CHAPTER OUTLINE I.
Problems in writing a hostory of psychology A. Where to start B. What to include C. Chocie of approach
II.
Why study the history of psychology? A. Deeper understanding B. A source of valuable ideas
IV.
What is Science? A. The search for laws
III.
Revisions in the traditional view of science A. Karl Popper B. Thomas Kuhn C. Paradigms and Psychology D. Popper versus Kuhn
IV.
Is psychology a science? A. Determinism B. Indeterminism and Nondeterminism
V.
Persistent questions in psychology A Mind and body B. Nativism versus empiricism C. Rationalism versus irrationalism D. How are humans related to nonhuman animals? E. What is the origin of human knowledge? F. Objective versus subjective reality G. The problem of the self H. Universalism versus relativism
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LECTURE TOPICS 1. By this time the students in the class should have enough experience from other classes in psychology that they have ideas regarding different ideas and concepts presented in the text. You may start the first day asking why we should study the history of psychology and then where to start and why. 2. The students’ experiences should also give them ideas regarding what types of questions psychology has always sought answers to. You might split the class into groups and give a topic – a question within psychology - and have each group lead a brief discussion regarding the topic. 3. Students should spend some time comparing and contrasting what they think psychology is and what the public thinks psychology is. Should the public’s view of psychology be changed? This should be done on the first day of class before lecturing or before they read the first chapter.
DISCUSSION TOPICS 1. Discuss the choices that must be made before writing a history of psychology. Include in your answer a distinction between presentism and historicism. 2. What is gained by studying the history of psychology? 3. Summarize the major characteristics of science. 4. Discuss why psychology can be described both as a science and as a nonscience. Include in your answer the characteristics of science that some psychologists are unwilling to accept while studying humans. 5. In what ways did Popper’s view of science differ from the traditional view? 6. According to Popper, what are the two primary reasons that theories such as those of Freud and Adler are unscientific? 7. Summarize Kuhn’s views on how sciences change. Include in your answer the definitions of the terms preparadigmatic, paradigm, normal science, and scientific revolution. 8. Within the realm of science, what is the correspondence theory of truth? Explain why it can be said that Popper accepted this theory and Kuhn did not. 9. Summarize Feyerabend’s view of science.
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10. Should psychology aspire to become a singleparadigm discipline? Defend your answer. 11. Is psychology a science? Defend your answer. 12. Define the terms physical determinism, psychical determinism, indeterminism, and nondeterminism. 13. Distinguish between hard determinism and soft determinism. 14. Summarize the various proposed answers to the mind-body problem. Include in your answer definitions of the terms monism, dualism, materialism, idealism, emergentism, interactionism, psycho-physical parallelism, epiphenomenalism, preestablished harmony, double aspectism, and occasionalism. 15. Discuss the nativist and empiricist explanations of the origin of human attributes. 16. Discuss rationalism and irrationalism as they apply to explanations of human behavior. 17. Describe how both the empiricist and the rationalist would explain how we gain knowledge. 18. Discuss the problems involved in discovering and explaining discrepancies that may exist between what is physically before us and what we experience subjectively. Define and give an example of reification. 19. Summarize the debate between universalism and relativism concerning the nature of truth.
GLOSSARY Active mind: A mind that transforms, interprets, understands, or values physical experience. The rationalists assume an active mind. Anomalies: Persistent observations that cannot be explained by an existing paradigm. Anomalies eventually cause one paradigm to displace another. Biological determinism: The type of determinism that stresses the biochemical, genetic, physiological, or anatomical causes of behavior. Causal laws: Laws describing causal relationships. Such laws specify the conditions that are necessary and sufficient to produce a certain event. Knowledge of causal laws allows both the prediction and control of events.
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Confirmable propositions: Within science, propositions capable of validation through empirical tests. Correlational laws: Laws that specify the systematic relationships among classes of empirical events. Unlike causal laws, the events described by correlational laws do not need to be causally related. One can note, for example, that as average daily temperature rises, so does the crime rate without knowing (or even caring) if the two events are causally related. Correspondence theory of truth: The belief that scientific laws and theories are correct insofar as they accurately mirror events in the physical world. Determinism: The belief that everything that occurs does so because of known or knowable causes and that if these causes were known in advance, an event could be predicted with complete accuracy. Also, if the causes of an event were known, the event could be prevented by preventing its causes. Thus, the knowledge of an event’s causes allows the prediction and control of the event. Double aspectism: The belief that bodily and mental events are inseparable because they are two aspects of every experience. Dualist: Anyone who believes that there are two aspects to humans, one physical and one mental. Eclectic approach: Taking the best from a variety of viewpoints. The approach to the history of psychology taken in this text is eclectic because it combines coverage of great individuals, the development of ideas and concepts, the spirit of the times, and contributions from other disciplines. Emergentism: The contention that mental processes emerge from brain processes. The interactionist form of emergentism claims that once mental states emerge, they can influence subsequent brain activity and thus behavior. The epiphenomenalist form claims that emergent mental states are behaviorally irrelevant. Empirical observation: The direct observation of that which is being studied in order to understand it. Empiricism: The belief that the basis of all knowledge is experience. Environmental determinism: The type of determinism that stresses causes of behavior that are external to the organism. Epiphenomenalism: The form of emergentism that states that mental events emerge from brain activity but that mental events are subsequently behaviorally irrelevant. Epistemology: The study of the nature of knowledge.
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Feyerabend, Paul (1924–1994): Argued that science cannot be described by any standard set of rules, principles, or standards. In fact, he said, history shows that scientific progress occurs when individual scientists violate whatever rules, principles, or standards existed at the time. Free will: See Nondeterminism. Great-person approach: The approach to history that concentrates on the most prominent contributors to the topic or field under consideration. Historical development approach: The approach to history that concentrates on an element of a field or discipline and describes how the understanding or approach to studying that element has changed over time. An example is a description of how mental illness has been defined and studied throughout history. Historicism: The study of the past for its own sake, without attempting to interpret and evaluate it in terms of current knowledge and standards, as is the case with presentism. (See also Presentism.) Historiography: The study of the proper way to write history. Idealists: Those who believe that ultimate reality consists of ideas or perceptions and is therefore not physical. Indeterminism: The contention that even though determinism is true, attempting to measure the causes of something influences those causes, making it impossible to know them with certainty. This contention is also called Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle. Interactionism: A proposed answer to the mind-body problem, maintaining that bodily experiences influence the mind and that the mind influences the body. Irrationalism: Any explanation of human behavior stressing determinants that are not under rational control—for example, explanations that emphasize the importance of emotions or unconscious mechanisms. Kuhn, Thomas (1922–1996): Believed that the activities of members of a scientific community are governed by a shared set of beliefs called a paradigm. This paradigmatic, or normal, science continues until an existing paradigm is displaced by another paradigm. (See also Paradigm, Normal science, and Puzzle solving.) Materialists: Those who believe that everything in the universe is material (physical), including those things that others refer to as mental. Mechanism: The belief that the behavior of organisms, including humans, can be explained entirely in terms of mechanical laws.
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Monists: Those who believe that there is only one reality. Materialists are monists because they believe that only matter exists. Idealists are also monists because they believe that everything, including the “material” world, is the result of human consciousness and is therefore mental. Naive realism: The belief that what one experiences mentally is the same as what is present physically. Nativist Anyone who believes that important human attributes such as intelligence are largely inherited. Nondeterminism: The belief that human thought or behavior is freely chosen by the individual and is therefore not caused by antecedent physical or mental events. Normal science: According to Kuhn, the research activities performed by scientists as they explore the implications of a paradigm. Occasionalism: The belief that the relationship between the mind and body is mediated by God Paradigm: A viewpoint shared by many scientists while exploring the subject matter of their science. A paradigm determines what constitutes legitimate problems and the methodology used in solving those problems. Paradigmatic stage: According to Kuhn, the stage in the development of a science during which scientific activity is guided by a paradigm. That is, it is during this stage that normal science occurs. (See also Normal science.) Passive mind: A mind that simply reflects cognitively one’s experiences with the physical world. The empiricists assume a passive mind. Physical determinism: The type of determinism that stresses material causes of behavior. Popper, Karl (1902–1994): Saw scientific method as having three components: problems, proposed solutions to the problems (theories), and criticisms of the proposed solutions. Because all scientific theories will eventually be found to be false, the highest status any scientific theory can attain is not yet disconfirmed. (See also Principle of falsifiability and Risky predictions.) Postdiction: An attempt to account for something after it has occurred. Postdiction is contrasted with prediction, which attempts to specify the conditions under which an event that has not yet occurred will occur. Preestablished harmony: The belief that bodily events and mental events are separate but correlated because both were designed to run identical courses. Preparadigmatic stage: According to Kuhn, the first stage in the development of a science. This stage is characterized by warring factions vying to define the subject matter and methodology of a discipline.
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CHAPTER 2 Ancient Greece LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading and discussing chapter 2 the student should: 2.1 Be familiar with how early humans explained their world including animism, anthropomorphism, “magic,” and early forms of Greek religion. 2.2 Be acquainted with the pre-Socratic philosophers. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Thales – cosmology and advent of the critical tradition Anaximander – proposed rudimentary theory of evolution Heraclitus – constant change Parmenides and Zeno – reality is finite, uniform, and motionless, no change Pythagoreans – all explained in numbers and numerical relationships, experience through senses inferior to experience within mind 6. Empodocles – world made of four elements; earth, wind, fire, and water 7. Anaxagoras – postulated an infinite number of elements (seeds) from which everything comes from except the mind 8. Democritus – universe made of atoms; elementism, reductionism 2.3 Be familiar with early Greek medicine and its influence on later medicine. 1. Alcmaeon – naturalistic medicine, health is balance, early studies of physical systems 2. Hippocrates – all disorders result of natural factors, four humors in body 3. Galen – association of Hippocrates’ four humors with temperaments and personality types 2.4 Be familiar with the relativity of truth and the Sophists: Protagoras – truth depends on the perceiver, not on physical reality Gorgias – there can be no objective way of determining truth Xenophanes – religion is a projection of its creator; postulated a god unlike any of his time 2.5 Understand Socrates’ method of inductive definition, his reaction to the relativity of the Sophists and the goal of life. 2.6 Understand Plato’s philosophy of the world, including the theory of forms, and use of empirical knowledge, the allegory of the cave, reminiscence theory of knowledge, his theory of knowledge, his tripartite nature of the soul, and his impact on science. 10
2.7 Be acquainted with and understand Aristotle’s philosophy and his treatment of various topics including: • • • • • • • •
Ways of knowing truth in contrast to Plato, interaction of rationalism and empiricism. The four causes and teleology. Hierarchy of souls. Aristotle’s explanation of how we gain knowledge – the senses, common sense, passive reason, and active reason. View of remembering and recall and the laws of association. Explanations of imagination and dreaming. View on motivation and happiness. His proposal of the effect of emotions on selective perception and behavior.
CHAPTER OUTLINE I.
The acient world A. B. C. D.
II.
The first philosophers A. B. C. D. E. F. G.
III.
Animism and anthropomorphism Magic Homo Psychologicus Early Greek religion
Thales Anaximander and Heraclitus Parmenides and Zeno Pythagoras Empedocles Anaxagoras Democritus
Early Greek medicine A. Alcmaeon B. Hippocrates
IV.
The relativity of truth A. B. C. D.
Protogoras Gorgias Xenophanes Socrates
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RESEARCH ACTIVITIES 1. Some students, as a research activity, may want to learn more about the ancient Greeks and the ancient world. The website listed below is a good site to start such an activity. It has multiple links to many of the philosophers and is essentially “an evolving digital library of resources for the study of the ancient world.” http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ 2. The following website provides materials for the study of women and gender in the ancient world. It provides an extensive overview of the topic with multiple links to bibliographies, images, essays, and much more. Diotima: Materials for the Study of Women and Gender in the Ancient World http://www.stoa.org/diotima/ History of Women in the Ancient World - Directory of Online Resources: http://www.academicinfo.net/histancwomen.html
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CHAPTER 3 Rome and the Middle Ages LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading and discussing chapter 3 the students should: 3.1 Be familiar with the philosophy of skepticism. 3.2 Be familiar with the practice of cynicism. 3.3 Be acquainted with responses to the skeptic’s and cynic’s claims. 1. Epicureanism – life of simple pleasures and moderation 2. Stoicism – acceptance of life as it is, all events part of natural plan 3.4 Understand the neoplatonic philosophy and its impact on Judeo-Christian religion. 1. Philo, Jewish theologian/philosopher 2. Plotinus 3.5 Be acquainted with the influence of the various philosophies/religious views on the peoples of the Roman Empire. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Philosophy/religion of the east and mystery religions Greek culture and Judaism Jesus and the Christian religion St. Paul Emperor Constantine
3.6 Understand Augustine’s ideas and contributions to development of philosophy/religions and views of the world. 3.7 Be familiar with what occurred during the Dark Ages concerning religion and intellectual progress. 3.8 Be familiar with the Arab and Jewish influences on the development of western thought. 1. Avicenna 2. Averroës 3. Maimonides 21
CHAPTER 4 Renaissance Science and Philosophy LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading and discussing chapter 4 the students should: 4.1 Be familiar with the major themes of Renaissance humanism. The Renaissance indicates an interest in human beings, their activities, abilities, and capabilities. 1. Individualism – concern for human potential, achievement, and belief in the individual 2. Personal religion – desire for a more personal, less formal and ritualistic religion 3. Intense interest in the past – interest in writings and works of the past 4. Anti-Aristotelianism – stop the “blind” adherence to Aristotle’s views 4.2 Be acquainted with the views and works of the humanists of the Renaissance. 1. Francesco Petrarch – free the human spirit from medieval traditions 2. Giovanni Pico – sought a peaceful synthesis among philosophical and religious views 3. Desiderius Erasmus – opposed fanatical belief in anything 4. Martin Luther – sought more personal religion, initiation of reformation and protestantism 5. Michel de Montaigne – proposed extreme version of skepticism 4.3 Be aware of some other events that contributed to the rise of humanism that stressed objective study of nature (the weakening of Church authority). 1. Marco Polo’s exploration of central Asia and China 2. Johann Gutenberg’s development of movable type printing technique 3. Discovery of the “new world” by Christopher Columbus and resulting explorations 4. Circumnavigation for the world by Ferdinand Magellan
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4.4 Be familiar with Ptolemy’s view of the universe and the challenges to this view by Copernicus, Bruno, and Kepler. 4.5 Be familiar with the many contributions to science of Galileo. 4.6 Be acquainted with Isaac Newton’s contributions and their impact on science in general. 4.7 Understand the impact that Francis Bacon’s radical empiricism had on the practice of science. 4.8 Be familiar with many ideas and observations of Rene Descartes and the impact of these on psychology. 1. Innate ideas 2. Reflex and the nervous system 3. Mind-body interaction
CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Challenges to church authority II. Renaissance humanism A. Major themes B. Francesco Petrarch C. Giovanni Pico D. Desiderius Erasmus E. Martin Luther F. Michel de Montaigne III. Ptolemy, Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo A. Ptolemy B. Nicolaus Copernicus C. Johann Kepler D. Galileo IV. Isaac Newton A. Principles of newtonian science V. Francis Bacon A. Baconian Science B. Science should provide useful information 29
CHAPTER 5 Empiricism, Sensationalism, and Positivism LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading and discussing chapter 5 the students should: 5.1 Understand the basic tenets of empiricism. 5.2 Be familiar with the ideas and conceptions of the British empiricists. 1. Thomas Hobbes 1. Humans are machines functioning within a larger machine, the universe 2. Role of government 3. All ideas come from experience 4. Explanations of materialism, psychological phenomena, and motivation 5. Explanation of motivation, denial of free will, and complex thought processes 2. John Locke 1. All ideas come from experience 2. Sensation and reflection 3. Simple and complex ideas 4. Emotions 5. Primary and secondary qualities 6. Association of ideas 7. Education 8. Government 3. George Berkeley 1. Opposition to materialism 2. “To be is to be perceived” 3. Secondary qualities 4. Principle of association 5. Theory of distance perception 4. David Hume 1. Goal – to create science of human nature 2. Impressions, simple and complex ideas, and imagination 3. Association of ideas 36
4. Analysis of causation 5. Analysis of mind and self 6. Emotions 5. David Hartley 1. Goal was to synthesize Newton’s conception of nerve transmission with previous versions of empiricism 2. Explanation of association 3. Simple and complex ideas and emotion 6. James Mill 1. Utilitarianism and association 2. Analysis of association 7. John Stuart Mill 1. Mental chemistry vs. mental physics 2. Science of human nature 3. Science of ethology 4. Social reform 8. Alexander Bain 1. Goal was to describe the physiological correlates of mental and behavioral 2. Phenomena 3. Laws of association and voluntary behavior 5.3 Be familiar with the ideas of the French sensationalists. 1. Pierre Gassendi 1. Goal was to replace Descartes’s deductive, dualistic philosophy with inductive science based on physical monism 2. Julien de La Mettrie 1. Man is a machine; humans and animals differ only in degree 2. Acceptance of materialism 3. Etienne Bonnet de Condillac 1. Mind’s attributes result from the ability to sense, to remember, and to experience pleasure and pain
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