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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbulik, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e 2023, 9780357658475;

Instructor Solution Manual For Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbulik, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 1: Introduction

Table of Contents Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter ................................................................................................... 2 Cengage Supplements ............................................................................................................................... 2 Chapter Objectives .................................................................................................................................... 2 Key Terms .................................................................................................................................................. 2 What's New in This Chapter ...................................................................................................................... 4 Chapter Outline ......................................................................................................................................... 5 Discussion Questions ................................................................................................................................. 6 Additional Activities and Assignments ....................................................................................................... 6 Study Tips .................................................................................................................................................. 7 Additional Resources ................................................................................................................................. 8 Suggested Readings .............................................................................................................................. 8 Internet Resources ................................................................................................................................ 8 Appendix ................................................................................................................................................. 10 Generic Rubrics ................................................................................................................................... 10 Standard Writing Rubric...................................................................................................................... 10 Standard Discussion Rubric ................................................................................................................. 11

Instructor Manual: Chapter 1: Introduction

Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter The first chapter of the text is designed to orient students to the historical and philosophical development of the science of behavior. By understanding the contributions of key figures and how scientific methods have changed over time, students may come to appreciate the current context of behavior analysis.

Cengage Supplements The following product-level supplements provide additional information that may help you in preparing your course. They are available in the Instructor Resource Center.    

Transition Guide (provides information about what’s new from edition to edition) Instructor Manual (contains outlines, suggested activities, and resources for instructor use in the course) PowerPoint (provides text-based lectures and presentations) Test Bank (contains assessment questions and problems)

Chapter Objectives The following objectives are addressed in this chapter: 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5. 1.6 1.7 1.8

Define learning. Create a simple diagram of a classical conditioning procedure. Outline earlier philosophical and scientific approaches that influenced the development of behaviorism. Define empiricism as a philosophical approach to knowledge. Describe similarities and differences between the structuralist and functionalist approaches to the study of psychology. Outline the process of evolution by natural selection, including three key features. Identify the researchers most strongly associated with the five presented forms of behaviorism. Describe similarities and differences among the five presented forms of behaviorism.

Key Terms Applied behavior analysis: the application of interventions developed from basic principles of behavior to socially significant real-world problems Behavior: any activity of an organism that can be observed or measured Behaviorism: the philosophy of science governing both the experimental research and applied analysis of behavior British empiricism: a philosophical school of thought which suggests that almost all knowledge is a function of experience Cognitive behaviorism: branch of behaviorism that uses intervening variables, usually in the form of hypothetical cognitive processes, to explain behavior Cognitive map: the mental representation of one’s spatial surroundings; this was one of the proposed hypothetical cognitive variables used in cognitive behaviorism to explain behavior

Instructor Manual: Chapter 1: Introduction

Determinism: the philosophical assumption that lawful events and relations exist in the environment; while this is an assumption and is not able to be tested, determinism acts as a necessary assumption to studying behavior Empiricism: the philosophical assumption that behavior is mostly learned and as result we can systematically study our environment to learn about it as well Evolutionary adaptation: a useful trait, a physical characteristic or a behavior, that has been shaped through natural selection Experimental analysis of behavior: the basic science of behavior aimed at discovering and expanding upon principles of behavior, governed by the philosophy of behaviorism Functionalism: an approach to psychology which proposes that the mind evolved to help us adapt to the world around us and that the focus of psychology should be to study those adaptive processes Introspection: the attempt to accurately describe one’s internal thoughts, emotions, and sensory experiences Latent learning: concept proposed by ASFAD which suggested that learning can still occur in the absence of immediately observable results of such Law of contiguity: law of association in which events or stimuli that occur temporally or spatially close to one another are more readily associated with one another Law of contrast: law of association in which events or stimuli that are opposite from each other are readily associated with each other Law of frequency: law of association in which the more frequently two items occur together, the more strongly they are associated with each other Law of similarity: law of association in which events or stimuli that are similar to each other on some dimension are more readily associated with each other Learning: a relatively enduring change in behavior that results from some type of experience or interaction with the environment Methodological behaviorism: a branch of behaviorism developed by John Watson which asserted that psychology should not study internal unobservable events for methodological reasons, but should instead focus on only behaviors which can be directly observed Mind-body dualism: otherwise known as Cartesian dualism, or simply dualism, philosophical assumption made by Descartes that some behaviors are controlled by the external stimulation and others are “voluntarily chosen” or controlled by forces existing on another plane considered to be the mind Nativism: the assumption that a person’s characteristics and behavioral repertoire are largely present at birth and unaffected by experience Natural selection: the evolutionary principle suggests that organisms that are better at adapting to the environment are more likely to survive long enough to reproduce and pass on the behaviors and characteristics shown to be successful in that environment than those that cannot adapt

Instructor Manual: Chapter 1: Introduction

Neobehaviorism: the branch of behaviorism which utilizes intervening variables in the form of hypothetical constructs based off physiological processes to explain behavior Radical behaviorism: the philosophy of science introduced by B.F. Skinner which rejects the use of thoughts, feelings, and unobservable events to describe overt behavior, but suggests that these private events are behavior themself which needs to be explained through environmental variables Reciprocal determinism: the assumption that environmental events, observable behavior, and “person variables” (including thoughts and feelings) mutually influence each other Social learning theory: Bandura’s promoted branch of behaviorism which emphasizes the importance of observational learning and hypothetical cognitive constructs in explaining behavior Stimulus-response (S-R) theory: the learning theory that suggests the establishment of a connection between a specific stimulus and a specific response Structuralism: an approach to psychology that assumes it is possible to determine the structure of the mind by identifying basic elements that comprise it [return to top]

What's New in This Chapter The following elements are improvements in this chapter from the previous edition: 

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“Managing workers” is now included in the list of the potentially useful applications of a behavioral perspective. Many students have had jobs in which managers often used aversive consequences to control their employees’ behavior to the detriment of both employee morale and quality of work. The definition of learning is now accompanied by a note indicating that “although we tend to emphasize change as an indicator of learning, sometimes what we are learning is when not to change, that is, when to persist with a behavior when it is prudent to do so.” Schedule effects would be an example of this. In discussing the different schools of behaviorism, it is now noted that Watson’s methodological behaviorism is also called “classical behaviorism” and Hull’s neobehaviorism has also been called “deductive behaviorism.” In the section on Skinner’s radical behaviorism, the term countercontrol has been dropped when referring to the application of behavioral principles of control one’s own behavior (i.e., self-management). This is instead referred to as self-control. (The term countercontrol is more often used in reference to using behavioral principles to counter attempts by others to manipulate our behavior.) In previous editions, the term behavior analysis was defined as the basic science that grew out of radical behaviorism. In keeping with more common usage, however, in this edition, behavior analysis is defined as the general science that grew out of radical behaviorism, which we then further divide into basic behavior analysis (also known as the experimental analysis of behavior) and applied behavior analysis.

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Instructor Manual: Chapter 1: Introduction

Chapter Outline In the outline, each element includes references (in parentheses) to related content. “CH.##” refers to the chapter objective; “PPT Slide #” refers to the slide number in the PowerPoint deck for this chapter (provided in the PowerPoints section of the Instructor Resource Center). Introduce the chapter and use the Icebreaker in the PPT if desired, and if one is provided for this chapter. Review chapter objectives for Chapter 1 (PPT Slide 3-4) I.

Explanation of Opening Scenario (1.1 – 1.2, PPT Slide 1) a. The first quote in the opening scenario to this chapter illustrates how Skinner did not ignore the fact that people have feelings. The second quote describes how Skinner’s views have often been misrepresented. These two quotes will hopefully encourage students to ignore past biases about Skinner, and about behaviorism in general, as they begin reading the text. b. The learning objectives provide students with key points and competencies they should attend to and learn throughout the chapter. (Slide 3-4) c. Before any terms are introduced, the 3R study tip is offered as a potential study solution for students. (Slide 5) d. Key terms and information about how to read a conditioning diagram provided. (Slide 6)

II. Historical Background (1.3 – 1.6, PPT Slide 7) a. The section on historical background begins with looking at the Aristotelian laws of association. Further discussed is how they led to the development of empiricism and how it relates to behaviorism as the philosophy of science. (Slide 8) b. Cartesian dualism is discussed as one of the early theories on the causes of behavior. From the move away from nativism and toward empiricism is the discussion of the British Empiricists such as John Locke. (Slide 9) c. Structuralism and its methods of science which included introspection as a method are discussed in their relation to behaviorism. Functionalists, although with different goals from the structuralists, used similar methods of study. (Slide 10-11) d. Darwin and his theory of natural selection highly impacted behavioral psychology. The implications of his theory on the development of behavior and impact of the environment greatly affected psychologists of the time. (Slide 12) e. One of these influenced psychologists was John Watson who introduced the concept of methodological behaviorism. (Slide 13) III. Five Schools of Behaviorism (1.7-1.8 PPT Slide 14) a. Methodological behaviorism suggested dispensing with introspection as a tool for conducting science. Watson proposed that psychology focus only on the publicly observable and measurable events in the environment as opposed to internal, subjective measurements of introspection. (Slide 14) b. Hull’s school of neobehaviorism diverged from methodological behaviorism in that it included intervening variables, in the form of hypothetical physiological processes as constructs, to explain behavior. (Slide 15) c. Similar to Hull, Tolman used intervening variables in the form of hypothetical constructs. Though Tolman used cognitive constructs in his branch of cognitive behaviorism his procedures were useful to empirical research. (Slide 16) d. Bandura presented the social learning theory which also utilized internal events such as thoughts and feelings to describe the relationship between overt behavior and environmental events. (Slide 17)

Instructor Manual: Chapter 1: Introduction

e. [Discussion] Activity: 5 minutes total. (Slide 18) f. Skinner’s radical behaviorism departed in significant ways from previous branches of behavior analysis. Unlike Watson, Skinner did consider private behaviors necessary to include in the analysis if measured and operationalized adequately. Unlike Tolman, Hull, and Bandura, he declined the use of intervening variables or hypothetical constructs to explain behavior. (Slide 19) g. To summarize the historical account and previous schools of behaviorism, the chapter ends with a description of the philosophy of science, known as behaviorism, impacts both the basic science known as the experimental analysis of behavior, as well as the clinical practice of applied behavior analysis. (Slide 20-21) [return to top]

Discussion Questions You can assign these questions several ways: in a discussion forum in your LMS; as whole-class discussions in person; or as a partner or group activity in class. 1. Discussion: Empiricism v. Nativism ([pp. 8-11], 1.4, PPT Slide 7) a. The development from nativism to empiricism greatly impacted the philosophy of what became to be known as behaviorism. How would an empiricist explain highly skilled or expert behavior? i. Answer: An empiricist would discuss how the environment played the most critical role in the development of this performance. Possibly through setting up the contingencies in ways to improve performance (e.g. practicing the behavior) was the expert performance achieved. b. How might a nativist explain problem behavior or “maladaptive” behavior? i. Answer: A nativist might discuss genetic or other biological factors to cite how the individual was born that way and the behavior was inevitable. 2. Discussion: Natural Selection ([pp. 8-11], 1.4, PPT Slide 7) a. Darwin’s theory of natural selection influenced many psychologists of the time and led to the development of Skinner’s selection by consequences as well. Describe a hypothetical behavior or evolutionary adaptation and how it could be involved in the three features of natural selection. i. Answers will vary. Variability exists across appearance of traits and behaviors, with some of them being heritable. A behavioral tendency such as a predisposition toward reinforcement via a specific type of food may increase certain food seeking behaviors in a species. If this predisposition is heritable and proves successful in the environment, species with the trait will be more effective in competing for limited resources. [return to top]

Additional Activities and Assignments 1. Dr. Dee Assignment: a. Refer to the preface for complete information about this assignment. It is only the first chapter that includes a sample set of instructions that instructors may adopt for the subsequent chapters’ Dr. Dee assignments. In subsequent chapters, only the sample letters plus the explanation for each are provided. b. Sample Instructions for Dr. Dee Assignment

Instructor Manual: Chapter 1: Introduction

i. The relationship concerns expressed in each of the following “lovelorn” letters can be related to either one or more of the principles or concepts described in this chapter. Students should pretend that they are Dr. Dee and compose a behavioral-type reply to one of the letters in a manner that is similar to the Advice for the Lovelorn columns in the text. Students should be sure to identify clearly the relevant behavioral principle or concept on which they have based their reply. ii. As an alternative to basing their assignment on one of these letters, students can instead compose an entire Dr. Dee column on their own (both the letter and the reply). For this option, they need not restrict themselves to romantic relationships, and they may instead address issues involving friends, family members, or even pets. Again, students should be sure to identify clearly the behavioral principle or concept on which they have based their column. If students are basing the column on an incident involving someone they know, they should be sure to disguise the person’s identity by altering some of the facts and use a pseudonym for the person involved. c. Dr. Dee Assignment i. Dear Dr. Dee, ii. I have very strong feelings for my new girlfriend, but I can’t tell if they are feelings of infatuation or love. My friends tell me I’m in love, but my parents tell me I’m infatuated. How can I tell the difference? So confused d. Relevant Concepts i. Answers could make reference to the difficulty of using internal or covert events for understanding behavior. It may be more useful to describe observable events (like acts of affection or amount of time spent talking together) rather than describing feelings. ii. Answers could refer to Skinner’s description of how internal events are interpreted by others. We assume that we know how someone is feeling, but these assumptions are subjective and may be wrong. We learn to label our emotions through inference, by using others’ interpretations, so one person’s definition of ‘love’ may differ from another’s. [return to top]

Study Tips Some better approaches to studying a textbook involve the “testing effect,” in which testing one’s ability to recall the information one just read can greatly enhance one’s memory for it (Dunlosky, Rawson, Marsh, Nathan, & Willingham, 2013). A recent version of this approach is the 3R method of studying (McDaniel, Howard, & Einstein, 2009). An alternate approach, which the text calls “selective underlining,” is to first read the paragraph without underlining; one instead simply searches for the important points one will want to underline later. After finishing the paragraph, one then goes back and underlines just the important points. Another possibility that one may wish to experiment with would be to combine selective underlining with the 3R approach. The important thing for students is to find the combination of study tactics that works best for them, which may be rather different from what works best for someone else.

Instructor Manual: Chapter 1: Introduction

Additional Resources Suggested Readings Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice Hall. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman and Company. Bjork, D. W. (1993). B. F. Skinner: A life. Basic Books. Buckley, K. W. (1989). Mechanical man: John Broadus Watson and the beginnings of behaviorism. Guilford Press. Hergenhahn, B. R., & Olson, M. H. (1988). An introduction to theories of learning (9th ed.). Pearson. Hull, C. L. (1943). Principles of behavior. Appleton-Century-Crofts. Malone, J. C. (1990). Theories of learning: A historical approach. Wadsworth Publishing Co. Skinner, B. F. (1938). The behavior of organisms: An experimental analysis. Copley Publishing Group. Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. Macmillan. Tolman, E. C. (1959). Principles of purposive behavior. In S. Koch (Ed.), Psychology: A study of a science (Vol. 2, pp. 92–157). McGraw-Hill. Watson, J. B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological Review, 20, 158–177.

Internet Resources 

“Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It” by John B. Watson (1913) http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Watson/views.htm This is the article that many consider to be the manifesto that launched the behaviorist revolution. (From York University, Classics in the History of Psychology.) Refer to the introduction (Introduction to: “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views it”) and the commentary (Commentary on “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It”) to this article.

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Introduction to: “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It” http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Watson/intro.htm An introduction to Watson’s classic work, written by Christopher D. Green. (From York University, Classics in the History of Psychology.)

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Commentary on “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It” http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Watson/commentary.htm A commentary on Watson’s classic work, written by Robert H. Wozniak. (From York University, Classics in the History of Psychology.)

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On “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It.” by E. B. Titchener (1914)

Instructor Manual: Chapter 1: Introduction

http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Titchener/watson.htm The response by Titchener, the famous structuralist, to Watson’s (1913) call to behaviorism. (From York University, Classics in the History of Psychology.) 

Hull’s Theory of Behavior http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Hull/Conflict/ http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Hull/Hierarchy/part1.htm http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Hull/Hierarchy/part2.htm These are some articles outlining the various aspects of Hull’s theory. (From York University, Classics in the History of Psychology.)

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“Cognitive Maps in Rats and Men” by Edward C. Tolman (1948) http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Tolman/Maps/maps.htm This is Tolman’s most famous article. It includes a description of the latent learning experiment discussed on pp. 24–26 of the text. (From York University, Classics in the History of Psychology.)

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Classic Articles in the History of Behaviorism http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/topic.htm#behaviorism The complete list of classic articles in behavioral psychology at the York University website (some of which are listed above).

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Betty the Tool-Making Crow (with videos) http://users.ox.ac.uk/~kgroup/tools/introduction.shtml Betty is a very talented bird (refer to the video of Betty bending a wire to form a hook). This is an example of recent research in the area of comparative cognition.

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Tool Use in Animals http://www.pigeon.psy.tufts.edu/psych26/tools.htm This website lists several examples of tool use in animals, a topic of particular interest to those in the field of comparative cognition.

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The B. F. Skinner Foundation http://www.bfskinner.org/ This is the official website of the B. F. Skinner Foundation. It includes a short biography of Skinner, a brief exposition of operant conditioning, unpublished works by Skinner, and PDFs of some of Skinner’s publications.

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Precision Teaching http://psych.athabascau.ca/html/387/OpenModules/Lindsley/ One of Skinner’s applications of behavioral principles to education is known as precision

Instructor Manual: Chapter 1: Introduction

teaching. This link will take students to an Athabasca University tutorial on this behaviorally based method of instruction. 

Association for Behavior Analysis International https://www.abainternational.org/welcome.aspx This is the official website of the Association for Behavior Analysis International, the primary professional organization of applied behavior analysts, or often board certified behavior analysts.

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Behavior Analysis Certification Board https://www.bacb.com/ This is the official website of the Behavior Analysis Certification Board which maintains professional credentialing and ethical guidelines for Board Certified Behavior Analysts (BCBAs).

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Various Links to Behavior Analysis and Learning http://psych.athabascau.ca/html/aupr/ba.shtml From Athabasca University, this website contains a huge list of links to Internet resources on behavior analysis and learning.

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Appendix Generic Rubrics Providing students with rubrics helps them understand expectations and components of assignments. Rubrics help students become more aware of their learning process and progress, and they improve students’ work through timely and detailed feedback. Customize these rubrics as you wish. The writing rubric indicates 40 points and the discussion rubric indicates 30 points.

Standard Writing Rubric Criteria Content

Organization and Clarity

Meets Requirements Needs Improvement The assignment clearly and The assignment partially comprehensively addresses all addresses some or all questions in the assignment. questions in the assignment.

Incomplete The assignment does not address the questions in the assignment.

15 points 8 points 0 points The assignment presents ideas The assignment presents ideas The assignment does not in a clear manner and with in a mostly clear manner and present ideas in a clear manner strong organizational structure. with a mostly strong and with strong organizational The assignment includes an organizational structure. The structure. The assignment appropriate introduction, assignment includes an includes an introduction, content, and conclusion. appropriate introduction, content, and conclusion, but Coverage of facts, arguments, content, and conclusion. coverage of facts, arguments, and conclusions are logically Coverage of facts, arguments, and conclusions are not related and consistent. and conclusions are mostly logically related and logically related and consistent.

Instructor Manual: Chapter 1: Introduction

consistent.

Research

Grammar and Spelling

10 points The assignment is based upon appropriate and adequate academic literature, including peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work.

7 points The assignment is based upon adequate academic literature but does not include peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work.

0 points The assignment is not based upon appropriate and adequate academic literature and does not include peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work.

5 points The assignment follows the required citation guidelines.

3 points The assignment follows some of the required citation guidelines.

0 points The assignment does not follow the required citation guidelines.

5 points 3 points The assignment has two or The assignment has three to fewer grammatical and spelling five grammatical and spelling errors. errors. 5 points

0 points The assignment is incomplete or unintelligible.

0 points

3 points

Standard Discussion Rubric Criteria Participation

Meets Requirements Submits or participates in discussion by the posted deadlines. Follows all assignment. instructions for initial post and responses.

5 points Contribution Quality

Etiquette

Comments stay on task. Comments add value to discussion topic. Comments motivate other students to respond.

Needs Improvement Incomplete Does not participate or submit Does not participate in discussion by the posted discussion. deadlines. Does not follow instructions for initial post and responses.

3 points Comments may not stay on task. Comments may not add value to discussion topic. Comments may not motivate other students to respond.

0 points Does not participate in discussion.

20 points 10 points 0 points Maintains appropriate Does not always maintain Does not participate in language. Offers criticism in a appropriate language. Offers discussion. constructive manner. Provides criticism in an offensive both positive and negative manner. Provides only negative feedback. feedback. 5 points

3 points

0 points

Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 2: Research Methods

Instructor Manual Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 2: Research Methods

Table of Contents Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter ................................................................................................. 13 Cengage Supplements ............................................................................................................................. 13 Chapter Objectives .................................................................................................................................. 13 Key Terms ................................................................................................................................................ 13 What's New in This Chapter .................................................................................................................... 15 Chapter Outline ....................................................................................................................................... 16 Discussion Questions ............................................................................................................................... 17 Additional Activities and Assignments ..................................................................................................... 18 Study Tip.................................................................................................................................................. 18 Additional Resources ............................................................................................................................... 19 Suggested Readings ............................................................................................................................ 19 Internet Resources .............................................................................................................................. 19 Appendix ................................................................................................................................................. 21 Generic Rubrics ................................................................................................................................... 21 Standard Writing Rubric...................................................................................................................... 21 Standard Discussion Rubric ................................................................................................................. 23