Wellington College BaCoN Michaelmas 2023 2nd Edition

Black Holes and Wormholes: Portals in Spacetime?

Go With Your Gut: Exploring the Source of Our Intuition

BaCoN+: The Dangers of Nitrous Oxide Use

Editor’s Note

F

or the first time in BaCoN history, this edition has NO THEME! We decided to abolish the idea of sticking to a strict theme in this edition to allow for more writer freedom and a wider range of articles. This edition brings together mathematics, biochemistry, and astrophysics, suiting any scientific interest. Moreover, this edition features not one, but two BaCoN+ articles, for those who want a more challenging read.

-Editor, Rod.

Read BaCoN online

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Contents Page: 4

Black Holes in a New Light

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Unearthing Potential Past Life on Mars

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Where is Everybody?

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Exploring the Mysterious Nature of UFO Sightings

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Bioluminescence

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Go With Your Gut!

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Adrenaline vs Flow State

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Curing Cancer With Particle Accelerators

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Gene-Edited Food

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The Maths Behind Texas Hold’Em Poker

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Is Nitrous Oxide Safe To Consume?

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Josh (Bn)

BLACK HOLES IN A NEW LIGHT So, what are black holes? The definition of a black hole is, 'a region of space having a gravitational field so intense that neither matter nor radiation can escape the field.' This happens due to astronomical amounts of mass packed and condensed into such a small area (relatively of course, black holes are in fact huge, on average about 24 billion (24000000000) miles in diameter). Black holes are thought to be formed every second all across the universe. This happens when a large star that dies in a supernova explosion collapses in on itself. Dying with a 'passion' some may say.

GRAVITY AROUND A BLACK HOLE As mass is so densely packed in black holes, their gravitational pull is extremely large. This causes them to make an impact on space and time but also the galaxies, stars and other physical masses around them. Black holes can cause surrounding stars and other cosmic objects to orbit around it, like the planets orbiting the sun in our solar system. On the other hand, in binary systems, where a black hole and a star are closely bound, the black hole can pull material from its companion star, leading to the emission of X-rays and the formation of an accretion disk. If stars fall too close to black holes, they can end up being torn apart, this process is called 'tidal disruption.'

The 'feedback mechanism' is a phenomenon observed when a spinning black hole (spin is an inherent property of all black holes), in the process of accreting matter, causes giant spinning rings of gas around it (note that the rings are far from the event horizon) to heat up drastically from the colossal acceleration they experience. At such high temperatures, the electrons in the gas get excited and move up energy levels. When the electrons then proceed to drop back down to their original energy level, energy is released in the form of radiation, this creates a so-called ‘radiation pressure’. The name radiation pressure is a result of a fundamental property of light: momentum. Photons are considered to be massless particles, which may cause many to think they cannot have momentum, nevertheless, quantum mechanics states otherwise defining the momentum of a photon as = ℎ where ℎ is Plank’s constant and is the wavelength of light.

Having established that photons have momentum, it is then not much of a leap to propose they can exert a force, which is in fact the case. Radiation pressure is a name for the force exerted by the photons emitted by the spinning gas on the spinning gas itself. When this pressure becomes sufficient, it can cause jets of gas to be expelled from the rings at very high speeds. The jets are part of the black hole feedback phenomenon. This feedback can influence the rate of star formation in the galaxy and may even play a part in the regulation of the growth of the black hole.

Last but certainly not least, a black hole can have long-term effects on the evolution of the galaxy itself, it can affect the distribution of stars, gas, and dark matter, and influence the overall structure or shape of the galaxy. In summary, black holes have a tremendous impact on the structure of space around them.

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Black Holes & Wormholes WHAT HAPPENS IN A BLACK HOLE? What if you went near/into one?

What would happen if you were to go near or even enter a black hole? So, if you were to get close enough to one, even before you would reach the event horizon, you would be spaghettified. This essentially means you would be stretched so much by gravity that you would become one long strand of, well, you. Taking a hypothetical scenario in which that doesn’t happen and you manage to make it past the event horizon, only you would know what lies on the other side, as scientists still struggle to understand what lies past the event horizon.

Why is a black hole black?

The simple answer to this question is, like most things related to black holes - gravity. As you know the gravitational pull of a black hole is huge, so big that not even light can escape it. Seeing light is what makes things non-black. In the absence of light, nothing is visible, hence everything will appear black. You may be asking: if a black hole doesn’t emit or reflect any light, then how can we see them? Well, the answer once again lies in the rings of gas around the black hole and the radiation they emit. Since the light emitted by the gas isn’t past the event horizon, it can be observed from vast distances away, which is what makes black holes visible in telescopes.

Another way of recognizing a black hole is noting that a region of space bends light travelling past it. This phenomenon can be observed with stars and planets as well, but to a futile extent.

Time in a black hole.

To start this off, time in a black hole is still a topic of ongoing research and many of the 'answers' we have nowadays are only hypotheses. However, some of the theories we have nowadays are fairly interesting. An example of such a theory is gravitational time dilation, an element of Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity. This theory states that massive gravitational fields will cause time to dilate of flow slower. This means that relative to a frame of reference where one isn’t subjected to a colossal gravitational field, time will flow slower in a black hole.

ARE BLACK HOLES PORTALS? This question often sprouts as a result of watching ‘Interstellar,’ a movie which explores the concept of a black hole bending space, allowing someone to get to a different galaxy in an instant.

This question often arises as the result of confusion between black holes and wormholes. Wormholes are theoretical entities which function as a tunnel-like system in spacetime, connecting two different points in time or space, hence a 'portal.'

This is what was seen in 'Interstellar'. Although wormholes are completely theoretical and there is no evidence that they exist, they are based off Einstein's Theory of General Relativity, and the study of wormholes is an active area of theoretical physics.

To conclude this portal topic, are black holes portals?

No. Are wormholes portals?

Yes, they are.

But do they exist?

Not that we know of.

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Jeremy (Bn)

Unearthing the footsteps of potential past life on Mars The Red planet, Mars, has captivated the imaginations of both scientists and the general public for years. As the closest planet to our Earth, life on Mars has always been a source of wide international discussion and debate. For generations, humans have observed the barren land of the planet’s crust, wondering if it could answer humanity’s most profound question, is there life beyond Earth? While definitive proof of life beyond our planet remains uncertain, the Red Planet with its atmosphere has provided scientists and space enthusiasts with significant evidence and clues that there was potential for past life.

The journey to unearth all the clues Mars is withholding has always been at the forefront of many governmental agencies. NASA's Curiosity rover and the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter have been scouring the Martian landscape, collecting data and images that provide invaluable insights into the planet's history.

Water One of the essential conditions for life is the presence of water (H2O), and there is indisputable evidence that Mars once had plenty of it. Visible ancient river valleys, lake beds, and even polar ice caps suggest that Mars was a watery world in its distant past. In 2015, NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter detected recurring slope lineage (RSL), which are dark streaks that appear on the Martian surface during the warmer months. These streaks are believed to be caused by the intermittent flow of water.

H2O is crucial to starting life as it acts as a solvent. Its unique chemical properties make it capable of dissolving substances and enabling key chemical reactions to take place in animal, plant and microbial cells. The presence of water, even in small amounts, is a game-changer in the search for life, as it provides a potential habitat for microbial organisms.

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Mars Exploration

Methane The presence of methane in the atmosphere of Mars has also intrigued many scientists. On Earth, methane has been primarily produced by biological processes. Methanogenesis is the process of anaerobic respiration by micro-organisms which primarily produces methane as the final product of metabolism. The detection of the gas in seasonal bursts could suggest a biological source is present (e.g. microorganisms), however geological causes have not been ruled out completely. A conclusive explanation for this, could be the presence of subsurface microbial organisms which would be a revolutionary discovery, however, for now, this is only a theory.

Ancient Organic Material In 2018, the Curiosity rover made a groundbreaking discovery when it detected organic molecules within Martian rocks. These organic molecules (containing carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorous) are the building blocks of life, and their presence on Mars suggests that the planet may have once harboured the conditions necessary for life to emerge. These building block elements were discovered when the rover drilled and obtained samples of Martian rock. It then performed a SAM (Sample Analysis at Mars) test. The test included vaporizing the soil, before using a mass spectrometer to separate the elements present for identification. Similarly, a chromatograph separated the different present gases for analysis. The Curiosity rover has also found evidence of clay minerals, which form in the presence of water. These minerals are indicative of a once-wet environment, further supporting the notion that Mars may have been conducive to life in its distant past.

The most profound questions of our time: Did life once exist on Mars, and does it still exist in some form today? The quest for answers continues, and with each new discovery, we come one step closer to unravelling the mysteries of our celestial neighbour and the potential clues it holds to the origins of life in the universe.

NASA Mars exploration status 7

Harry (Hl)

“Where is Everybody?”

How the JWST holds the potential to find new worlds and resolve Fermi’s Paradox In the summer of 1950, physicist Enrico Fermi sat having lunch with his friends, conversing about the probability of life emerging within our galaxy. He posited that because of the sheer number of stars in our galaxy and our Sun’s relative youth (in contrast to the universe’s age), if only a fraction of these stars harboured intelligent life, then our galaxy should be teeming with all kinds of “signals, ships, artifacts”. But it isn’t. Because of this, Fermi posed the now-famous question: “Where is Everybody?”.

Now, the James Webb Space Telescope inches us ever closer to solving this mystery.

Distances in space are almost incomprehensible. Proxima Centauri, the closest star to our sun, is only 4.2 light years away. Despite this, it will still take Voyager 1, an unmanned spacecraft launched in 1977 with the goal of being interstellar, another 73,000 years to reach Proxima Centauri. Obviously, no humans could survive this long to reach other stars. Some argue that, given enough time, intelligent aliens would be technologically advanced enough to travel these distances in a relatively short amount of time, but if this were the case, surely we would be able to detect these ships due to their abnormal appearance against the night sky?

Or perhaps, intelligent life is rarer than we ever gave it credit for. Rocky planets, like our own, often have varying temperatures and environments: early Earth was no exception. The first trace of life dates back to 3.8 billion years ago when single-celled organisms first formed. Intelligent life in the form of early human ancestors (Homo erectus) evolved only 1.5 million years ago. These lengths of time could be due to the perilous environment in which they evolved, where the Earth consistently went through periods of freezing cold temperatures, extreme volcanic activity, and mass extinctions.

Considering this, it seems extremely unlikely for intelligent life to evolve without simultaneously facing circumstances that would guarantee its own extinction.

Nevertheless, as the new James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) brings us ever closer to finding life outside Earth, it’s clear that human interest in the search for extra-terrestrial biology remains. The JWST allows us to make accurate estimates about the chemical makeup of the atmosphere on Earthlike planets; astronomers can now assess how likely or unlikely alien life would be to emerge on these planets. If these worlds contain oxygen and nitrogen in their atmosphere (like Earth), then it’s reasonable to assume they could accommodate alien life. If traces of organic molecules are present, then biological reactions may already be happening. Given the JWST’s ability to double-check observations made by other telescopes, it holds “the precision to find such worlds.”

While the Fermi Paradox remains unsolved, that does not undermine its fundamental philosophical and scientific importance to humanity. The discovery of alien life, or its discovery of us, will undoubtedly be the most important discovery in all of human history.

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Tobie (Bn)

Exploring the mysterious nature of UFO sightings Introduction The question of whether aliens exist has been a topic of interest and speculation for centuries. While the scientific community has not definitively answered this question, the possibility of extraterrestrial life has fascinated the human imagination. This essay delves into the debate surrounding the existence of aliens, examines the notion of human delusions, and contemplates the likelihood of life beyond our planet.

The Search for Extraterrestrial Life The quest to find extraterrestrial life has been ongoing for decades, with scientists employing advanced technologies and methods to explore distant planets and moons within our solar system and beyond. The discovery of exoplanets in the habitable zone, where conditions may be suitable for life as we know it, has fuelled optimism that life could exist elsewhere in the universe. Despite these advancements, definitive evidence of extraterrestrial life remains elusive.

Human Delusions and the UFO Phenomenon Reports of unidentified aerial phenomena, or UFOs, have been documented globally, raising questions about their origin and purpose. If these unidentified objects were indeed piloted by extraterrestrial beings, one must question why they chose to fly over Earth without making contact.

Despite people claiming to see UFOs, scepticism surrounds this phenomenon, with most dismissing sightings as products of human delusions, misidentifications of natural phenomena, or the result of experimental military aircraft. The psychological aspect of these encounters cannot be overlooked, as the human mind may interpret unfamiliar stimuli as extraterrestrial in nature. Additionally, cultural influences and social media portrayals may contribute to the perception of unidentified objects as alien spacecraft. The challenge lies in distinguishing genuine sightings from the myriad of natural and human-made phenomena that can be misconstrued as evidence of extraterrestrial visitation.

Life Beyond Earth: A Cosmic Perspective The question of whether life exists beyond Earth extends beyond the UFO phenomenon. Scientists have explored the potential for microbial life on Mars, the icy moons of Jupiter and Saturn, and exoplanets in the habitable zones of distant star systems. Moreover, the discovery of extremophiles on Earth (organisms thriving in extreme conditions) suggests that life may exist in environments previously deemed inhospitable. The vastness of the universe, with its billions of galaxies and trillions of stars, amplifies the likelihood that life, in some form, may exist elsewhere.

Conclusion The existence of aliens remains one of the most intriguing and debated topics in science and popular culture. While scientists continue to explore the cosmos for signs of extraterrestrial life, the mystery of UFOs and their alleged sightings over Earth persists. However, until concrete evidence emerges, the question of whether aliens exist will likely continue to captivate the human imagination and drive scientific exploration.

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Jeevan (W)

Bioluminescence Introduction: In the dark depths of the ocean and the quiet corners of the rainforest, a spectacular natural phenomenon occurs, called bioluminescence. This captivating display of living light has fascinated scientists for centuries. In this article we delve into a mesmerising world of bioluminescence, exploring what it is, how it works and some of the remarkable creatures that have this unique adaption.

What is bioluminescence?

Bioluminescence is the production and emission of light by living organisms. Caused by a chemical reaction that takes place within specialised cells in specific organs or structures. The key to this mesmerising phenomenon is a molecule called luciferin, which, when combined with oxygen in an enzyme called luciferase, creates light.

How does it work?

The prosses of bioluminescence can be compared to striking a match. In a match, you have a chemical reaction between the match head striking a surface, which produces heat and light. In bioluminescence, luciferin, luciferase and oxygen come together in a controlled chemical reaction, generating light without heat.

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Bioluminescence Bioluminescent creatures: • Fireflies: Perhaps one of the most well-known bioluminescent insects, fireflies use their flashing lights to communicate with one another during mating rituals.

• Deep-sea creatures: Many organisms living in the darkest depths of the ocean utilise bioluminescence for various purposes including camouflage, attracting prey, or deterring predators.

• Glowing mushrooms: Even some fungi exhibit bioluminescence. There are various species of mushroom that produce a soft, eerie glow in the dark.

• Bioluminescent algae: Some species of algae create a beautiful bioluminescent display when disturbed, for example by waves crashing on the shore.

The importance of bioluminescence: Bioluminescence serves a variety of ecological and survival functions. It can be used for communication, hunting, camouflage, and even as a means of attracting mates. For scientists, studying bioluminescence can help unlock the secrets of many organisms and their ecosystems, providing valuable insights into biodiversity and the interconnectedness of life on Earth.

Conclusion: Bioluminescence is a captivating natural phenomenon that continues to inspire the curiosity of scientists and nature enthusiasts of all ages.

Its presence in various ecosystems, from the depths of the ocean to the heart of the rainforest, highlights the incredible diversity of life on our planet. Exploring the world of bioluminescence can spark a sense of wonder and a deeper appreciation for the beauty and complexity of the natural world. So next time you encounter a firefly on a summer evening or see a documentary on the mysteries of the deep sea, remember the fascinating science behind all these living lights.

Bioluminescence explained

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Ailin (Hg)

Go With Your Gut! Ever heard of a ‘gut feeling’? A phrase commonly thrown around in day-to-day life, but the meaning behind it is much deeper. Did you know that the gut could be referred to as the second brain? Bacteria can influence our behaviour via the 100 million neurons in our gut and affect our thinking processes!

That is why your ‘gut feeling' often suggests rational choices.

Gut health refers to the health of your digestive system and the bacteria and microorganisms in it.

Each person has about 200 different types of bacteria, viruses, and fungi in their digestive tract.

Some microbes are hazardous to our health, but plenty are really beneficial and, in fact, essential for a healthy body. A diverse bacterial population in the gut may help minimise the risk of illnesses such as diabetes, inflammatory bowel disease, and psoriatic arthritis.

The human gut is complicated and influences the entire body; it serves as the foundation for human wellness.

The immune system and the microbiota in the gut are thought to cooperate from birth, when our bodies are initially exposed to bacteria.

High insulin levels are linked to gastrointestinal problems. Approximately 63% of individuals with insulin resistance suffer digestive and kidney issues. People who have higher amounts of a type of gut bacteria known as Coprococcus have higher insulin sensitivity.

Gut health should be prioritised by all people because it is directly linked to mental health. The gut produces 95% of the body's serotonin via specialised enterochromaffin cells. Researchers recently discovered that when cells are stimulated by food, serotonin is released, which subsequently acts on nerves that interact with the brain.

Multiple studies have linked Major Depressive Disorder to lower numbers of bacteria that generate butyrate and short-chain fatty acids. Poor nutrition can induce a shortage of these bacteria.

Additionally, a healthy gut equals beautiful, glowing skin. A healthy gut will synthesise extra vitamins and minerals that aid your skin, such as thiamine and riboflavin.

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Gut Microbiome

FMT (Faecal Microbiota Transplant) The procedure of transplanting faecal bacteria and other microorganisms from one healthy person to another is known as faecal microbiota transplantation. FMT is an effective therapy for Clostridium difficile infection, an infection of the large intestine (colon) caused by the bacteria Clostridium difficile.

The aim of this procedure is to restore a healthy balance of bacteria in the gut, and get the body used to it again.

Do I have a healthy gut?

Extensive stomach pain, vomiting and diarrhea, indigestion and irregular excretion and egestion can also be symptoms of an unhealthy gut.

What can I do to improve my Gut Health?

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Consume more fibre, such as fruits, veggies (I know, gross), wholegrains, and nuts, which feed beneficial bacteria and lower cholesterol levels. However, if you have low fibre levels, an abrupt increase may result in significant bloating. To avoid this, make moderate modifications and drink plenty of water.

Consume more probiotic foods, such as miso, sauerkraut, yoghurt, and kefir. They can act as gut beneficial bacteria and create physical barriers against harmful bacteria.

Avoid taking antibiotics unnecessarily; they can kill 'good' bacteria as well as 'bad' bacteria, and antibiotic overuse can be damaging to gut health.

Injuries and burns can increase gut permeability, allowing germs to travel from the intestines into the bloodstream and other regions.

Sleep! Stress and a lack of sleep may both have a negative effect on the health of the gut. The gut and the brain are inextricably linked by a communication network known as the gut-brain axis. Stress and lack of sleep can disturb this relationship, resulting in gastrointestinal symptoms such as bloating, diarrhea, or constipation.

Fun Facts!

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Your gut microbiome weighs approximately 2kg and is bigger than the average human brain!

The gut microbiome contains approximately 150 times more genes than the human genome The gut doesn’t need the brain’s input to function The gut has its own nervous system A healthy gut may be able to protect your bones! Researchers found out that the gut’s release of serotonin counteracts the bone-density reduction of osteoporosis in mice!

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Casi & Oli (Bn)

Adrenaline vs Flow State Adrenaline, a hormone secreted by the adrenal glands, heightens blood circulation, breathing, and carbohydrate metabolism, priming muscles for exertion. In contrast, the state of flow refers to the immersive and energized focus experienced during an activity, commonly known as being 'in the zone.'

This essay aims to explore and compare the positives and negatives of both flow state and adrenaline to arrive at a justified conclusion regarding their effectiveness and utility.

Let's delve into the advantages of the flow state. Firstly, it enhances performance and is often associated with "peak performance," where individuals excel and operate at their optimal efficiency, fostering increased creativity and productivity. This phenomenon is notably observed in sports and other creative pursuits. Another benefit is heightened motivation, as individuals in a flow state not only enjoy but actively engage in their activities, facilitating excellence in their endeavours. Additionally, flow state improves learning and concentration, aiding in absorbing information and making connections, which is beneficial in both sports and academic contexts. Moreover, it is suggested that flow state can reduce stress, acting as a form of mindfulness and relaxation.

However, there are potential drawbacks to the flow state. Dependency on entering this state may lead to performance issues, and the constant pursuit of it could result in burnout and mental exhaustion.

Adrenaline, a hormone produced by the adrenal glands, offers several advantages when released in the body. Firstly, it increases alertness, sharpens mental focus, and enables swift responses to perceived threats. Additionally, adrenaline provides a quick energy boost by stimulating the release of glucose and fatty acids into the bloodstream, serving as a rapid energy source for muscles. Another benefit is the heightened heart rate caused by adrenaline, promoting increased blood flow to muscles and enhancing oxygen delivery, thereby boosting cardiovascular endurance. Moreover, adrenaline is associated with enhanced strength and speed.

Despite these advantages, adrenaline comes with disadvantages. Its short-lived effects can lead to negative health consequences, potentially damaging muscles and weakening the immune system.

Adrenaline-induced redirection of blood away from non-essential functions, such as digestion, may result in impaired digestive processes if sustained. Furthermore, the hormone can cause insomnia, making it challenging for individuals to relax or fall asleep.

Real-life scenarios where adrenaline comes into play include emergency situations, sporting performances, particularly in competitive situations, and encounters with danger. Adrenaline is prominently observed in action during events like car accidents, fires, competitive sports, and public speaking.

In conclusion, the comparison between flow state and adrenaline reveals that both have unique advantages tailored to specific scenarios. Flow state is characterized by heightened focus and absorption in the activity, making it suitable for precision, skill, and hyperfocus. On the other hand, adrenaline is associated with the "fight or flight" response and proves useful in situations with immediate danger or highstakes activities, such as extreme sports and emergencies.

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Charlotte (A)

Curing Cancer With Particle Accelerators Particle accelerators, both large and small, play a crucial role in advancing medical treatments, especially cancer research and therapy. Large particle accelerators, such as those at ISIS (Rutherford Appleton Laboratory) and CERN (European Organization for Nuclear Research), are huge structures usually used for fundamental research in particle physics. CERN sits in a tunnel over 100 metres underground and is made up of a 27 km ring of extremely powerful magnets - that’s equivalent to 270 football pitches long!

However, the impact of particle accelerators extends far beyond physics into many areas of medicine.

Accelerators contribute to the development and improvement of medicines, improving drug efficiency and safety. The knowledge gained from these massive machines help us to understand the behaviour of particles at the smallest levels, essential for discovery of new drugs.

On a much smaller scale, particle accelerators are being applied in healthcare much more frequently, particularly in the treatment of cancer. The newly built particle accelerator in Oxford at the John Radcliffe Hospital illustrates this new technology. These tiny accelerators, which can be relatively easily accommodated in hospitals, offer a targeted and very powerful tool for cancer treatment by a method called proton therapy.

Proton therapy involves using protons (positively charged particles) at extremely high speeds to accurately target and destroy cancer cells. Unlike radiation therapy, proton therapy reduces damage to healthy tissues surrounding the cancer, minimizing side effects and improving effectiveness of the treatment. The new accelerator in Oxford is a step forward in bringing this complex cancer treatment to a more accessible level.

In future, forward steps in particle accelerator technology for medical purposes are anticipated. Continuing research hopes to make these accelerators smaller, and more affordable and efficient, hopefully opening new doors for cancer treatment in a larger range of healthcare facilities. As technology develops, the involvement of particle accelerators in medical practices may become even more straightforward, offering improved treatment options for patients with various types of cancer.

In conclusion, the diverse applications of particle accelerators, from large-scale research at facilities like ISIS to cancer treatment in hospitals, highlight their vital role in both physics and medicine. The recent developments, demonstrated by the new particle accelerator in Oxford, signal a promising future where these technologies continue to evolve, providing better tools for cancer treatment and medical research.

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Freya (Ap)

Gene-Edited Food What is it?

Gene-edited food is the product of a scientific process that enables researches to change the DNA of foods using gene-editing technologies. It can be used to employ or enhance desirable traits in crop or livestock, which make them more pleasing to their consumers. These traits might include increased immunity to pests or diseases, or it could be to improve nutritional content.

How does it work?

Gene-modification involves adding genes to an organism (crop), which have been taken from a different species. One method to deliver the genetic information into the cells of the plant is by coating metal particles with genetic information (DNA) and bombarding cells with last amounts of such particles, using a device called a gene gun. A separate method is to use a bacterial or viral vector to deliver the DNA into cells. The gene of interest is transferred into the bacteria and then the bacterial cells infect the plant cells, thereby transferring the gene. There is also something known as cisgenesis which is very similar to gene-modification but it involves adding genes from a very similar/closely related species, into the DNA .

Then comes the gene editing. Gene editing is where scientists add or remove a small section of the plant’s DNA to change it or get rid of any unwanted characteristics. The way this is done is by using a gene editor enzyme known as CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat).

CRISPR works by cutting a DNA sequence at a specific location and deleting or inserting DNA sequences, which can change a single base pair of DNA or large pieces of chromosomes. This technique can be used to incorporate the desired gene into the plant’s genome.

More on CRISPR 16

Gene-Edited Food

Is gene-edited food safe to eat?

Many scientists from around the world insist that gene-edited food is safe to eat and they point out that all modified food would be rigorously tested before being released to the public. According to the BBC: ‘scientists argue that genetically modified crops have been consumed by billions of consumers all across North and South America for more than 25 years with no ill-effect’. On the other hand, according to the National Library of Medicine: ‘health risks associated with GE and GM foods are concerned with toxins, allergens or genetic hazards.’ As well as this, many sources say that there is a chance that they can effect allergies or resistance to antibiotics.

More on GM crops

The future of gene-edited food: At the moment, there are many laws around the world that allow gene-edited food to be sold and consumed. It varies throughout countries. For example, according to the image below, most of North and South America, and Australia seem to have the least amount of restrictions, whilst the majority of Europe has incredibly high restrictions.

During March 2023, gene-edited food was allowed to be developed commercially in England following a change in the law. Supporters said that the use of the new technology will speed up the development of hardier crops that will soon be needed in the UK due to climate change, whilst critics are saying that it could bring disaster to our food production as a country.

Many countries are changing their law much like England’s and soon enough, gene-edited food may become a part of our normal lives.

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Oscar (M)

The Maths Behind Texas Hold’Em Poker Texas Hold'em, more than just a card game of luck and bluffing, is a cerebral battleground where mathematics and strategy intertwine. At its core, it's governed by probabilities and statistical calculations. Among many strategic concepts, the Game Theory Optimal (GTO) model stands out, offering a framework for making unexploitable decisions. This article delves into the fascinating interplay of mathematics, probability, and GTO strategies in Texas Hold'em, unveiling the secrets behind every skilled player's decision-making process.

Probability is the backbone of Texas Hold'em. With 52 cards in a deck, understanding how to calculate combinations and permutations is essential. Here, game theory begins to weave its web, as it is not just the probability of the cards in hand, but also the predicted probabilities of the opponents' hands and their potential decisions that shape a player's strategy.

Calculating the probability of winning a hand in Texas Hold'em poker requires a blend of statistical analysis and a deep understanding of the game. Firstly, it is crucial to be familiar with poker hand rankings, which range from a Royal Flush as the highest to a High Card as the lowest.

The process starts with analysing your hand. Pre-flop, you evaluate the strength of your two hole cards. For instance, a pair of Aces is a strong hand at this stage. Post-flop, it's important to assess how the flop cards have improved your hand. For example, holding two hearts and seeing two more on the flop significantly increases your chances for a Flush.

Next, consider the concept of 'Outs', which are cards remaining in the deck that could improve your hand. Identify these cards and count them. For instance, if you are aiming for a Flush and have seen four hearts, there are nine hearts left in a standard deck. To calculate the odds of making your hand, use the rule of 2 and 4. Multiply your outs by 4 when two cards are to come (post-flop) or by 2 when only one card is to come (post-turn). For example, with nine outs post-flop, you have about a 36% chance of hitting your Flush by the river.

However, there is also a way to calculate specific probabilities of hitting your Flush. In this example, there are 9 hearts out of the 47 cards left (52 take away 2 in your hand and 3 cards on the flop). The probability of you hitting your flush would be 9/47 (the probability of your card coming on the turn) + 8/46 (the probability of your card coming on the river) which is 36.5%; roughly the same as the 36% chance given by the rule of 2 and 4.

Understanding pot odds and expected value is also essential. Compare the size of the bet you need to call to the size of the pot and calculate the expected value (EV) by considering the probability of winning and losing, and the respective amounts involved.

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BaCoN+ For example, in a situation where the pot is $100 and you need to call a $10 bet, your hand odds are about 36%, and you need to calculate the EV to decide whether to call or fold.

To calculate EV, the following formula is used: expected value = how much you could win * chance of winning – how much you could lose * chance of losing. Consider a scenario, in which two people play a game of flipping a coin, and person A wins 1$ if it lands on heads and loses 0.5$ if it lands on tails. As the chance of winning or losing in a coin flip is a fair 50%, the EV for person A is 1$*0.50 – 0.5$*0.50 = 0.25$. Meaning that this game would be expected to give him 0.25$ per coin flip if it were to go on infinitely.

This works the same way in poker, but now we introduce an important concept: hand range. Hand range is the concept of all the possible hands that your opponent could have in a particular spot within a round. Consider a scenario where you have the Ace of spades and the Ace of diamonds in your hand and you raise 600 or 6BB (with 100 being big blind) from middle position (position from left of dealer in a 6 person table: small blind, big blind, under the gun, middle position, cutoff, and finally dealer) and you get a call from Dealer (or button) and SB (small blind) making the pot 2000.

If these 3 cards were to be the flop, small blind checks and you bet 1500 with top pair, and button being a loose and aggressive player raises it up to 5500. At this point in the game, you estimate him to either have a pair of 10s or a pair of Jacks with the board (48%), a Flush draw (2 hearts) or a straight draw (37%) or a two pair (with his hand being JT, T5, J5) or he has hit his set (with his hand being JJ, TT, 55) (15%). He has given you 4-9 pot odds (4000 further calling to win 5500 + 2000 + 1500 = 9000).

You have decided to call as you are a ahead of him 85% of the time. You shouldn’t raise here as his range is significantly lower than yours, hence raising would most likely scare him out of the pot. Your EV right now is (5500 (raise from button) + 1200 (callers pre flop) + 200 (blinds)) * 0.85 (odds of winning) – (5500 (your call on the flop) + 600 (your raise pre flop) * 0.15 (odds of losing) which would equal 4950 or 49.5BB which is very high EV. If you were to run this hand from this point an infinite amount of times, your net income would be 4950 per hand.

If the 4 of clubs were to come on the turn, it would be a brick as it neither completes his straight or his flush draw. You are to make a further 600 bet as you still have top pair without any clear straights or flushes that can beat you.

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Maths of Texas Hold’Em It's also important to factor-in the potential hands and playing styles of your opponents. This requires observational skills and an understanding of poker strategies. Remember, poker is a game of incomplete information, and player behaviour can greatly influence the game. Variance in poker refers to the ups and downs players experience due to the game's inherent unpredictability. Even perfect GTO play can result in losses in the short term due to variance. This reality requires players to be adaptable, adjusting their GTO-based strategies to the specific dynamics of each game and opponent.

While GTO offers a theoretically optimal way of playing, it often coexists with exploitative strategies.

Exploitative play involves deviating from GTO to take advantage of specific weaknesses in an opponent's strategy. Skilled players often switch between GTO and exploitative play, seeking to maximize their advantage in each unique in-game situation.

The intersection of mathematics and GTO strategies in Texas Hold'em transforms it from a game of chance to a cerebral pursuit. Understanding these concepts not only enhances a player's performance at the table but also enriches their appreciation for the depth and complexity of this iconic game. As we see, Texas Hold'em is more than just a card game—it's a vivid illustration of how mathematical and strategic thinking applies in real-world scenarios.

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Rod (M)

Is Nitrous Oxide Safe To Consume?

Disclaimer: I do not condone recreational use of nitrous oxide.

This article is not medical advice and should not be taken as such.

Nitrous oxide is a naturally occurring oxide of nitrogen with the molecular formula N2O. Nitrous oxide was first used as a dental anaesthetic in 1844 by Horace Wells. Since then, it has become the most widely used weak inhalational anaesthetic in the world. As with many psychoactive substances, its strict use in medicinal scenarios created the temptation for its use as a recreational drug. As nitrous oxide is quite common (it can be found in whipped cream canisters) and widely considered fairly harmless, for a long time it remained an accessible and inexpensive ‘legal high’. Recently however, it was made illegal in the UK to ‘tackle anti-social behaviour’. This piece aims to explore the effects nitrous oxide has on the human body from its psychoactive properties, to potential neurotoxicity and addiction.

To understand the dangers the use of a drug poses, one must first understand its mechanism of action. Nitrous oxide is known to cause euphoria, dizziness, numbing of pain, sound distortion, tingling in limbs, and occasionally light hallucinations.The suggested mechanisms of action include stimulation of dopamine circuits leading to euphoria, stimulation of opioid receptors leading to the release of norepinephrine, which provides the analgesic effect, activation of GABA A receptors leading to an anti -anxiety effect, and alterations in brain blood flow. The exact mechanism of action is not known in full detail, nevertheless, the hypothesis of opioid receptor stimulating has been shown to be true as the administration of Nalaxone, an opioid reverse agonist, lead to the mitigation of nitrous oxide effects.

Nitrous oxide appears to have different interactions with different opioid receptors, binding to μreceptors as a competitive inhibitor and non-competitively to κ-receptors. This gives nitrous oxide the ability to act as both an opioid receptor agonist and antagonist. Its agonistic effect appears to be stronger however, judging from its analgesic properties. Another proposed mechanism for its analgesic effects is the inhibition of T-type calcium ion channels which leads to blood vessel dilation and a decrease in blood pressure. Moving on from analgesic effects, to achieve an anaesthetic effect, a drug must either decrease the brain’s excitatory output or increase inhibitory signals to result in an overall decrease in neural activity. The major receptor implicated in the anaesthetic effects of nitrous oxide is the glutamatergic N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor. NMDA receptors are a major excitatory receptor in the brain, and hence nitrous oxide acts as an NMDA receptor antagonist. NMDA receptors are also involved in synaptic plasticity and are believed to play a crucial role in memory formation (more about this later). By binding to and inhibiting NMDA receptors, nitrous oxide greatly reduces excitatory signalling in the central nervous system. NMDA receptors have been shown to be essential for the behavioural effects of nitrous oxide in roundworms. Although this finding cannot be directly projected onto humans, the NMDA receptor gene is highly conserved through phylla, so some conclusions can still likely be drawn. Moreover, nitrous oxide has also been shown to affect two-pore domain TREK-1 potassium channels. TREK-1 potassium channels function as leak channels and allow potassium ions to leave nerve cells to maintain resting membrane potential in neurons. These ion channels are present in both excitable and non-excitable cells, and have been linked with anaesthesia and pain perception. Hence, it is not too far-fetched to propose that these channels play a role in the anaesthetic and analgesic effects of nitrous oxide.

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BaCoN+ Furthermore, there have been links made between nitrous oxide use and stimulation of dopamine circuits, triggering the brain’s reward pathways and leading to a feeling of euphoria. Lastly, nitrous oxide is thought to stimulate GABA A receptors, a type of important inhibitory receptor which, when stimulated, reduces the excitability of a neuron, leading to an anti-anxiety effect, similar to the effect felt after alcohol consumption.

Vitamin B12 structure

More biochemistry articles Many medicines have side effects but nitrous oxide is fairly safe, right? Well, despite its reputation and its wide use in medical procedures, it may have a negative impact on the body after all. Firstly, there is a consensus in the scientific community that regular use of nitrous oxide can lead to vitamin B12 deficiency. Nitrous oxide creates this deficiency by oxidising the cobalt atom in vitamin B12. Vitamin B12 is used as a cofactor by two enzymes: methionine synthase and L-methylmalonyl-CoA mutase. Methionine synthase catalyses the conversion of homocysteine to the essential amino acid methionine. Methionine is required for general protein synthesis and in particular for the formation of Sadenosylmethionine. S-adenosylmethionine is a universal methyl donor for nearly 100 different substrates, including DNA, RNA, proteins, and lipids. Myelin proteins are an essential group of proteins that depend on S-adenosylmethionine for methylation. If myelin protein methylation is not conducted and maintained, demyelination of neurons in the central and peripheral nervous systems begins to occur. Demyelination of neurons leads to slow/poor action potential transduction and can lead to common symptoms of nitrous oxide induced nerve damage, such as numbness, tingling or weakness in limbs. S-adenosylmethionine has also been shown to be involved in the maintenance of cell membranes, as well as the production and breaking down of neurotransmitters such as dopamine, serotonin and melatonin. Another, perhaps more important, function of S-adenosylmethionine is epigenetic control of gene expression as well as DNA maintenance and repair. L-methylmalonyl-CoA is also crucial to the body, being an important intermediate in the synthesis of succinyl-CoA, it is essential for the correct function of the citric acid cycle. The citric acid cycle allows the body to generate ATP, NADH and FADH2, all of which play essential roles in aerobic respiration and the generation of energy via the electron transport chain in mitochondria. With too little L-methylmalonyl-CoA in the body, energy demands may not be met, leading to weakness or more severe problems. Another form of toxicity attributed to nitrous oxide comes as a result of homocysteine imbalance. With a deficiency in vitamin B12 and impaired conversion of homocysteine to methionine, homocysteine can accumulate in the body. High levels of homocysteine have been linked with higher risks of cardiac problems. The reasons for this cardiovascular dysfunction appear to be increased coagulation and endothelial adhesion promoting atherosclerosis, as well as altered vascular responses to certain molecules via oxidative mechanisms. Homocysteine has also been shown to act as an agonist of the NMDA receptor, having an opposite effect to nitrous oxide. Although this may not seem too harmful, while nitrous oxide is cleared from the body very quickly, homocysteine can remain elevated for days and may cause excitotoxic damage, especially after nitrous oxide anaesthesia is used in treatment of brain injuries. Moreover, increased homocysteine levels have been associated with involvement in apoptotic mechanisms. It is thought that the binding of homocysteine to NMDA receptors and acting as an agonist can cause generation of reactive oxygen species such as O2•− radicals. Such reactive oxygen species are strongly linked with apoptosis and cell death, so a strong increase in the levels of these species can be detrimental.

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Nitrous Oxide Furthermore, reactive oxygen species can cause increases in intracellular Ca2+ ion concentrations, which can lead to disturbances in mitochondrial function. Increased intra-mitochondrial Ca2+ concentrations induce the formation of mitochondrial permeability transition pores, which allow the release of cytochrome C from mitochondria. Not only does this reduce the rates of oxidative phosphorylation, but cytochrome C can then go on to bind with apoptotic protease activating factor to form an apoptosome, leading to the downstream activation of caspase 3, and resulting in apoptosis. Similar oxidative stress leading to the formation of reactive oxygen species in mitochondria has been shown to play a role in Alzheimer’s disease and high plasma homocysteine was identified as a reliable biomarker for Alzheimer’s disease, although there is no general consensus on any relationship between the two.

Lastly, the inhibition of NMDA receptors by nitrous oxide for prolonged periods of time has been shown to slightly impair memory formation. Despite there being evidence for many negative effects of nitrous oxide consumption on the brain, most of these effects are only observed on a significant scale either after prolonged or regular exposure to the gas. From this, one may conclude that in low concentrations and limited exposure, nitrous oxide is fairly harmless and its use as an anaesthetic is justified in many scenarios.

Having analysed the toxicity of nitrous oxide, one should consider the aspect of addictiveness as is the main problem with many light social drugs. Unlike many other drugs, nitrous oxide doesn’t appear to exhibit properties which can lead to a physical dependence. This means that even after regular nitrous oxide use and a sudden decision to quit, a person will not experience physical withdrawal symptoms, which makes breaking the habit much easier. Nevertheless, it is possible to create a psychological dependency on nitrous oxide as the brain’s reward circuits are stimulated when the gas is inhaled, leading to cravings of achieving the same high. That being said, nitrous oxide is not considered addictive, especially in comparison with substances like nicotine, alcohol and cannabis.

Apart from the toxicity of the drug itself, there are other safety concerns to be taken into account if nitrous oxide were to be used recreationally. Firstly, one must concern oneself, like with any substance, with the purity of the product. One should never consume automotive-grade nitrous oxide as it contains sulphur dioxide which is both unpleasant and harmful to inhale. Secondly, one should ensure to only consume nitrous oxide in open air or a large space - one should never attempt to fill a small space (like a car or a plastic bag over one’s head) with the gas as that can lead to oxygen starvation and suffocation. Finally, one must not consume nitrous oxide while standing up, especially above solid ground, because the commonplace effect of dizziness produced by the gas may create a falling hazard. Perhaps the safest way to consume the gas would be to consume medical grade or filtered nitrous oxide from a balloon, lying down on a soft surface, with a responsible, sober individual beside oneself.

In conclusion, nitrous oxide is a gas with analgesic and anaesthetic properties. It is fairly safe to consume, if pure and in a low concentration. However, regular or prolonged consumption can often yield significant toxicity, causing severe problems such as nerve damage. Nitrous oxide can cause weak psychological dependencies, but no physical dependencies. Despite the relative safety of the gas, from 2001-2020, there were 56 deaths in England and Wales with nitrous oxide mentioned on the death certificate. The fact that this figure includes deaths in medical settings and deaths caused by avoidable hazards, such as suffocation and/or falling, should be taken into account. Nevertheless, for optimal safety one should refrain from consumption of all recreational drugs, including nitrous oxide, especially with it recently being made illegal in the UK. If nitrous oxide were to be consumed, however, one would need to be aware of avoiding common hazards such as suffocation and falling, by consuming the gas from a balloon and lying down on a soft surface. The purity of the gas would also have to be ensured either by obtaining medical grade nitrous oxide or filtering the gas thoroughly.

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