2
SUTD Master of Architecture Thesis Document Wildfire Architecture: Design for adaptive resilience
Acknowledgements First and foremost, I would like to thank my thesis advisor Peter Ortner for his valuable insights and guidance, without which this thesis book would not have been possible. I would also like to thank my friends for the (virtual) support and motivation throughout this unique semester. Writing an architecture thesis in the midst of a global pandemic would not have been this enjoyable without our late night conversations that have kept me sane. Finally, this book is dedicated to my parents, for their encouragement and support over the past few months and beyond.
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Contents Page 0
ABSTRACT
6-7
1
INTRODUCTION
8-18
1.1
Wildfire & Architecture
2 ON WILDFIRE RESILIENCE: THE RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS 2.1 2.2 2.3
3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5
4
4.1 4.2 4.3
4
19-40
Discussing wildfire resilience Redefining wildfire resilience Research Methodology: Steps to investigating the adaptive resilience model
CALIFORNIA: A STATE IN FLAMES
41-68
A history of California’s wildfire crisis The role of wildfires in the Californian ecosystem Suburbanisation & the American Dream California’s Housing Crisis Existing approaches towards wildfires
WILDLAND-URBAN INTERFACES (WUI): STRATEGIES FOR THE U RBAN LANDSCAPE Understanding WUIs WUI typologies: Interface, Intermix and Occluded conditions, The Urban-to-Rural Transect The dichotomy of urban strategies in planning for WUIs
69-90
5 5.1 5.2 5.3
6
6.1 6.2 6.3
CONSTRUCTING FOR WILDFIRE
91-118
Wildfire support infrastructure Housing in suburban California Adaptive architecture: ideas for wildfire adaptive
DESIGN FOR A NEW FIRE-RESILIENT COMMUNITY
119-142
Why Paradise? Extracting research insights Rebuilding Paradise: deriving an architectural solution
7 CONCLUSION
143-144
8
FINAL DESIGN
145-158
9
BIBLOGRAPHY & APPENDIX
5
91
Constru cting f or W i l d f i r e
5
CONSTRUCTING FOR WILDFIRE
C o n s truc tin g f o r W il d f ire
92
5 .1 Wildfire Support
Infrastructure This chapter provides an understanding to the various wildfire support infrastructure in California, and the roles in which these infrastructural types play in the deployment of resources in response to a wildfire. The following chart shows the three tiers of wildfire support facilities, broken down into passive wildfire management, wildifre incident management, and wildfire incident response.
Passive wildfire management Communication Facilities
Training facilities
Wildfire incident management/coordination Communication facilities
Headquarters
Wildfire incident response Logistic hubs
Fire Stations
Locating fire support infrastructure Breakdown of fire support infrastructure types & their locations throughout C a l i f o r n i a 56
93
Constru cting f or W i l d f i r e
FIRE STATIONS LOGISTIC HUBS HEADQUARTERS COMMUNICATION FAC I L I T I E S T R A I N I N G FAC I L I T I E S
Fi re St at i on Sc he dul e A T: 218 D: 8
Fir e Station Sch edule B T : 2 02 D: 17
Local Fir e Stations T : 32 4 D: 6
He l i t ac k Bas e T: 14 D : 96
E q uipment Facility T: 4 D: 119
Air Attack B ase T : 13 D: 91
R e gi on al /Un i t He adquart e rs T: 25 D : 59
Oper ations Center T: 3 D: 37 5
C om m un i c at i on Si t e T: 140 D : 22
Lookou t Point
Trai n i n g Center T: 5 D : 99
Conser vation Camps T: 44 D: 4 5
Command Center T: 25 D: 52
T: 28 D: 2 5
Legend: T D -
W ildland- U r ban Inter f ace Location Total Nu mber in Calif or nia Aver age Distance between f acil-
C o n s truc tin g f o r W il d f ire
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COMMUNICATION FAC I L I T I E S : LOOKOUT POINT
LOGISTICS HUB: EQUIPMENT FAC I L I T Y
Keller Peak Lookout Point, Plan, 1:2500
Cal Fire Davis Equipment Facility Plan, 1:3500
COMMUNICATION FAC I L I T I E S : COMMAND CENTER
LOGISTICS HUB: HELITACK BASE
Fresno Emergency Command Center, Plan, 1:3500
Te h a m a C o u n t y Fire Department - Vina Helitack Base Plan, 1:3500
HEADQUARTERS: KERN COUNTY OFFICE OF EMERGENCY SERVICES
TRAINING FAC I L I T I E S : TRAINING CENTERS
Kern County Office of Emergency Services Plan, 1:3500
FIRE STATION: SCHEDULE A
Oxnard Fire Station No. 8 Plan, 1:3500
95
Constru cting f or W i l d f i r e
Ben Clark Training Center, Plan, 1:3500
TRAINING FAC I L I T I E S : C O N S E R VA T I O N CAMPS
Konkocti Conservation Camp No. 27 Plan, 1:3500
C o n s truc tin g f o r W il d f ire
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Fire support infrastructure kit of parts A summary of architectural modules that make up California’s fire support infrastructure
97
Constru cting f or W i l d f i r e
FIRE STATIONS LOGISTIC HUBS
Trai n i n g yard
T r aining Room
H e l i t a c k Con t rol C e n te r
He l i t ac k Bas e
Fir e f igh ting veh icle gar age
R a d i o Towe r
Op e rat i on s Center
HEADQUARTERS
Fi r e S t at i on
T R A I N I N G FAC I L I T I E S
COMMUNICATION FAC I L I T I E S
1 to 250 1 to 250
1 to 1000
Lo o k o u t Po in t t owe r
C om m un i c at i on R oom
Command Center
D o m i t ory
A dm i n i s t at i v e offi c e
Dining/Sleeping tent
S i m u l a ti on To w e r
Fi re fi ght e rs ’ dorm i t ory
Outdoor dining y ar d
Running T r ack
C o n s truc tin g f o r W il d f ire
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5 .2
Housing in Suburban California 6196 Gr eenwood Dr .
99
Constru cting f or W i l d f i r e
6 150 Gre e n wood D r.
874 Centr al Par k Dr .
6 144 Gre e n wood D r.
92 1 Centr al Par k Dr .
6 112 Gre e n wood D r.
6151 Gr eenw ood Dr .
6 19 0 Gre e n wood D r.
6186 Gr eenwood Dr .
Deconstructing Suburban homes in Paradise Left: Paradise, CA; Elevations of suburban houses prior to the 2017 Camp Fire Bottom: collage of original house along flicket lane & the burnt lot a f t e r C a m p F i r e 16
Paradise homes before the 2019 Camp Fire were studied and documented using a series of elevation drawings to better understand the typology and characteristics of a typical American suburban home, and how these attributes might have contributed to the unprecedented scale of the Camp Fire. From the study, common elements of housing envelopes include: vents, garage doors, siding, exterior doors, foundation,
windows, fences, roof, eaves, gutters and decks, all of which present potential fire risks depending on design and material. In particular, the use of combustible vinyl siding, wooden decks, facade planters, and extensive gardening in the immediate front yards of these suburban homes were concerning and posed as fire hazards to the community.
C o n s truc tin g f o r W il d f ire
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5 .2 Construction Details for
Fire Resistant Structures Comparing fire resistant details This section looks at some of the fire resistant construction details for common problematic elements in suburban homes such as roof eaves and siding. By comparing typical construction details with fireresistant ones, a better understanding of how to construct homes to better withstand wildfires can be achieved.
WOOD FAC E VENEER O N BOT H SIDES FIRE RAT ED
L BRACKE T FIXING
AC OUST IC C ORE
TO BACK O F FRAME
LO UVE RE D VE NTS TO E XTE RIO R WALL
A LL ED G ES TO BE
SILL FLASHING TO
S OL I D HARD WOOD
EXTE RIO R
IN CL UD I NG MATCH-
COVE R TO
IN G ED G ES AT STI L E S
JOINE RY FIRE RESISTANT
F I RE RESI STANT
AC O U ST IC EDGE
BA ND I NG
COVE R TO
SLO PE D S ILL TRIM-
CLADDING
ME R
AC OUSTI C SA D D L E FINISHED
T HRESHOL D
WO O D FRAME
FLO O R
RIGID INS ULATIO N VINYL LAP SIDING
101
CAVITY INSULATIO N INTE RIO R FINISH
TYPICAL FIRE RATED DOOR DETAIL
TYPICAL EXTERIOR LOUVERED VENT DETAIL
A fire resistant core as well as fire resistant banding fitted in a door is essential in helping keep embers out from a home
Regular vents have relatively large openings which embers can easily enter and ignite a home from the inside out. 57 Addition of a mesh behind louvered vents can act as a mitigative measure against such a risk
Constru cting f or W i l d f i r e
ASPHALT SHING LE
AS PHALT S HI NGL E
ROOF UNDERLAYMENT
R OOF UNDE R L AYM E NT
RO O F SH EATHING
R OOF S HE ATHI NG ATTIC
ATTI C
INSULATIO N I NSU L AT I O N B A FFL E
I NS UL ATI ON I NS UL ATI ON B AFFL E
ROOF RAFT E R
E XPA NDI NG FOA M SE A L -
E X PANDI NG FOAM S E AL -
A NT
ANT
RI GI D I NSU L AT I O N
R I GI D I NS UL ATI ON
A RO U ND I NSU L AT I O N
AR OUND I NS UL ATI ON
B A FFL E
INTERIOR
B AFFL E
I NTE R I OR
FINISH
RIG ID INSULATION
ME TA L DRI P E DGE
G YPSUM BOARD
O PE N E AV E VENT S I N B L O CK I NG
FI NI S H
R I GI D I NS UL ATI ON
M E TAL DR I P E DGE
GYPS UM B OAR D
CONTINUOUS BEAD
CONTI NUOUS B E AD
OF SEALANT
OF S E AL ANT
WOOD FRAME
WOOD FR AM E
CAVITY INSULATION RI GI D I NSU L AT I O N
R OOF R AFTE R
CAVI TY I NS UL ATI ON
INTERIOR FINISH
R I GI D I NS UL ATI ON
V I NY L L A P SI DI NG
I NTE R I OR FI NI S H
VI NYL L AP S I DI NG
T Y P I C A L O P E N E AV E R O O F Embers are easily lodged between blocking and joists in an open eave design 58
TYPICAL SOFFIT ROOF Soffit eaves are less vulnerable to ember entry and direct flame contact exposure 58
C OVER T O
COV E R TO
JO I NER Y
JOIN E RY
W IN D OW F RA ME A F F IXE D TO BLOCK-
WINDOW SLIDING
WI NDOW SLI DI NG
IN G
TRACK
T R AC K
D OUBLE G LA ZE D
DETAC HABLE FI RE
G LA S S
AT T ENT UAT I ON DOUBLE GLAZED
SC REEN
GLASS
WI NDOW FRAME AFFI XED T O BLO C KI NG WATE RPROOF
WAT ER PR OO F
HOUS E W RA P
HO USEWRAP WOOD EXTENSION
WOO D EXT ENSI O N
JAM B RIG ID IN S ULATION
JAMB RI GI D I NSULAT I O N
WOOD FRAM E V IN Y L LA P S ID IN G
CAVITY INSULATION INTERIOR FINISH
TYPICAL SLIDING Windows that do not fully close or are poorly sealed are susceptible to ember entry. Use of nonfire rated glass can also cause glass to melt in a fire, allowing flames to enter the structure 58
WOO D FR AME VI NYL LAP SI DI NG
C AVI T Y I NSULAT I ON I NT ER I O R FI NI SH
TYPICAL SLIDING WINDOW FITTED
Detachable fire attentuation screens offer a simple retrofitted solution in fireproofing home windows 58
C o n s truc tin g f o r W il d f ire
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2.3
The potential of
The following series of case studies explores 7 strategies that serve as possible approaches in designing for adaptive resilience through architecture.
Temporal, Adaptable
Architecture is often built with the idea of permanence and indestructibility in mind, but adaptive architecture calls for an impermanance that seeks to redefine the way destruction is viewed in the context of a built environment.
architecture
Reimagining Destruction
As opposed to loss, adaptive architecture allows wildfire destruction to be seen as an opportunity for regeneration and constant renewal for WUI communities.
Catalogue of strategies for an a postdestruction adaptable design
4
1
E X PA N DA B L E , RECONFIGURABLE MODULAR DESIGN
TEMPORARY STRUCTURE ATTACHED TO A PERMANENT MASS
3
SELF-DEPLOYING/ SELF-ASSEMBLING BUILDINGS
MOVING/PORTABLE BUILDINGS
2 F L AT PAC K , D I Y HOUSING
103
5
OFFSITE P R E FA B R I C AT E D CONSTRUCTION
Constru cting f or W i l d f i r e
7
6 BUILD-TO-ORDER MODULAR UNIT SYSTEM
8 MODULAR RECONFIGURATION OF URBAN STREETS AND PESDESTRIAN NETWORKS
C o n s truc tin g f o r W il d f ire
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House for Hamacho Mixed use housing; BORD Ashiya, Japan
By attaching wooden frames to a layered steel frame body of this three-storey residential building, a dialogue between the temporary and permanent components of the house is created. The wooden frame, meant to be reconfigured and readapted to the changing needs of the homeowners are viewed as reconfigurable furniture as opposed to the permanent structural walls. This project demonstrates how temporary additions to a permanent building core generates adaptability and flexibility in architecture that could potentially respond to the needs of adaptive resilience. 59
105
Constru cting f or W i l d f i r e
wooden frame (temporary structure)
steel frame (permanent structure)
Te m p o r a r y s t r u c t u r e s a t t a c h e d t o a permanent mass; flexible structures providing flexible functionality
C o n s truc tin g f o r W il d f ire
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The Urban Village Project Modular building system urban concept; S P AC E 10 + EFFEKT
The Urban Village Project looks at expanding IKEA’s flat pack housing unit system to entire city centers as a new way of designing for flexibility and reconfigurability on an urban scale. The system is designed for disassembly where building components can be modified within a grid structural system to fit various demands, such as varying housing types, public spaces and amenities. By designing for adaptable infrastructure beyond just the building scale, the Urban Village project demonstrates the capacity for adaptive resilience using a simple ready to build modular unit that mirrors IKEA’s selfbuild furniture concept. 60
107
Constru cting f or W i l d f i r e
housing
I K E A’ s f l a t p a c k , D I Y housing unit
single
amenities
co-living
public gardens
shared kitchen
extended family
single parent
work/live
waste management
car sharing
farm
divorced living
couple
allotment gardens
laundry
family
multigenerational
cafe
sensory gardens
energy production
waterscape
playscape
C o n s truc tin g f o r W il d f ire
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Lakeside Plugin Tower Portable Housing System; People’s architecture office Beijing, China
The metabolist inspired plugin house features a foundation-less structure inserted with steel space frames that can be agglormorated in various configurations. The entire assembly can be constructed and deconstructed with integrated locks and a hex wrench, and even relocated when needed. The prototype of the Lakeside Plugin Tower constructed in Beijing is an example of how an impermanent building can not only offer sustainability and affordability, but even portability for architecture within an adaptive resilience framework. 61
109
Constru cting f or W i l d f i r e
connecting bridge decentralised space unit
large space module service core
basic unit
agglomeration of modules
C o n s truc tin g f o r W il d f ire
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Pooja Crafted Homes H o u s i n g To w e r ; Penda Vijayawada, India
This housing tower in Vijayawada in India is an example of the made-to-order community model, where the tower’s final design and spaces are determined by the residents’ selection of apartment units from a catalogue. Each module is selected by the homeowners and provides options for unit type, planter and facade types. Although similar in many modular apartment projects in terms of its stacked volumetric design, the bottom-up approach of a made-to-order model provides an alternative mode of autonomy and flexibility within an otherwise repetitive housing tower. 62
111
Constru cting f or W i l d f i r e
wooden frame (temporary structure)
C o n s truc tin g f o r W il d f ire
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Self-Deploying Structures Self-assmebling building system; Te n Fo l d Engineering
Ten fold engineering is a company that has designed for a series of mechanical systems that allow buildings to self-assemble on site. The buildings can be flat packed, transported by truck, and subsequently deployed, completely eliminating labour costs. The versatility of an engineered system such as these shows how kinetic, moveable components in architecture can expedite recovery processes and allow for quickly convertible buildings in wildfire adapted communities. 63
113
Constru cting f or W i l d f i r e
self expanding steel frame
A self assembling mechanism: the house can be self deployed within 8 minutes without manual assembly
C o n s truc tin g f o r W il d f ire
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The Stack Modular Housing Prefabricated Social housing; GLUCK+ N e w Yo r k , United States
The stack is a social housing project aimed at creating affordable housing by making use of prefabricated modules mass produced off site. As opposed to a plug-and-play approach to modular assembly, this project suggests an alternative strategy for adaptive resilience where individual modules could be fabricated similarly but the configuration in which they are stacked and agglormorated can result in differences in building density and use cases. 64
115
Constru cting f or W i l d f i r e
modules prefabricated off site & transferred to building
Prefabricated modules allow rapid assembly on site using a stacking logic
C o n s truc tin g f o r W il d f ire
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Public Square Urban design research; FXCollaborative N e w Yo r k , United States
This project demostrates the capacity for modular design to build resilience within New York City. 8’ by 8’ modules enable the urban fabric to continually adapt and evolve towards a car-lite city through a series of incremental planning and design interventions. Combinations of modules form networks of pedestrian friendly spaces, providing a model of resilience for public streets and networks. 65
117
Constru cting f or W i l d f i r e
C o n s truc tin g f o r W il d f ire
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119
D esign f or a new f i r e - r e si l i e n t c ommu n i t y
6
DESIGN FOR A NEW FIRE-RESILIENT COMMUNITY
D e s ig n f o r a n e w f ire -re s il ie n t c o m m un ity
120
6.1
Why Paradise? Reclaiming the California Dream The California Dream paints a utopic picture of a place that promises a better way of life amongst perfect weather and a scenic backdrop - an image that has been tainted with the scale of the wildfire crisis in recent years. 66 Paradise, the town that has borne the brunt of California’s most destructive fire, had been forced to abandon this dream in exchange for a scene of loss and ruins.
Thus, this thesis looks at rebuilding Paradise and in doing so, reclaiming the lost Californian Dream. By treating the Camp Fire is an opportunity for Paradise to rebuild stronger and gain resilience, the project also seeks to serve as a prototype for future fire resilient communities.
REGENERATION Reviewing the feedback loop - redesign * regeneration for better wildfire resilience
121
D esign f or a new f i r e - r e si l i e n t c ommu n i t y
ADAPT
Reconfiguration in m
ris
A wildfire eroded community
Vulnerable demographic of Paradise homeowners
Wildfires often erode affected communities and result in long-term population displacements. Two years after the Camp Fire, only 10% of Paradise’s population have returned - many have decided to resettle outside of the town after losing their homes to the natural disaster. 67
The cost of rebuilding is a deterrence and cripples many homeowners from rebuilding, particularly in the case of Paradise where residents fall under the middle to low income ranges.
Adaptive resilience targets the inadequacies in current wildfire recovery, and minimises permanent community displacement after a wildfire by expediting recovery and reducing the barriers of staying in the community.
ATION
minimising wildfire
sk
This makes designing for a centralised recovery model especially applicable to Paradise, where economies of scale in the production of modularised, rapidly configurable building components will help alleviate recovery costs for vulnerable homeowners.
DISTURBANCE Wildfire occurence - revealing vulnerabilities
D e s ig n f o r a n e w f ire -re s il ie n t c o m m un ity
122
- Fire-Resistant
“But even homes built to those standards were destroyed in last year’s massive Thomas Fire. Now, those burned out homes are being rebuilt in the same places, under the same codes.” 68
is Not FireP r o o f, C a l i f o r n i a Homeowners discover, National Public Radio
“We will always lean towards having combustible furniture, curtains and other features. After a fire event, it’s really all of these internal furnishings and aspects of the house that burn — that form that extensively burnt pile of rubble.” 69
“Even if you do everything you can to fireproof the house design itself, all you have to do is leave a window open, or open a door and you’re not fireproof.” 69
“The sad truth is that any practical building that is exposed to an intense bushfire will probably burn down, whether it complies with Australian Standard 3959 or not. “ 70
123
D esign f or a new f i r e - r e si l i e n t c ommu n i t y
- Residents and architects reconsider building designs folowing bushfires, ABC news
- There’s no such thing as a Fireproof House, Geoff Hanmer for Lifehacker news
Fire-proof Architecture failed to adequately protect Paradise homes
B U I L T 2 00 8 O R L A T E R
B U I LT B E F O R E 2008
homes built in accordance to fire
homes built before implementation of
resistant codes
fire resistant codes
NO DAMAGE AFFECTED DESTROYED
50.6%
17.7%
8.8%
3.3% 40.6%
79.0%
Camp Fire Damage Report - Assessment of home damages
Fire-resistant building design has long been touted as the solution against wildfires. While statistics from the Camp Fire has shown that houses built in accordance to the California Fire Code has suffered less losses as compared to those that were not built to the standards, they are still far from being a full-proof solution against wildfires.
71
Therefore, the thesis looks at how architecture can be made more wildfire resilient, not just through construction methods but through design for recovery and rebuilding as well.
In fact, 40% of homes that were built to be fire resistant were completely destroyed in the Camp Fire. In other words, rebuilding homes in Paradise using the same fire code means subjecting homes to only a 5060% chance of escaping the next wildfire unscathed.
D e s ig n f o r a n e w f ire -re s il ie n t c o m m un ity
124
6.2
Extracting research insights Solutions that aim at designing against wildfires are largely ineffective Logging forests results in uninhibited winds that can carry wildfire embers further and faster into urban areas. Fire suppression on the other hand has contributed to the greater than usual severity of wildfires when years of dried vegetation that were not allowed to burn finally catches fire. 72 190 M I L L I O N ACRES OF FORESTED LAND IN CALIFORNIA = 145 M I L L I O N SOCCER FIELDS
BUTTE
$320, 113
SAN FRANCISCO
$1, 573, 333
LOS ANGELES
$572, 350
Why people still & will continue to live in places that burn When the choice has to be made between a suburban town like Paradise and an urban city like San Francisco, it is expected that a good number of homeowners will be drawn to Paradise’s proximity to nature, and the idea of living the idealised American dream in a quaint suburban town. Compounded with the extra 1.2 million dollars that it would cost to live in a concrete city like San Francisco, 75 moving to WUI comminities despite the wildfire risk seems like an easy decision. th e Amer ican dr eam
The sheer size of forested land in California also makes strategies that aim at controlling or altering the way nature behaves largely unimpactful in the grand scheme of things. 73 O N LY 1 % O F WILDFIRES OCCUR IN THE PROXIMITY OF FUEL MANAGED FORESTS
Studies have also shown that only 1% of the forest treatments has had a direct impact on mitigating wildfires occuring in California. 74
125
D esign f or a new f i r e - r e si l i e n t c ommu n i t y
Lower cost of living Living close to natur e Risk of wildf ir es
SAN FRANCISCO
BUTTE
$1, 573, 333
$320, 113
It is also important through this research to realise that irregardless of whether homeowners have underestimated their wildfire risk, there is a percieved value and
allure that comes with living in WUI regions. A study that looks into categorising archetypes of communities living in WUIs, have similarly identified the different motivations behind individuals who have chosen to reside in WUIs: 76
then perhaps architects should turn their attention towards a solution that allows homes to better rebuild after a wildfire instead. It is only through doing so that communities are equipped with a flexible model that allows them to adapt and build wildfire resilience over time.
I . VA L U E O F RURALITY/LIVING IN NATURE AS A WAY O F L I F E II. LIVELIHOOD DEPENDENCE ON LOGGING, FA R M I N G , RANCHING, ETC. III. ACCESS TO VISUAL AND OTHER OUTDOOR RECREATIONLINKED OPPORTUNITIES
As such, this thesis seeks to respect and safeguard the intrinsic social and economic values that WUI communities reap from their environment. As opposed to relocating WUI dwellers to urbanised regions, an architectural solution that proposes a wildfire-adapted way of life will be developed in this thesis.
Houses can never be truly fireproof.. now what? As extensively discussed in the previous chapters, despite building regulations and better construction standards, there is still a substantial margin of vulnerability against wildfires when it comes to housing. Since it is unrealistic to expect houses to be completely fireproof without sacrificing many of the elements of a house that makes it liveable (windows, furnishings etc),
D e s ig n f o r a n e w f ire -re s il ie n t c o m m un ity
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Why annexing suburban sprawl and densifying urban areas will not solve the wildfire crisis a photo of Paradise homes burnt to the ground while surrounding trees remain standing
In the post-fire study on the Camp Fire, a staff from the incident management team of the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection called the diasaster an “urban conflagration” exacerbated by “structure-to-structure ignition”. Homes and architecture were decimated by the wildfire while surrounding trees and vegetation were left standing. 77 Hence, while relocating WUI residents
127
D esign f or a new f i r e - r e si l i e n t c ommu n i t y
to urban areas might increase a home’s distance from the source of a wildfire, it might actually worsen the effects of wildfires as ignitable buildings are now concentrated within a smaller area that still remains in reach of future wildfires (given how easily wildfires have shown to spread beyond forested land). Densification could also result in further strains in evacuation networks.
30% O F H O U S E S I N CALIFORNIA ARE LOCATED IN WILDLANDU R B A N I N T E R FA C E AREAS8 WUI AREA IS ALSO THE FA S T E S T G R O W I N G LANDUSE TYPE IN THE UNITED STATES 8
Lastly, the sheer size and growth of WUIs settlements makes it highly difficult to relocate WUI homes or prevent people from continuing to live in these regions.
BURN AREA E VA L U A T E D & IDENTIFIED
Adaptive resilience - why we should design & adapt to changing wildfire conditions instead of aggressively resisting them
FIRELIGHTER APPLIES ACCELERANT TO THE LANDSCAPE
Wildfires are the new normal - and they are getting larger, more destructive and more frequent. Given all of the aforementioned considerations, looking at stopping wildfires altogether is unrealistic, ignores the trends that indicate otherwise, and places ecosystems and communities at risk.
FIRE IS LIT; TEAM CIRCLES & FLANKS EDGE OF PRESCRIBED BURNS, READY TO EXTINGUISH FIRES IF NECCESSARY
Accepting wildfires and learning to adapt to their effects on communities is the first step to a sustainable solution - understanding landscape and urban changes after each wildfire will also help communities review and recover in a way which builds resilience.
On prescribed burning: an unprecedented solution Through the research on various approaches taken in tackling the wildfire crisis, the practice of prescribed burning stood out as one of the few effective solutions that embraced instead of resisted the role of wildfires in wildland ecosystems. Historically, native american tribes have been using prescribed burns to control and adapt to the wildfire-prone landscape they live in. 78 However, it is only in recent years that California has started to accept the effectiveness of controlled burns and adopt the practice as part of its wildfire management strategy. 74
AFTER FIRE: UNDERSTORY BUSHES THAT CAUSE WILDFIRES TO SPREAD UP TREES ARE CLEARED
Through the controlled burning process, excess vegetation that pose a wildfire hazard is taken care of during pre-wildfire season, before they even have a chance to ignite. Prescribed burning fosters adaptive resilience - in allowing forests to burn under supervision, a more resilient, more productive, and less fire prone ecological landscape is created. 79
Architectural strategies gleaned from case studies D e s ig n f o r a n e w f ire -re s il ie n t c o m m un ity
128
SHARED, CONSOLIDATED URBAN AMENITIES SERVING A HOUSING COMMUNITY
OFFSITE PREFA B R I C AT E D , STACKABLE MODULES
APPLICATION TO WILDFIRE RESILIENCE
CASE STUDIES KEY STRATEGIES
PA R T TEMPORAL, PA R T PERMANENT ARCHITECTURE
condensed housing footprint - consolidates sprawl & accomodates for growth in WUI population
provides selective, localised flexibility in building footprint and programes that can vary with wildfire seasons
replaces suburban sprawl within WUI with self-sufficient micro communities with greater residential capacities
prefabrication & stockpiling of building components for easy rebuilding
+ regulates WUI population expansion & expands residential capacity
+ allows for adapatbility in a more community driven, bottom up manner
+ economies of scale reduces rebuilding cost
+ minimises need to fend for belongings when escaping from wildfires
nuanced treatment of permanent vs flexible architecture allows permanent elements to preserve a sense of place in WUIs within an ephermeral landscape
+ distributes risk: microcommunity able to operate & recover independently of other communities
E VA L U A T I O N
MICRO-HOMES/ SMALLER HOUSING FOOTPRINT COMMUNITIES
reduced dwelling area per resident
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+ shared amenities create a sense of place/ community, & supports housing densification
inability to replace/modify modules independently
E X PA N DA B L E , RECONFIGURABLE MODULAR DESIGN
MOVING/ PORTABLE BUILDINGS
BUILD-TOORDER/PLUG & P L AY S Y S T E M
SELFDEPLOYING/ SELFASSEMBLING BUILDINGS
MODULAR RECONFIGURATION OF URBAN STREETS AND PESDESTRIAN NETWORKS
expandable building capacity to accdomodate population shifts/ temporary displacements during wildfire recovery
relocation of homes/ buildings based on wildfire seasons/risks
prefabrication & stockpiling of building components for instant replacement
elimination of manual labour cost and time taken to rebuild
inbuilds adaptability in wildfire evacuation networks
+ temporary reovery housing can be located within affected community - minimises population displacement & mantains critical mass of WUI comunities
+ eliminates cost of moving/ relocation
+ demand responsive - highly adaptable to changes in wildfire risk and end-user demand
+ fastest rate of rebuilding
+ adaptable to reroute and reconfigure evacuation networks where necessary
logistically less feasible on a mass movement scale
requires a relatively less adaptable structural frame
elimination of labour cost usually does not cover additional cost incurred in mechanical components longer production time limited to less complex, single storey structures
difficult to implement on a city scale - requires a pedestal system & carries safety concerns when used in a wildfire scenario
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6.2
Rebuilding Paradise: deriving an architectural solution The strategically vulnerable model: defining static & adaptable planning zones low fire risk permanent | static zones architecture designed to be as fireresistant as possible - urban fabric remains relatively unchanged throughout wildfire cycles high fire risk impermanent | adaptable zones architecture designed for programmatic flexibility & rapid reconstruction zones where urban fabric is expected to significantly change throughout wildfire cycles Evacuation bottlenecks Locations of abandoned cars & deaths along public roads during Camp Fire are also identified as part of the feedback loop to inform rebuilding decisions
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In order to maximise the utility of WUI land, there is a need to accomodate for landuse cycles in response to the changing wildfire risks across seasons. This requires architecture that has a short turnover in terms of scalability, expandability and adaptability. Prefabricated volumetric modules does not provide for such a degree of flexibility since modules cannot be removed and added independently in multistorey structures. As such, a plug and play model is selected in favour of volumetric modules.
Strategies for a wildfire adapted community the three wildfire risk tiers
Designing across risk tiers: in every wildfire adapted community, three tiers of risk levels associated with various zones along the urban-rural transect is present. The boundaries of risk will evolve over time depending on vegetation density, building density, and fire history. An adaptive resilience approach attempts to design for the three risk cases within WUI communities as a framework that can be applied to future changes in wildfire risk across land parcels during each rebuilding cycle after a wildfire event.
RE
Paradise residents struggled with a loss of connection to the town when physical elements that the could identify with were eradicated by the Camp Fire. The need for architecture to a preserve a sense of place and familiarity after wildfires calls for a
2
B U I L D - T O - O R D E R / P L U G & P L AY MODULAR SYSTEM
3
SHARED, CONSOLIDATED URBAN AMENITIES SERVING A HOUSING COMMUNITY
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E X PA N DA B I L I T Y , S C A L A B I L I T Y , RECONFIGURABILITY
5
B-
PA R T -T E M P O R A L , PA R T PERMANENT ARCHITECTURE
:S U
1
While all three risk conditions should be designed for for a complete intervention in developing a future wildfire adapted community, this thesis will focus on the high wildfire risk zone where conditions are the most volatile and requires architecture to be the most adaptable.
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Design for a ne w f i r e - r e si l i e n t c ommu n i t y
T2
:R U
RA
L
T3
MICRO-HOMES/SMALLER HOUSING FOOTPRINT COMMUNITIES
U
RB
AN
T6
:U
RB
AN
CO
Of the 9 potential adaptive resilience strategies that were identified from the case studies, 5 were selected to form the design basis for wildfire adapted communities.
HIGH WILDFIRE RISK | EPHEMERAL ZONE
•
•
c on ve r sion of e x istin g sp r a w l to c on sol id a te d mic r ohousin g c ommun itie s of r e l a tive l y l ow d e n sity se a son a l r e c r e a tion a l f a c il itie s to b e c on ve r tib l e to te mp or a r y f ir e sup p or t f a c il tiie s ( mon itor in g ty p e )
S K Y WAY R D
selectively vulnerable model that does not result in an entire overhaul of a city’s urban fabric after a devastating fire. Certain essential structures such as core support facilities and utility infrastructure should be as maximally fortified in the event of a wildfire to ensure essential functions of the community. As such, a part temporary, part permanent approach is selected.
INTERMEDIATE WILDFIRE RISK ZONE HIGH DENSITY, LESS PERMANENT
•
• •
c o n ve r si o n o f e x i st i n g sp r a w l t o c o n so l i d a t e d m i c r o h o u si n g communities of h i g h e r d e n si t y f i r e su p p o r t i n f r a st r u c t u r e ( l o g i st i c t y p e ) o p t i m i si n g e va c u a t i o n m o ve m e n t into main thoroughfares
LOW WILDFIRE RISK ZONE HIGHEST DENSITY, MOST PERMANENT
• • • •
BERKSHIRE AV E
•
c on s ol i dat e d m i c rohous i n g c om m un i t i e s of hi ghe s t de n s i t y fi re s up p ort i n fras t ruc t ure (c om m un i c at i on t yp e ) de di c at e d bui l di n gs c on v e rt i bl e t o t e m p orary re c ov e ry c am p s i n de p e n de n t p owe r/ wat e r ut i l i t i e s l oc al i s e d bui l di n g c om p on e n t m an ufac t uri n g fac i l i t y
Displacement of populations where homes are destroyed after a wildfire creates psychological strain on residents who are newly homeless. It also strains and interrupts neighbouring towns/ cities with the sudden population influx. The goal of a fire resilient community is to minimise the negative effects of an wildfire eroded population by residing the affected population within its urban core while affected infrastructure recovers and rebuilds. This requires existing buildings that are inherently built more fire resistant (eg. concrete based industrial or commercial malls) to be quickly refittable and expandable to serve as temporary housing camps during wildfire recovery. Hence, scalability in modular design is chosen as a key strategy for fire adapted communities. Lastly, WUI communities are only going to continue to grow: Butte county, where many towns like Paradise belong to experiences a faster population growth rate than a more urbanised county like San Diego. Wildfire adapted communities built today need to be designed to be expandable and reconfigurable to accommodate for future population growth.
PA R A D I S E H I G H SCHOOL
THE TERRY ASHE RECREATION CENTER
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Can high risk communities be part of the solution?
Capitalising on the edge condition In designing for wildfire resilient communities, treating fringe communities as a resource instead of a liability is key especially since relocating residents to or densifying urban cores is not a solution (refer to chapter 6.2). There are many benefits in designing for the edge condition for high risk WUI communities:
TYPICAL CONDITION: SUBURBAN FRINGES FORM THE WEAK/VULNERABLE ZONE OF A CITY
ALTERNATIVE CONDITION: SUBURBAN FRINGES AS A FORTIFIED ZONE OF DEFENSE
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1. These are the buffer zones between wildland and urban centers, and can be
designed to serve as defensible space against a wildfire 2. In a strategically vulnerable model, these are the most flexible areas that can be designed to regenerate or adapt to changing wildfire conditions 3. The proximity to wildlands puts edge communities in a strategic location for wildfire support infrastructure and the establishment of wildfire economies.
Prescribed burning - creating a wildfire economy Currently, prescribed burning only makes up 10% of the acreage that undergoes wildfire intervention each year. 74 Studies have shown that the practice is under deployed 80 , despite being the most effective wildfire prevention technique that has shown to reduce fire intensity by 76% and fire spread by 37%. 81
+ =
landscape surrounding WUI developments, an opportunity to establish a wildfire economy based on prescribed burning is presented.
Breaking the fire borrowing cycle FIRE PREVENTION BUDGET pre-wildfire season Fire prevention budget is depleted, resulting in less funding for subsequent fire prevention
Resources diverted to disaster response and management in the event of a wildfire FIRE FIGHTING COSTS wildfire season
The United States Forest Service does not have a dedicated wildfire response budget; as such, money originally set aside for fire prevention is constantly diverted to combating wildfire incidents and helping communities recover instead. 74 The remaining resources left in the fire prevention budget are also being poured into efforts that are shown to have little impact on preventing future wildfires.
In taking note of the fact that prescribed burning is only recently starting to gain traction in California, and that the edge conditions of high risk WUI communities complements the function of prescribed burning in fostering a less wildfire prone
With the escalating wildfire crisis, this cycle of bankrupting fire prevention resources is only going to continue negatively reinforce itself. Identifying prescribed burning as one of the few solutions that have a direct effect on reducing the spread, occurrence and magnitude of future wildfires and channeling more resources into prescribed burning efforts will help California break from its fire borrowing cycle.
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identifying new high wildfire risk zones & wildfire patterns
Pre-Wildfire Season I. MINIMISING RISK
extent & location of fire damage, duration between fires, landscape conditions
EVALUATE REDUCING FREQUENCY OF WILDFIRES
SENSE event of redisturbance
ENVIRONMENT
identifying response & evacuation bottlenecks
EVALUATE Wildfire Season II. RESPONSE/ DESTRUCTION
response time, evacuation efficiency, human injuries/casualties
SENSE
REDUCING WILDFIRE LOSSES
event of redisturbance
ENVIRONMENT
updating construction/ material/technological abilities
EVALUATE Post-Wildfire Season III. RECOVERY
time & cost taken to rebuild, for normal function to be restored
SENSE
REDUCING RECOVERY TIME & COST
event of redisturbance
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ENVIRONMENT
Returning to the feedback loop
ACTION
targeted risk reduction strategies
flexible programmatic uses
targeted areas for forest management strategies (ie. prescribed burns)
Addressing the feedback loop in the adaptive resilience model in relation to high risk communities and a wildfire economy based on the practice of prescribed burning, each feedback loop provides information that will aid in: 1. Identifying areas in need to be vacated/ allocated new programmatic uses during wildfire/prescribed burning seasons 2. Identifying new wildland areas in need of prescribed burning 3. Determining where to rebuild to optimise evacuation networks
defensible architecture
ACTION
streamlining wildfire response strategies
where to rebuild redistribution of building densities to optimise evacuation movement/networks
fire-proof structural frame for rapid assembly
ACTION
improving recovery strategies
modular, fire resistant building components
fire-proofing key public infrastructure
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Permanent vs. adaptable elements in a future wildfire adapted community image below: wildfire personnel c a r r y i n g o u t p r e s c r i b e d b u r n s 82, h o u s e s l i n i n g e d g e o f w i l d l a n d 83
PRESCRIBED BURNING ECONOMY
+ EDGE CONDITION, HIGH RISK WUI COMMUNITIES
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Permanent
Adaptable
April - June PRE-WILDFIRE SEASON PRESCRIBED BURNS CARRIED OUT
• prescribed burning •
training facility prescribed burning logistical infrastructure
• retracted footprint of housing units, buffer zone (cleared by prescribed burning) maintained between structures and wildland
July - September WILDFIRE SEASON POTENTIAL WILDFIRE EVENT PRESCRIBED BURNS NOT CARRIED OUT
• evacuation shelters • emergency response
• retracted housing
• temporary wildfire
• rebuilding & recovery
footprint provides wider thoroughfares for evacuation in the event of a wildfire
facilities
January - March POST-WILDFIRE SEASON IN THE EVENT OF WILDFIRE - RECOVERY & REGENERATED
•
recovery camps minor additions/ modifications with new parameters (feedback loop)
•
with new parameters (feedback loop) expanded footprint for housing & recreational spaces (open fields, festival venues, sports etc.)
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3 BUILD-TO-ORDER/PLUG & PLAY MODULAR SYSTEM
2 PART-TEMPORAL, PART-PERMANENT ARCHITECTURE
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The proposal: CAPITALISING ON EDGE CONDITIONS IN FOSTERING A PRESCRIBED BURNING ECONOMY AS PART OF THE WILDFIRE SOLUTION CREATES JOBS, REDEFINES URBAN-WILDLAND RELATIONSHIP, EXPANDS CALIFORNIA’S HOUSING CAPACITY
A WILDFIRE ADAPTIVE COMMUNITY: DESIGNING FOR THE IMPERMANENT, ADAPTABLE ZONES & DESIGNING FOR FUTURE RESPONSE/ RECOVERY
4
ADAPTIVE RESIIENCE: PREVENTS EROSION OF WUI COMMUNITIES, RESPECTS VALUE OF FORESTS FOR WUI COMMUNITIES, REDUCES ECONOMIC COSTS OF RECOVERY, TAPPING ON WILDFIRES AS OPPORTUNITIES FOR REGROWTH & REGENERATION
SHARED URBAN AMENITIES SERVING A HOUSING COMMUNITY
5 EXPANDABILITY, SCALABILITY, RECONFIGURABILITY
1 MICRO-HOME COMMUNITIES
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Conclusion The current state of California’s wildfires paints a bleak picture for WUI communities residing in the line of danger - existing interventions are implemented with the view that fortifying against wildfires and designing against nature is the way to achieve resilience, which has proven to be untrue and even counterproductive in many cases. In this thesis research, the idea of adapting to wildfires and using post-disaster information as feedback that informs communities to rebuild better is introduced. This creates a wildfire adapted community that is able to not just retain but gain resilience after each wildfire disaster. Moving forward, the thesis project will look at high risk communities along Paradise’s fringes, where urban structure and wildland meet. By capitalising on the edge condition in supporting prescribed burning as a wildfire management tool, a design for a wildfire adapted community will be proposed.
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image of a California fringe community against a wildland b a c k d r o p 83
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Final Design & selected drawings
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F O R M A L I S I N G S U B U R B A N L I V I N G A L O N G W I L D L A N D - U R B A N I N T E R FAC E S externalising living spaces in high wildfire risk zones
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reinforced concrete door
patio shading workshop/makerspace
concrete fireproof core retractable wall blind social porch
rebuildable outdoor housing porch ground frame
etfe facade: water storing double skin & single skin
yard sale
porch extension frame (S)
retractable balcony
exposed concrete frame
gardening yard
porch extension frame (M)
deployable wooden deck
pet yard
porch extension frame (L)
outdoor movie lounge
staircase
art studio
concrete fireproof core | sacrificial facade | off-grid utilities rainwater catchment tank
library
off grid solar power battery
outdoor dining resultant
solar panel roof
T H E S T R A T E G I C A L LY V U L N E R A B L E D W E L L I N G
PERMANENT MODULES
TEMPORAL MODULES
e x p l o d e d a x o n o m e t r i c - p a r t f i r e p r o o f, p a r t r e b u i l d a b l e housing
designing for preservation
designing for loss
CELEBRATING THE AMERICAN FRONT PORCH rebuildable permutations
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2 PIONEER STAGES
1
ETFE DOUBLE M E M B R A N E WA T E R FAC A D E
DISTURBANCE
FIRE RESISTANT CONCRETE FRAME + CORE
COMMU S AW M
E VA C U A T I O N NETWORK
R A I N WA T E R C O L L
REGENERATIVE CYC
a time based building cycle: retaining th
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3 INTERMEDIATE STAGES
E T F E S O L A R PA N E L R O O F
4 CLIMAX COMMUNITY LANDSCAPE MANAGEMENT: PRESCRIBED BURNING & S A L AVA G E L O G G I N G
UNITY MILL
LECTION TANK
FIRE RESISTANT LANDSCAPING
CLE OF THE HOUSE
he resistive, rebuilding the regenerative
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F O R M A L I S I N G S U B U R B A N R E C R AT I O N A L O N G W I L D L A N D - U R B A N I N T E R FAC E integrated fire facility cum recreational hub
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fire engine garage
watchtower + fire planning offices seasonal market
outdoor cafe
seasonal markets / equipment storage space
wildfire buffer zone
training yards / recreational decks
outdoor cinema
sporting facilities
training yard
camping deck
resultant
skate park
SATELLITE FIRE SUPPORT INFRASTRUCTURE / RECREATIONAL HUB
ADAPTABLE FIRE SUPPORT INFRASTRUCTURE
exploded axonometric - a seasonally changing public space
designing for flexible, wildfire season specific programmes
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2
PIONEER STA
1 DISTURBANCE WA T C H / C O N T R O L TOWER
T R A I N I N G YA R D
ETFE DOUBLE M E M B R A N E WA T E R FAC A D E
FIRE PLANNING OFFICES
FIRE ENGINE GARAGE
E VA C U A T I O N / A S S E M B LY AREA
FIRE BUFFER ZONE
REGENERATIVE CYC
a time based building cycle: retaining th
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3
AGES / INTERMEDIATE STAGES
4 CLIMAX COMMUNITY
O B S E R VA T O R Y / V I E W I N G DECK RECREATION DECK
SEASONAL COMMERCIAL S PA C E
PUBLIC PLAZA
VA C A T E D P U B L I C P L A Z A / FIRE BUFFER ZONE
HIKING/PRESCRIBED BURNING ACCESS TRAIL
CLE OF THE HOUSE
he resistive, rebuilding the regenerative
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HOUSING SECTION
SUPERIMPOSING ECOLOGICAL & URBAN SUCCESSION a time-based elevation
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FAC I L I T Y S E C T I O N
FEATURES & RESOURCE FLOW arrows annotate cyclical flow of power, water and timber materials
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reconstruction of urban structures, landscape management cum recreational outposts
maturation of grasses, shrubs, shade intolerant trees, and other ecosystem species
I I . P I O N E E R S TAG E S
wildfire as an opportunity for upgrading of modular components of damaged residential homes
redundancy mechanisms kick in - activation of off grid power systems to support recovery
emergence of fire adaptive traits (after multiple cycles of disurbance)
redundancy mechanisms kick in - release of nutrients for regrowth, fire triggered germination processes
I I I . I N T E R M E D I AT E S TAG E S
stability is achieved until balance is eventually tipped by overgrowth
effective prolongation/maintenance of stable state through redefining human-landscape relationships eg. through practices like prescribed burning
IV. CLIMAX COMMUNITY
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secure concrete core built with bunker specifications provides protection of key living space and key belongings after a wildfire; acts as recovery shelter for homeowners as exterior living spaces rebuild
well adapted plant species with fire resistive traits survive the wildfire and gains ecological abundance in the ecosytem
URBAN SUCCESSION AFTER A WILDFIRE
wildfire occurence removing regenerative urban structures & providing opportunities for rebuilding & regeneration
M O D E L L I N G W I L D L A N D U R B A N I N T E R FAC E P L A N N I N G AFTER RESILIENT FIRE ECOLOGY SYSTEMS
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION AFTER A WILDFIRE
start of renewal process overgrowth and dead plant matter removed by wildfire, releasing trapped nutrients into the ground
I. DISTURBANCE
rebuilding of temporal urban structures recovery camps, repopulation
rapid regrowth of grasses, both native and non native
9
Biblography & Appendix 1 Gude, P. H., & Rasker, R. (2008). (PDF) Potential for Future Development on Fire-Prone Lands. Retrieved May 5, 2020, from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/220028491_Potential_for_Future_Development_on_Fire-Prone_Lands 2 McKeough, T. (2018, November 06). How Designers Are Addressing War and Natural Disasters. Retrieved May 07, 2020, from https://www.architecturaldigest.com/story/design-shelter-war-natural-disasters-article 3 Thiessen, P. (2020, July 02). Here’s how wildfires get started-and how to stop them. Retrieved May 07, 2020, from https:// www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/natural-disasters/ wildfires/ 4 Amadeo, K. (2019). How Wildfire Damage Affects the Economy and You. Retrieved May 15, 2020, from https://www.thebalance. com/wildfires-economic-impact-4160764 5 California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection (CAL FIRE). (2020). Fire Perimeters. Retrieved August 07, 2020, from https://frap.fire.ca.gov/frap-projects/fire-perimeters/ 6 2018 Atlantic hurricane season. (2020, August 07). Retrieved May 21, 2020, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_Atlantic_hurricane_season 7 I. (2020). Facts + Statistics: Wildfires. Retrieved May 30, 2020, from https://www.iii.org/fact-statistic/facts-statistics-wildfires 8 Radeloff, V., Helmers, D., Kramer, H., Mockrin, M., Alexandre, P., Bar-Massada, A., . . . Stewart, S. (2018, March 27). Rapid growth of the US wildland-urban interface raises wildfire risk. Retrieved June 12, 2020, from https://www.pnas.org/content/115/13/3314 9 Meyer, R. (2019, July 16). California’s Wildfires Are 500 Percent Larger Due to Climate Change. Retrieved May 07, 2020, from https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2019/07/climate-change-500-percent-increase-california-wildfires/594016/ 10 Z. (2020, March 16). .). California Fires: Building resilience from the ashes. Retrieved April 1, 2020, from https://zurichadvocacy.com/california-fires-building-resilience-from-the-ashes/ 11 Matthew, C., & Paveglio, T. (2016, June 05). Using community archetypes to better understand differential community adaptation to wildfire risk. Retrieved July 13, 2020, from https:// royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2015.0344 12 Pierre-louis, K., & White, J. (2018, November 15). Ameri-
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cans Are Moving Closer to Nature, and to Fire Danger. Retrieved June 10, 2020, from https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/15/climate/california-fires-wildland-urban-interface.html 13 Gee, A., & Anguiano, D. (2018, December 20). Last day in Paradise: The untold story of how a fire swallowed a town. Retrieved June 24, 2020, from https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/dec/20/last-day-in-paradise-california-deadliest-fire-untold-story-survivors 14 One Year Since Camp Fire in Paradise, Calif. | ABC News. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xec013-DuCI 15 Z. (2020, March 16). .). California Fires: Building resilience from the ashes. Retrieved April 1, 2020, from https://zurichadvocacy.com/california-fires-building-resilience-from-the-ashes/ 16 Schleuss, J. (2018). Photos before and after the Camp fire reveal a town destroyed. Retrieved April 27, 2020, from https:// www.latimes.com/projects/la-me-camp-fire-paradise-before-after-photos/ 17 Falk, D., Watts, A., & Thode, A. (2019, July 02). Scaling Ecological Resilience. Retrieved August 8, 2020, from https://www. frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fevo.2019.00275/full 18 Almukhtar, S., Griggs, T., Johnson, K., Patel, J., Singhvi, A., & Watkins, D. (2018, November 18). ‘Hell on Earth’: The First 12 Hours of California’s Deadliest Wildfire. Retrieved June 25, 2020, from https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/11/18/us/ california-camp-fire-paradise.html 19 U. (2019). Town of Paradise Long-Term Community Recovery Plan. Retrieved May 22, 2020, from https://issuu.com/makeitparadise/docs/2350rptbook_final190624?fr=xKAE9_zU1NQ 20 California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection (CAL FIRE). (2020). Fire Perimeters. Retrieved August 07, 2020, from https://frap.fire.ca.gov/frap-projects/fire-perimeters/ 21 Whitney, V. (2019, September 27). Dynamic Environment Systems. Retrieved June 07, 2020, from https://medium.com/measuring-the-great-indoors/dynamic-environment-systems-a990ccf3c28c 22 Gillson, L., Whitlock, C., & Humphrey, G. (2019, August 19). Resilience and fire management in the Anthropocene. Retrieved June 3, 2020, from https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-11022-240314 23 Barton, L. (2020, May 08). Note, Let It Burn: An Argument for an Adaptive Resilience Approach to Federal Wildfire Management in the Western United States, 30 GEORGETOWN ENVTL. L. REV. 695-712 (2018). Retrieved June 28, 2020, from https:// nationalaglawcenter.org/publication/note-let-it-burn-an-argument-for-an-adaptive-resilience-approach-to-federal-wildfiremanagement-in-the-western-united-states-30-georgetown-envtl-l-rev-695-712-2018/ 24 Gillson, L., Whitlock, C., & Humphrey, G. (2019, August 19). Resilience and fire management in the Anthropocene. Retrieved July 07, 2020, from https://ecologyandsociety.org/vol24/ iss3/art14/
25 N. (n.d.). Statistics. Retrieved April 20, 2020, from https:// www.nifc.gov/fireInfo/fireInfo_statistics.html
39 US Department of the Interior. (2020, April 29). Suppression. Retrieved June 7, 2020, from https://doi.opengov.ibmcloud.com/ wildlandfire/suppression
26 Cleetus, R., & Mulik, K. (2014). Playing with Fire. Retrieved May 30, 2020, from https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/ playing-fire
40 Grebner, D., & Siry, J. (2013). Prescribed Burning. Retrieved July 27, 2020, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/prescribed-burning
27 I. (2020). Facts + Statistics: Wildfires. Retrieved May 30, 2020, from https://www.iii.org/fact-statistic/facts-statistics-wildfires
41 Z. (2020, March 16). .). California Fires: Building resilience from the ashes. Retrieved April 1, 2020, from https://zurichadvocacy.com/california-fires-building-resilience-from-the-ashes/
28 W. (2020). Paradise, California Population 2020. Retrieved July 16, 2020, from https://worldpopulationreview.com/us-cities/paradise-ca-population 29 Shore, T. (2019). Fire and Rain - Let the Rebuild Begin! Retrieved May 19, 2020, from https://sonomacountygazette.worldsecuresystems.com/sonoma-county-news/fire-and-rain-let-therebuild-begin 30 Gillson, L., Whitlock, C., & Humphrey, G. (2019, August 19). Resilience and fire management in the Anthropocene. Retrieved August 1, 2020, from https://ecologyandsociety.org/ vol24/iss3/art14/ 31 National Geographic Society. (2019, December 13). The Ecological Benefits of Fire. Retrieved July 06, 2020, from https://www. nationalgeographic.org/article/ecological-benefits-fire/ 32 Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services. (n.d.). The Natural Role of Fire. Retrieved May 28, 2020, from https://www.fdacs.gov/Divisions-Offices/Florida-Forest-Service/ Wildland-Fire/Prescribed-Fire/The-Natural-Role-of-Fire 33 Rob Wiener, M. (2019, May 15). The role of fire in forest ecosystems. Retrieved June 17, 2020, from https://www.canr.msu. edu/news/the-role-of-fire-in-forest-ecosystems 34 Kennedy, S., & Pinetl, S. (2018). Political and Economic Drivers of Wildland-urban Interface ... Retrieved July 23, 2020, from https://www.ioes.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/Political-and-Economic-Drivers-of-Wildland-Urban-Interface-in-CA_. pdf 35 World Population Review. (2020). Butte County, California Population 2020. Retrieved May 18, 2020, from https://worldpopulationreview.com/us-counties/ca/butte-county-population/ 36 World Population Review. (2020). San Francisco County, California Population 2020. Retrieved May 18, 2020, from https://worldpopulationreview.com/us-counties/ca/san-francisco-county-population/ 37 Levine, A. (2018, December 03). After a California Wildfire, New and Old Homeless Populations Collide. Retrieved April 16, 2020, from https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/03/us/california-fire-homeless.html 38 Gude, P., Rasker, R., & Van den Noort, J. (2008, June 01). Potential for Future Development on Fire-Prone Lands. Retrieved April 11, 2020, from https://academic.oup.com/jof/article/106/4/198/4599286
42 Olick, D. (2019, May 17). This fire-resistant home is the next line of defense against climate change. Retrieved August 2, 2020, from https://www.cnbc.com/2019/03/07/fire-resistant-home-isnext-line-of-defense-against-climate-change.html 43 Atkinson, W., & Moore, W. (2018). The Link Between Power Lines and Wildfires. Retrieved July 22, 2020, from https:// www.ecmag.com/section/systems/link-between-power-linesand-wildfires 44 The John Muir Project. (2019). Logging Didn’t Stop the Camp Fire. Retrieved June 14, 2020, from https://johnmuirproject. org/2019/01/logging-didnt-stop-the-camp-fire/ 45 Graw, M. (2017, October 10). We know how to fight wildfires effectively. Why don’t we do it? Retrieved August 2, 2020, from https://massivesci.com/articles/wildfire-prevention-california-controlled-burn/ 46 Gabbert, A. (2017, May 06). Adaptive resilience to wildfire. Retrieved May 5, 2020, from https://wildfiretoday.com/2017/05/06/ adaptive-resilience-to-wildfire/ 47 US Forest Service. (2015). Wildfire, wildlands, and people ... - US Forest Service. Retrieved April 28, 2020, from https://www. fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_gtr299.pdf 48 US Federal Register Vol 55 No 3. (2001). Retrieved March 29, 2020, from https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2001-01-04/ pdf/01-52.pdf 49 Susskind, J., & Berger, A. (2018). Project Cataloguing the Interface: Wildfire and Urban Development in California. Retrieved June 07, 2020, from https://lcau.mit.edu/project/cataloguing-interface-wildfire-and-urban-development-california 50 Neary, D., & Leonard, J. (2019, June 25). Physical Vulnerabilities from Wildfires: Flames, Floods, and Debris Flows. Retrieved June 12, 2020, from https://www.intechopen.com/online-first/physical-vulnerabilities-from-wildfires-flames-floods-and-debris-flows 51 Forest Service, USDA; Bureau of Indian Affairs, Bureau of Land Management, Fish and Wildlife Service, and National Park Service, USDI. (2001, January 04). Urban Wildland Interface Communities Within the Vicinity of Federal Lands That Are at High Risk From Wildfire. Retrieved June 18, 2020, from https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2001/01/04/01-52/ urban-wildland-interface-communities-within-the-vicinity-offederal-lands-that-are-at-high-risk-from
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52 Steuteville, R. (2019, June 25). 25 great ideas of the New Urbanism. Retrieved May 23, 2020, from https://www.cnu.org/publicsquare/2017/10/31/25-great-ideas-new-urbanism 53 Duany, A. (2008). SmartCode: Version 9 and manual. Retrieved May 29, 2020, from https://www.amazon.com/SmartCode-Version-9-2-Andres-Duany/dp/1467957291 54 Bsummers. (2017, July 17). Tools. Retrieved June 07, 2020, from https://www.cnu.org/resources/tools 55 CNU. (2008). Suburban retrofit boards. Retrieved May 28, 2020, from https://transect.org/docs/SuburbanRetrofitBoards. pdf 56 ArcGIS Hub. (2019). CAL FIRE Facilities for Wildland Fire Protection. Retrieved April 16, 2020, from https://gis.data.ca.gov/ datasets/1c8a93cac92f418e98a8fa6a2eaf4265_0 57 Norton, R., MacClune, K., Williams, A., Donahue, W., Fetterman, C., & Schneider, J. (n.d.). California Fires: Building resilience from the ashes. Retrieved from https://www.zurichna. com/-/media/project/zwp/zna/docs/kh/wildfire/california-wildfire-report 58 TYPES OF UNDER-EAVE CONSTRUCTION SOFFITED-EAVE ... (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.nfpa.org/-/ media/Files/Firewise/Fact-sheets/FirewiseFactSheetsUnderEaves.ashx?la=en.pdf ?la=en&hash=AB77A5B3CFC40E2C50ADB7F728728001&hash=AB77A5B3CFC40E2C50ADB7F728728001 59 Caballero, P. (2020, June 18). House for Hamacho / BORD / Gaku Inoue, Kumiko Natsumeda, Ken Akatsuka. Retrieved July 27, 2020, from https://www.archdaily.com/941821/house-forhamacho-bord 60 Schires, M. (2019, June 04). IKEA Explores Future Urban Living for the Many. Retrieved July 27, 2020, from https://www. archdaily.com/918417/ikea-explores-future-urban-living-forthe-many 61 Chen, C. (2019, July 28). Lakeside Plugin Tower / People’s Architecture Office. Retrieved July 27, 2020, from https://www. archdaily.com/921740/lakeside-plugin-tower-peoples-architecture-office 62 Mairs, J. (2015, August 18). Vijayawada tower by Penda will feature modular elements that residents can personalise. Retrieved July 27, 2020, from https://www.dezeen.com/2015/08/18/ vijayawada-garden-estate-penda-india-modular-elements-custom-facade-hanging-gardens/
65 Fxfowle, F. (2016). Public Square. Retrieved July 27, 2020, from http://www.fxcollaborative.com/projects/186/public-square/ 66 Goodyear, D. (2019). Waking Up from the California Dream in the Age of Wildfires. Retrieved August 1, 2020, from https:// www.newyorker.com/news/daily-comment/waking-up-fromthe-california-dream 67 Sellers, F. S. (2019, July 23). Forced from Paradise: Leaving home after one of America’s deadliest wildfires. Retrieved July 11, 2020, from https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2019/ national/paradise-fire-displaced-residents/ 68 Guerin, E. (2018, December 09). Fire-Resistant Is Not FireProof, California Homeowners Discover. Retrieved July 4, 2020, from https://www.npr.org/2018/12/09/673890767/fire-resistant-is-not-fire-proof-california-homeowners-discover 69 Cook, M. (2020, February 18). Is there such a thing as a fireproof house? Retrieved August 2, 2020, from https://www.abc. net.au/news/2020-01-22/bushfire-bunker-fireproofing-houses/11885578 70 Hanmer, G. (2020, January 30). Building standards give us false hope. There’s no such thing as a fireproof house. Retrieved July 17, 2020, from https://techxplore.com/news/2020-01-standards-false-fireproof-house.html 71 Alexander, K. (2019, May 03). Six months after the Camp Fire, a devastated community looks to rebuild. Retrieved May 20, 2020, from https://projects.sfchronicle.com/2019/rebuilding-paradise/ 72 Shogren, E. (2017, December 12). A century of fire suppression is why California is in flames. Retrieved July 10, 2020, from https://www.motherjones.com/environment/2017/12/a-centuryof-fire-suppression-is-why-california-is-in-flames/ 73 Schoennagel, T., Balch, J., Brenkert-Smith, H., Dennison, P., Harvey, B., Krawchuk, M., . . . Whitlock, C. (2017, May 02). Adapt to more wildfire in western North American forests as climate changes. Retrieved May 1, 2020, from https://www.pnas.org/content/114/18/4582.full 74 Graw, M. (2017, October 10). We know how to fight wildfires effectively. Why don’t we do it? Retrieved July 3, 2020, from https://massivesci.com/articles/wildfire-prevention-california-controlled-burn/ 75 CALIFORNIA ASSOCIATION OF REALTORS. (2019). Historical Housing Data. Retrieved June 6, 2020, from https://www.car.org/ marketdata/data/housingdata/
63 Zorn, A. (2017, July 24). Ten Fold Designs Revolutionary Structure that Self-Deploys in Minutes. Retrieved July 27, 2020, from https://www.archdaily.com/876089/ten-fold-designs-revolutionary-structure-that-self-deploys-in-minutes
76 Carroll, M., & Paveglio, T. (2016, June 5). Using community archetypes to better understand differential community adaptation to wildfire risk. Retrieved July 6, 2020, from https:// www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4874419/
64 Silva, V. (2020, July 12). The Stack Modular Housing in Manhattan / Gluck+. Retrieved July 27, 2020, from https:// www.archdaily.com/943491/the-stack-modular-housing-inmanhattan-gluck-plus
77 Curwen, T., & Serna, J. (2018, November 20). The Camp fire burned homes but left trees standing. The science behind the fire’s path. Retrieved July 1, 2020, from https://www.latimes. com/local/california/la-me-camp-fire-lessons-20181120-story. html
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Th i s ma p s tu d i e s th e re la ti o n s h i p b e twe e n fire size & road accessibility. A la rg e r ra d i u s d ra wn a ro u n d wi ld fi re s i te s a re indicative of better road access t o lo ca ti o n , me a s u re d b y th e to ta l le n g th o f ro a d s captured w ithin a 20km radius from eac h f ire . I n 2 0 18 , la rg e r fi re s a p p e a r to h a v e o ccu re d in areas w ith less ideal road connectivity, sug g e s ti n g th a t p o o re r ro a d n e two rk s mi g h t h a v e negatively affected the response rate a t wh i ch re s o u rce s we re a b le to reach the fires.
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2018 Fire Perimeters Fire Stations O b s e r v a t i o n t o we r s Headquarters Training Camps Logistics Hubs Wildfire facility cluster
Each wil dfire facil ity cl uster demarcates the boundary within which a fire site is served by the cl osest i. fire station ii.observation tower iii. headquarters iv.training camps v.l ogistics hub
Inc r easing f ir e s i z e
AS S ES S IN G P R O XIMIT Y O F FIR E RE SPONSE F A C I L I TI E S SE RV I NG 2 0 1 8 F I RE S Th i s ma p e x p lo re s th e h y p o th e s i s th a t a wi ld fi re site that is served m ore closely by a com bination of fire re s p o n s e fa ci li ti e s wo u ld b e a b le to mi n i mi s e fire spread m ore effectively. Fire response facilities w ere s p li t i n to fi v e d i s ti n ct ca te g o ri e s , n a me ly fi re stations, observation tow ers, headquarters, training cam ps, a n d lo g i s ti c h u b s . A wi ld fi re fa ci li ty clu s te r i s bounded by five points, w ith each point corresponding to the n e a re s t fa ci li ty o f e a ch ca te g o ry th a t s e rv es a w ildfire site. Sorting the 2018 by size along w ith its fa ci li ty clu s te r (s e e a b o v e ) i n d i ca te s a la ck of correlation betw een facility cluster size and w ildfire spread.
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HEADQUARTERS: KERN COUNTY OFFICE OF EMERGENCY SERVICES
Emergency operation centers serve as a centralised point of communication for multi-agency and multi-jurisdiction coordination in the event of a wildfire. Operations within emergency centers include coordination of resource dispatch, inter-jurisdictional response, and emergency management.
In some cases, emergency operation centers are located within a single complex alongside fire fighting facilities, such as the Kern County office of emergency services that is located beside a fire station.
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2 Fir etr u ck Par king Gar age 3 Helicopter Hangar 4 Helipad 5 Rescu e T r aining Tower
LOGISTICS HUB: HELITACK BASE
Wildfire fighting efforts depend heavily on air operations, particularly in challenging terrains that are inaccessible via fire engines. This is common in high risk, densely forested WUI communities, in which case fire fighting jets are swiftly deployed from helitack bases to deposit gallons of water containing flame retardant over the burn site. Aerial firefighting however is a costly operation: Helitack bases and aircraft costs aside, tankers cost $6,000 USD an hour to operate, with each water drop depositing $9,000 USD worth of flame retardant.
Helitack bases are typically located on suburban land (near forested areas) and features 2 to 5 buildings in an integrated facility. For instance, the Cal Fire Vina Helitack base shown above is 1 of 14 helitack bases in California, featuring two Helipads and a 280m 2 hangar. Apart from aircraft infrastructure, the facility is complete with an administrative wing, a 22-barrack building with kitchen, as well as a rescue training tower.
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LOGISTICS HUB: EQUIPMENT FA C I L I T Y
Equipment facilities like the CAL FIRE Davis Mobile Equipment Facility are responsible for the design, maintenance, repairs, replacement, aquisition and disposal of fire equipment owned by the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection. Cal Fire Davis Equipment Facility Plan, 1:3500
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T R A I N I N G FA C I L I T I E S : TRAINING CENTERS
Training centers provide equipment and infrastructure required for the training of fire fighting personnel, and features burn towers, burn props, classrooms, scenario buildings, student housing, physical training facilities, and administrative offices. Ben Clark Training Center, Plan, 1:3500
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Secur ity Housing U nit Administr ative Segr egation U nit Pr ison Industr y Auth or ity Pr otective Hou sing U nit Long- Ter m Restr icted Housing Konkocti Conservation Camp No. 27 Plan, 1:3500
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Cor r ectional T r eatment Center E nh anced Pr ogr am Facility
T R A I N I N G FA C I L I T I E S : C O N S E R VA T I O N CAMPS
An integral part of California’s reformative program for prison inmates, conservation camps account for the training of over 30% of the state’s firefighters, saving up to $80 million dollars in firefighting costs annually. Konocti Conservation Camp is one of 40 over of such camps located across California, where 108 low-level felons are trained to be front-line personnel equipped to deal with active wildfires in this facility located in the forested outskirts of Lake County.
often located in intermix WUI conditions, and commonly feature a cluster of low-rise, small footprint buildings and temporary structures (between 100 – 400 m 2) scattered within a plot of suburban land.
Like Konocti, most conservation camps are D e s ig n f o r a n e w f ire -re s il ie n t c o m m un ity
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Oxnard Fire Station No. 8 Plan, 1:3500
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4 Appar atu s B ay 5 Of f ices/Fu nction Rooms
FIRE STATION: SCHEDULE A
All fire stations in California are run under Cal Fire, a department of the California Natural Resources Agency. Schedule A Fire Stations are country and municipal fire departments, primarily located in city centres to deal mostly with urban fires as compared to wildland fires. These fire stations generally comprise of a single central compound with an apparatus bay, sleeping quarters, and training facilities.
masonry and concrete floor finishes, with programmatic spaces designed to optimise the efficiency of travelling between the apparatus bays, private quarters, and daily use facilities.
Oxnard Fire Station No. 8 features a 1550m 2 main compound with heavy duty D e s ig n f o r a n e w f ire -re s il ie n t c o m m un ity
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C O M M U N I C A T I O N FA C I L I T I E S : LOOKOUT POINT
Keller Peak Lookout Point, Plan, 1:2500
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Lookouts provided quick information on initial signs of wildfire in remote wildland areas. However, these lookouts have become obsolete in recent times as first reports are often given by the inreasing number of WUI residents. Due to air pollution, Southern California had ceased the use of lookout for fire detection purposes, although lookouts in Northern California are still in use.
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C O M M U N I C A T I O N FA C I L I T I E S : COMMAND CENTER
Command Centers serve the community in receiving emergency reports and allocating the appropriate resources for the emergency. They are usually single building facilities equipped with a call center, and are in occasion located along other wildfire support infrastructure (such as the Fresno Emergency Command Center located beside the county’s Helitack base).
Fresno Emergency Command Center, Plan, 1:3500
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K67 | SA Ĺ A J. M Ă„C H T I G
A design that experiments with mobile, modular units, the idea of agglomeration, rapid assembly/disassembly, and flexible functions is demonstrated in this project. Configurations range from an information stand to a dwelling, in turn serving an integral role in diversifying and linking Eastern Europe’s public space.
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Rapid assembly for ease of adaptability
GREEN MAGIC HOMES
Green magic homes is a firm specialising in biophilic construction systems and prefabrication. Using re-enforced polymer modules, homes can be constructed within 3 days, and are designed to be weather adaptable and customisable as well. Scalability also allows for a variety of changes in use cases over short time periods.
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