INSTRUCTOR'S MANUAL For A Concise Public Speaking Handbook Sixth Edition. By Steven A. Beebe Susan J by welldoneassistant

A Concise Public Speaking Handbook, 6e Instructor’s Manual

a. External noise is physical, such as incessant coughing or a noisy air conditioner. b. Internal noise may stem from either physiological (a bad cold) or psychological causes (worry about an upcoming exam) and may directly affect either the source or the receiver. B. Communication as Interaction 1. Without an audience to hear and provide feedback, public speaking serves little purpose. 2. Context: the environment or situation in which the speech occurs. a. Physical context includes the temperature or lighting of a room. b. Cultural context includes the speaker’s and audience’s cultural traditions and expectations, their identification with social groups, and their level of perceived power, influence, and social standing. C. Communication as Transaction 1. The most recent communication models focus on communication as a simultaneous process. 2. Listeners nonverbally express their thoughts and feelings at the same time the speaker is talking. D. Public Speaking and Conversation 1. Public speaking requires more preparation than conversation. 2. Public speaking is more formal than conversation. 3. Roles of speakers and audiences are more clearly defined in public speaking than in conversation. CHAPTER SUMMARY As you study public speaking, you will discover new applications for skills you may already have, such as focusing and organizing ideas and gathering information. You will also gain long-term advantages related to empowerment and employment. Public speaking has a long history. The guidelines formulated by Greek philosopher Aristotle in the fourth century BCE are still followed today. Students of public speaking in the nineteenth century practiced the arts of declamation and elocution. Contemporary students of public speaking draw on previous traditions and use digital technology to reach worldwide audiences. Linear communication models include the source, the message, channels, receivers, and noise. Interactive models of communication add two dimensions to the communication process: feedback and context. Feedback refers to the verbal and nonverbal messages provided by the audience. Context refers to the actual environment in which the speech occurs. Physical context includes the temperature and lighting of the room. Cultural context includes the audience’s and speaker’s cultural traditions and expectations. Public speaking is an important skill that is different from everyday conversation because it is more formal, requires more preparation, and establishes the roles of the speaker and the audience more clearly. KEY TERMS public speaking empowerment declamation

code message decode

A Concise Public Speaking Handbook, 6e Instructor’s Manual

channel receiver

external noise internal noise

feedback context

A Concise Public Speaking Handbook, 6e Instructor’s Manual

TEACHING STRATEGIES 1. If you have not already done so, consider building a video collection of your former students presenting speeches, especially the “Names” first speech. Students feel comfortable seeing others “just like themselves” demonstrating an assignment. This author remembers that imitation was an integral part of Roman rhetorical education. This speech is further described in chapter 2 of this Instructor Resource Manual (IRM). You might also choose to personally model this assignment, as well as upcoming assignments (this author wrote casually). 2. Ask students to write a one-page essay explaining their goals for the class. What do they believe they already do well in public speaking? What do they hope to do better by course end? Encourage them to write about their behavior goals as well as their attitude goals. Ask them to identify both short-term and long-term goals for their public speaking future. Return essays at the end of the course so students can evaluate their progress toward their self-stated goals. 3. ENCOURAGE STUDENTS TO ANSWER IN CLASS USING FULL SENTENCES. DO NOT ACCEPT SINGLE-WORD OR FRAGMENT ANSWERS. (This author has found it to be an allaround good policy. To him, the current decline in students’ critical thinking ability, if justified, could certainly relate to instructor permissiveness in accepting incomplete oral answers.) 4. Interact with students to the tune of the question “What are models?” Accept a number of answers and examples. Explain the linear model concept. State the main advantage of linear models (simplicity of understanding and learning) and the big disadvantage (“static” understanding versus “process” thinking). Briefly explain the five typical components of linear model communication: source, message, channels, receiver, and noise. Develop the feedback concept using an analogy with a furnace and thermostat. The thermostat tells the furnace when to burn or rest, just as audiences may tell a speaker when to start and stop, when to expand, when to change topics, and when a speaker is doing well. Use your classroom experiences to illustrate how student (audience) feedback altered the behavior of the speaker (instructor). Make the context variable meaningful by contrasting instruction in a middle school classroom with college instruction of the same subject. Add an example where a speaker argues for a strong Social Security system, first to a group of teenagers and second to an audience of “Gray Panthers.” 5. Using materials from your graduate school notes or personal classical library, share with students famous quotations about public speaking from the ancient greats: Plato, Socrates, Aristotle. Add as declamation these famous sayings from U.S. history: Benjamin Franklin, commenting on the drafting of the Declaration of Independence— “Gentlemen, we must all hang together or we shall all hang separately!” Abraham Lincoln, Cooper Union Address—“This union cannot long survive, half-slave, half-free.” John F. Kennedy, Inaugural Address—“Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country.”

A Concise Public Speaking Handbook, 6e Instructor’s Manual

Dr. Martin Luther King, Washington Monument Speech—“I have a dream that . . . one day right there in Alabama, little black boys and black girls will be able to join hands with little white boys and white girls as sisters and brothers.” 6. Explain that adapting to diversity is a natural development of public speaking theory, as public speaking is measured by its effects in and on audiences. Do, however, briefly review social and political pressures associated with achieving societal equity in a nation of diversity. CLASS ACTIVITIES 1. Complete the following “Get Acquainted” student survey. Collecting the information will acquaint the instructor and students and will also provide contact information. Ask students to complete data between the first and second day of class. In class, students will pair off and discuss responses to the survey. Students could introduce their partners to their classmates, commenting on interesting responses. Encourage, but do not require, students to exchange surveys with one another. Feel free to edit, adapt, or extend the survey. (Do so at your department’s budget expense!) 2. Consider a first speech often called “What’s My Name?” Objectives for introductory speeches are typically for the students and instructor to become acquainted with one another. Many instructors choose not to evaluate and grade beginning efforts. To this author, however, even first efforts deserve careful attention from the instructor. In his classes, the first speech requires research and preparation and is evaluated as “Complete” (on to the next speech) or “Incomplete” (must consult with instructor, correct, and deliver again (typically outside the classroom during office hours). Either first-speech approach, relatively unprepared or relatively prepared, will probably produce good results. Introductory speeches have objectives other than acquaintance, including giving students the opportunity to practice organizational and delivery skills, gain speaking experience early on, practice the “extemporaneous” method of delivery, and achieve early success, as well as providing the instructor with first impressions of a particular class’s needs. This author requires sustained applause as students approach to speak and even louder responses when students finish speaking. To him, clapping, whistles, and even foot-stomping are highly productive in immediate reduction of student speech apprehension. The author provides very positive oral feedback and limited written feedback immediately following each presentation. The “What’s My Name?” initial speech fits in well with attempts to stimulate immediate class cohesion. 3. Talking about oneself is relatively non-anxiety provoking. In addition, talking about one’s names is ego involving. Combining the two promotes excellent first speeches. A minimum time of two minutes works well, with students often going five minutes. The specific purpose for all is “I want my audience to remember me by both names FOREVER!” Preview important future research methods by assigning students to interview themselves and others (especially family) about their names. In addition, ask them to conduct formal research (library, internet) into the etymology of their names. Encourage students to plan a number of memory assists, such as repetition, association, others’ reactions to their names, and nicknames. With strong positive feedback from the instructor, and loud, enthusiastic responses from the audience, this speech can get a class off to a bang-up start.

A Concise Public Speaking Handbook, 6e Instructor’s Manual

4. Demonstrate the practices of declamation and elocution using material from Beebe and Beebe chapter 17. (The section on nonverbal aspects of delivery will work well.) Show the materials to students as you speak demonstrating the practices of declamation and elocution. Then, contrast by delivering the material in our modern style. For a perfect model of elocution, see John Carradine as a last-century politician and elocutionist in the Jimmy Stewart/John Wayne/Lee Marvin film The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance. 5. Lead the class in discussing speeches that have changed public awareness, attitudes, and willingness to take action. Ask students about speeches observed on television or on campus. Ask them why they remembered such speeches. Give students practice in critical analysis of speechmaking by probing a bit, not settling for vague reactions, for example, “It was very moving.” Discovering what apparently made a speech moving, motivating, or especially informative will help students understand the textbook’s main point that public speaking is a unique communication tool. JOURNAL PROMPTS 1.1 The Importance of Studying Public Speaking Why is it important to study public speaking? What are two long-term advantages? 1.2 Internal Noise Give an example of internal noise that is affecting you as you read this question. What could a public speaker do or say that would help you focus on the speaker instead of the internal noise that may distract you from their message? SHARED WRITING PROMPT Reasons You Study Public Speaking Why are you taking this course in public speaking? What do you hope to gain from the course?

A Concise Public Speaking Handbook, 6e Instructor’s Manual

PUBLIC SPEAKING STUDENT SURVEY Instructions: Please provide the following information to help your instructor (and classmates, if you agree) get acquainted with you. Contact with instructor may be necessary. Name:_____________________________________Phone(s)______________ ______________ Mailing Address__________________________________________________________________ Email Address__________________________________________________________________ Year in School______________Probable Major___________________Minor_________________ Have you taken a public speaking course before? Yes__________ If Yes, where?

High School__________

No__________ College__________

Some people experience communication apprehension (stage fright, anxiety) when thinking of public speaking. Which statement below best expresses the way you feel now about yourself and public speaking? (Check only one statement, please.) __________I really have no public speaking apprehension. __________I have less public speaking apprehension than most people I know. __________I think I have average public speaking apprehension. __________I have more public speaking apprehension than most people. __________I have much more public speaking apprehension than most people. Would you care to express concerns or ask questions about the course? If so, please write them below. (I will share and respond to questions and concerns during class without revealing names.)

A Concise Public Speaking Handbook, 6e Instructor’s Manual

CHAPTER 2: IMPROVING YOUR CONFIDENCE LEARNING OBJECTIVES 2.1

Explain the reasons for and processes involved in nervousness about public speaking.

2.2

Describe effective strategies for building public-speaking confidence.

CHAPTER OUTLINE I.

Understanding Your Nervousness A. Know your reasons for anxiety. 1. There are various reasons for feeling nervous: fear of humiliation, concern about not being prepared, worry about appearance, pressure to perform, personal insecurity, concerns about audience interest, inexperience, fear of making mistakes, and fear of failure. 2. Being a perfectionist may be linked to increased apprehension. 3. Some may have a genetic tendency to feel more anxiety than others in a speechmaking situation. B. Use your anxiety. 1. Your audience cannot see evidence of everything you feel. 2. Listeners are not likely to detect nervousness in your voice. 3. Realize your body is helping you.

II. How to Build Your Confidence A. Know your audience and anticipate their reactions. B. Don’t procrastinate. C. Select an appropriate topic. D. Be prepared. E. Be organized. F. Know your introduction and conclusion. G. Make practice real. H. Use virtual reality when you rehearse. I. Breathe. J. Channel your nervous energy. K. Visualize your success. L. Give yourself a mental pep talk. 1. Replace any negative, anxious thoughts with positive messages. 2. Use positive self-talk. M. Look for positive support. N. Seek speaking opportunities. O. Focus on what you have accomplished, not on your fear. CHAPTER SUMMARY 1 Copyright © 2024, 2018, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

A Concise Public Speaking Handbook, 6e Instructor’s Manual

Public speaking is a complex process. When students begin a speech class, they may experience nervousness. This chapter provides a discussion of communication apprehension, its manifestations, and ways to control apprehension. Although these topics will be covered more fully in later chapters, this overview gives students a chance to see the process they are about to undertake. TEACHING STRATEGIES 1. Introduce the subject of public speaking nervousness, suggesting that all speakers are affected by anxiety about public speaking to some extent. Point out that nervousness can be successfully managed, as well as reduced by additional speaking experience. Briefly describe ten techniques for managing public speaking nervousness. Use examples of successful management from personal experience or from speakers in your other or prior classes. 2. You may need to devote an entire class period to managing speech anxiety. Encourage students to talk about their fears and why they feel apprehensive about public speaking. Find out if your communication department or institution offers a workshop or seminar to manage speech anxiety, and if so, announce it to your class. Or you may want to invite someone from the department who has expertise in apprehension reduction to give a mini-presentation to your class, focusing on one of the text’s suggestions for managing anxiety. 3. Tell students that speech planning and preparation is never complete without practice. Using information from the text, provide students with good speechmaking practice tips. As motivation for students to include good practice in their preparations, point out that practice will reduce public speaking nervousness. Suggest that practice will be complete when wording of the speech becomes well established (but not memorized word for word). CLASS ACTIVITIES 1. Advise students to discreetly observe their audiences immediately prior to speaking in order to grow more comfortable with listeners. Additionally, advise observation to determine last-minute, small changes in a speechmaking plan. Advise students to approach the speechmaking area confidently, “taking command” of the area and audience before actually beginning to speak. Deliver the speech as planned and practiced. Draw your examples from sample speeches in the textbook or from historical speeches on the internet. 2. There is safety in numbers. Students may feel more comfortable opening up in a group communication situation. Assign students to bring a small object to class. (Do not yield to student questions about the objects—it’s more fun that way.) Divide students into two lines, facing one another at a distance of six to eight feet and displaying their objects to the other line. Tell students they are to “sell” their objects to the students in the other line, loudly and simultaneously. Allow a minute for the sales and several minutes for tension release and laughter after the exercise. Cruise the lines during the sales pitches, encouraging those who need it. As a variation, suggest standing closer to the other line of students. Conclude the exercise by complimenting as many “stars” as you can. 2 Copyright © 2024, 2018, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

A Concise Public Speaking Handbook, 6e Instructor’s Manual

JOURNAL PROMPTS 2.1 Managing Your Apprehension What are some ways you can manage your nervousness about giving a speech? 2.2 Building Your Confidence You are preparing your first class presentation for your public-speaking class. Understandably, you’re feeling very nervous. What are some ways you can build your confidence before you speak, as well as during and after your speech? SHARED WRITING PROMPT Building Your Confidence How do you feel when you’re about to give a speech or talk in front of a crowd? Are you nervous? If so, what are some strategies you could use to build your confidence?

A Concise Public Speaking Handbook, 6e Instructor’s Manual

CHAPTER 3: PRESENTING YOUR FIRST SPEECH LEARNING OBJECTIVES 3.1

Explain why it is important to be audience-centered during each step of the speechmaking process.

3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7

Select and narrow an appropriate topic for a speech. Differentiate between a general speech purpose and a specific speech purpose. Develop a sentence that captures the central idea of a speech. Identify three strategies for generating the main ideas for a speech. Describe several types of supporting material that could be used to support speech ideas. Develop a speech with three main organizational parts—an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. Identify successful strategies for rehearsing a speech. Describe the essential elements of effective speech delivery.

3.8 3.9

CHAPTER OUTLINE I.

Consider Your Audience A. Considering the audience is at the center of the speechmaking process model. B. Considering the audience is a continuous process. 1. Being audience-centered involves making decisions before you speak based on your knowledge of your audience’s interests, needs, and values. 2. Being audience-centered involves being sensitive to your audience’s responses during the speech in order to make adjustments.

II.

Select and Narrow Your Topic A. Who is the audience? B. What are my interests, talents, and experiences? C. What is the occasion?

III.

Determine Your Purpose A. General purpose 1. To inform 2. To persuade 3. To entertain B. Specific purpose 1. A concise statement indicating what you want listeners to be able to do, remember, or feel after your speech

IV.

A Concise Public Speaking Handbook, 6e Instructor’s Manual

Generate the Main Ideas A. Subdivide your central idea into key points by asking: 1. Does the central idea have logical divisions? 2. Can you think of several reasons the central idea is true? 3. Can you support the central idea with a series of steps? B. The number of major ideas in your speech will be determined by your time limit, topic, and research.

VI.

Gather Supporting Material A. Gather and prepare supporting material. 1. Tell stories based on personal experiences. 2. Supporting material should be personal, concrete, and appeal to your listeners’ senses. 3. Relate abstract statistics to something tangible. B. Research your topic. 1. Go to the library and learn to navigate electronic databases, on-site resources, and internet indexes such as Google Scholar. 2. Check books, television, the internet, and social media for examples you can use in your speech.

VII.

Organize Your Speech A. Divide your speech into three major divisions. 1. Introduction 2. Body 3. Conclusion B. Outline your speech. 1. Use Roman numerals for main ideas. 2. Don’t write your speech word for word.

VIII. Rehearse Your Speech A. Rehearse standing up. B. Make eye contact. C. Rehearse early. D. Speak loudly. E. If you are not sure what to do with your hands, keep them at your side. F. Don’t memorize your speech. G. Rehearse using the same notes you plan to use when presenting. IX.

Deliver Your Speech A. When you are introduced, walk calmly and confidently to the front of the room. B. Establish eye contact with your audience. C. Smile naturally. D. Deliver your attention-catching opening sentence. E. Concentrate on your message and your audience. F. Deliver your speech using a conversational tone. G. Deliver your speech just as you rehearsed it before your imaginary audience. H. “Be sincere, be brief, and be seated.” 2 Copyright © 2024, 2018, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

A Concise Public Speaking Handbook, 6e Instructor’s Manual

CHAPTER SUMMARY This chapter explains why it is important to be audience-centered during each step of the speechmaking process. The chapter then summarizes the speechmaking process by offering an overview of topic selection, general and specific purposes, central ideas, main ideas, support material, speech organization, rehearsal, and delivery. Although these topics will be covered more fully in later chapters, this overview gives students a chance to see the process they are about to undertake. KEY TERMS general purpose specific purpose

central idea main idea

invention supporting material

TEACHING STRATEGIES 1. Explain the concept of audience-centered speechmaking as the most important principle in the textbook. Define the concepts of human beliefs, attitudes, values, and needs. Explain how each concept contributes to your audience’s responses to you and your speechmaking. Analyze the audience-centered model of speechmaking, showing how audience characteristics can affect each step in the model. Draw your examples from sample speeches in the textbook or from historical speeches on the internet. 2. Using the chapter outline, share broad questions that can assist students in selecting speech topics. Draw from personal experiences in selecting and narrowing topics. 3. Define the concept of a central idea. Explain central ideas as both the essence and the summary of a speech. Emphasize that central ideas emerge from initial research and then function as guides for final research. Examine and analyze the textbook’s examples of well-done central ideas. 4. Tell students that speech planning and preparation is never complete without practice. From the chapter outline, provide students with good speechmaking practice tips. As motivation for students to include good practice in their preparations, point out that practice will reduce public speaking nervousness to a minimum. Suggest that practice will be complete when wording of the speech becomes well established (but not memorized word for word). 5. Advise students to discreetly observe their audiences immediately prior to speaking, in order to grow more comfortable with listeners. Additionally, advise observation to determine last-minute, small changes in a speechmaking plan. Advise students to approach the speechmaking area confidently, “taking command” of the area and the audience before actually beginning to speak. Deliver as planned and practiced. CLASS ACTIVITIES 3 Copyright © 2024, 2018, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

A Concise Public Speaking Handbook, 6e Instructor’s Manual

SPECIFIC-PURPOSE STATEMENTS FOR PERSUASION AIMED AT BEHAVIORS Instructions: Write an objective or specific-purpose statement for each of the following potential speech topics; Air Force

Insurance

Animals

Intelligence

Asbestos

Latin America

Asia

Libraries

Cajun Culture

Lightning

Canada

Milk

Chinese Food

Mississippi River

Houston

Opioids

A Concise Public Speaking Handbook, 6e Instructor’s Manual

CHAPTER 24: USING PERSUASIVE STRATEGIES LEARNING OBJECTIVES 24.1 Identify strategies to improve your initial, derived, and terminal credibility. 24.2 Use principles of effective reasoning to develop a persuasive message. 24.3 Employ effective techniques of using emotional appeal in a persuasive speech. 24.4 Use strategies for effectively organizing a persuasive speech. 24.5 Adapt your persuasive message to receptive, neutral, and unreceptive audiences.

CHAPTER OUTLINE I.

Enhancing Your Credibility A. Credibility: the audience’s perception of a speaker’s competence, trustworthiness, and dynamism 1. Competence 2. Trustworthiness 3. Dynamism (charisma) B. Initial credibility C. Derived credibility D. Terminal credibility E. These strategies can improve your credibility: 1. Make a good first impression by dressing appropriately and establishing eye contact before beginning to speak. 2. Establish common ground with the audience by indicating in your opening remarks that you share their values and concerns. 3. Support your arguments and conclusions with evidence. 4. Present a logically organized, well-delivered message. 5. Use strategies to gain and maintain attention. 6. End with a good impression.

II. Using Reasoning Effectively A. Logic: a formal system of rules for making inferences B. Evidence: facts, examples, statistics, and expert opinions that you use to support and prove your points C. Reasoning: the process of drawing a conclusion from evidence D. Proof: consists of the evidence plus the conclusion you draw from it E. A model of reasoning: Toulmin Model of Argument 1. Data 2. Claim 3. Warrant F. Understanding types of reasoning

A Concise Public Speaking Handbook, 6e Instructor’s Manual

1. Inductive reasoning: you reach a general conclusion based on specific examples, facts, statistics, and opinions. 2. Reasoning by analogy (or comparison): a special type of inductive reasoning. 3. Reasoning by sign: another special type of inductive reasoning that occurs when two things are so closely related that the existence of one thing means the other thing will happen. 4. Deductive reasoning: you reason from a general statement or principle to reach a specific conclusion. a. Deductive reasoning can be structured in the form of a syllogism, which includes three elements: (1) Major premise: a general statement. (2) Minor premise: a more specific statement about an example linked to the major premise. (3) Conclusion: based on the major premise and the minor premise. 5. Causal reasoning: relates two or more events in such a way as to conclude that one or more of the events caused the others. a. Reasoning from cause to effect: you move from a known fact to a predicted result, or from something that has occurred to something that has not yet occurred. b. Reasoning from effect to cause: you move from a known effect to an unknown cause. G. Adapt reasoning for a culturally diverse audience. H. Using types of evidence. 1. Fact: something that has been directly observed to be true or can be proven to be true. 2. Inference: a conclusion based on available evidence or partial information. 3. Examples: illustrations that are used to dramatize or clarify a fact. 4. Opinions: can serve as evidence if made by an expert. 5. Statistic: a number used to summarize several facts or samples. 6. Use evidence effectively following these strategies: a. Use credible evidence. 1. Reluctant testimony b. Use new evidence. c. Use specific evidence d. Use evidence to tell a story. e. Use evidence appropriate to a diverse audience. I. Avoid faulty reasoning. 1. Persuasive speakers must avoid the following types of faulty reasoning (fallacies) to be better and more ethical speakers: a. Causal fallacy: making a causal connection without enough evidence to support the cause-and-effect conclusion. b. Bandwagon fallacy: arguing that “everybody thinks it’s a good idea, so you should too.” c. Either–or fallacy: oversimplifying complex issues, arguing that there are only two approaches to a problem. d. Hasty generalization: reaching conclusions from insufficient evidence. e. Ad hominem fallacy: attacking irrelevant personal characteristics of the person proposing an idea, rather than attacking the idea itself. f. Red herring fallacy: attacking an issue by using irrelevant facts or arguments as distractions. g. Appeal to misplaced authority: using popular people who are well-known and respected in their own fields as “experts” to endorse a product or idea. 2 Copyright © 2024, 2018, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

A Concise Public Speaking Handbook, 6e Instructor’s Manual

h. Non sequitur: attempting to support conclusions with other unrelated conclusions or evidence. i. Slippery slope fallacy: claiming that an initial action or proposal is the first step toward disastrous consequences. III. Using Emotion to Persuade A. Listeners are often persuaded by emotion, as well as logic. B. Reference a shared myth. C. Culture influences how receptive listeners are to emotional expressions and appeals. D. Use emotional appeals ethically. IV. Organizing Persuasive Messages A. Problem–Solution: the most basic organizational pattern for a persuasive speech. B. Refutation: identify objections to your position and then refute or overcome those objections with arguments and evidence. C. Cause and Effect: the goal is to convince listeners that one event causes another. D. Motivated Sequence: a five-step organizational plan using the cognitive dissonance approach. a. Attention: Grab their attention during the introduction of your speech. b. Need: You arouse dissonance. Convince listeners there is a need for change and that the need affects them directly. c. Satisfaction: After presenting the problem, identify the solution. d. Visualization: (1) Positive visualization: paints a verbal picture of a wonderful future if your solution is adopted. (2) Negative visualization: helps listeners see how awful things will be if your solution is not adopted. e. Action: tell your audience the specific, easy-to-follow steps they can take to implement your solution. V. Adapting Ideas to People and People to Ideas A. Persuading the receptive audience. 1. Identify with your audience and emphasize your similarities. 2. Clearly state your speaking objective. 3. Tell your audience exactly what you want them to do. 4. Ask listeners for an immediate show of support. 5. Use emotional appeals effectively. 6. Make it easy for your listeners to act. B. Persuading the neutral audience. 1. Capture listeners’ attention early in the speech. 2. Refer to beliefs that many listeners share. 3. Relate your topic to listeners as well as their families, friends, and loved ones. 4. Be realistic in what you can accomplish. C. Persuading the unreceptive audience. 1. Don’t immediately announce that you plan to change their minds. 2. Begin by noting areas of agreement before you discuss areas of disagreement. 3. Be realistic; don’t expect a major change in attitude from a hostile audience. 4. Acknowledge the opposing points of view. 5. Establish your credibility. 3 Copyright © 2024, 2018, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

A Concise Public Speaking Handbook, 6e Instructor’s Manual

D. To enhance accurate understanding or correct a misconception, experienced speakers use a fourpart strategy: 1. Summarize the common misconceptions about the issue or idea you are discussing. 2. State why these misconceptions may seem reasonable. 3. Dismiss the misconceptions by providing evidence to support your point. 4. State the accurate information that you want your audience to remember.

CHAPTER SUMMARY Using persuasive strategies in public speaking dates back to ancient Greece, when the ancient philosopher Aristotle outlined necessary methods for effective persuasion. Credibility is established through an audience’s perception of a speaker’s competence, trustworthiness, and dynamism. Speakers are able to build credibility among audience members in three phases. The first of these phases is initial credibility, followed by derived credibility, which leads to terminal credibility. To be an effective persuader, speakers need to utilize logic and evidence. Speakers can use three types of reasoning: inductive, deductive, and causal. Evidence can include facts, examples, opinions, and statistics, all of which need to be used properly and practically. There are several persuasive fallacies that speakers must avoid. Causal fallacies, bandwagon fallacies, either–or fallacies, hasty generalizations, ad hominem fallacies, red herring fallacies, appeals to misplaced authority, non sequiturs, and slippery slope fallacies can all damage persuasive arguments if used in speeches. To be an effective persuader, speakers should not only rely on logic, reasoning, and evidence but also incorporate emotional appeals. Follow appropriate criteria when using emotional appeals, particularly ethical appeals. Speakers should organize their persuasive speeches using four basic strategies: problem–solution, refutation, cause and effect, and the motivated sequence. Speakers have to deal with three possible audiences: receptive, neutral, and unreceptive.

KEY TERMS credibility competence trustworthiness dynamism charisma initial credibility derived credibility terminal credibility logic evidence reasoning Toulmin Model of Argument data claim

warrant inductive reasoning generalization deductive reasoning syllogism major premise minor premise conclusion causal reasoning fact inference examples opinions statistic 4 Copyright © 2024, 2018, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

reluctant testimony fallacy causal fallacy bandwagon fallacy either–or fallacy hasty generalization ad hominem fallacy red herring fallacy appeal to misplaced authority non sequitur slippery slope fallacy myth

A Concise Public Speaking Handbook, 6e Instructor’s Manual

TEACHING STRATEGIES 1. By now, your students will have had multiple interactions—as speakers and audiences, as smallgroup-exercise participants, as before-and-after-class chatters, and perhaps even in newly formed social relationships. They are ripe for a good discussion about speaker credibility. In fact, they probably have good estimates of one another’s credibility within the class. Begin your discussion with Aristotle’s famous dictum that speakers must “find all the available means of persuasion.” Drop on students that the classical trio of persuasion means, using a bit more modern language, ethos—the audience-perceived competency, trustworthiness, and dynamism of a speaker; logos— how the audience perceives the speaker’s skill in using argument, logic, and evidence; and pathos—how effectively the listeners feel the speaker has aroused their emotions. Tell them they evaluated, before each classmate spoke, the initial credibility of that classmate; that they have now listened several times to each classmate and formed ideas about their derived credibility; and that they now have an impression about each classmate—an actual comparative estimate of their terminal credibility. Just to be on the safe side, conduct a bit of review. Ask students, in turn, to explain speaker credibility. Persist until you feel everybody is with it. Ask more students, in turn, to explain the ideas of initial, derived, and terminal credibility. Again, keep it up until everybody is a happy camper on speaker credibility. Now for the fun part. Ask students to look at the student on their left (some can’t, of course). Monitor them. Be firm. They are to look. Next, ask them to look at the student on their right. Insist. Next, ask them to look at the student in front of them and then the student behind them. Ignore the titters and groans. When students have finished observing their neighbors, say to them in all seriousness, “You are not to answer my next question out loud. Please close your eyes and think a moment. Which of the students you looked at has in your mind the greatest class speaker credibility? Think about it. Why?” 2. Lead a discussion of political figures and speaker credibility. What are student perceptions of President Obama? Ask students to comment on perceptions of the president’s competence, trustworthiness, and dynamism. 3. Define reasoning. Explain it as a process of reaching a conclusion in a way that listeners can accept and approve. For example, cause-and-effect reasoning is in everybody’s bag of tricks, and audiences will buy at least the way you are thinking. If you assert, “Students with poor study habits will probably get poor grades,” your students can dig that, probably both the reasoning type and the conclusion. Tell them you’re going to give examples of all three types of reasoning. Please feel free to either improve on the samples below or use them as is. Do tell students that something is seriously wrong with each example and that they can really impress you by nailing the errors in reasoning. Inductive Reasoning (reasoning from specifics to the general): A teacher examined demographic data from students and noted that the first eight of twenty-four students reported that they were married. The instructor concluded: all students in this class are married.

A Concise Public Speaking Handbook, 6e Instructor’s Manual

Deductive Reasoning (the opposite of inductive reasoning—reasoning from the general to the specific): I have had ten super teachers in college. The eleventh will be just as great. As an addition, ask students to digest and criticize the “syllogism” below (use by name two agreeable and previously alerted students). Major Premise: All good students flatter their instructors. Minor Premise: ________ and ________ are good students. Conclusion:

________ and ________ flatter their instructor.

Causal Reasoning (relating two or more events to conclude that one more of the events caused the others): Smoking leads to lung disease. 4. After discussing analogy as a form of inductive reasoning, ask the class what problems exist, if any, with the assertions below. 1. Canada has the most efficient, cost-effective system of health care in the world; therefore, the United States should adopt the Canadian system. 2. My sibling lost twenty pounds in three weeks using diet pills; therefore, I am going on the same diet for three weeks. 3. Funding social programs in New York has led to a significant decrease in violent crime; therefore, other states should follow suit. 5. Demonstrate three patterns of persuasive speech organization by showing differences in central ideas for each pattern, given the same persuasive purpose. Persuasive Purpose: I want my audience to take a second course in public speaking. Organizational Pattern

Central Idea

Problem–Solution

A second course in public speaking adds needed skills not possible to achieve in a single course.

Refutation

Opponents of a second public speaking course offer irrelevant reasons.

Cause and Effect

A second course in public speaking will lead to highly marketable skills.

A Concise Public Speaking Handbook, 6e Instructor’s Manual

1. The purpose of this activity is to develop students’ ability to judge a person’s credibility as a speaker. Recall television personalities who are perceived as having moderate to high credibility. Show clips of the shows to the class, and then have students identify the methods and strategies the communicators use to establish their credibility. 2. Ask each student to procure a “letter to the editor” from a local newspaper. The letter is to be chosen because the writer used “inductive reasoning” in supporting claims. In a subsequent class, have students share their letters to critique the writer’s use of inductive reasoning. Guide the fledgling critics with these questions: Are sufficient examples given or implied? Are the examples typical of the alleged problem? Are examples recent? 3. Ask students to bring digital, newspaper, or magazine advertisements that employ emotional appeals. In a subsequent class, match the examples to the tips for using emotion to persuade in this chapter. Ask a few students to argue why their advertisement is the class’s best example of the use of emotional appeals. 4. Hand out the scenarios below. Ask each student to write a short but emotional paragraph about one of the scenarios, using powerful words and vivid imagery. • • • • •

The scene of a domestic dispute being mediated by police officers. (Writer is volunteering at a women’s shelter.) The scene of a head-on collision killing three teenagers and injuring others. (Alcohol is involved.) The side of a hill covered with war refugees, including many orphans. (The writer contributes to relief funds.) The awards assembly for a Special Olympics track-and-field competition. (Writer is impressed by the contestants.) A funeral procession for an officer killed in the line of duty. (Argue for gun control legislation.)

5. Pair students and ask them to pick one topic from the topics below. It must be a topic on which they are opposed to one another. If that doesn’t happen with the provided topics, ask them to come up with their own. Allow at least one class to intervene. Students should think and prepare enough to allow (with one little old note card) 1- to 2-minute speeches. The exercise is intended to permit practice in approaching hostile audiences. Remind students to review and try to build into their speeches five textbook suggestions for handling unreceptive audiences. • • • •

Increasing their school’s tuition and fees in order to renovate campus facilities. Mandatory military draft for women and men during peacetime. Legalization of currently illegal drugs. All first- and second-year college students must live in dormitories.

6. In small groups, role-play working at an advertising agency. Each group has 15 minutes to create and present a 2- to 5-minute skit commercial selling a product or service. Catch: the presentation must be organized by the “motivated sequence” organizational plan. Have the students critically