist John von Neumann elaborated on Turing’s work and designed a computer that uses a central core to fetch data and instructions from the memory, carry out mathematical operations, store the results, and repeat. This is what we now know as von Neumann architecture, and is at the heart of how most of our technology today operates.

Although our modern-day computers are far more efficient and intricate than the original machine devised

by Turing, mathematically the systems work in the same way. If it were not for Turing’s pioneering work on mathematics, much of the technology we take for granted today may have taken decades more to come about: to this day, his theories are ingrained in computer science, and he has no doubt had a tremendous impact on our lives in the modern world.

Garfinkel, S. (2012) Turing’s Enduring Importance. [online] Available from: https://www.technologyreview.com/s/426834/turingsenduring-importance/ Mullins, R. (2012) Introduction: What is a Turing machine? [online] Available from: https://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/projects/raspberrypi/tutorials /turing-machine/one.html

In writing this short paper in response to Hilbert’s decision problem, I believe that Turing accomplished far more than he originally intended to. In proving that Hilbert’s problem could not be solved, Turing expressed his idea of a universal machine: this served to inspire others in the future to develop technology centred around Turing’s machine. Because of this, Alan Turing is commonly thought of as the father of computing, as 10

in which the pronunciation of Spanish words is directly represented by their written form. An example of this is how the Castellano word for mouth, “boca”, is pronounced /′boka/ 12 and this was eloquently summarised in Gramática de la Lengua Castellana as “adecuar la escritura a la pronunciación” 13 (making Spanish writing conform to pronunciation). Amado Alonso, a 20th century Spanish linguist and literary critic, awarded merit to Nebrija for his phonetic descriptions and for founding a discipline that remains today 14.The depth and accuracy, of Nebrija’s descriptions of the Castellano mechanisms, with respect to modern day grammar, indicate that he was among the

Iris Petrillo (OHS)

GRAMÁTICA de la LENGUA CASTELLANA (1492) (GRAMMAR OF THE CASTILIAN LANGUAGE) Antonio de Nebrija’s Gramática de la Lengua Castellana is his most renowned and influential work, in which he describes the innermost workings of Spanish as a language and its grammar for the first time.

Beyond this, it is the earliest published treatise of grammar across every modern European language 8 and thus is of great importance when attempting to understand the development of linguistic knowledge throughout history. Furthermore, it is remarkable to see how similar Nebrija’s work is in comparison to present day grammar.

For example, throughout his work he considered grammar to be the highest science, something which mirrors modern Castellano. He subdivided his grammar into four sections; Orthography, Prose, Etymology and Syntax 9, all of which are still prominent and used by linguists now to understand what is meant by a language. Syntax, or “the arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language” 10, in particular remains a core feature of Linguistics. Moreover, syntax specifically in Spanish has persisted from 1492 with the basic “subject-verbobject” 11 structure still at the crux of Castilian word order which Nebrija took care to describe. But there are also further similarities between the grammar of the two eras, including Castellano’s tendency towards phonetic spelling. Whilst writing his thesis, Nebrija established one of the key features of modern day Spanish, the way

most knowledgeable in a period when even the word “Linguistics” was unheard of.

8

"Primera gramática | Real Academia Española." http://www.rae.es/recursos/gramatica/primera-gramatica. Accessed 15 Apr. 2018.

12

"The pronunciation of Spanish | Oxford Dictionaries." https://es.oxforddictionaries.com/grammar/spanish-pronunciation.

Accessed 16 Apr. 2018.

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13 "Antonio de Nebrija Writes First Grammar in the History of Spanish ...." 1 Aug. 2013, http://nadeaubarlow.com/antonio-denebrija-writes-first-grammar-in-the-history-of-spanish/. Accessed 16 Apr. 2018.

Not only did Nebrija understand the syntactic and phonological aspects of Spanish, but also the linguistic history which allowed him to accurately determine how the grammar worked in relation to languages like Latin.

Nebrija, who also frequently wrote in Latin, noticed how the Latin “h” had started to be removed in Old Spanish 15. For example, the verb “to honour”, is

"Grammar of the Castilian Language - World Digital Library." 8 Jul. 2015, https://www.wdl.org/en/item/15288/. Accessed 15 Apr. 2018.

10

"syntax | Definition of syntax in English by Oxford Dictionaries." https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/syntax.

Accessed 16 Apr. 2018.

14

"Biografia de Elio Antonio de Nebrija - Biografías y Vidas." https://www.biografiasyvidas.com/biografia/n/nebrija.htm.

Accessed 22 Apr. 2018.

11

"Language differences: English - Spanish - A guide to learning English." http://esl.fis.edu/grammar/langdiff/spanish.htm. Accessed 16 Apr. 2018.

15

"History of the Spanish language - WikiVisually." https://wikivisually.com/wiki/History_of_the_Spanish_language.

Accessed 17 Apr. 2018.

11

“honorāre” in Latin but in Old Spanish was “onrar”. His description of this transition understood that this was the result of Spanish originating from a corrupt Latin which was brought by the Goths 16 and this demonstrates the extent of his knowledge that was so much more advanced than anyone in the Western world at that time.

Nebrija himself is regarded as of great importance, which can be seen by the statue dedicated to him in Lebrija and La Universidad Nebrija which is situated near Madrid. From the 15th century to present day, his works, particularly Gramática de la Lengua Castellana, have been praised. When it was initially published in 1492, it was received by Queen Isabella of Castille with admiration and from then has had many books written about it. One such book was written by P. Juan Luis de la Cerda in the 17th century, when Linguistics had not even fully emerged, with the title Arte de Nebrija (Art of Nebrija)23 which acknowledged and praised the academic “art” which he had created throughout his life.

However, what makes this treatise so important is how Nebrija sparked the emergence of what would come to be known as Linguistics, but during his lifetime was either unheard of or considered a vague study of the rules of languages. Although Linguistics as such did not evolve to what it is now until the 19th century 17, Nebrija did establish what he viewed to be the eight constituent parts of a sentence; name, pronoun, article, verb, participle, preposition, adverb and conjunction (his notes later added gerund and name participial infinite) 18. His views continue to remain in line with the opinion of professional linguists to this day, and when considering how little syntactic knowledge was circulating at this time, this seems remarkable.

Objectively, Gramática de la Lengua Castellana was a huge milestone in Linguistics, as seen by how it was the first published recording of grammatical rules across all modern European languages, but its greatest but less recognisable feat is how it has helped make Spanish Linguistics, and Linguistics as a whole, what it is today.

Fundamentally, the basic structure of what it is to study the grammar of a language was aided by Nebrija, including his study of Orthography, Syntax, Phonetics, Phonology and Historical Linguistics. These make up three of the six central branches of modern Linguistics 24 and as such demonstrate the power of Nebrija’s knowledge, although he wrote over 500 years ago.

Further reasoning for why this work is of such importance is that the publication of the grammar had great influence on the future of Castellano. Firstly, it was utilised as a tool for the diffusion of Spanish when it was still regarded as a lesser language to Latin. From 1492, the empire extended to what is now called South America and Mexico 19 and where Spanish remains the official language. In this manner, Gramática de la Lengua Castellana, in conjunction with other factors, was partially responsible for the current 477 million 20 speakers of Castellano. Furthermore, his work was also looked upon by future writers as a basis of Orthology 21 (the way words are used) 22, meaning that his style of his writing persisted into other works. Therefore, not only did his work influence the future of how words are studied, but also how Castellano was actually written in Old Spanish.

Bibliography http://www.rae.es/recursos/gramatica/primeragramatica .http://www.bne.es/es/Micrositios/Guias/12Octubre/Le nguas/Castellano/ .http://nadeaubarlow.com/antonio-de-nebrija-writesfirst-grammar-in-the-history-of-spanish/

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magazine/spanish-speak-language-400-million-people. Accessed 17 Apr. 2018.

"Antonio de Nebrija - Sevillapedia - Wikanda." 25 Aug. 2012, https://sevillapedia.wikanda.es/wiki/Antonio_de_Nebrija.

Accessed 17 Apr. 2018.

21

"Gramática castellana - Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre." https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram%C3%A1tica_castellana.

Accessed 17 Apr. 2018.

17

"Summary of Nineteenth Century Historical and Comparative ... - jstor." https://www.jstor.org/stable/355428.

Accessed 17 Apr. 2018.

22

"orthology | Definition of orthology in English by Oxford Dictionaries." https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/orthology. Accessed 22 Apr. 2018.

18

"Quién fue Antonio de Nebrija. Universidad Nebrija." http://www.nebrija.com/la_universidad/presentacion/antonionebrija.php. Accessed 17 Apr. 2018.

23

19

"Gramática castellana - Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre." https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram%C3%A1tica_castellana.

Accessed 17 Apr. 2018.

"Biografia de Elio Antonio de Nebrija - Biografías y Vidas." https://www.biografiasyvidas.com/biografia/n/nebrija.htm.

Accessed 22 Apr. 2018.

24 "What is Linguistics? - UC Santa Cruz - Linguistics." 4 Aug. 2017, https://linguistics.ucsc.edu/about/what-is-linguistics.html.

Accessed 22 Apr. 2018.

20

"Spanish: speak the language of 400 million people | British Council." 22 Aug. 2014, https://www.britishcouncil.org/voices-

12

https://www.wdl.org/en/item/15288/ http://esl.fis.edu/grammar/langdiff/spanish.htm https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/syntax.

Rahi Patel (WHS)

https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/901f/ccb9ee5ba3c58d edbc12f61ac34bde3f2df9.pdf

THE HIPPOCRATIC OATH

https://es.oxforddictionaries.com/grammar/spanishpronunciation

The Hippocratic Oath has been a unifying mantra like reminder of a doctor’s duty for over 2500 years, and although medical practice has been and continues to develop, the oath remains as pertinent and as significant as ever before. Hippocrates is often considered as the father of medicine and the founder of medical ethics in the Western world, establishing principles that continue to be relevant to doctors around the world. The oath’s significance, despite containing extracts which today are irrelevant, is shown through its ability to unite a whole profession: merging the principle needs of ethical practice and marking the beginning of a new era of medicine.

https://www.alsintl.com/resources/languages/spanish/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Spanish_ language#Latin_f-_to_Spanish_h-_to_null https://sevillapedia.wikanda.es/wiki/Antonio_de_Nebri ja https://www.britishcouncil.org/voicesmagazine/spanish-speak-language-400-million-people https://www.jstor.org/stable/355428?seq=1#page_scan _tab_contents

The oath has transitioned from being an oath taken by Greek physicians to the healing gods, promising to uphold medical standards, to a statement that creates an immense sense of solidarity and unity in such a demanding profession. Due to the antiquated idea of healing gods many believe that the oath is now redundant; however, many advocates state that it acts as a ‘moral compass’, swiftly reminding a doctor what their purpose is and the duty that they must fulfil.

Therefore, despite its antiquity it continues to remain relevant, creating a strong sentiment of unification and tradition amongst doctors across the world. This helps to create a better working environment in a profession where such mental and physical sacrifice is demanded, as the oath acts to represent all of the people that have endured the same universal pains that doctors experience.

https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram%C3%A1tica_caste llana https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/orthology https://www.biografiasyvidas.com/biografia/n/nebrija. htm https://linguistics.ucsc.edu/about/what-islinguistics.html Picture Source https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram%C3%A1tica_de_l a_lengua_castellana

Medicine, due to its broad and extensive nature, creating a strong sense of solidarity within the profession is requisite. This sense of community is summed up briefly by this oath, as it establishes the basic principles of the role of a doctor whilst also referring to the teacher as a ‘brother’, distilling the role of doctors to a simple oath, thus acting as a metaphorical tie between all doctors. This notion of unity and harmony is exceedingly helpful in multidisciplinary teams, which the field of medicine heavily comprises of. As we as a society move to more holistic medicine and preventative medicine having united doctors who share the same principles aids itself when making lifethreatening choices, which thus increases patient safety.

The necessity for a strong sentiment of unity is echoed within our National Health Service (NHS). During a time of such great turmoil and uncertainty within the 13

upholding its prominent theme of conducting medicine for the good of the person and their own wishes. Whilst also emphasising the notion of comradery: imperative to modern practice. Despite its applicability the Hippocratic Oath still continues to be more referenced in comparison to its revision. This is due to the sense of both history and tradition that the Hippocratic oath carries, linking todays doctors to the ones that came before, highlighting the legacy of those who came before all in the pursuit of one aim: improving quality of life.

NHS having an oath that encourages putting patients at the heart of decisions and having pride in the profession.

Doctors often feel ignored and overstretched, yet through the ideas associated with the oath doctors can once again remind themselves of why they do what they do. This is especially relevant to junior doctors who feel the most undervalued and insignificant of the doctors, having graduated from a gruelling 5 year course they are equipped with the knowledge necessary to help improve people’s lives; however, what they are often not equipped for is the sheer intensity of the first day on the ward. However, by having a universal oath for doctors, it helps to reassure and calm doctors when under severe pressure, swiftly reminding them of their role and the principles of medical ethics.

The Hippocratic Oath will continue to be cited and referred to because it acts as a tradition for all doctors as they embark on their careers, further perfecting the art of caring for a human being. Despite current medical practice digressing from some key elements of the oath, the oath acts as a constant reminder of both the legacy and the purpose of doctors, creating a humbling sense of unity and solidarity. Therefore, although the Hippocratic Oath is not adhered to entirely, it still stands to be the founding literary text for modern medical ethics, marking the beginning of further medical practice and ethics.

Although the Hippocratic Oath continues to be frequently cited, some argue that the oath is futile. They claim that the many parts of the oath are redundant, thus claiming that the entirety of the oath is redundant. The oath commences by addressing the healing god: Apollo, which clearly does not reflect upon our society today.

Moreover, the oath states that a doctor ‘will enter to help the sick, and I will abstain from all intentional wrongdoing and harm, especially from abusing the bodies of man or woman, bond or free.’ Yet it is clear in many modern day treatments doctors do give harmful substances and they do perform intrusive surgeries, which conflicts the main precedent of ‘do no harm’ (Primum non nocere). A prime example of a treatment that results in harm before recovery is chemotherapy, developed by Sidney Farber. Having little knowledge on the development of cancers researchers discovered that they could poison the cells using a chemotherapeutic poison. This lead to a therapeutic attack carried out by radical oncologists in the pursuit of ridding cancer cells. William Moloney stated that ‘it we didn’t kill the tumour, we killed the patient.’, thus highlighting the notion that oncologists cannot always reap the benefits of chemotherapy and it can therefore cause more harm than salvation. Despite this large disparity between the Hippocratic Oath and modern medicine the notion of doing no harm still remains relevant, yet it has transcended into doing the least harm or doing no net harm. Doctors take the patient’s best interests into consideration, evaluating both the risks of the procedure and the effects, aiming ultimately to provide the best achievable quality of life for the patient.

Many modern renditions omit the phrase, ‘First, do no harm,’ substituting it with something more suitable to modern practice. However, despite these alterations the essence of the oath prevails, guiding a doctor in ethical practice.

Bibliography: American Chemical Society. (1999). The discovery and development of penicillin 1928-1945.

The most significant revision of the Hippocratic Oath I known as the declaration of Geneva, expressing modern reinterpretations of the Hippocratic Oath, whilst still 14

National Historics Chemical Landmarks program.

Biography. (2018, Jan 4th). The Biography website.com website. Retrieved April 18th, 2018, from Louis Pasteur Biography: https://www.biography.com/people/louispasteur-9434402 Bradford, A. (2017, Feb 27). Live Science. Retrieved April 18, 2018, from Penicillin: Discovery, Benefits and Resistance: https://www.livescience.com/58038-bacteriafacts.html Encyclopedia.com. (2018). "The Discovery and Importance of Penicillin and the Development of Sulfa Drugs. Science and Its Times: Understanding the Social Significance of Scientific Discovery.

How does penicillin work. (2002). Retrieved April 18, 2018, from http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/webprojects2002/th ornton/how_does_penicillin_work.htm John G. Bartlett, M., Brad Spellberg, M., & David N. Gilbert, M. (2013, August). MedScape.

Retrieved April 18th, 2018, from 8 Ways to Deal With Antibiotic Resistance: https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/80881 4#vp_2 Mukherjee, S. (n.d.). The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer. Retrieved from The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer Newman, T. (2017, Jan 5). Medical News Today.

Retrieved April 18, 2018, from Penicillin: How Does Penicillin Work?: https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/2 16798.php Oxtoby, K. (n.d.). Is the Hippocratic oath still relevant to practising doctors today? . Retrieved 04 26, 2018, from BMJ: http://careers.bmj.com/careers/advice/Is_the_ Hippocratic_oath_still_relevant_to_practising_ doctors_today%3F The Hippocratic Oath. (n.d.). Retrieved from BMJ: https://www.bmj.com/content/317/7166/1110.

3 The Hippocratic Oath . (2018, 04 26). Retrieved from Wikipedia : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocratic_Oat h The Hippocratic Oath. (2018, 04 26). Retrieved from BMJ: https://www.bmj.com/content/309/6951/414.2. full Wikibooks. (2017). Retrieved April 18, 2018, from Structural Biochemistry/Enzyme/Reversible Inhibitors/Competitive Inhibitor/Penicillin: https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Structural_Bioch emistry/Enzyme/Reversible_Inhibitors/Compe titive_Inhibitor/Penicillin 15

them was lawyer Andreas Cunaes, who was trying to replicate the Ewaald’s experiment using a jar of water with a metal rod in it. When he touched the rod to his electrical generator, nothing seemed to happen.

However, when he touched the rod, he received a powerful electric shock. Of course, this result was inevitable, as the setup was nearly identical to the original. In due course, Cunaes informed Van Musschenbroek (a natural scientist and physicist) of the matter, and news spread throughout the scientific community about the apparent ability of this set up to ‘store’ charge. Figure 1 shows an artist’s depiction of the discovery of the Leyden jar in Musschenbroek’s lab 26. So, how do Leyden jars actually work? The Leyden jar is a cylindrical container made of an insulating material, with a layer of metal on the outside and inside. This metal layer was originally water, but was soon replaced by metal in the form of lead shot, crumpled gold foil, or an interior coating of lead or tin foil. 27 A metal rod electrode projects through the mouth of the jar, and is connected somehow (usually by a metal chain) to the inner foil, which allows it to be charged.

The jar is charged using an electrical generator connected to the inner electrode while the outer foil layer is grounded. This causes the inner and outer surfaces of the jar to store and equal and opposite

Anoushka Patel (OHS)

THE LEYDEN JAR When I was much younger, I lived in Minneapolis, USA, very close to The Bakken, a tiny museum devoted entirely to the history of electricity. My parents and I would regularly wander into this museum on extremely hot or freezing cold afternoons. I remember pressing buttons and turning handles to make the interactive displays work. We would also peer into the glass cabinets to see the weird and wonderful objects on Display 25. It was here that I first caught a glimpse of a Leyden Jar. Little did I know when I was admiring its glass structure, that these devices were an early form of the modern capacitor.

On November 4th 1745, German inventor and jurist Ewald Georg von Kleist, accidentally discovered the first device capable of storing an electric charge, also known as the Leyden Jar. While he was experimenting with electricity, he touched an electrical generator to a nail stuck into a medicine bottle. Later on, he made contact with the nail and received an electric shock. This showed, despite the fact that he didn’t understand how it worked, that the nail and jar were capable of temporarily storing electrons. Less than a year later in the Netherlands, several electrical engineering amateurs were experimenting with circuit phenomenon. Among 25

charge. Figure 2 shows the inside of a Leyden jar. 28 Leyden Jars were deployed long before their operation was understood. At the time when they were first 27

The archive of the exhibition can be found at:

https://thebakken.org/exhibit/electricity-party/ 26 Augustin Privat Deschanel (1876) Elementary Treatise on Natural Philosophy, Part 3: Electricity and Magnetism, D. Appleton and Co., New York, translated and edited by J. D. Everett, p. 570, fig.382 [Date accessed: 2nd April 2018]

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Sara Schechner(2015), The art of making Leyden Jars and Batteries according to Benjamin Franklin: Available from https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/saraschechner/files/sch echner-leyden-jars_erittenhouse_26_2015.pdf [Date accessed:10th April 2018] 28 Marshall Brain (2016), Electrostatics and Coulomb’s Law, Available from: https://science.howstuffworks.com/electricity1.htm [Date accessed: 2nd April 2018]

tin foil. Make a similar coating for the inside of the tumbler, attaching it to an upright wire, ending in a hook. You then have to all intents and purposes a Leyden Jar.’ It was found that, having charged the Leyden Jar, if you dismantle it and place it on a table, neither of the coatings show any symptom of electricity.

Upon restoring the tumbler to its outer coating, and the inner coating to its place, a spark is produced upon discharge. Thus the electricity, which produces this spark, must have been resident in and on the glass.

created, philosophers were perplexed by the apparent ‘magical’ properties of this strange force of nature. This ‘force’ had the power to create giant bolts of lightning but was also able to attract and repel the thinnest of gold leaves. It really is not a wonder that our predecessors were confused and intrigued by the strange phenomenon of electricity. The Leyden Jar confused

physicists and philosophers alike. Since the type of electricity inside the charged jar was opposite to that in it’s outer foil, there appeared to be two types of electricity. Benjamin Franklin solved this puzzle by suggesting that electricity is conserved. He argued that every object had a natural amount of single ‘electrical fluid’. When two bodies were rubbed together, one received ‘fluid ‘from another, and became positively charged, while the deficient body became negatively charged. If the positive fluid supply were conducted into a Leyden jar, its repulsive force acted through the glass wall to drive off an equal amount of electrical fluid from the outer foil coating into the ground. The result was a Leyden jar whose interior layer of foil was positively charged, and its external layer of foil was negatively charged. With this theory, the fundamental law of energy conservation (with the exception of dark matter and dark energy) 29, that ‘energy cannot be created or destroyed- it can only be transferred from one form to another’, still applies. Nature ‘wanted’ to restore balance in the system, so electricity always flowed from one body to another.

This, in turn, led to Franklin’s discovery of the point discharge phenomenon, in which the air around a sharp tipped conductor becomes electrically conductive when exposed to strong electrical charges. 31 Following his finding that you could discharge an isolated (charged) ball silently by approaching it holding a sharp tipped metal needle in one of his hands, he came to the speculation in 1750 that: ‘…Would not these pointed rods probably draw the electric fire silently out of a cloud before it came nigh enough to strike, and thereby secure us from that most sudden and terrible mischief?’ 32 There are two obvious ways to increase the capacitance of a Leyden Jar. One way is to increase the surface area of the electrodes, giving the charge more room to spread out, and reducing the repulsion between electrons.

Another way is to reduce the thickness of the glass separating the stored inner charge from the neutralizing outer charge. 33 Although these are difficult to implement in a Leyden Jar, these are two of the classic strategies by which scientists and engineers seek to improve the performance of capacitors. The multilayer ceramic capacitor is a compact version of the Leyden jar. They are essentially extremely small/transformed Leyden Jars. To assemble one 34, imagine that the

In 1749, Franklin designed a ‘dissectible’ Leyden Jar, which he used widely in demonstrations of his ‘one fluid theory’. Figure 3 shows a jar with removable coatings. 30 According to John Tyndall (1875), Lessons in Electricity, Franklin ‘Made a jar with removable coatings thus:- Roll cartridge paper round a good flint glass tumbler… paste down the lower edge of the paper, and put a paper bottom to it corresponding to the bottom of the glass. Coat the paper inside and out with 29

According to Alejandro Perez, Aix Marseille University, ‘Even though each individual violation of energy conservation is tiny, the accumulated effect of these violations over the very long history of the universe can lead to dark energy’

d=search%3A369105a88dfd4c41311bea32adfebed9 [Date accessed: 10th April 2018]

30

33

John Tyndall (1875),Lessons in electricity, London: Available from: https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Yi9AAAAAYA AJ&pg=PA79&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false [Date accessed; 20th April 2018] 31 C B Moore et al (2009), A modern assessment of Benjamin Franklin’s lighting rods. Available from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/27757464.pdf?refreqi

32

B. F. J. Schonland (1950), The Flight of Thunderbolts [Date accessed; 11th April]

Donald M Trotter(2018) Capacitors: Available from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24989162.pdf?refreqi d=excelsior%3A9586dfa23a7b4a799ef93e21b0191a99 [Date accessed: 20th April 2018] 34 This is a very simplified explanation, and it is important to remember that MLCC capacitors are not actually constructed in this way. This theory is fundamental to modern manufacturing methods.

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[Date accessed: 20th April 2018]

Leyden Jar is slit down the side and spread out flat, then cut into sections which are stacked with inner electrodes touching outer electrodes. The jar itself would be replaced by interleaved pieces of glass in-between electrodes. These layers are turned back into distinct electrodes by removing strips from all the inner electrodes on one side of the stack, and from all the outer electrodes on the other, and then connecting the electrodes protruding on both sides with terminations.

My illustration below shows the process of ‘spreading the Leyden Jar out flat’

Marshall Brain (2016), Electrostatics and Coulomb’s Law, Available from: https://science.howstuffworks.com/electricity1.htm [Date accessed: 2nd April 2018] Sara Schechner(2015), The art of making Leyden Jars and Batteries according to Benjamin Franklin: Available from https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/saraschechner/files/sch echner-leyden-jars_erittenhouse_26_2015.pdf [Date accessed:10th April 2018] Wikipedia, Fluid Theory of electricity Available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_theory_of_electrici ty [Date accessed: 11th April 2018] Allan Mills(2008), The Leyden Jar and other capacitors.

Available from: https://web.archive.org/web/2011072702x4546/http:// www.sis.org.uk/bulletin/99/mills.pdf [Date accessed: 5th April 2018)

Capacitors are used in nearly all areas of electronicsfrom quantum computers to electric toothbrushes. They are used to store electrical energy when it is connected to it’s charging circuit. When it is disconnected from it’s charging circuit, it is able to dissipate that stored energy.

Thus, they are commonly used as temporary batteries in electrical circuitry. They are so omnipresent that it is rare to find an electrical device without one. The Leyden Jar is the predecessor of a piece of technology that has changed the way we live our lives. Therefore, the Leyden Jar would without a doubt earn a place in my Cabinet of Curiosities.

Bernerd Cohen(1948) In defense of Benjamin Franklin, Available from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24945867.pdf?refreqi d=excelsior%3Aff83bc74270fbb3c462c41be5683a0dc [Date accessed: 13th April 2018] Paul Turnbridge(1948), Franklin’s Pointed Lightning conductor, Available from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/531331.pdf?refreqid= excelsior%3A6ad0c2bf5ec1bde9c9deebf5a10724e5 [Date accessed: 13th April 2018] Edwin Cartlidge(2017), Dark matter and energy, Available from: https://physicsworld.com/a/darkenergy-emerges-when-energy-conservation-isviolated/[Date accessed: 12th April 2018]

Bibliography

Electronics notes (2016), Capacitor uses and Applications, Available from: https://www.electronicsnotes.com/articles/electronic_components/capacitors/c apacitor-uses.php[Date accessed: 12th April 2018]

John Tyndall (1875),Lessons in electricity, London: Available from: https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Yi9AAAAAYA AJ&pg=PA79&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false [Date accessed; 20th April 2018] C B Moore et al (2009), A modern assessment of Benjamin Franklin’s lighting rods. Available from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/27757464.pdf?refreqi d=search%3A369105a88dfd4c41311bea32adfebed9 [Date accessed: 10th April 2018] B. F. J. Schonland (1950), The Flight of Thunderbolts [Date accessed; 11th April] Donald M Trotter(2018) Capacitors: Available from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24989162.pdf?refreqi d=excelsior%3A9586dfa23a7b4a799ef93e21b0191a99 18

Despite the ground-breaking technology, the phonograph was impractical and far from perfect. The recordings could only be played a handful of times before the foil became worn out and the quality of the recordings was poor. In response to this, Alexander Graham Bell and Charles Tainter replaced the soft tinfoil-covered drum with a wax cylinder that was more durable. This led to a series of competitive developments between Bell and Edison which eventually led to the production of the gramophone record, a widely reproducible medium.

Louisa Clogston (WHS)

THE PHONOGRAPH: THE BEGINNINGS OF SOUND RECORDING Figure 2 - Thomas A. Edison's original tin-foil phonograph – 1877 In West Orange, New Jersey in 1877, a man shouted, “Mary had a little lamb” into a metal mouthpiece. After a few turns of a handle, the sound was played back to him, in striking human likeness. This was the first time in history a human had made a sound for it to be accurately reproduced by a machine.

Thomas Edison had a vision shared by many; for sound not to be limited to an audience in the immediate vicinity of the source. His phonograph, first developed in 1877, consisted of a cylindrical drum coated with tinfoil that rotated and moved laterally when a handle was turned. As it rotated, it passed under a touching metal stylus attached to the diaphragm. On the other side of the diaphragm was a small mouthpiece into which the operator spoke.

Prior to this point, music could only be heard live meaning many genres were inaccessible to the wider public, and classical music especially was limited to the upper-class audience who had disposable income to spend on attending classical concerts or hiring private musicians. For the first time in history, music could be heard at any time, as many times as one desired, from the comfort of one’s own home. Enjoying music was now not limited to social events, a turning point in how we experience musical performances.

The sound-waves focused on the diaphragm caused it to vibrate, which created variation in pressure from the stylus on the tinfoil. As the drum rotated and moved across the stylus a groove was imprinted in the tinfoil consisting of undulations approximating the pressure patterns of the sound-waves. Playback involved placing the stylus at the beginning of the groove made during recording, and winding the cylinder along once again.

The undulations in the tinfoil caused the stylus to move in and out, and so the diaphragm to vibrate, which in turn moved the air in the mouthpiece, thus recreating the sound.

This had many implications for musicians, composers, and listeners. It greatly increased the popularity of certain genres as they became immediately more accessible, most notably opera. The first ‘celebrity’ recordings were released in 1901. They were made in Russia and featured stars of the Imperial Russian Opera including Chaliapin, Nikolai Figner and his wife Medea Mei-Figner. These recordings were incredibly successful in Russia, however their success was not shared elsewhere. This was until opera singer Caruso was first recorded, and aided by the popularity of the music he sung, notably operas of Puccini, Leoncavallo and Mascagni, the gramophone instantly became popular as a vehicle for classical music. Because of this increase in availability, vocal and opera records dominated the classical sections of record charts: in Italy the Fonotipia company recorded solely opera. Its Odeon associate was a little more varied in genre but still largely produced opera. Other companies such as the Gramophone Co. focused on instrumental recordings, especially violin, by the likes of Kreisler and Kubelik. Orchestral recording, other than house bands playing overtures to musicals or the ever popular ‘Highlights From’ discs, was fairly rare. However, the

The phonograph was used as a blueprint for many further developments, the most prominent being the gramophone, and its ability to record sounds meant it was essentially the object that founded the music industry as we know it today. During its first public appearance, Edison announced to the audience “I shall demonstrate to you that the characteristic tone of every musical instrument can be faithfully recreated” and showed this by having a singer recording and recreating ‘O Rest in the Lord’, an aria from Mendelssohn’s Elijah and the first piece of music to be recorded.

19

quest.eb.com/search/140_1667514/1/140_1667514/cite . Accessed 29 Apr 2018.

London Symphony Orchestra did record a number of sides in 1913 including an eight-sided version of Beethoven’s 5th symphony as well as various shorter pieces, conducted by Artur Nikisch. It is clear that recorded music beginning with the phonograph was vital in ensuring the popularity of these genres continued into the 20th century.

Another way in which the ability to record music greatly shaped culture was by facilitating the spread of musical ideas. Prior to the phonograph, the only way in which musical ideas could be spread and exchanged was by travelling and hearing the music live, which was expensive and only available to a select group of people.

A clear example of this is the spread of Jazz music from America to Europe, aided by the record industry. Jazz is a music genre that originated in the AfricanAmerican communities of New Orleans in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and developed from roots in blues and ragtime. Until the beginnings of recorded music, Jazz was almost exclusively heard and performed in the USA. The selling of records, mainly in the 1920s, allowed the genre to spread to the rest of the world, especially to Europe, and with it spreading its rich history and African-American roots.

Whilst Edison was not the first to envision being able to isolate sound and play it back at leisure after it had been first produced, his phonograph was the first instrument to be successful in competing this aim. The phonograph was the predecessor of all methods of recording and listening to pre-recorded music, from records to cassettes to CDs and to digital and downloadable music that is available in an instant. Recorded music is such a crucial part of our culture and it all began only 140 years ago with the creation of the phonograph in 1877.

Bibliography Milner, Greg – Perfecting sound forever (2009) http://charm.rhul.ac.uk/history/p20_4_1.html 26/04/18 http://www.timetoast.com/timelines/history-of-soundrecording 26/04/18 https://www.smithsonianmag.com/artsculture/phonograph-changed-music-forever180957677/ 27/04/18 https://www.nps.gov/edis/learn/kidsyouth/thephonograph.htm 27/04/18 Image: EDISON'S PHONOGRAPH, 1877. - Thomas A. Edison's original tin-foil phonograph, invented in the autumn of 1877.. Fine Art. Britannica ImageQuest, Encyclopædia Britannica, 25 May 2016.

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career trying, in vain, to stem the tide of Lutheran reform. The painting subtly reflects the religious and political turmoil through several of its symbolic details.

For example, there is a crucifix half-obscured by a green curtain in the top left corner of the painting, symbolizing the division of the church, a broken string on the lute which evokes ecclesiastical disharmony during the Reformation, the open book of music next to the lute which has been identified as a Lutheran hymnal, and the book of mathematics which is open on a page of divisions opening with the word “Dividirt” (meaning let division be made). The objects heaped on to the shelves on which both men rest their elbows could symbolise the disarray into which the men they felt their world had fallen. It has even been suggested that this painting shows disarray on a much larger scale- possibly even that this painting represents three distinct levels: the discord in the heavens, as portrayed by the astrolabe and other objects on the upper shelf, the anarchy of the living world (as evidenced by books and a musical instrument on the lower shelf), and death- signified by the skull- hidden in plain sight at the feet of the men.

The skull, probably Holbein’s most famous use of symbolism (despite its debatable intentions), is rendered in anamorphic perspective, meaning it is only obviously a skull when viewed from a certain angle. It is either merely a display of skill by Holbein (anamorphic perspective was an invention of the early renaissance), which seems unlikely given his other poignant uses of symbolism in this painting, or a sobering reminder to those who think material wealth holds any weight against mortality- a representation of the omnipresence and inevitability of death. [2]

Margaret Lister (OHS)

THE AMBASSADORS

Hans Holbein the Younger was a German artist and printmaker who worked in a Northern Renaissance style. He is best known as one of the greatest portraitists of the 16th century,while also producing religious art, satire and Reformist propaganda. During his time in England, between 1532 and 1540, his most famous work was “The Ambassadors”. This oil on oak portrait immortalises two wealthy, powerful, well travelled young men; Jean de Dinteville and George de Selve. On the surface it might appear to be a grand display of wealth, intellect and power- shown by the luxury of Dinteville clothing or the ostentatiously displayed scientific equipment. This would makes sense as “The Ambassadors” was commissioned from Holbein by de Dinteville to hang in his family's chateau, so naturally he would want to be shown in a good light. However the painting gains deeper meaning when it becomes known that Holbein painted “The Ambassadors” during a particularly tense period marked by rivalries between the Kings of England and France, the Roman Emperor, and the Pope over the emerging reformation of the catholic church. In 1533 the political map of Europe was being redrawn. [1]

In Holbein's double portrait almost every detail has the tantalising character of a clue. This speaks of a painter who carefully constructs their work to be a visual puzzle, devised to test the ingenuity of the viewer. There is something cunning and almost cynical about the use of symbolism in ‘The Ambassadors’. Especially the skull, which undercuts the lifetime achievements of the men with a reminder that eventually they too will die.

Holbein also clearly had interesting views on reality shown through his use of clarity versus obscurity- the earthly objects, such as the terrestrial globe, the lute and the arithmetic book, are rendered in perfect detail and perspective and displayed in a prominent position right between the two men. Whereas ideas about death and life beyond death and obscured, either by the curtain or by distortion. The prominence of religious turmoil as a feature of the age still resonates today, where there is still so much conflict. [3]

France had recently lost all of its Northern Italian territories to the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V, whose troops had sacked Rome in 1527. Meanwhile, the seemingly uncontrollable popularity of new Lutheran ideas threatened to unbalance the political scale even further. France was both threatened from within by Protestant dissenters and externally from the rapid spread of Protestant ideas to powerful states such as England. Georges de Selve, was similarly tested by the religious divisions of the time; he had spent much of his 21

Bibliography Tim Hilton. (1997) Exhibition: The heart and skull of humanism Available at : https://www.independent.co.uk/artsentertainment/exhibition-the-heart-and-skull-ofhumanism-1294507.html (Accsessed 23 April 2018)

Emma Ferraris (WHS)

THE VITRUVIAN MAN – NEW PERSPECTIVES FOR HUMAN SCIENCE

(2018) The Ambassadors (Holbein) Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ambassadors_(Holb ein) (accessed: 23 April 2018)

Leonardo Da Vinci’s drawings of the Vitruvian man date back to around 1490 during an explosion of culture and intellect from which emerged new outlooks on science, art and culture. In this work Da Vinci sought to use mathematical calculations, much like in fields of architecture at the time, to create an anatomically perfect human. At the time this provided a new insight in to how art, nature and the sciences might link together, a perspective which still permeates the field of human science today, and on a wider scale gave way to ideas of perfectionism in appearance. Scientifically he also allowed for developments in medicine which are grounded in his proportions of a human being.

(2018) The Ambassadors Available at: https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/hansholbein-the-younger-the-ambassadors (Accessed 23 April 2018) Picture available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ambassadors_(Holb ein)

In 1489 Da Vinci began a book entitled ‘On the Human Figure’ (reference 35) and conducted studies on two young men. From months of taking measurements and reading the works on human anatomy by contemporary architect Vitruvius, Da Vinci concluded that a “man with legs and arms outstretched would fit into the square and the circle, perfect geometric figures.” (Ref. 36) In his drawing of the Vitruvian man, Da Vinci used this knowledge and strayed away from the boundaries of previous antiquity, allowing him to create a man much more in proportion than Milanese surveyor Cesare Cesariano (who also used Vitruvius’s measurements.)

Unlike Cesare, Da Vinci’s man had limbs and ligaments that were the correct length, which he created using equations to show a palm equalling four fingers and a man equalling 24 palms.

During this time, Da Vinci, along with Michelangelo, was deemed a to be a ‘Renaissance Man’ who embodied and spread the ideals of the new wave of Humanism which focused “on human expression, achievement, and beauty; appreciation of sophisticated goods and pleasures; and the pursuit of intellectual and religious liberty.” (Ref. 37) This school of thought, far from rejecting religion, gave a new way of expression for many artists and intellectuals at the time, giving new perspectives on art and pleasures. It allowed artists like Da Vinci to stray away from an affiliation of art with religion, hence enabling him to create a piece of art that as mathematical and derived from nature rather than the constraints of religious imagery and texts.

35 36

Da Vinci, Leonardo On the Human Figure, 1489 Zölner, Frank Leonardo 2006, Taschen

37

22

www.beaucou.wordpress.com February 2014, accessed 25.4.18

These new perspectives on art and culture influenced the way we now think about humans from multiple different perspectives, as Humanism and its embodiment in the Vitruvian man gave a new way to view humans as beings with multiple facets and values that lie beyond just religion. It is this school of thinking that has allowed anthropologists to interpret humans as a species from many different angles, exploring their values and the way society has developed. The Vitruvian man embodies the multiple different perspectives one can take on the human form and the culture of the time. One such perspective the Vitruvian man takes is that of human beauty and proportion.

being derived from the same desire for symmetry and proportion illustrated in the Vitruvian man.

Another perspective the Vitruvian man gives us on human value is the importance of perfection and mathematical truth. Vitruvius’s calculations created a human that had feet, legs and hands, out of proportion because he was restrained by the religious connotations of the square and the circle fitting perfectly together.

The circle represents the spiritual realm and the square the material one with the body being the marriage of the two. However, because of the wave of humanism, Da Vinci was able to divulge from the religious tradition and create a human perfectly in proportion which was mathematically correct and thus not askew like that of previous scientists. The Vitruvian man shows the deviation away from societal norms in pursuit of perfection and knowledge.

In essence what the Vitruvian man has come to represent is a perfect model of a human, whose geometry makes him biologically perfect and symmetrical. Alongside this is the fact that in the creation of his Vitruvian man, Da Vinci used many different disciplines and fields of research, such as astronomy, architecture, mathematics and naturalism.

Thus in his construction of The Vitruvian Man, Da Vinci created a model of human perfection and proportion, as well as introducing a new multidisciplinary perception of humans. Both of these ideas permeate society today, influencing varying fields and creating societal norms.

As well as a new image of beauty and proportion, Da Vinci also gave way to a new wave of medicine based on the anatomy presented in the Vitruvian man. Inspired by the research by Plato and Aristotle into the anatomy of a human body, Da Vinci dissected over 30 corpses in order to measure human proportion. He intended his research to be used for medical betterment but it was not until 1965 when two of his notebooks were rediscovered that medicine was influenced by his measurements.

In her book ‘The Science of Beauty’ (ref 38) Nancy Etcoff muses on what it is that makes women attractive and many of her conclusions come down to a Darwinian idea of attraction based on ability to reproduce. How this is determined is through an even hip-to-waist ratio and an average BMI. These attributes are common in the description of the ‘hourglass figure’ deemed to be desirable in women and essentially boil down to a figure that is symmetrical; indeed both Audrey Hepburn and Marilyn Monroe had an even hip-to-waist ratio. (Ref 3) This modern perception of beauty is grounded in the construction of a perfect human, drawn symmetrically and in perfect proportion by Da Vinci in his Vitruvian man.

However, in 2002, Mark Rosheim built a prototype of a mechanical man based on the original drawing by Da Vinci that had arms which hinged much like a human’s and were used to carry out surgery. It became known as the ‘Robotic Knight’ and proved that Da Vinci’s findings were so accurate that they could be used to mimic human movement. In a similar way, these angles are used today in the creation of prosthetic limbs. Since Da Vinci focused on mathematical perfection to create human proportion, his calculations are accurate enough that artificial limbs as well as contacts lenses can be grounded in this maths.

This idea of proportion and symmetry exists not just in female beauty but also for mammals in general.

National Geographic reported on a study conducted about what makes a desirable body and what they concluded was essentially represented by the Vitruvian man. Quoted was William Brown of Brunel University, UK who said "In animals with two sides that were designed by natural selection to be symmetrical, subtle departures from symmetry may reflect poor development or exposure to environmental or genetic stress," (Ref. 39) Thus from modern research we can see the link between Da Vinci’s original interpretation of human perfection and modern perceptions of beauty as

In this way Da Vinci and his work on the human form which is perfectly embodied in the drawing of his Vitruvian man and based on the original calculations of Vitruvius, has enabled a new perspective on humans as a species. It has provided a new outlook on our culture and shown how important it is to study humans from many different angles (both literally and physically.) In addition its influence on medicine and proportion of the human figure permeates today’s society. The Vitruvian man shows what a forward-thinking artist Da Vinci was as well as encapsulating the way human scientists now study humans as intricate beings with multiple facets and values.

38

39

Etcoff, Nancy Survival of the Prettiest: The Science of Beauty 2002, DIANE publishing co.

23

www.new.nationalgeohgraphic.com , Than, Ker 24.04.18

Bibliography 1. https://leonartodavinci.weebly.com/medicalimpact.html - 27.4.18 2. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Renaissanc e - 22.4.18 3. https://www.huffingtonpost.com/michaelyaremchuk-md/virtuvian-man-plasticsurgery_b_1935533.html - 22.4.18 4. Etcoff, Nancy Survival of the Prettiest: The Science of Beauty 2002, DIANE publishing co.

5. www.new.nationalgeohgraphic.com, Than Ker 24.4.18 6. Da Vinci, Leonardo On the Human Figure, 1489 7. ZĂślner, Frank Leonardo 2006, Taschen 8. www.beaucou.wordpress.com February 2014, accessed 25.4.18

Gabby Sherwood (OHS)

THALIDOMIDE

(Photo taken from reference 4) Thalidomide was first made available to the public in 1957 as a sedative and was later famously used to cure morning sickness. After marketing this drug as a harmless, over-the-counter supplement, it was later found to cause phocomelia (malformation of the limbs) in the newly born children of the pregnant women whom had ingested these drugs. Throughout the world, around 10,000 infants were born with phocomelia as a result of the drug. The children survived in only 40% of these cases3. Thalidomide was promoted for morning sickness due to lack of research on the pharmaceutical effects of the drug. Unfortunately, the detrimental effect of thalidomide on new born children is irreversible.

Severe malformation of the limbs and organs result in life long difficulties for its sufferers.

Thalidomide’s effects were a result of its enantiomer

forms1. Enantiomers are molecules that contain the same chemical formula and general composition but are laterally inverted versions of each other. These are known as optical isomers. Optical isomers can be 24

and potentially destructive if it can bind correctly with another receptor2.

distinguished due to their different interactions with plane-polarized light, a light wave containing waves that are oscillating in the same direction. The interactions resulted in the light waves after moving through each of the compounds having rotated their oscillations to different angles for each enantiomer.

Because of these enantiomers effects on plane-polarised light, they are known as optically active. If an enantiomer rotates the plane-polarised light in a clockwise direction, it is known as the (+) or dextrorotatory isomer. If the light is rotated anticlockwise, it is the (-) or levorotatory isomer. It is also assigned the letter R or S based on the order of groups according to their atomic number. If highest priority to lowest priority follows a clockwise shape, the compound is assigned the letter R and if it follows an anticlockwise shape it is assigned the letter S. Thus, this gave rise to the naming of the two Thalidomide enantiomers. The first, (-)(S)-thalidomide and the second (+)(R)-thalidomide2.

While this is the general theory behind it, the exact mechanisms by which (-)(S)-thalidomide exerts its teratogenic effects is still poorly understood. It is known that (-)(S)-thalidomide inhibits blood vessel growth but not how this is carried out. Some scientists believe that either (-)(S)-thalidomide or one of its metabolites may prevent some genes from coding essential proteins involved in the formation of new blood vessels. As blood vessel growth is a key factor in the development and full formation of limbs and organs the presence of the (-)(S)-thalidomide resulted in severe malformation during foetal development1.

Though some may come to the conclusion that (-)(S)thalidomide could be simply removed from the mixture, so as to make the Thalidomide drug consist of only (+)(R)-thalidomide, the human liver contains an enzyme that can convert (+)(R)-thalidomide into (-)(S)thalidomide. Unable to harness its positive effects without serious side affects, thalidomide was banned by WHO (World Health Organization) in 1962, due to fears that it may be ingested by women unknowing that they were in the early stages of pregnancy1.

Thalidomide was sold as a racemic mixture of enantiomers. This means that both optical isomers of thalidomide are put together in a 50/50 mix1.

In 1962, the US Congress enacted the Kefauver-Harris amendments to the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act. This ensured that manufacturers had to prove that a drug was safe and effective. The company also had to adhere to sound methods during drug manufacture and put safety checks in place. This raised the bar for drug regulation and influenced other countries into making similar decisions5.

It was later found that (-)(S)-thalidomide caused these birth defects.

Prior to this event, enantiomers of a (-)(S)-thalidomide molecule where thought to have the same properties.

Thalidomide and its effects ensured drug companies reconsidered enantiomers as completely different molecules and tightened up regulations on drug safety checks1.

The ban on thalidomide was then lifted in 1985 and in 1998 was approved by the Food and Drug Administration in the USA as a treatment for multiple myeloma and brain inflammation, a symptom of leprosy (erythema nodosum leprosum). Thalidomide was found to change the immune system’s response to the bacteria that causes leprosy and inhibited the production of TNFα (tumour necrosis factor alpha) which is responsible for the tissue inflammation. While there are other drugs available that produce the same effect, Thalidomide is easily accessible as it is cheap to produce and so is a cost efficient solution in many countries1.

Enantiomers of Thalidomide affect the human body differently due to our bodies’ receptors.

Receptors are molecules made up of protein within our body. These have different reaction to Thalidomide depending on which optical isomer it is. This can be explained by a three-point interaction of the drug with the receptor site2.

(Photo taken from reference 2)

Thalidomide is currently being further researched to investigate its effect on a variety of cancers. Scientists believe that due to thalidomide’s ability to inhibit blood vessel growth it may directly kill the cancer by shutting down the blood supply to cancerous cells. It is also a potential treatment for AIDS as it may help by reducing

The diagram shows how, due to the position of the groups around the central atom, a biologically active enantiomer, when converted to its counterpart, will not bind correctly with the receptors, resulting in a biologically inactive enantiomer, rendering it useless 25

ulcers in the stomach, mouth and oesophagus. However, with all these new uses for Thalidomide, comes concerns for its side effects. As most pregnancies are unknown in the first few weeks there are worries of the control over pill distribution being lost and more babies being affected by this drug. To help this there have been suggestions that the drug be sold once again under the name thalidomide rather than a brand name to avoid misuse1.

In the 1960s thalidomide affected people all over the world, leaving many families with scars they will deal with for life. While, the tragic effects of thalidomide will be remembered for many years to come, it also ensured safety regulations were put in place within the drug industry and ensured everyday people were safe from the possible dangers of under-tested drugs.

Modern research has also found that thalidomide is effective for treatment of certain cancers, leprosy and HIV. Thus, thalidomide’s downfall has also lead to triumphs in the drug production field as well as clinical treatments.

Bibliography “Teaching Chemistry Through the Jigsaw Strategy.”

Accessed April 15,2018.

Available at: https://www3.fed.cuhk.edu.hk/chemistry/files/ChiralDr ug.pdf "Chiral Drugs." Khan Academy. Accessed April 15, 2018.

Available at: https://www.khanacademy.org/testprep/mcat/chemicalprocesses/stereochemistry/a/chiral-drugs.

"Reversal of Fortune: How a Vilified Drug Became a Life-saving Agent in the "War" Against Cancer."

Onco'Zine. June 14, 2017. Accessed April 14, 2018.

Available at: https://oncozine.com/reversal-of-fortunehow-a-vilified-drug-became-a-life-saving-agent-in-thewar-against-cancer/.

"Thalidomide: The Drug That Won't Go Away." What Doctors Don't Tell You. Accessed April 16, 2018.

Available at: https://www.wddty.com/magazine/2017/october/thalid omide-the-drug-that-wont-go-away-1.html.

"Helix Magazine." The Thalidomide Tragedy: Lessons for Drug Safety and Regulation | Helix Magazine.

Accessed April 16, 2018.

Available at: https://helix.northwestern.edu/article/thalidomidetragedy-lessons-drug-safety-and-regulation.

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Hardship endured oft.

Bitter breast-cares have I abided, Known on my keel many a care's hold,

Bella Gate (WHS)

And dire sea-surge, and there I oft spent

THE FOUNDATION VOLUME OF ENGLISH LITERATURE

Narrow nightwatch nigh the ship's head While she tossed close to cliffs. Coldly afflicted,

In June 2016, UNESCO decided to list The Exeter Book as one of the ‘world’s principal cultural artefacts’ 40. It was described as being regarded as a ‘foundation volume of English literature’ 41 and was added to the Memory of the World register.

My feet were by frost benumbed.

Chill its chains are; chafing sighs Hew my heart round and hunger begot Mere-weary mood.” 47

The book dates back more than 1,000 years and writers such as JRR Tolkien, WH Auden and Ezra Pound have given it credit in relation to their works 42. It was written, in Old English of course, around 970 and contains 40 poems and 96 riddles 43 – many of which have no alternative source. Other works in UNESCO’s Memory of the World register included the Magna Carta, the Bayeux Tapestry, the Book of Kells and The Diary of Anne Frank. 44 UNESCO stated that “it is one of only four surviving major poetic manuscripts in [the Old English] vernacular”. 45

J.B. Bessinger Jr. noted of this poem that Pound “has survived on merits that have little to do with those of an accurate translation” 48, thus suggesting that this translation holds its own individual creativity.

The Wanderer inspired Auden’s translation and exhibits a similarly styled use of alliterative verse in order to reflect Anglo-Saxon poetry, as can be seen in the opening line: “Doom is dark and deeper than any seadingle.” 49 J.R.R Tolkien was critical of such direct translations and chose to explore the book in more subtle ways. The poem Christ I includes the lines:

Its influence has spread across many eras and authors.

Exeter University professor Emma Cayley suggested that it “is an irreplaceable foundation of English literature, which is why Auden and Ezra Pound and Tolkien were inspired by it” 46. Indeed, Ezra Pound’s translation of The Seafarer poem is particularly wellknown due to its elimination of the religious element of the poem. Pound effectively uses alliteration – a common Anglo-Saxon poetic device – in order to mimic the style of the original poem, as can be seen here:

“Eálá Earendel engla beorhtast Ofer middangeard monnum sended” 50

Which can be translated as: “May I for my own self song's truth reckon, “Hail Earendel brightest of angels, Journey's jargon, how I in harsh days Over Middle Earth sent to men” 51

http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-andinformation/memory-of-the-world/register/access-byregion-and-country/gb/ 41 Ibid.

Ibid. https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/44917/theseafarer

40

46 47

48

42

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Seafarer_(poem)#Ezra_P ound,_1911 49 https://allpoetry.com/poem/8492933-The-Wanderer-byW-H-Auden 50 https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/jun/22/unescolists-exeter-book-among-worlds-principal-cultural-artefacts 51 Ibid.

https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/jun/22/unescolists-exeter-book-among-worlds-principal-cultural-artefacts 43 Ibid.

44 http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-andinformation/memory-of-the-world/register/full-list-ofregistered-heritage/registered-heritage-page-1/ 45

https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/jun/22/unescolists-exeter-book-among-worlds-principal-cultural-artefacts

27

this volume provide insight into the philosophical stirrings of Anglo-Saxons – this is, perhaps, what makes the book so immensely fascinating and important.

This section inspired the creation of Middle-earth and the character Eärendil in The Lord of the Rings. Many of the concepts in J.R.R Tolkien’s book have been inspired by The Exeter Book.

Unfortunately, the book’s value and the level of publicity that it has received has fluctuated over the years with Cayley stating, “it has been really used and abused in its 10 centuries of life and was not always as prized as it is now,” 57 and Ann Barwood – Exeter Cathedral’s canon librarian – describing that the book has just begun “to receive the attention it [has] deserved for centuries.” 58 Cayley added that “the people who look after the book and work on it – the scholarly community – are totally aware of the book’s significance. But [she’s] pretty sure if you asked the general public about The Exeter Book, nobody would have heard of it.” 59

Emma Cayley describes that “there are a few obscene riddles – things which essentially have naughty meanings and clean meanings [..] but for which there’s also a different meaning,” 52 alluding to the use of double meaning and innuendo in the volume. One such riddle – that has both a clean and “naughty” meaning goes as follows: “A curiosity hangs by the thigh of a man, under its master’s cloak. It is pierced through in the front; it is stiff and hard and it has a good standing-place. When the man pulls up his own robe above his knee, he means to poke with the head of his hanging thing that familiar hole of matching length which he has often filled before.” 53

Peter Thomas – another of the cathedral’s librarians – has said that “Poetic manuscripts in Old English are extremely rare – only four survive in the world – and The Exeter Book is the most varied, the best preserved and probably the oldest of them. […] It is the foundation volume not only of the cathedral library but also arguably of English literature itself, one of the major contributions to world culture.” Here, Thomas highlights the significance of these kinds of volumes and notes the standard of preservation that should be observed.

The innocent answer to this obscene riddle is, simply, Key. However, the book is by no means filled with such riddles – indeed, there are only around six obscene riddles in the entire volume. Other riddles are deeply religious and profound. The beginning of Riddle Four goes:

The Exeter Book gives us crucial insight into the religious, philosophical, “naughty” and everyday sides of Anglo-Saxon lives. Thus, it is a highly valuable artefact both for scholars and, of course, for the public.

“The books tell us that this thing has been among mankind through many ages clear and manifest. A special power it has much greater than any men know. It wishes to seek all living beings one by one; then goes its way; no second night in the same place; but homeless roves for ever and aye, the path of exile. It is none the poorer.” 54

Bibliography http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-andinformation/memory-of-the-world/register/access-byregion-and-country/gb/

The answer to this riddle is Moon and Day. It was originally translation by Mrs. von Erhardt-Siebold who sees it as “one of the finest” and praises “its ingenious and fascinating poetry” 55. Von Erhardt-Siebold divides the poem up into seven principle parts: “death is not real, not abstract; it comes privately and only once; it is a “suprasensible entity”; it is not really lifeless: it has eternal life; this is not conjecture, but fact; you first explain it and then name it.” 56Clearly, many riddles in

American Chemical Society. (1999). The discovery and development of penicillin 1928-1945.

National Historics Chemical Landmarks program.

Biography. (2018, Jan 4th). The Biography website.com website. Retrieved April 18th, 2018, from Louis Pasteur Biography: https://www.biography.com/people/louispasteur-9434402

52

56

53

57

Ibid.

Baum, Paull Franklin, Anglo-Saxon Riddles of the Exeter Book (Durham, North Carolina, 1963) 54 Baum, Paull Franklin, Anglo-Saxon Riddles of the Exeter Book (Durham, North Carolina, 1963) 55 Ibid.

Ibid. https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/jun/22/unescolists-exeter-book-among-worlds-principal-cultural-artefacts 58 Ibid.

59 Ibid.

28

https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/44917/theseafarer

Bradford, A. (2017, Feb 27). Live Science. Retrieved April 18, 2018, from Penicillin: Discovery, Benefits and Resistance: https://www.livescience.com/58038-bacteriafacts.html Encyclopedia.com. (2018). "The Discovery and Importance of Penicillin and the Development of Sulfa Drugs. Science and Its Times: Understanding the Social Significance of Scientific Discovery.

How does penicillin work. (2002). Retrieved April 18, 2018, from http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/webprojects2002/th ornton/how_does_penicillin_work.htm John G. Bartlett, M., Brad Spellberg, M., & David N. Gilbert, M. (2013, August). MedScape.

Retrieved April 18th, 2018, from 8 Ways to Deal With Antibiotic Resistance: https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/80881 4#vp_2 Mukherjee, S. (n.d.). The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer. Retrieved from The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer Newman, T. (2017, Jan 5). Medical News Today.

Retrieved April 18, 2018, from Penicillin: How Does Penicillin Work?: https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/2 16798.php Oxtoby, K. (n.d.). Is the Hippocratic oath still relevant to practising doctors today? . Retrieved 04 26, 2018, from BMJ: http://careers.bmj.com/careers/advice/Is_the_ Hippocratic_oath_still_relevant_to_practising_ doctors_today%3F The Hippocratic Oath. (n.d.). Retrieved from BMJ: https://www.bmj.com/content/317/7166/1110.

3 The Hippocratic Oath . (2018, 04 26). Retrieved from Wikipedia : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocratic_Oat h The Hippocratic Oath. (2018, 04 26). Retrieved from BMJ: https://www.bmj.com/content/309/6951/414.2. full Wikibooks. (2017). Retrieved April 18, 2018, from Structural Biochemistry/Enzyme/Reversible Inhibitors/Competitive Inhibitor/Penicillin: https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Structural_Bioch emistry/Enzyme/Reversible_Inhibitors/Compe titive_Inhibitor/Penicillin https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/jun/22/unes co-lists-exeter-book-among-worlds-principal-culturalartefacts

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Seafarer_(poem)#Ez ra_Pound,_1911 https://allpoetry.com/poem/8492933-The-Wandererby-W-H-Auden Baum, P. F. (1963). Anglo-Saxon Riddles of the Exeter Book. North Carolina: Duke University Press.

http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-andinformation/memory-of-the-world/register/full-list-ofregistered-heritage/registered-heritage-page-1/ 29

Another important discovery was sulfanilomides (in 1908) which had the potential to stop infections but were ineffective against human bacterial diseases until they were refined (Encyclopedia.com, 2018).

Misha Iyer (OHS)

These discoveries all culminated in 1928 when Alexander Fleming returned to his laboratory to find a Petri dish containing the Staphylococcus bacteria contaminated with mold, Penicillin notatum. However, he saw that a clear ring surrounded the bacteria where it had been inhibited from growing. This discovery led to the development of one of the most used drugs in medicine and in 1942 Anne Miller became the first civilian to be successfully treated using penicillin (Newman, 2017).

PENICILLIN Before 1928, there was little hope for patients who contracted illnesses, such as, pneumonia and rheumatic fever (American Chemical Society, 1999). Even slight scratches and subsequent blood poisoning could result in death. The accidental discovery of penicillin by Alexander Fleming, seen as one of the greatest medical leaps forward in the 20th century, has led to the development of new drugs and the pharmaceutical industry we know today. However, this has come with a cost. With the over prescription of antibiotics in the modern era, bacteria have begun to mutate and develop resistance to the drug so that it will not be a viable treatment for future infections.

How it works Penicillin works by indirectly bursting bacterial cell walls by acting directly on peptidoglycans which form a mesh structure around the bacteria’s cell surface membrane ( peptidoglycans maintain cell wall strength and keeps internal fluids from entering). (Newman, 2017) When bacterium multiply small holes open up in cell walls as they divide which are then filled by the formation of new peptidoglycan crosslinks (Newman, 2017). However, when penicillin is present it acts as a substrate and inhibits the enzyme transpeptidase (How does penicillin work, 2002), preventing the synthesis of the cell wall. Due to the difference in osmotic pressure between the outside of the bacterium and the inside, water enters via osmosis and the bacterium bursts (Newman, 2017). It is, however, a suicide inhibitor and so inactivates itself by binding to transpeptidase (Wikibooks, 2017).

Figure 3: Unknown - https://ihm.nlm.nih.gov/images/A20824

A poster attached to a curbside mailbox offering advice to World War II servicemen: Penicillin cures gonorrhea in 4 hours.

Penicillin is most effective against gram positive bacteria because they only have one peptidoglycan layer, while gram negative bacteria have multiple membrane layers which allow them to retain their cell wall (Wikibooks, 2017).

History Since the beginning, disease has presented itself to be a frightening unknown for humans with many placing blame on the devil or other superstitions (Encyclopedia.com, 2018). The existence of bacteria was not discovered until the 16th century and the important role they play in the human body wasn’t acknowledged until the 1800s. They were unaware of the existence of cells and the idea that disease could spread from unseen agents (Encyclopedia.com, 2018).

Impact Penicillins and sulfas had a profound effect on healthcare systems around the world and for the first time in history we were able to treat and prevent diseases caused by bacteria. For example, penicillin was administered orally to treat thousands of soldiers during World War Two (Encyclopedia.com, 2018). In 1945, Fleming and other pioneers such as Florey – who worked to purify and produce penicillin – won a Noble Prize. (Bradford, 2017).

The first major breakthrough was after 1848 when Louis Pasteur was able to prove that bacteria were living units (Encyclopedia.com, 2018) and are able to cause disease by causing germs to multiply in body.

He was also able to develop vaccinations for TB, cholera and smallpox (Biography, 2018).

The discovery of penicillin created the possibility of other substances and chemicals that could affect 30

for pharmaceutical companies to seek investment from private public partnerships such as the Bill and Melinda gates foundation. (John G. Bartlett, Brad Spellberg, & David N. Gilbert, 2013)

viruses, fungi and protoctists in the same way (Encyclopedia.com, 2018).

However, despite the huge developments in the medical field there were definitely some large drawbacks. For example, some people are hypersensitive or allergic to penicillin and this can cause contraindications such as rashes and hives (Newman, 2017)and in some extreme cases anaphylactic shock (Encyclopedia.com, 2018). This led to the development of synthetic penicillin which not only created faster acting drugs with listed side effects but also caused a boom in the pharmaceutical industry in the 1930 and further research into drug development (Encyclopedia.com, 2018)s.

Bibliography American Chemical Society. (1999). The discovery and development of penicillin 1928-1945.

National Historics Chemical Landmarks program.

Biography. (2018, Jan 4th). The Biography website.com website. Retrieved April 18th, 2018, from Louis Pasteur Biography: https://www.biography.com/people/louispasteur-9434402 Bradford, A. (2017, Feb 27). Live Science. Retrieved April 18, 2018, from Penicillin: Discovery, Benefits and Resistance: https://www.livescience.com/58038-bacteriafacts.html Encyclopedia.com. (2018). "The Discovery and Importance of Penicillin and the Development of Sulfa Drugs. Science and Its Times: Understanding the Social Significance of Scientific Discovery.

How does penicillin work. (2002). Retrieved April 18, 2018, from http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/webprojects2002/th ornton/how_does_penicillin_work.htm John G. Bartlett, M., Brad Spellberg, M., & David N. Gilbert, M. (2013, August). MedScape.

Retrieved April 18th, 2018, from 8 Ways to Deal With Antibiotic Resistance: https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/80881 4#vp_2 Mukherjee, S. (n.d.). The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer. Retrieved from The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer Newman, T. (2017, Jan 5). Medical News Today.

Retrieved April 18, 2018, from Penicillin: How Does Penicillin Work?: https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/2 16798.php Oxtoby, K. (n.d.). Is the Hippocratic oath still relevant to practising doctors today? . Retrieved 04 26, 2018, from BMJ: http://careers.bmj.com/careers/advice/Is_the_ Hippocratic_oath_still_relevant_to_practising_ doctors_today%3F The Hippocratic Oath. (n.d.). Retrieved from BMJ: https://www.bmj.com/content/317/7166/1110.

3 The Hippocratic Oath . (2018, 04 26). Retrieved from Wikipedia : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocratic_Oat h The Hippocratic Oath. (2018, 04 26). Retrieved from BMJ:

Today there are many other antibiotics - which can also work against protozoa and fungi – which take precedence over penicillin and sulfas but none of the research into these drugs would have been possible without that initial discovery.

Resistance: In recent years, due to the over prescription and misuse of penicillin, some bacteria have genetically mutated and reproduced to become resistant to penicillin.

There are three common ways in which bacteria have become resistant. Firstly, a bacterium could begin to produce penicillinase – enzymes which break down penicillin – and this can be transmitted via plasmids so that the genetic information is shared between other bacteria. Secondly, some bacteria can change the structure of their peptidoglycan wall or transpeptidase so penicillin no longer has an effect. Finally, some bacteria have efflux pumps which can be used to transport penicillin out of cells (Encyclopedia.com, 2018).

Resistance is a major problem because soon a large number of antibiotics could be ineffective for treating minor infections.

Future With the increasing worry of antibiotic resistance, the use of penicillin to treat bacterial diseases is no longer always a viable option. Strategies have been put in place to reduce resistance, such as, reduction in use of antibiotics when treating farm animals. Furthermore, public campaigns have been made to prevent inappropriate prescription and use in outpatients e.g.

France reached a 26% reduction in antibiotic prescriptions (John G. Bartlett, Brad Spellberg, & David N. Gilbert, 2013).

However, despite the urgency, there has been a lack of recent development of new drugs by pharmaceutical due to lack of funds. In the future, it may be necessary 31

https://www.bmj.com/content/309/6951/414.2. full Wikibooks. (2017). Retrieved April 18, 2018, from Structural Biochemistry/Enzyme/Reversible Inhibitors/Competitive Inhibitor/Penicillin: https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Structural_Bioch emistry/Enzyme/Reversible_Inhibitors/Compe titive_Inhibitor/Penicillin

Georgie Hagger (WHS)

THE PILL THAT CHANGED THE WORLD When thinking about medical breakthroughs that have changed the world, the Oral Contraceptive pill would not be the first that would come to mind. One look at the common purpose of this pill: contraception, and it does not appear to be curing any diseases, yet it revolutionised the world we live in. In the just over half a century since the invention of the pill it has liberated women in a way that nothing else had before, but not only this; it was a scientific breakthrough, an economic transformer. Today even the word “the pill� has become synonymous with oral contraceptives.

The idea of The Oral Contraceptive Pill, source contraception https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/contraception/ is not a combined-contraceptive-pill/ modern one, for years civilisations have been struggling to find a way to prevent pregnancy; Ancient Egyptians used suppositories consisting of honey and acacia as well as crocodile dung. Yet, despite the ancient nature of the concept there were very few even marginally effective contraceptives, and those that did exist were illegal and completely taboo. For a woman in the early 1900s, bodily autonomy was a wish of many but not something that seemed either realistic or achievable. Women were subject to continuous pregnancies starting in their late teenage years and continuing for up to another three decades. A woman could dream of an education but it would be of little to no use when the woman was required to get married, have children and then look after them. In short, women were largely slaves to their own bodies. Anatomy requires that the woman carry the child but as a consequence this meant that men had to endure fewer risks, fewer burdens and above all these men had control over their choices and their body, a 32

pleasure that women could not share in. The simple fact that women had to get pregnant and that there was no way of controlling when this would happen, meant that planning for the future was an impossibility, including a profession. Women would prefer to suffer through coat hanger abortions, this being the only option since abortion was illegal, than have another child in some cases as family size grew rapidly out of control. This speaks of their desperation and the urgent need for some kind of birth control or family planning.

freedom to enter professions and to control their family sizes without serious harm to themselves. Womanhood and motherhood were no longer the same thing; a woman could enjoy her sexuality without it leading to motherhood but more importantly motherhood was now a choice. The average age of those getting married started to increase and there were record numbers of women becoming doctors, dentists and nurses. A single pill had given women the opportunity to prevent an “illness� that before had ruled their lives.

Margaret Sanger recognised this need and she understood that scientific birth control could be the solution to this crisis. Sanger was a staunch feminist, who had long believed in the right of women to enjoy the same sexual freedoms and control as their male partners. She saw that as long as men and women were unequal in their sexuality, and the risks and responsibilities associated, women could not truly have the same freedoms as men in all other aspects of life. In the 1920s, Sanger founded the American Birth Control League, which later became Planned Parenthood Federation of America, in a time when discussion of birth control was classed as obscene and in the same category as pornographic under the Comstock Law of 1873. On the instruction of Sanger, scientist Gregory Pincus began researching an oral contraceptive pill and using the hormone progesterone, he managed to replicate the previous findings that it temporarily stopped ovulation. Research into synthetic hormones continued until success was reached in 1957 when the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved Enovid 5 as a pill for menstrual disorders before at last in 1960 this was extended to use as an oral contraceptive pill.

Not only was this hugely socially important, but scientifically as well. This method of birth control was the first to involve hormones and paved the way for the introduction of more hormonal delivery systems such as implants and intrauterine systems. Furthermore, unusually this was a pill that was prescribed to a group of ostensibly healthy and young people; the opposite of traditional medical services.

It is estimated that over 200 million women take the pill, and despite continued debate over the morality of birth control, the oral contraceptive pill is only increasing in popularity. However, since the earlier significant breakthroughs there have been few changes and new ideas. Furthermore, the onus of organising and executing the birth control still lies on the women, with 90% of all contraceptive use involving women.

Margaret Sanger was passionate about liberating women from restrictions imposed on them and yet it is still the women who have the burden of planning the contraceptive as well as the risks and discomfort of the many possible side effects. With this in mind, research is being done into reducing risk and hassle. Long-acting reversible contraception is now available and the further development of products like this means that the women does not have to remember to take a pill every day.

Recent research has also been done on the possibility of production of male contraceptives, with trials yielding positive results. For over fifty years, women have been responsible for organising birth control but now with the men sharing the burden contraceptive use we are approaching the equality that Sanger had envisaged.

However, it is important to consider that although birth control is easily accessible for most, there are many women around the world who do not enjoy the same privileges due poor family planning advice, limited birth control methods and a stigma surrounding birth control as a whole.

The pill normally consists mainly of two synthetically made hormones; oestrogen and progesterone.

Ordinarily in the female reproductive system, low levels of oestrogen stimulate the release and production of progesterone, which maintains the thickness of the endometrium where the fertilised egg would be implanted. If no sperm fertilises the egg then the endometrial lining breaks down, progesterone levels fall and the menstrual cycle begins again. However, when taking the hormonal pill the synthetic oestrogen suppresses the maturation of the follicle, containing the egg, and without a maturing follicle the oestrogen levels are increased and the endometrium does not thicken whilst progesterone makes the endometrium hostile for implantation and prevents ovulation. Therefore, an egg is not produced meaning the women taking the pill cannot get pregnant.

A hundred years ago, the current sexual, social, political and economic freedoms that we enjoy would have been nearly impossible to conceive of. One of the reasons for this is the pill. Suddenly, women were released from the household and had control of their own lives, with the opportunity to decide when and whether they wanted children. This extra area of control, led to increasing power and autonomy over the decades to come where, with every step, men and women became and are becoming more equal. Looking to the future, there are

It was not until the 1970s when single women were also allowed to take the Oral Contraceptive Pill, as previously there were concerns that it would make women promiscuous and act obscenely. However, Margaret Sanger’s dream had now been realised; women were finally able to have autonomy over their lives. Now that this pill could be taken, women had the 33

possibilities of absolute equality as men can play a more active role in contraception, specifically long-term methods, and family planning. Being a woman no longer means being trapped by your own body and that is all down to two hormones in one small pill.

Grace Bagnall-Oakeley (OHS)

Bibliography

THE GREENSTONE HEART

Jonathan Eig, The Birth of the Pill, Pan Macmillan, 2014 Half a Century of the Oral Contraceptive pill, Pamela Verma Liao and Janet Dollin, Dec 2012 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC35206 85/ Combined Pill, NHS Choices https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/contraception/combine d-contraceptive-pill/ Fifty Years of “the Pill”: Risk Reduction and Discovery of Benefits Beyond Contraception, Reflections, and Forecast, Toxicological Sciences, January 2012 https://academic.oup.com/toxsci/article/125/1/2/16661 29 A Brief History of the Pill, Alexandra Nikolchev, May 2010 http://www.pbs.org/wnet/need-to-know/health/a-briefhistory-of-the-birth-control-pill/480/

This “heart” has been carved out of jade and smoothed down with a tool made from haematite (iron ore). It can be found in the Pitt Rivers Museum, Oxford, and was donated in 1905 by Zelia Nuttall. When exactly it dates from is unknown; however, it is known that the heart is from Puebla, Mexico, and is an Aztec artefact, so was in all likelihood made in the period between 1300 and 1521.

Feminism, Philanthropy and Science in the Development of The Oral Contraceptive Pill, R. Christian Johnson, 1977

Across the world, jade has been prized for millenia. In China, it was a symbol of aristocracy; the wealthiest and most powerful members of society would be buried in jade suits, painstakingly woven from several thousand individual pieces of the mineral. Across the Pacific in New Zealand, Maori tribes were using jade to make a type of weapon called a “mere”, a tear-shaped weapon usually about a foot long. It might seem a strange use of a material often used in jewellery, but jade is renowned for its hardness and durability, so was a good choice.

Besides, as will become evident, there have been many other uses of jade besides jewellery and meres.

Jade was hugely valuable to the Aztecs, more so even than gold. In fact, the Aztec equivalent of the expression “a heart of gold” was “a heart of jade”. Although jade “was apparently abundant” during this era (Penfield, 1962), it was expensive and a sign of wealth. In Aztec culture, jade symbolised agriculture, fertility and life (both generation and regeneration), and it was thought to have curative properties. Aztecs also believed that the centre of the earth was a chalchihuitl, a smooth green stone. This piece of jade was probably worn as a pendant originally, then placed in the mouth of the wearer when they died. It was believed that when a person breathed their last breath, holding a piece of jade 34

it welled up far as it poured forth, as it boiled up. And when this was done, then he raised her heart as an offering [to the god] and placed it in the green jar, which was called the green stone jar.” This unlucky woman may well have been eaten afterwards. By many eyewitness accounts, cannibalism was fairly common in the Aztec empire, with some sources claiming that the majority of sacrifice victims (excluding children and those with diseases) were eaten after being killed.

over their mouth would capture their essence and store it forever in the stone. The people of ancient China also believed that jade “imparted some sort of immortality on its owner” (Cartwright, 2017), and this is another reason why they too often buried it with their dead (as well as it being an indicator of privilege).

The Aztecs believed in the existence of an afterlife.

However, whilst often religions state that a person’s experience in the afterlife is altered depending on their behaviour in life, the Aztecs believed that it depended on the way in which the person died. For example, women who died in childbirth were given the task of assisting the sun god Huitzilopochtli in pushing the sun from overhead in the sky to beneath the horizon at sunset. This was considered a reasonably pleasant afterlife job, and women who died in this way were considered equally as brave and worthy as warriors who died in battle. Conversely, those who died of natural causes actually had a far worse time in the Aztec afterlife. They travelled for four years through dangerous territory, first along a river by boat, and then sinking into the deepest layer of the underworld, where they existed in total darkness for eternity. In a way, the Aztecs believed in reincarnation, as it was said that warriors turned into butterflies and hummingbirds (after four years of helping or fighting for Huitzilopochtli), although this was clearly not the most significant element of their beliefs about “life after death”.

There are many different theories which try to explain why the Aztecs allegedly ate so many people. However, one especially interesting one is that the Aztecs chose to eat human flesh as a substitute for animal protein. If the sources Harris quotes are correct, the Valley of Mexico was “a severely depleted habitat” which could not adequately support a large population. It had suffered as a result of population growth and unsustainable farming/hunting practices. Apparently, “adding up all possible sources, exclusive of human flesh, it is difficult to see how the Aztecs could have gotten more than two or three grams of animal protein per day, or about half an egg.” (Harris, 1979). (Information about the growing of crops and production of plant-based food in Aztec times is not easily available, but animal protein has traditionally been far more valued than plant protein in the majority of cultures across the world; besides, arable land was clearly in an extremely poor state, meaning that it would probably not have been possible for the Aztec people to eat more of these foods instead.) There were also famines every three or four years, the worst of which “was followed by an intense period of warfare and prisoner sacrifice”. Harris and his colleague Michael Harner hypothesise that “the uniquely severe depletion of animal protein resources made it uniquely difficult for the Aztec ruling class to prohibit the consumption of human flesh and to refrain from using it as a reward for loyalty”, and state that “it was of greater immediate advantage for the Aztec ruling class to [...] eat their prisoners of war than to use them as [...] slaves”. Therefore, the state began to support cannibalism, even waging war to obtain more captives to eat.

Whilst the wealth and behaviour of the person whose jade heart this was may not have directly affected their experience of the afterlife, these characteristics would have influenced the way in which they died. In Aztec times, there was an enormous difference between the lives of the rich and those who were very poor, or slaves.

Had the owner of this greenstone been a member of the nobility, it would have been placed in a jar along with the deceased’s ashes, and human sacrifices would have been regularly performed in front of the jar until a year had passed. Animal sacrifices before the jar would have continued for four more years. Interestingly, jade was not only used to represent hearts but also to store them.

Status had an impact on what role it would play in a person’s death rituals. Whilst the jade heart was intended to mark the start of the noble’s life in the next world, a jade jar marked the painful end of someone’s life on Earth, as these were often used as receptacles for the hearts of those who had been sacrificed. The Dresden Codex is believed to be the oldest surviving book from the Americas; written in the fourteenth century, it contains a grisly description of an Aztec sacrifice, amongst other writings from people living in the Yucatan Peninsula. Marvin Harris quotes it in his book Cannibals and Kings: “the blood gushed up high;

Although the concept of institutionalised cannibalism is truly disturbing, this idea offers a fascinating perspective on Aztec culture. Since the first thing which comes into most people’s minds when they think of the Aztecs is their vast number of gods, some assume that this aspect of Aztec culture was exclusively for the purpose of religious ritual. It is true that the consensus from nearly all historians and anthropologists is that religion, sacrifice and cannibalism in Aztec times were inextricably linked. Despite this, environmental factors could have had a significant impact on their lifestyles.

35

le/1983/10/02/the-aztecs/60851dec-d70b-4415-926d6c8166b07709/?utm_term=.20593e312fed>

This greenstone heart is fascinating in many ways; jade had many positive connotations in Aztec times, but it also draws to mind the pain and fear associated with dying (whether through sacrifice or by natural causes!).

It is a well-known fact that much of Aztec art is inspired by death, but usually this influence is shown more blatantly. For example, an Aztec necklace owned by Harvard Research Centre is adorned with skulls which “when the wearer moved, [...] wagged their jaws” (Richard, 1983). The greenstone heart is less obviously macabre, yet once its meaning is more closely examined, in some ways it is just as sinister.

Penfield, T. 1966, Dig Here!: Lost Mines and Buried Treasures of the Southwest, Adventures Unlimited Press (reprint), n.p.

Maffie, J. 2014, Aztec Philosophy: Understanding a World in Motion, University Press of Colorado, n.p.

Nichols, D.L., Berdan, F., Smith, M.E. 2017, Rethinking the Aztec economy, University of Arizona Press, n.p.

Aztec Ritual 2013, viewed 11th April <https://eaoaes.wordpress.com/author/eaoaes/>

2018

The greenstone heart also reminds us of the many mysteries which still surround some aspects of ancient cultures, and how little we know about people’s motivations. Although most people are aware of sacrifice and cannibalism in Aztec culture, the exact reasoning behind it is still not known. Overall, it is a reminder of the fascinating history and beliefs of a people long dead.

Greenstone ‘heart’ 2011, viewed 10th April 2018 <http://web.prm.ox.ac.uk/bodyarts/index.php/bodyarts-and-lifecycles/death/123-greenstone-heart.html>

Bibliography

Greenstone heart 2011, viewed 24th April 2018<http://web.prm.ox.ac.uk/bodyarts/images/stories/ greenstone_heart.jpg>

Donn, L. 2015, Aztec Afterlife, viewed 23rd April 2018 <http://aztecs.mrdonn.org/afterlife.html>

Mere (weapon) 2017, viewed 24th April 2018 <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mere_(weapon)>

Bjordal, M. 2013, Ancient Aztec Perception on Death and Afterlife, viewed 23rd April 2018 <http://christicenter.org/2013/02/ancient-aztecperspective-on-death-and-afterlife/>

Jade Meaning, Powers and History 2007, viewed 24th April 2018 <https://www.jewelsforme.com/gem_and_jewelry_libr ary/jade>

Gillespie, S.D. 2013, If warriors turned into butterflies in the afterlife, what did ordinary people turn into?, viewed 23rd April 2018 <http://www.mexicolore.co.uk/aztecs/askexperts/what-did-ordinary-people-turn-into-in-theafterlife>

Jade History and Lore 2013, viewed 24th April 2018 <https://www.gia.edu/jade-history-lore>

Aztec Civilization Timetable 2017, viewed 10th April 2018 <https://www.ancient.eu/timeline/Aztec_Civilization/>

Desjardins, J. 2015, The History of Jade: The Emperor’s Stone, viewed 24th April 2018 <http://www.visualcapitalist.com/the-history-of-jadethe-emperors-stone/>

Mursell, I. 2013, Heart of Jade, viewed 23rd April 2018 <http://www.mexicolore.co.uk/aztecs/stories/heart-ofjade>

Cartwright, M. 2017, Jade in Ancient China, viewed 24th April 2018 <https://www.ancient.eu/article/1088/jade-in-ancientchina/>

Dresden Codex 2018, viewed 11th April 2018 <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dresden_Codex>

Braid, F. 2017, Jade Symbolism, viewed 24 April 2018 <https://www.gemsociety.org/article/history-legendjade-gems-yore/>

Harris, M. and Sahlins, M. 1979, Cannibals and Kings: An Exchange, viewed 11th April 2018 <http://www.nybooks.com/articles/1979/06/28/canniba ls-and-kings-an-exchange/> Harris, M. 1978, Here Be Cannibals (an extract from Cannibals and Kings: The Origin of Cultures), viewed 11th April 2018 <http://www.heretical.com/cannibal/mamerica.html> Richard, P. 1983, The Aztecs, viewed 10th April 2018 <https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/sty 36

of the novel, and arguably in its longevity. The story also references many incomplete lines of poetry that the reader is assumed to know, and refers to no character by name as it was traditionally rude to do so, meaning in addition to the preservation of old forms of Japanese, it is also a snapshot of traditions and society in tenth and eleventh century Japan.

Jess Marais (WHS)

THE TALE OF GENJI –

The Tale of Genji has had a lasting cultural significance in Japan, all the way to the present day. It plays a prominent role in Japanese art, such as in lacquer work throughout history. Many pieces of art depict a lady sitting at a writing desk, looking at the moon- this is Lady Murasaki, in the process of writing the Tale of Genji. Its influence extends into theatre, with the most popular Noh plays being adaptations of the novel because of how well known and relatable it is- even 1100 years later. The book itself still remains popular, with millions of copies being sold annually and adaptations being made for film and TV. The demand for the Tale of Genji is so large that it has even been adapted into the format of a women’s gossip magazine and is sold in the convenience stores to a wide clientele.

All of this shows the Tale of Genji to be culturally important in its influence on Japanese media. This is made to seem all the more remarkable considering the fact that the original copy was lost centuries ago. The story has survived thanks to around 300 attempted replications, the oldest dating back to the twelfth century. No two replications are identical in plot, and many feature intricate illustrations. These add to the cultural significance of the novel, showing the interest and passion to preserve it, and the extent to which it can inspire other artists and authors.

THE WORLD’S FIRST NOVEL

From a Western perspective, the notion that the first ever novel was written by a woman would seem slightly ludicrous. Completed sometime prior to 992, the Tale of Genji (源氏物語, Genji Monogatari) is a work of fiction written by lady-in-waiting to the Empress, Lady Murasaki Shikibu. The novel was written in instalments and consisted of 54 chapters describing the life of Genji (a son of the fictional Emperor), with one of the characters being based on the author herself, to the extent that she became known by the characters nameMurusaki (Violet). The Tale of Genji is a piece that holds great literary importance, in addition to the cultural importance and the significance of Murasaki Shikibu herself, all of which is emphasised by the sheer longevity of the work.

Pegged as ‘one of the most talented women Japan has ever produced’, Lady Murasaki herself has had an important impact on Japan through her writings. The seemingly mundane experiences of Genji and his time in the court have actually preserved a snapshot of the Heian period in Japanese history. This period saw the arrival of Buddhism in Japan, and the royal family’s attempts to limit its influence over the public. As a ladyin-waiting and teacher to Empress Jioto-Monin, Lady Murasaki had a close insight into court life, and put her experiences in her writing. She was incredibly intelligent, and as such her father educated her alongside her brother in subjects such as Chinese, and even allowed her to travel around Japan- both of which were unheard of for a women to do due to them being considered unladylike. Her imagination allowed the story of court life to be so universal and engaging that it has been able to withstand the test of time. Her diary is another fascinating artefact: a satirical record of her displeasure of the rules of Japanese court and society for women, describing how isolating it was. Using her position, she shared with the Empress much of her knowledge, including that of Chinese. Lady Murusaki’s legacy has been passed down along with the Tale of Genji, illustrating the importance of the work. Without

As a piece of literature, the Tale of Genji is incredibly important as it is the first of its kind in the world. It features individual character development and perception, as well as psychological observations of the people in the court, of how women reacted to proposals, marriage and potential rivals. At this time in Japan, men were the only ones allowed to write in the Chinese script, and so women developed their own writing system ‘kana’, which is now a part of the modern Japanese writing system. Despite being taught Chinese by her father, Lady Murasaki wrote the Tale of Genji in kana to make it more accessible to the other women in the court. This became increasingly significant as it gained popularity, and the Emperor requested for it to be transliterated so that he may read it. Traditionally, these more lighthearted forms of writing were reserved for women, and so the Emperor reading (and enjoying!) the Tale of Genji played a huge role in the initial success 37

Lady Murukami (in order of appearance): https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murasaki_Shikibu , accessed 15/4/18 ; the Tale of Genji, http://www.taleofgenji.org/murasaki_shikibu.html , accessed 15/4/18 ; Fidelity (Shin), https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fidelity_(Shi n),_depicted_as_Murasaki_Shikibu,_from_the_series_ Five_Cardinal_Virtues,_c._1767,_by_Suzuki_Harunob u_-_Art_Institute_of_Chicago_-_DSC00256.JPG , accessed 15/4/18

it, it is unlikely that we in the modern day would have record of this remarkable woman.

The importance of the Tale of Genji is not limited solely to a Japanese context - it is was a revolutionary piece which created a genre of writing in a time where woman werenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t supposed to write anything beyond a diary. The work has survived over 1100 years, and discusses themes which the reader can relate to, no matter the age.

Its lasting influence on Japanese culture, and its use as an artefact for the preservation of the Heian period and early Japanese writing means that the text itself is an invaluable insight for historians. Finally, without the success of the Tale of Genji, it is very unlikely that we would know about Lady Murusaki herself- a figure who was ahead of her time in her thinking and attitudes, and who we have much to learn from, even over a millennia later.

Bibliography Summer Reading: the Tale of Genji, 2011, Princeton University Library.

URL https://www.princeton.edu/~graphicarts/2011/04/sum mer_reading.html (accessed 15/4/18) Shikibu, M., (2011) the Tale of Genji. Translated by S. Kencho, ZuuBooks.com Publication, p.4-8 The Eternal Visitor: the Tale of Genji, http://academic.mu.edu/meissnerd/minzlaff.html (accessed 15/4/18) Summary of the Tale of Genji, http://www.taleofgenji.org/summary.html , (accessed 15/4/18) The Tale of Genji, https://www.artelino.com/articles/tale-of-genji.asp , (accessed 15/4/18) Essay on the Cultural Significance of the Tale of Genji, https://www.bartleby.com/essay/The-CulturalSignificance-of-The-Tale-of-PKV535ZTC , (accessed 15/4/18) Novels, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novel , (accessed 15/4/18) Murusaki Shikibu, https://importantwomenofhistory.wordpress.com/2011/ 03/17/murasaki-shikibu/ , (accessed 15/4/18) Murusaki Shikibu glimpsed beyond the screens of time, https://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2008/10/12/people/m urasaki-shikibu-glimpsed-behind-the-screens-oftime/#.WtN8By-ZOuV , (accessed 15/4/18) Murusaki Shikibu: Japanese Feminist and the Worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s First Novelist, http://decodedpast.com/murasakishikibu-japanese-feminist-worlds-first-novelist/15943 , (accessed 15/4/18) Image sources: The Tale of Genji: Image source: 2011, image, the Tale of Genji, https://www.princeton.edu/~graphicarts/2011/04/sum mer_reading.html , accessed 15/4/2018 38

inspiration for Thornfield: North Lees Hall in Derbyshire, Rydings Hall in Yorkshire, and Norton Conyers which was also in Yorkshire. None of the three buildings accurately represent the descriptions of Thornfield, but they each have features in common with it. North Lees has battlements and three storeys, but not the long frontage or bow windows; Rydings has battlements and bay windows of a sort; and Norton Conyers has a legend of a mad woman confined to an attic.

Izzy Henstridge (OHS)

THORNFIELD HALL OF CHARLOTTE BRONTE’S JANE EYRE

Thornfield relates to Jane herself in two main ways firstly, its subjectivity; the way that the atmosphere of Thornfield varies though Jane’s narration and reflects her emotional transgression, and secondly through the similarities drawn between Jane and Bertha Mason, the dark secret of the home. Thornfield Hall is Jane’s third environment, after Gateshead Hall (the house of the Reed family) and Lowood Institute, and is for a while her happiest. Upon her arrival, Thornfield seems gothic and imposing: she sees rooms that are dark and low” with “narrow casements”, “bedsteads of a hundred years old”, hangings “portraying effigies of...strangest human beings”, and stools decorated with “half-effaced embroideries, wrought by fingers that for two generations had been coffin dust” (Ch.XI) . As Mrs. Fairfax remarks, “‘one would almost say that, if there were a ghost at Thornfield Hall, this would be its haunt” (Ch.XI). This reflects her curiosity towards her new residence but with some nervous apprehension (“I anticipated only coldness and stiffness” - Ch.XI); but as soon as the next day when Jane has deemed herself “at last in safe haven” (Ch.XI), she now perceives her room thus: “the chamber looked such a bright little place to me as the sun shone” (Ch.XI). After this, when Jane has experience of something more romantic and intriguing, she does not want to return to Thornfield of account of its dreary mundanity: “to pass its threshold was to return to stagnation; to cross the silent hall, to ascend the darksome staircase, to seek my own lonely little room” (Ch.XII). In short, the reader’s impression of Thornfield Hall is entirely subjective to her mood and therefore a representation of Jane herself, as the atmosphere of the building reflects her emotions while she lives there, as if an expansion of her mind.

There is a traditional literary theory that is manifest particularly in women’s writing, that houses function as a metaphor for the female body. According to Elaine Showalter, Professor of English at Princeton University, the attic in particular represents the woman’s mind and a place to internally retreat: “the attic is kind of the psyche, the cellar is the sexuality, and so on.” 60A similar theory has also appeared in the philosophy of science, explored in particular by Gaston Bachelard (1884 – 1962) and Ali Madanipour (born 1955), who explore the idea that in psychoanalysis, the exterior of the house represents a person’s appearance, the roof is the head and spirit, the lower floors are the subconscious and the instincts, and the kitchen symbolises psychic changes or inner progress. However, within the field of literature, the metaphor is applicable to many novels for example to Virginia Woolf’s Mrs Dalloway, who removes herself to the attic to think privately; and also features in Sherlock Holmes: “I consider that a man’s brain originally is like a little empty attic” (A Study in Scarlet Ch.II). I thought it would be interesting to consider this theory in relation to Charlotte Bronte’s Jane Eyre, specifically with Thornfield Hall, home to Mr. Rochester, because of its gothicness and the fulfillment of the ‘mad woman in the attic’ concept.

Jane Eyre was published in 1847, and it is thought that there are three buildings which were at least a partial

As well as this, there are many similarities between Jane and Bertha Mason - Mr. Rochester's mad wife who is locked in the attic, and the sinister secret behind Thornfield itself. Superficially, they may seem like opposites in appearance, behaviour and background; Jane is “quaint, quiet, grave and simple” in the eyes of Mr. Rochester and often described as small and pale, whereas Jane describes Bertha as “a woman, tall and

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large, with thick and dark hair hanging long down her back” who possessed a “fearful and ghastly … discoloured face,”and “red eyes and…fearful blacked inflation of the lineaments,” (Ch. XXV). In addition, Jane is a destitute orphan, an English clergyman’s daughter who is reared in a charity school; while Bertha is an exotic Creole, and the pampered daughter of a wealthy Jamaican planter. Jane is modest, decorous, and virginal; Bertha is “intemperate and unchaste” (Ch. XXVII). However, it is the way in which each resists their conventional roles as women in a patriarchal society that unites them. Each are automatically reliant on powerful men - for Jane this is her Uncle Reed, Mr. Brocklehurst, Rochester, and St. John Rivers. “But while each of these attachments is supposedly necessary for Jane’s welfare, in reality they are severely oppressive; she is resented and persecuted by her wealthy relations, who arbitrarily make and enforce unjust rules that Jane has little choice but to obey”, explains an online critic 61. When Jane is ten years old, she builds up enough resentment of this injustice to rebel against it. Her mental and emotional exhaustion, after the Red Room incident and other passionate outbursts, along with her subsequent escape and suicide fantasies, are evidence of her realisation that she has neither control over her life nor an opportunity to defend herself - hence her resorting to extreme measures. This desperate behaviour is sudden and seemingly uncharacteristic; Mrs. Reed cannot comprehend why Jane “for nine years...could be patient and quiescent under any treatment, and in the tenth break out all fire and violence” (Ch. XXI). Intolerable oppression and injustice bring about significant female rebellion, which inevitably ends in frustration and depression. This is especially seen in Jane’s behaviour when she is still living with “miserable cruelty” at Gateshead with the Reed family; or in Bertha herself when she is jailed in the Spanish tower at Thornfield Hall - therefore, because men reserve the right to both define female propriety and to punish infractions of it, both women are judges and punished harshly when they do not conform to societal rigid expectations of a well-married woman.

This underlying sense that Bertha represents what Jane could become is more obviously shown through certain parallels - Jane’s panic “like a mad cat” (Ch.II) because of being confined is a milder version of Bertha’s decades of being locked in the attic, which reduces her to insanity “like some wild animal” (Ch.XXVI). As well as this, Jane paces the attic floor when she feels particularly restless and trapped: “then my sole relief was to walk along the corridor of the third story, backwards and forwards, safe in the silence and solitude

of the spot” (Ch. XII), which is reminiscent of Bertha’s continual pacing and running about her attic cell.

To conclude, Thornfield is indeed one representation of Jane. It is a continuation of her mind in that it reflects her emotional transgression, and additionally in Jane’s darker moments she is reminiscent of the house’s gothic secret in the form of Bertha Mason.

Bibliography Charlotte Bronte 1847, Jane Eyre Penguin Books Ltd (2006), 80 Strand, London WC2R ORL, England Wikipedia. 2016. Thing Theory. [ONLINE] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thing_theory.

[Accessed 12 April 2018].

Guidesite. 2018. The Reader's Guide to Charlotte Bronte's "Jane Eyre". [ONLINE] Available at: https://jane-eyre.guidesite.co.uk/site-map. [Accessed 12 April 2018].

Ioana Boghian. 2009. The Metaphor of the Body as a House in 19th Century English Novels. [ONLINE] Available at: http://pakacademicsearch.com/pdffiles/lan/166/113%20Vol%201,%20No%201%20(2009).pdf.

[Accessed 12 April 2018].

Elaine Showalter. 2016. Mrs Dalloway: exploring consciousness and the modern world. [ONLINE] Available at: https://www.bl.uk/20th-centuryliterature/articles/exploring-consciousness-and-themodern-an-introduction-to-mrs-dalloway. [Accessed 19 April 2018]. neamathisi. 1994. Bachelard on the Poetics of‘House’.

[ONLINE] Available at: http://neamathisi.com/literacies/chapter-10-makingspatial-tactile-and-gestural-meanings/bachelard-onthe-poetics-of-house. [Accessed 12 April 2018]. chatnoir. 2012. Dark Doubles in Jane Eyre. [ONLINE] Available at: https://chatnoirco.wordpress.com/2012/01/11/darkdoubles-in-jane-eyre/. [Accessed 12 April 2018].

Hannah Aspinall. 2012. The Fetishization and Objectification of the Female Body in Victorian Culture.

[ONLINE] Available at: http://arts.brighton.ac.uk/re/literature/brightonline/issu e-number-two/the-fetishization-and-objectification-ofthe-female-body-in-victorian-culture. [Accessed 12 April 2018].

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tyranny; -“Den Opfern von Krieg und Gewaltherrschaft”. It is situated in the centre of Berlin, in the “Neue Wache” (the new guardhouse), a rather strange, austere building home Kollwitz’s statue “Pièta”. The small building is of a rectangular shape and is bare, apart from Kollwitz’s statue, which lies under an oculus open to the sky; a mother holding her dead son. It represents the humanity of ordinary citizens caught up in a brutal war they have no control of, where their sons were slaughtered. It expresses the sheer vulnerability and weakness of the human soldier, reduced to a dying child-like man shielded in his mother’s arms. The statue is reflective of the destructive years of war in the 20th Century, and speaks to everyone who passes it, conveying a message of war and tyranny, which is universal.

Sofia Justham-Bello (WHS)

CABINET OF CURIOSITIES

Käthe Kollwitz’s life and history provides the context to this masterpiece. She was a printmaker and a sculptor, born in 1867, East Prussia “Königsberg”, born during the successful and prosperous years of Bismarck’s triumphant chancellery. She lived through pivotal moments of German history in the early 20th century, with its physical devastation, its elimination as a state and removal from the map of Europe in 1945.

She was born into a political family and was concerned with social justice; it is no surprise that her art uses the traditional imagery of Christian suffering but she made her work relevant to events that were current to her lifetime. Nevertheless her work faces pain, (Christian imagery of suffering it can tend to be aestheticised); her work is raw, visceral and realistic.

Käthe Kollwitz, Pietà, 1937-38/39. Bronze. KätheKollwitz-Museum, Köln On my first visit to Berlin with school, two years ago, after checking into our hotel, the first thing we did was take a short walk around the city during the early evening. We walked “Unter den Linden”, a reflective, calm part of the city that is home to Käthe Kollwitz’s statue “Pièta”, which depicts a grieving mother clinging onto the body of her dead son. It is the first “monument” that I saw in the culturally and historically rich city of Berlin, and it has left a lasting impact on me, and on countless others, which is why I have chosen it to be placed “in the cabinet of curiosities”. Although I deem the original “cabinet of curiosities” a slightly fun, and light-hearted place, which is not where this statue essentially belongs. Nonetheless I feel it is appropriate to write about this statue because it has such an interesting and emotional place in Germany’s 20th Century History.

The death of her youngest son, Peter is said to have caused her to make the “Pièta” staue. In 1914, as the First World War broke out he was hiking in Norway, but returned to his family in Berlin saying he wanted to volunteer to fight in the war. Technically he was too young to fight but with permission from his father he would be able to. Nonetheless his father refused to grant him permission, yet Kollwitz convince him to let him go. Peter was killed 10 days after he joined the war. The guilt felt by Kollwitz and the pain of losing her son changed her life. She described it as: “There is in our lives a wound, which will never heal, nor should it’.

During the war she fell into a deep depression and began to make a sculpture to commemorate her son and his comrades, but unhappy with it she destroyed it in 1919.

Kollwitz was transformed into a fervent pacifist and her hostility with the conflict was palpable: “There has been enough of dying…let not another man fall!”

It may seem surprising that this staute of a mother holding her dead son, in intense grief, stands for the huge suffering of Europe and Germany, and indeed any war and conflict globally. This statue was commissioned in 1993 by Helmut Kohl, (the chancellor who lead the reunification of Germany) who wanted to dedicate a memorial in Berlin to the victims of war and

There were 1.8 million dead after 1919 in Germany but very few monuments or rituals of public mourning were carried out. They did not want to honour those who had died in vain, despite the monumental losses-there was an attempt at erasure in order to not confront the shame of losing the war. In the turmoil of the Weimar Republic, Kollwitz began to continue to reflect on war, 41

its aftermath and death. Moreover during the 1920s and 1930s she publicly opposed Hitler, and consequently was banned from exhibiting her art and forced to resign from the Academy of Arts. Devastatingly in the Second World War her grandson was killed (1942) and she died shortly after in 1945, Königsberg, her place of birth, changed from being a hub of German culture and prosperity, to now being in hands of the Russians, which it still is today.

But when did Käthe Kollwitz produce the “Pièta” in all these years or turmoil?.

She worked on in it in the 1930s, and was still in effect processing the sorrow of her son’s death in 1914. On the anniversary of Peter’s death on the 22nd of October in 1937 she wrote in her diary: “I am working at a small sculpture which has developed out of my attempt to make a sculpture of an old person.

It has become something like a Pièta (mother with dead christ). The mother is seated and has her dead son lying between her knees, in her lap, there is no longer pain, only reflection”.

Despite the staute being named “Pièta” he is not like Christ, i.e. not a figure to be adored. He huddles between his mothers legs, enclosed by them, as she futilely attempts to shield him from the viewer, which can only produce pathos. The statue does not glorify war or venerate the sacrifice of the soldier; it is simply a response to slaughter and an embodiment of loss.

To conclude this piece it feels right to include Helmut Kohl’s explanation for why he chose to have the sculpture there: “because the principles that underlie creative work of this great artist are indissolubly linked with our concept of the state…which is founded on the same principles”. Therefore in a way the mother protecting her son could be seen to show the German state’s acknowledgement of their duty to defend those who are weaker than them; a sign of remembrance and warning. It is undeniable that Käthe Kollwitz’s “Pièta” represents the tragic history of the 20th Century and all the suffering that came with the two world wars.

Bibliography Book: Neil MacGregor- Germany- Memories of a Nation http://www.kollwitz.de/module/werkliste/Details.aspx? wid=350&lid=10&head=Tour+-+War&ln=e Preminger, Elizabeth, Käthe Kollwitz (1992) Yvonne Schymura’s interview with Neil MacgregorPodcast: Germany-Memories of a Nation 42

Restaurant, after McNamara forgot his wallet while attending a business dinner there a couple of months beforehand. This card, unlike the propriety cards, would be accepted in various New York restaurants and would be used to charge credit for upper class patrons of the establishments 62.

Camila Bonchristiano (OHS)

THE FIRST CREDIT CARD

The first cards were small, made out of cardboard and were given out in 1950 to around 200 people, mostly friends and acquaintances of McNamara, and were accepted by fourteen New York restaurants. Restaurants who accepted the Diners Club card were charged 7% for each transaction, while subscribers to the credit card were charged a $3 annual fee. The card meant that customers only had to pay their bill at the end of each month, and it became the first ‘charge card’ in widespread use - by 1951, Diners Club had 20,000 cardholders. Although McNamara’s card was revolutionary, it could of course only be used in the dining industry 63.

Since the beginning of civilization, different payment methods have been used to pay for a good or service, or even a debt. Currency in 9000 B.C. generally took form of animals such as camels, but eventually humans started using objects such as shells, bronze or gold as an exchange form. Nowadays, money comes in various forms, largely in cash and bank deposits, and advances in technology mean we are slowly moving towards a cashless society where most payments occur through debiting and crediting back accounts. This crediting society started to develop more rapidly with the introduction of credit cards in America around 60 years ago, which revolutionised payment methods and proved to be one of the most important innovations in payment history.

After the clear success of the Diners Club Card in the restaurant industry, many credit businesses jumped on McNamara’s idea and began developing their own credit cards for use in certain markets. This time however, the businesses and banks adopted a different system: instead of users having to pay their bill in full each month, the cards now offered revolving credit, meaning cardholders could carry their monthly balance forward for a nominal finance charge (interest). In 1958, American Express started their own credit card company and began offering their cards nationally and to multiple markets. These cards very quickly became widely used, and by 1960, American Express had over 750,000 customers and a charge volume of $500 million 64. Bank of America, also in 1958, tested out their first credit card by mailing 60,000 cards to customers in the area. Although not everything worked out perfectly in the experiment mostly due to fraud, the revolving credit experiment was successful enough for the bank to expand the card, which would later become Visa 65. Since then of course, there have been numerous changes to the cards that have slowly developed into the ones people carry today.

Although credit is a concept that has always existed, it took new formats around the 1800s in America, when merchants started to use credit coins and charge plates to extend credit to local farmers and ranchers, allowing them to delay paying their bills until they harvested their crops or sold their cattle. This concept of credit took one step further in the early 1900s, when U.S. department stores and oil companies started issuing their own proprietary cards (similar to modern-day store cards), whose purpose was more to promote customer loyalty than for convenience. These store cards became quite common, but of course could not be used anywhere besides the store or business. In 1950 however, Frank McNamara and Ralph Schneider proposed the Diners Club Card to the New York’s Major’s Cabin Grill

The introduction of this plastic card had an important impact on the consumer market of the United States as it allowed consumers to purchase expensive items at a much faster rate than thought possible before, and also allowed them to purchase products they previously

62

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65

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pursuing ways to improve life standards and facilitate day-to-day transactions. Yet, the widespread use of credit cards also had disputable consequences such as the very high indebtedness of the American population in general. In the current digital economy however, credit cards may become slowly obsolete as credit card holders can instead make credit purchases through the Internet, without the physical object. Furthermore, smartphones equipped with credit card applications, such as Apple Pay, now allow consumers to use their phone in place of the card, meaning the credit card could become an object of the past as quickly as it hit the market.

could not afford with their monthly salary or income.

The credit card therefore helped make America into the high mass consumer society it is today, with total credit card purchase volume reaching $1.94 trillion in 2009.

The introduction of credit cards also furthered economic growth as a large portion of America’s economy became based on consumer spending 66.

However, the use of credit cards and revolving credit also turned America into a highly indebted society, with most Americans opting not to pay off their balances every month. Kathleen Keest, a former assistant attorney general in Iowa who now works with the Center for Responsible Lending explained how “Before credit cards, credit came in small-dollar instalment loans and people tended not to use them unless they really needed help. When you had to go to your bank to get a personal note, you really thought about it. But when suddenly it’s a piece of plastic in your pocket, debt almost becomes something that happens without thinking about it.” According to the Federal Reserve, in 1968, revolving debt, most of it from credit cards, stood at $1.5 billion, and in 2008, it reached $969.9 billion 67.

Image Source "Diners Club International® Diners Club International - History | Diners ...." https://www.dinersclub.com/about-us/history.

Accessed 19 Apr. 2018.

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Although credit cards became highly popular in America, its use is not identical around the world. As economies develop and become wealthier, the use of credit card tends to increase. In China, for example, there was a 67% jump in the use of credit cards from 2005 to 2011 68. This increase in usage tends to result in similar effects as the American economy, such as increased consumption and debt. The effects vary depending on the country however, as developed countries such as Germany and France with strict bankruptcy laws such, tend to have greater savings rates and relatively low credit card debt, while other countries such as Canada manage to have high credit card purchases but much lower debt levels, with most Canadians opting to pay off their balances monthly.

Finally, credit cards also allow more transactions to be part of the formal economy, meaning that the number of people and businesses paying taxes increases significantly.

"Diners Club - Company history of Diners Club." https://www.dinersclubus.com/home/about/dinersclub/ story. Accessed 19 Apr. 2018.

Credit cards therefore were a very significant payment method innovation and impacted numerous societies around the world. At the time of their invention, credit cards reflected the innovative spirit of the American society which was growing rapidly and constantly

"50 years later, how the credit card has changed America – The ...." 12 Sep. 2008, https://www.mercurynews.com/2008/09/12/50-years-

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"What to Know About Credit: What Was the First Credit Card? | Time." 19 Oct. 2016, http://time.com/4512375/first-credit-card/. Accessed 21 Apr. 2018.

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Accessed 22 Apr. 2018.

"Credit card | Britannica.com." https://www.britannica.com/topic/credit-card. Accessed 22 Apr. 2018.

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"50 years later, how the credit card has changed America – The ...." 12 Sep. 2008, https://www.mercurynews.com/2008/09/12/50-years-laterhow-the-credit-card-has-changed-america/. Accessed 22 Apr. 2018.

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"50 years later, how the credit card has changed America – The ...." 12 Sep. 2008, https://www.mercurynews.com/2008/09/12/50-years-later-

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later-how-the-credit-card-has-changed-america/.

Accessed 22 Apr. 2018.

Sophie Sanderson (OHS)

THE GREATEST INVENTION OF THE 20TH CENTURY: TRANSISTORS

(“Transistors - learn.sparkfun.com,” n.d.)

What is a transistor?

Transistors, which were invented in 1947, act as a switch to represent binary within a computer system and can also be used to amplify sound. However unlike a switch they do not connect or disconnect a wire to either cause or inhibit current to flow respectively. Transistors are made of semiconducting material and rely on a property of semiconductors that allows them to alternate between insulating and conducting. 69 A transistor can be made to turn “on” by applying a small current between the base and emitter (see diagram) which allows a larger current to flow between the collector and emitter. Alternatively the semiconductor can be in a state anywhere between fully on and fully off. The size of the control current regulates the proportion of the main current which can flow through the transistor, thereby amplifying the signal.70 However in this article I will be focussing on the use of a transistor as a switch.

What did they replace?

Before the transistor, vacuum tubes (also known as valves) were used in computers. They developed alongside the light bulb using similar technology.

Vacuum tubes use the concept of thermionic emission to work as a switch or an amplifier. They consist of an anode and a cathode, when the cathode is heated and a positive voltage is applier to the anode, electrons are 69

(Coolman et al., 2014).

(“How Transistors Work - A Simple Explanation,” 2014) 70

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and technology advancements. In simpler terms it is unclear whether Moore’s law has held true due to the technology industry pushing it to or because that is simply how transistors have evolved. There has been much recent press about how Moore’s Law seems to be approaching its end as transistors reach a point where they physically cannot be made much smaller meaning we could be approaching a point where transistors need to be replaced.

emitted from the cathode and are attracted to the anode, creating a flow of current which can only move in one direction. The gas is removed from the tube to ensure the electron do not collide with any molecules, slowing them down. 71 Upon the invention of the transistor in 1947, vacuum tubes almost immediately became redundant. Vacuum tubes had filaments which burnt out and regularly needed replacing (a tube failed an average of every 2 days and took 15 minutes to find and replace69) and they took up a lot of space in computers most of which needed to be the size of the room in order to have sufficient processing power to compute numerical problems (the ENIAC contained 17,000 vacuum tubes each about 3 cm in diameter and 7cm tall69). They also required a much larger voltage than transistors in order to function and they generated lots wasted heat energy.

In order to keep up with the demands of the technology industry and society requiring processing power to increase exponentially, a new approach is required.

Researches are rapidly trying to come up with a solution to enable processors to get smaller. One suggested solution is to use graphite. Graphite has all the conductive properties of graphene (which is one hundred times thinner than the smallest transistor yet conducts electricity much more efficiently) but without the disadvantages of graphene such as curling up and reacting with surrounding substances. Graphite is essentially several layers of graphene and its conductivity can be manipulated by altering surrounding magnetic fields. This would allow graphite to be used like a transistor either allowing current to pass or not depending on the state of the magnetic field. 73 Others have suggested magnets could potentially replace transistors by changing the orientation of the poles depending on whether a 1 or a 0 is to be represented. This would require less energy than a current carrying wire and therefore less power. 74 Another alternative suggested is to use laser light to replace transistors which essentially works by using a green laser (the equivalent to the transistor base current) to control an orange laser (the equivalent to the collector-emitter current). This has the advantage of being able to travel at the speed of light which is much faster than the speed of electricity. The system works by using a single molecule of tetradecane (prepared using liquid helium and low temperatures which can be quite costly) in each “transistor”. The molecule absorbs most of the orange laser only allowing a small proportion of it through creating a weak output. When a green laser is then targeted onto the same molecule it is absorbed and the equivalent energy is then emitted at the frequency of orange laser light. This then constructively interferes with the existing orange light creating a much stronger beam. 75

Relays also perform the same function as transistors as a signal triggered switch. The concept of relays has been possible since the discovery of the electromagnet in 1824 however they were not widely used in communications until the invention of the telegraph in 1860 when their use in telephone communications became much more common. 72 However relays were still inferior to transistors since the electromagnets required a lot of power, generated a lot of wasted heat and relied on mechanical parts which were subject to failure so were quickly replaced by transistors upon their invention.69 Will it ever be replaced?

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and relays as a better technology. They were such a significant improvement that no new technology has yet to surpass them.69 Seeing as transistors are so efficient will they ever be replaced? Moore’s Law seems to give a good indication to the answer. In a 1965 paper, Gordon Moore argued that the number of transistors that could fit on a chip would double every 2 years ie. follow an exponential trend. This quickly became well known after it rang true and was named Moore’s law. This meant the processing power of chips grew very quickly and enabled technology to evolve faster than it ever had before.

Interestingly it is not fully understood whether Moore’s law is a natural law that is simply followed due to the nature of scientific research and advancements in silicon semiconductors or if it is more of a social construct that acts a guideline followed due to the demands of more power in a smaller chip from society

(“Vacuum Tubes,” 2018) (“History of Computers and Computing, Birth of the modern computer, The bases of digital computers, relay,” n.d.)

73 (“Graphite pencilled in to replace silicon transistors,” 2008)

Why is it so important?

(“Magnets join race to replace transistors in computers,” 2014) 75 (“Laser light switch could leave transistors in the shade,” 2009)

71

74

72

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Meaning that although transistors are likely to be replaced their concept will continue to shape society.

The main use of modern day transistors as switches is in Boolean logic circuits. These circuits are vital to performing mathematical calculations on a computer.

Such gates include AND, OR, XOR, NAND and NOT all of which compare 2 inputs and provide 1 output. For example an AND gate would produce a 1 if both inputs are 1 but a 0 if only one or neither of the inputs are 1s whereas an OR gate will produce a 0 if both inputs are 0 but a 1 if one or both inputs are 1s. These gates are then combined to perform functions like adding, subtracting multiplying and dividing all of which being vital to modern day computing. While this was possible with vacuum tubes, the invention of transistors has enabled the world of computing to become much more reliable to the extent where we now depend upon it to perform mathematical calculations more than we do humans. Transistors have also shaped modern day society into how it is today. Without transistors mobile phones, laptops and pocket sized calculators would not be possible as if these devices were made using vacuum tubes they would be so big as to defeat their purpose of being portable. It could even be argued that due to the unreliability of vacuum tubes, personal devices in themselves would not be possible since a level of expertise would be required to isolate and replace broken vacuum tubes.

Bibliography Coolman, R., May 31, L.S.C.|, ET, 2014 03:39am, 2014.

What is a Transistor? [WWW Document]. Live Sci. URL https://www.livescience.com/46021-what-is-atransistor.html (accessed 4.23.18).

Graphite pencilled in to replace silicon transistors [WWW Document], 2008. . New Sci. URL https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19726386300-graphite-pencilled-in-to-replace-silicontransistors/ (accessed 4.22.18).

History of Computers and Computing, Birth of the modern computer, The bases of digital computers, relay [WWW Document], n.d. URL http://historycomputer.com/ModernComputer/Basis/relay.html (accessed 4.25.18).

How Transistors Work - A Simple Explanation, 2014. .

Build Electron. Circuits.

Laser light switch could leave transistors in the shade [WWW Document], 2009. . New Sci. URL https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn17400-laserlight-switch-could-leave-transistors-in-the-shade/ (accessed 4.22.18).

Magnets join race to replace transistors in computers [WWW Document], 2014. . New Sci. URL https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg22329812800-magnets-join-race-to-replace-transistors-incomputers/ (accessed 4.22.18).

Transistors - learn.sparkfun.com [WWW Document], n.d.

URL https://learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/transistors#introdu ction (accessed 4.23.18).

Vacuum Tubes: The World Before Transistors [WWW Document], 2018.

URL https://www.engineering.com/ElectronicsDesign/Electr onicsDesignArticles/ArticleID/16337/Vacuum-TubesThe-World-Before-Transistors.aspx (accessed 4.23.18).

Transistors can also be used to store binary. Two transistors are required to store one bit. The output from one transistor is used as the input for the other transistor meaning that even once the original base current is no longer flowing, the circuit still maintains the same value. Then when a new base current flow the circuit changes to the opposite state allowing it to store one bit.

This concept is called a flip flop. You can also make flip flops using logic gates which would require more transistors but has the benefit of not drawing a current.

This concept would not be possible with mechanical switches as a transistor is a form of a signal triggered switch meaning that the output of one transistor can be used as an input to another transistor, causing it to change state.

In conclusion I believe that transistors where the greatest invention of the 20th century due to how big of a leap they made compared to vacuum tubes. They have shaped our modern-day society to be one in which portability and convenience is prioritised enabling instant communication and constant connection.

Without them several other devices (some of which may be regarded as the greatest invention of the 21st century) would not be possible such as the iPod, mobile phones, portable radios and in car navigation systems to name just a few. However it does seem that transistors are reaching a point in which they are no longer viable if we wish to keep up with the demands of technological evolution. This means that it seems transistors will inevitably be replaced but in many proposed solutions the signal triggered switch mechanism with a basecollector-emitter arrangement seems to be prominent.

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successful and why do people to invest in a currency that, until now, was thought of as impossible to achieve?

Some of its astonishing success has, unsurprisingly, been down to the limited nature of supply. Since creating new coins requires a lengthy mathematical process, and the total is capped at 21 million bitcoins, there is more demand than supply, and people are willing to pay higher amounts. This is augmented by

Joana Baptista (OHS)

CURRIENCIES IN THE DIGITAL AGE – THE BRILLIANCE OF BITCOIN Since the days of trading cocoa beans, economics has come far in developing currencies that are now used all over the world. In the digital age, we are seeing a new form of currency evolving, cryptocurrencies. Bitcoin, first released in 2009, is the world’s first Cryptocurrency, based on Blockchain technology and the use of Merkle Trees.

In its simplest form, blockchain is a method of accurately tracking every adaptation made to a ‘block’ up to its current form, and makes it easy to spot the exact point at which an element was adapted. This was then refined by an anonymous person(s) under the name of Satoshi Nakamoto to create a Peer-2-Peer transaction method, renowned for its ability to prevent fraud due to its underlying technology.

Bitcoin is a decentralised currency that does not exist in physical form and is believed to have been created as a deflationary currency to combat government policies to pursue inflationary policies. Its ruthless verification process is only made possible thanks to ‘miners’, who voluntarily race to calculate a complex ‘maths problem’, to add the block to the chain. Upon doing so, they are rewarded in bitcoins, which in turn incentivises them to continue the verification process, essential for the success of bitcoin.

the fact that it is extremely hard to be a new competitor into the mining market, due to the expense to set up the technology required to crack the maths and also the time it takes to do so. Add this to the fact there are currently 17 of the 21 million bitcoins currently in circulation, and you can see the clear shortage of demand. Furthermore, part of Bitcoin’s appeal lies in its anonymity. Just like cash, bitcoin transactions cannot be tracked to a particular person. Although this may promote fraudulent activity, and indeed there have been some cases of it, it can also be argued that this is an increasingly important factor in the era of data theft and scandals such as that of Facebook and Cambridge Analytica.

Finally, some theorise that during an era of quantitative easing, fears over the long-term value of fiat money may lead people to invest their money in cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin, where the value cannot be controlled by government entities.

However, these factors can only be partly responsible for Bitcoin’s success. Even though the supply of cryptocurrencies has greatly increased following the introduction of new competitors in the market such as Ethereum and Ripple, the demand for Bitcoin has continued to rise. This may be a result of not Bitcoin itself, but the technology behind it. The fundamental technology behind Bitcoin, Blockchain, has many other applications that are beginning to be adopted by other industries for tasks involving added security and prevention of hacking. Perhaps its most important use, however, is in the financial industry, where blockchain has really become something of a buzzword lately. In fact, investment in blockchain

Bitcoin Image - https://coincentral.com/what-is-bitcoin/

Since its release, Bitcoin has peaked at a value of over $11,000 for a single bitcoin, thanks to the ‘bitcoin bubble’, with many famous names investing in the currency. Its success has been coined as “nothing short of an economic miracle” by Dr Hileman, an economic historian and the University of Cambridge and LSE. The enthusiasm surrounding Bitcoin has been both the motive for, and the result of, Bitcoin’s success, but how has it become so 48

startups has increased 100 times over in the last 6 years, from 16 million to 1.6 (US) billion.2 This is largely as a result of the increased safety blockchain promises to provide, and the ability to directly trade with someone you don’t necessarily directly know, but are able to trust. Other applications for blockchain also include tax collection, privacy in medical records and elections. Elections as a potential use of blockchain is likely to increase in popularity after not only consistent calls for re-counts at every major election but also with the rise of corrupt governments and data breaches being used to rig elections.

PwC ‘Blockchain https://goo.gl/53mCuk

in

financial

services’

whole system. Since transaction fees are decided by the users depending on the priority with which they want to get their order processed, without sufficient congestions, fees plummet as there is less competition to be at the top of the priority ladder.

This leads to a lack of incentives for miners who will now receive little to no revenue, and with a back of miners, the system becomes less and less reliable and starts a downward cycle.

Although recently there has been a fall in the value of bitcoin, it seems to find more sustainable ground at the moment and is working its way back up. Since 2008, Bitcoin has proven itself as an economic miracle and has connected the art of investment with the tech community. Its mere existence has proven the value of technology in the digital age, and its ability to disrupt a market that was previously only dominated by huge government forces. Love it or hate it, it is nothing short of brilliance.

Bibliography

-

“Bitcoin Hits $11,000.” The Economist, The Economist Newspaper, 29 Nov. 2017, www.economist.com/blogs/gr aphicdetail/2017/11/dailychart-23.

Chiu, Jonathan, and Thorsten V. Koeppl. “The Economics of Cryptocurrencies - Bitcoin and Beyond.” SSRN Electronic Journal, 2017, doi:10.2139/ssrn.3048124.

Dwyer, Gerald P. “The Economics of Bitcoin and Similar Private Digital Currencies.” Journal of Financial Stability, vol. 17, 2015, pp. 81–91., doi:10.1016/j.jfs.2014.11.006.

“Has the Bitcoin Civil War Come to a Peaceful End?” The Economist, The Economist Newspaper, 24 July 2017, www.economist.com/blogs/economistexplains/2017/07/economist-explains-20.

Huberman, Gur, et al. “Monopoly Without a Monopolist: An Economic Analysis of the Bitcoin Payment System.” SSRN Electronic Journal, 2017, doi:10.2139/ssrn.3025604.

PricewaterhouseCoopers. “Blockchain in Financial Services.” PwC,

Finally, perhaps the most contributive factor towards bitcoins surging demand is the demand itself. As prices rise, more and more people jump at the chance to be a part of the success, amounting to the eventual bitcoin bubble we found ourselves in up until recently. This is the combined effect of the Greater Fool Theory and Keynes’ Animal Spirits. The Greater Fool theory rationalises that the price of an object is not necessarily calculated by its actual value, but by the beliefs and expectations of its irrational consumers. By this logic, someone may be willing to pay a high price for a bitcoin with the belief that someone else will buy it from them at a higher price. Add this to the concept of Animal spirits, the concept that human emotion drives consumer confidence, and you have a soaring valuation. This leads buyers unwilling to spend their bitcoins if the price is about to soar, and sellers unwilling to accept bitcoins in case it is about to crash, turning bitcoin into more of an investment over an actual day-to-day currency. However, this does not correlate to tangible wealth, as as soon as everyone tries to convert their digital wealth into common forms of currency, prices quickly crash and their assets are worth nothing again. If this was to occur at the scale of the wall street crash in 1929, then the lack of congestion of bitcoin payments could lead to the downfall of the

www.pwc.com/us/en/industries/financialservices/research-institute/topissues/blockchain.html

Walt, Eddie van der. “Bitcoin's a Pretty Good Guide to Animal Spirits in Stocks.”

Bloomberg.com, Bloomberg, 27 Mar. 2018, www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-0349

27/bitcoin-s-a-pretty-good-guide-to-animalsp irits-it-turns-out.

“What Is Bitcoin?” CoinCentral, 16 Feb. 2018, coincentral.com/what-is-bitcoin/.

Young, Joseph. “Bitcoin Is an Economic Miracle: Cambridge Professor.” Cointelegraph, Cointelegraph, 13 Apr. 2018, cointelegraph.com/news/bitcoin-isan-economic-miracle-cambridge-professor.

“The Bitcoin Bubble.” The Economist, The Economist Newspaper, 1 Nov. 2017, www.economist.com/blogs/buttonwood/2017/ 11/greater-fool-theory-0.

Thena Brooker (OHS)

WASHING MACHINE Since 200,000 years ago, the role of women has stoically remained as the caregiver; in charge of preparing food and clothing in order to provide for her partner and children. Due to the male’s superior strength making him most compatible for hunting, the need for washing and cooking was logically fulfilled by the significant other, the woman.

However, as humans shifted from hunting to office work the original gender roles were no longer the logical solution to survival. Whilst the laborious task of doing the entire family’s washing still remained, the requirement for a physically stronger male to hunt for food had expired. Despite this, thousands of years of traditional roles paved the way to sexism; the times had changed but not the beliefs of those living in the new era. Tradition meant that entire days dedicated to scrubbing, rinsing and wringing out the whole family’s clothes was still the responsibility of the woman. For example, the study (June 2007) "Household Technology: Was it the Engine of Liberation?" conducted by Professor Emanuela Cardia from the Department of Economics, Université de Montréal, showed that in 1900 women in the United States of America spent approximately 58 hours per week on household chores; averaged at 8.3 hours per day. The research for this study was based on more than 3,000 censuses conducted between 1940 and 1950, from thousands of American households, across urban and rural areas.

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This changed however with the invention of the washing machine which, although not having as individually significant an impact as the tampon or birth control pill, gave women one of the first glimpses of freedom as they were no longer

consumed with the endless house work that trapped them in their archaic gender roles. This is shown in the same study by Emanuela Cardia where the estimated number of hours spent on household chores in 1975 was 18 hours. With the first washing machine becoming available in the US in 1916 and then the fridge in 1918, women were immediately given more time to leave their homes, a vast amount choosing to join the workforce. This is shown by Cardia’s study as in 1900 only five percent of married women had jobs, whereas in 1980, 51 percent did. As well as other studies which show that the ownership of washing machines, dryers and freezers increased the presence of married women in the labor market.

(Coen-Pirani D., A. León and S. Lugauer (2008), "The Effect of Household Appliances on Female Labor Force Participation: Evidence from Micro Data”).

An example of this is the material wool. Wool fabrics are, whilst very strong, also very absorbent of water and lose their elasticity at higher temperatures. This means that to ensure the quality of the fabric is maintained the washing machine must not heat the fabric too much. On the other hand, white linen laundry would require a very high temperature. To account for the preferences of so many different fabrics, not to mention combinations of fabrics in one garment, would be an impossible task for a washing machine and be edging into artificially intelligent washing machines. As a result, the basic machine caters for only 4 washes grouped into white laundry, coloured cottons, synthetic washes and woollens. For each group the speed of the drum, temperature of the water and volume of water is varied.

Figure 1 below depicts a labelled illustration of washing machines common in the UK and the order in which the components operate during a wash. image source: http://www.explainthatstuff.com/ washingmachine.html

The introduction of the washing machine was followed shortly by the beginning of World War 2, which also displayed the relentless capability of women in the work force. As a result, the combination of no longer being tied to their homes in addition to proving that they were just as capable as part of the work force as men meant that there was no room for opposition.

Overall, the washing machine, although taken for granted in everyday life, is a very cleverly engineered machine that also aided the progression of feminism. It’s link with the past is almost ironic as dads today use it to wash their mums’ or daughters’ denim jeans

The actual washing machine object was first patented in England in 1691 (Washing machine, wikipedia, 16/4/18, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washing_machine), a design that resembled a bucket with grooves so that when the clothes were manually swirled around by a hand-held stick the different textures would remove the mud and dirt. Although seemingly obsolete, the modern washing machine also has ‘paddles’ that move the clothes around. These paddles are located around the edge of ‘drums’, which are what rotate in the machine, with small holes to let water in and out.

Whilst the inner drum rotates, the second drum contains the water. Often when water leaks from washing machines this is due to a fault with the second drum.

Bibliography https://www.thoughtco.com/history-of-washingmachines-1992666 https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europ e/ vaticancityandholysee/4959509/Washingmachine-did-more-toliberate-women-than-thePill.html https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/03/090 312150735.htm http://www.explainthatstuff.com/washingmachine.h tml https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washing_machine

As well as the two drums there is also a thermostat, heating element and electronic pump. With regards to the movement of the water, the pump removes water from the drum when the wash is over and an electronic control mechanism manages the process of washing, rinsing and spinning the clothes. One would think that this electronic control mechanism is the only programmer needed within the washing machine. However, washing machines have a startlingly large amount of programs to account for all the different materials.

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The Lion Man, 32,000 years old, Stadel Cave. Photo: Baden Wurttemberg Ulmer Museum, Germany

All the human species, in particular the Neanderthals and the Sapiens are superior to animals in two ways: the size of their brains and their unique upright posture. Whereas some animals used their muscle strength, their speed and their teeth to hunt, humans used their exceptionally large brains. New cognitive

Evie Coxon (OHS)

DER LÖWENMENSCH THE LION MAN An introduction to mankind 32,000 years ago, a group of Homosapiens gathered in the Stadel Cave in Germany to collectively carve an object out of a mammoth’s tusk1. This ivorine sculpture, 31cm in height, is a hybrid of a man and a lion; he has the head of a cave lion and the slender, upright body of a human. The Lion Man (in German known as der Löwenmensch) was constructed during the Stone Age with only the most basic of tools.

However, more significant than the sculpture itself is what it represents in terms of the cognitive superiority of the homosapiens and the new social stratifications just beginning to form. From this lion man, we can start to find answers to enormous questions about the history of our race and evolution such as why the Homo sapiens outlasted the Neanderthals and all other genuses of homo. But this figure also raises new questions. Who was this lion man and why was he made? Is he the first evidence of religion, art ,and culture in our society? What social importance did he hold? In order to understand these questions, we need to delve further back into the history of our species and examine the behaviour of our ancestors.

The definition of ‘human’ is ‘an animal of or belonging to the genus Homo’. Although we (Homo Sapiens) have become used to the idea that we are the only humans in this world, until 10,000 years ago we shared this genus with many other species; Homo rudolfensis, Homo erectus, Homo neanderthalensis, Homo floresiensis, Homo ergaster and Homo soloensis. These different species of human were the outcome of evolution, a process that was sparked by the moving of humans from Africa to Eurasia 2 million years ago.

abilities developed as they used their brains to make tools and weapons to hunt with. The Sapiens in particular are renowned for hunting in packs and using their numbers to feed. They would then use tools they had made and found to break the bones of their prey and obtain the bone marrow. The Neanderthals, due to their much larger size and strength were able to compete physically in addition of their enlarged cognitive powers. However, how did it come that the Sapiens outlasted the Neanderthals?

And what does all of this have to do with the Stadel Lion Man?

Humans in Europe and western Asia evolved into Homo neanderthalensis (‘Neanderthals’) where they grew to have big, strong, muscular bodies to fend off the cold snowy climate in the Ice Age. Humans in parts of Eastern Asia evolved into Homo erectus (the upright man) and the humans in Flores, Indonesia evolved into Homo floresiensis, who became dwarves. And then at some point along the line, about 300,000 years after the Neanderthals evolved in Europe, we homo Sapiens (sapiens meaning wise) evolved in East Africa.

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The Cognitive Revolution

The Lion Man- a work of art

At some point the Sapiens overtook the Neanderthals and all other species of human in evolution and the ability to survive. There must have been a period of transition between when, like a homosapien 200,000 years ago, the objectives of the sapien was dictated by biology i.e. feeding and reproducing and now, when objectives are dictated by history, culture, religion and social standings. This was known as the Cognitive Revolution- effectively when history was set aside from biology. It occurred between 70,000 years and 30,000 years ago. During this period the Sapiens developed the cognitive abilities which we possess today and which set them aside from all other species of the genus Homo. These were the cognitive abilities enabling them to transmit information about nonexistent things, like tribal spirits, nations and supernatural beings. This allowed religion to be formed as well as art and literature. The Stadel Lion Man fits into this picture as the first piece of evidence we have for religious beliefs and for humans being able to imagine things outside their world.

The reason that this Lion Man fascinates me so much is that although he is such a small and simple object, he is the earliest evidence we have of religious beliefs and the ability to imagine things which are not real, as well as being one of the first pieces of art to have ever been made. He is also significant in that he marks the start of a new era- the Cognitive Revolution, where homosapiens evolved and grew to outstand all other animals in their thinking abilities. He connects us homsapiens, living our lives today to our ancestors, living 32,000 years ago and he helps us realise that these people match us in their physical, emotional and intellectual capabilities. They communicated by language, they had relationships and family, they found ways of entertaining themselves. This connection can help us understand who we are today.

1

There is a little dispute as to when the Lion Man was made. ‘Sapiens’ p12 states 32,000 years ago whereas the British Museum blog (10th October 2017) states 40,000 years ago. We can assume it was made between 32,00 and 40,000 years ago.

The Mystery of the Lion Man

2 An experiment was done by Wulf Hein to approximate how long it took to carve the Lion Man. He used the same tools and materials which were available in the Stone Age and found it to be about 400 hours of work.

The Lion Man derives from a world which existed only in the imagination of a group of homo sapiens. That world died with that community so is unknown to us, however it was clearly a world which connected animals and people and this hybrid man-lion held an important position in it. Today we have no idea what the story or the beliefs behind the Lion Man were, we only know that it mattered enough to a small community of people living isolated in the depths of the Stadel Cave in Germany, to spend about 400 hours2 carving it. Whoever he was, this community of Sapiens saw strength in the lion man to protect them from the dangers of the world: the lions, wolves and mammoths. They also were connected through this Lion Man not only to each other, but to their ancestors, the world around them, the dead and the unborn. It is probably the case that the Lion Man figure was passed around, rubbed and held by the people and this would have strengthened the communal ties between them.

Like we tell stories round the campfire, our ancestors probably did something similar, allowing the story of the Lion Man to be passed down generations.

Moreover this figure gives us an insight into the social stratifications of our ancient ancestors. They must have formed a tight community around this cave and centred around this spirituality and religion. There, the other members could hunt and gather wood for fire while the carvers would work. To produce such a figure in that era would require cooperation and organisation where each man would be delegated a role. Therefore this Lion Man also indicates that social communities existed 40,000 years ago.

Bibliography https://blog.britishmuseum.org/the-lion-man-anice-age-masterpiece/ - 10th October 2017.

‘Sapiens: a brief history of humankind’ by Yuval Noah Harari. Published in 2011.

‘Homo Deus: a brief history of tomorrow’

by Yuval Noah Harari. Published in 2015. http://www.loewenmensch.de/lion_man.ht ml http://theinquisition.eu/wordpress/2011/hist ory/the-lion-man/

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