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OUTGROWING PROJECT

HAZELNUT ORCHARD NUTRITION GUIDELINES

This document is intended to be a user friendly operational guide addressed to the hazelnut growers. Ferrero Group waives any responsibility in respect to the completeness and accuracy of the content of this operational guide which in no case is to be considered as a binding document for the hazelnut growers.

This publication was made possible through support provided by the U.S. Agency for International Development, under the terms of Contract No. 72011219C00001. The opinions expressed herein are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the U.S. Agency for International Development.

YOUNG ORCHARD NUTRITION GUIDELINES

INDEX

Introduction 1.MAIN NUTRIENTS AND THEIR ROLE IN HAZELNUT PRODUCTION Macroelements Nitrogen (N) Phosphorus (P) Potassium (K) Magnesium (Mg) Calcium (Ca) Microelements 2. FERTILIZATION – planning and implementation

5 7 9 9 12 14 16 17 18 21

Pre-planting fertilization a) Soil analysis b) Correction of soil chemical properties Correction of macroelement content in soil Correction of organic matter levels Soil reaction correction - pH

22 22 25 25 26 27

Fertilization after planting Calculating the required amount of fertilizer

30 31

Methods of fertilizer application Application of granular fertilizers Fertigation

35 35 38

References

INTRODUCTION

Pushing hazelnut orchards into peak production in just a few years requires precision nutrition of the plants. Young hazelnuts need nutrients to support vegetative growth (leaves, branches, roots) but they need to be applied carefully: - Too little: Nutrient deficiency can mean that the growth potential is not met, leading to small and weak trees. - Too much: An excess of fertilization commonly leads to excessive vigor (spindly growth and too much space between nodes, which normally is 6-12 cm). Since fertilization stimulates shoot growth to a greater degree than root growth, too much fertilizer will produce vigorous shoots in spring when soil moisture is plentiful but trees maybe more susceptible to drought and potentially to diseases if the orchards are not irrigated during summer. Hence, high fertilization rates tend to decrease the tolerance of trees to water stress. Occasionally too high fertilizer rates could also result in toxicity and damage of tender tissues. In addition to that, over fertilization implies wasting money as nutrients will be leaching away from the root zone before the tree can uptake them. Special attention must be paid to Nitrogen (N), because it is extremely mobile in the soil, and can be leached from the root zone very quickly. Differently, phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) are less mobile in the soil. Therefore, in nutrient management is essential providing the tree what is needed and at the right time.

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MAIN NUTRIENTS AND THEIR ROLE IN HAZELNUT PRODUCTION 7

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MAIN NUTRIENTS AND THEIR ROLE IN HAZELNUT PRODUCTION In this chapter are listed the main types of nutrients, their characteristics, mode and timing of application. Also here are general guidelines for diagnosing symptoms that result from deficiencies or toxicities of certain elements. A hazelnut may be deficient in these elements not only because they are scarce but also because an excess of other elements could prevent a balanced uptake of essential elements. As an indicative help for understanding of interaction of different nutrients we can use Mulder’s chart:

ANTAGONISM Manganese (Mn)

Decrease in availability to the plant of a nutrient by the action of another nutrient (see direction of arrow)

Calcium (Ca) Copper (Cu)

Potash (K)

STIMULATION An increase in the need for a nutrient by the plant because of the increase in the level of another nutrient.

Magnesium (Mg) Iron (Fe) Molybdenum (Mo) Phosphate (P)

Boron (B)

Zinc (Zn)

Figure 1 - Mulder’s chart of plant nutrient interactions

Nitrogen (N)

After establishing hazelnut orchard, if any symptoms that are not caused by disease or pests occur on leaves, growers should suspect some nutrient deficiency (micro or macronutrients). In that case, foliar analysis could be helpful to correctly determine the nutritional status of the plants. If soil and leaf analyses offer opposing recommendations for fertilizing with phosphorus, potassium, and magnesium, follow the recommendations listed on the leaf analysis. However, if the soil analysis recommends lime, lime should always be applied. When collecting leaf samples with symptoms always collect leaves from a tree with no symptoms for comparison and from the same location on a branch.

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MACRONUTRIENTS NITROGEN (N)

Nitrogen is essential for growth and development being one of the main building blocks of proteins. Nitrogen encourages early tree development, promoting stem, shoot and leaf growth. Young hazelnut trees grow as much as 45-75 cm annually. N should be applied during spring growth when the root system is active. Therefore, application of N should be planned from mid-spring until first leaves drop at beginning of autumn (Figure 2 - Recommended timings of N application in relation to vegetative, root and fruit growth. 2).

VEGETATIVE GROWTH ROOTS GROWTH

NITROGEN (N)

R DE

BE EM OV N

OC TO B

BE R SE

ST GU AU

LY JU

E N JU

AY M

RI L AP

CH AR M

UA RY BR FE

JA N

UA RY

FRUIT GROWTH

NITROGEN(N)

Figure 2 - Recommended timings of N application in relation to vegetative, root and fruit growth. It is generally the most deficient macronutrient in young hazelnuts. Soil cannot ensure enough amounts of required nitrogen, especially if it is an intensive plant production. Research has shown that hazelnuts efficiently use stored nitrogen reserves to fuel early season growth. Most nitrogen used by the trees for spring shoot growth comes from stored reserves; current season fertilization provides only a small amount. Deficiency: Symptoms appear as reduced top growth with short spindly shoots that have pale green to yellow leaves. Symptoms first become evident in the older leaves at the base of shoots. Toxicity: Leaves will be dark green, and vigor will be high. Avoid N applications after September, they may encourage excessive vegetative growth and delay dormancy, which may result in frost damage, especially to younger trees. Table 1 - Nitrogen status in leaves in August Leaf N in August (% dry weight)

Status

< 1.8

Severe deficiency

1.8-2.2

Deficiency

2.2-3.0

Optimal

> 3.0

Excess

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NITROGEN FERTILIZERS The ability of a plant to capture nitrogen from the soil depends on soil type, environment and species. Generally, it has been estimated that around half of the nitrogen provided to the soil is lost. Hence, split application of N fertilizers is recommended as it increases plant absorption and usage efficiency. An indicative calendar for applications of N fertilizers is shown in Figure 5 (page 33). Nitrogen fertilizers can leach differently from root zone depending on the type of the fertilizer (nitratebased fertilizers leach faster than urea and ammonium fertilizers). Also, it should be noted that nitrogen fertilizers can change soil pH, which can affect the uptake of other nutrients (urea and ammonium sulfate decrease soil pH, calcium nitrate increases soil pH). In young hazelnut orchards, nitrogen fertilizers should be applied in small quantities in the first two growing seasons after planting unless using a slow release form of nitrogen that will avoid burning the new root systems. In Controlled Release Fertilizers (CRFs), nitrogen release might be dependent on temperature or on moisture. The temperature-release form is recommended. If the moisture-release form is used, spring rains may wash the nitrogen out of the root zone. The use of CRFs helps increasing nitrogen use efficiency by maintaining nitrogen within the root zone and by limiting the amount of nitrogen at any given time, thus reducing the risk of over-applying nitrogen and the corresponding risks of toxicity and overly vigorous growth. Therefore, due to the risk of leaching, never apply more than 60 grams/tree at a time. Also, before buying fertilizers, it is important to keep in mind that N may be present in your irrigation water and a high amount of residual N might be present in your soil. Particular attention should be used when applying liquid fertilizers like Urea and Ammonium Nitrate as it can easily burn young trees due to release of ammonia.

Table 2 - Main nitrogen fertilizers and their characteristics

Ammonium

Nitrate

Leaching potential

Soil acidifier

Notes

Fertigation application

20--35

medium

neutral

soluble

√

Ammonium sulfate ((NH4)2 SO4)

20-21

low

high

source of sulfur, soluble

√

Calcium ammonium nitrate (NAC-27)

medium

granular

Calcium nitrate Ca(NO3)2

high

source of calcium

√

Urea ((NH2)2 CO)

45-46

low

medium

soluble

√

Fertilizer

N(%)

Ammonium nitrate (NH4 NO3)

Urea

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WHEN TO APPLY NITROGEN FERTILIZERS? absorb the highest quantities of nitrogen by roots from April to September. It is important that • Plants plants have nitrogen available in the soil in this period, preferably in the form of nitrate (NO3-). N from manure transforms into ammonium in matter of weeks/months depending on the • Organic population of microbes, temperature and moist of the soil (the warmer and moister is the soil, the

faster is the transformation). The recommendation is to apply the manure at beginning of spring with incorporation in the soil to avoid nutrient losses. The benefits from manure application can last as long as three years, therefore the recommendation is to apply it every 2 or 3 years.

will transform into ammonium in a matter of days/weeks, depending on the temperature and • Urea humidity of the soil. So, it is recommended to apply urea in early spring. The key to the most efficient use of urea is incorporating it into the soil and blending it with irrigation or a rainfall (5 mm of rain will be enough).

45% of your annual budget at leaf-out — usually in late March to mid-April. Apply another 45% in • Apply mid-May to the beginning of July and no more than 10% in September (Figure 5). fall applications of nitrogen are not advisable because of delaying hardening off (winter injuries of • Late the plants are the result) and because of reduced plant uptake, which would result in a waste of fertilizers.

HOW CAN THE AMOUNT OF N IN A FERTILIZER BE DETERMINED? Look at the label to determine the nitrogen content by % weight (Nitrogen %) and use this to find out the amount of N in 1 kg of fertilizer: Example: calcium nitrate (Ca(NO3)2) is 16% nitrogen, with a straightforward multiplication we can figure out that 1 kg of calcium nitrate contains 160 grams of Nitrogen, so if we want to apply a maximum of 60 grams of N/tree, we need to apply 375 grams of calcium nitrate/tree. Table 3 - Indicative Nitrogen application rates for young hazelnut trees Tree age

N application rate (grams/tree per year)

1st leaf

50-60

2nd leaf

60-70

3rd leaf

90-130

4th leaf

90-130

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PHOSPHORUS (P)

All energetic processes, therefore also growing and development of plants are related with phosphorus. It has one of key roles in photosynthesis and storage of plants energy. It is necessary during plant growth to help the development of a more robust structure. However, the uptake of N is inhibited by high phosphorus levels, so it is recommended to not apply excessive quantities of P during early years unless soil analysis shows clear P deficiencies. The P should be better applied during pre-planting fertilization. Hazelnut requires relatively low quantities of P to support the tree. Very little phosphorus is removed in the nut as it accumulates mainly in the wood of the tree.

Table 4 - Phosphorus status in leaves in August Leaf P in August (% dry weight)

Status

< 0.1

Severe deficiency

0.11-0.13

Deficiency

0.14-0.45

Optimal

> 0.45

Excess

Deficiency: Deficiencies severe enough to produce visual symptoms are rare in hazelnut trees. When they do occur, symptoms may appear first as limited and slender terminal growth with young expanding leaves that are abnormally dark green. The young leaves’ lower sides, especially along the margins and main veins, frequently show purplish discoloration. The leaves may have a leathery texture and form abnormally acute angles with the stem. Leaf symptoms are most often seen early in the growing season and diminish later in the season. When soil moisture is low, lower levels of phosphorus are common in leaf analysis results. Toxicity: Effects of excess phosphorus are usually expressed as deficiencies of one or more of the essential heavy metals, such as zinc, copper, iron, and manganese. Since deficiency symptoms of these elements may also be induced by excesses of phosphorus, visual foliar symptoms of phosphorus toxicity are not reliable.

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VEGETATIVE GROWTH ROOTS GROWTH

PHOSPHORUS (P)

M BE

R DE

EM BE

ER N

PT SE

OC TO B

EM BE R

US T AU G

LY JU

E N JU

M AY

AP RI L

H M AR C

RU AR Y FE B

JA N

UA RY

FRUIT GROWTH

PHOSPHORUS (P)

Figure 3 - Recommended timings of P application in relation to vegetative, root and fruit growth.

PHOSPHORUS FERTILIZERS Table 5 - Main phosphorus fertilizers and their characteristics Fertilizer

%P2O5

Solubility of fertilizer

Notes

Concentrated superphosphate

very soluble

Triple superphosphate

very soluble

Dicalcium phosphate

Monoammonium phosphate - MAP

(11 N): 52

very soluble

lower content of nitrogen

Diammonium phosphate - DAP

(18 N): 46

very soluble

higher content of nitrogen

mostly used, no effect on soil pH intended for low pH soils

Triple superphosphate is the most frequently used phosphorus fertilizer when the producers need high content of this element (46%). Its form of phosphorus allows quick plant uptake and shows very positive reaction of plants. This fertilizer has no effect on soil pH. Dicalcium phosphate has 38% of phosphorus and although it contains calcium it does not have the effect of liming. It is a slow release type of fertilizer and it’s predicted for acid soils. Monoammonium phosphate – MAP and Diammonium phosphate – DAP currently among the most used potassium fertilizers. They have a high percentage of phosphorus but lower percentages of nitrogen. Phosphorus applied by fertilizers is very slowly moving through the soil. The type of phosphorus fertilizer to be applied depends mainly on soil pH.

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POTASSIUM (K)

Its presence in the tissues is responsible for total growth and development of the plant, water regime, metabolism, low temperature resistance, the strength of the green parts of the plant and nuts (husk), the synthesis of chlorophyll etc. Potassium will help to build early tree growth but the key period of uptake in the mature orchard is during nut formation. Table 6 - Potassium status in leaves in August Leaf K in August (% dry weight)

Status

< 0.5

Severe deficiency

0.5-0.8

Deficiency

0.8-2.0

Borderline (test again in 1-2 years)

> 2.0

Optimum

Deficiency: The symptoms develop at first on older leaves at the base of shoot growth of the current season. The characteristic of potassium deficient leaves is marginal scorching. When the soil is deficient with moisture also the leaf analysis frequently shows lower levels of potassium and phosphorus. Toxicity: There are no visual symptoms that can indicate the high levels of potassium, but magnesium deficiencies are often linked with high levels of potassium. Excess of K could cause N deficiency and may affect the uptake of other nutrients, therefore during the first years after planting, it is important to keep a high N and a low K to favor vegetative growth. Apply K only if soil analysis shows K deficiency.

Picture 1 - Symptoms of potassium deficiency

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VEGETATIVE GROWTH ROOTS GROWTH

POTASSIUM(K)

M BE

R DE

EM BE

ER OC TO B

EM BE R SE

US T AU G

LY JU

E JU

M AY

AP RI L

H M AR C

RU AR Y FE B

JA N

UA RY

FRUIT GROWTH

POTASSIUM(K)

Figure 4 - Recommended timings of K application in relation to vegetative, root and fruit growth.

POTASSIUM FERTILIZERS Table 7 - Main potassium fertilizers and their characteristics Fertilizer

%K2O

Notes

Potassium chloride

50-52% or 60-63%

high content of potassium

Potassium sulfate

47%

source of sulfur

Potassium magnesium sulfate

22% (8% Mg)

source of sulphur and magnesium

Potassium nitrate

44% (13%N)

source of nitrogen

Potassium chloride can be found on the market in two different concentrations (50-52% and 60-63%) and contains the highest amount of potassium in comparison to the other fertilizers. Immediately after incorporation in the soil it dissolves and it’s available for the plants very quickly. It contains no more than 3% of NaCl. Potassium sulphate has 47% of potassium and less than 3% of NaCl. It also contains 17% of sulphur. Potassium magnesium sulfate contains 22% of potassium, 11% of magnesium and 22% of sulfur. It does not change soil pH after application. If you use muriate of potash (KCl), apply it in fall or before mid-February because a late application can cause chloride toxicity due to its high chloride salt content. For applications after mid-February, it should be used potassium sulfate instead. Nowadays it is common practice to use liquid forms of potassium fertilizers because the degree of exploitation of such fertilizers exceeds 70%.

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MAGNESIUM (Mg)

Magnesium have a key role in photosynthesis as a part of chlorophyll, and also have a significant role in stabilization of the cell membranes and metabolism of carbohydrates. Magnesium application should be better performed when preparing the land for planting. Plowing fertilizer after spreading is preferred. The need for magnesium application is usually greater where potassium and calcium levels in the soil are high. When orchards are established another way of magnesium level correction is by applying 5-10 kg/ha of magnesium sulfate (Epsom salts) or 35-45 kg/ha of potassium magnesium sulfate. Magnesium fertilizers are usually applied in spring at the time of nitrogen application. Tabela 8. Magnesium status in leaves in August Leaf Mg in August (% dry weight)

Status

< 0.18

Deficiency

0.19-0.24

Bellow optimum

0.25-0.50

Optimum

0.51-1.00

Above the optimum

> 1.00

Excess Table 9. Main magnesium fertilizers and their attributes

Picture 2 - Symptoms of Magnesium deficiency (Source: Yara-Tree Nut Plantmaster; and OSU Hazelnut Extension)

Fertilizer

%Mg

Magnesium sulfate (Kieserite)

17%

Magnesium sulfate (Epsom salt)

10%

Magnesium nitrate

16%

Magnesium oxide

55%

Dolomite

55-85 % CaCO3 5-40% MgCO3

Magnesite

45%

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CALCIUM (Ca)

Ca improves physiological stability of plant tissue reducing risks of physical damage or disorders. Calcium’s essential role is in increment of disease and stress resistance and pollen tube development. Also, Ca supports root development and pollination. Table 10 - Calcium status in leaves in August Leaf Ca in August (% dry weight)

Status

< 0.60

Deficiency

0.61-1.00

Bellow optimum

1.01-2.50

Optimum

2.51-3.00

Above the optimum

> 3.00

Excess

In order to increase Ca levels, application of soluble Ca fertilizers through the fertigation systems during the growing season is recommended. To insure Ca uptake, application should be performed in spring or early autumn, when roots are still active. It should be noted that an efficient Ca uptake from soil is correlated to level of Boron.

Table 11 - Main calcium fertilizers and their attributes Fertilizer

%Ca

Calcium nitrate

20%

Calcium carbonate

40%

Calcium oxide

50%

Dolomit

55-85 %CaCO3 5-40% MgCO3

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MICRONUTRIENTS Although in a much lower amounts, micronutrients are needed to satisfy growth and boost yield, particularly in supporting key tissue growth. The micronutrient taken up in greatest quantities is iron, however is rarely a problem unless soil pH levels are highly alkaline.

Picture 3 - Symptoms of iron deficiency (left) and deficiency of sulfur (Source: OSU Hazelnut Extension)

0.13 – 0.20 (%)

31 - 75 (ppm)

16 - 60 (ppm)

5 - 15 (ppm)

51 - 400 (ppm)

26 - 650 (ppm)

Help in formation of plant enzymes, proteins and chlorophyll

increasing of functional flowers production, increasing fertility and germination of pollen, increasing nut set, reduction of empty nuts

involved in formation of chlorophyll, enzymes ad proteins

involved in the fertility of flowers, photosynthesis, increase production of resistant fabrics

Chlorophyll and enzyme production

Photosynthesis, respiration, nitrogen assimilation

Sulfur (S)

Boron (B)

Zinc (Zn)

Copper (Cu)

Iron (Fe)

Manganese (Mn)

%Nppm on dry weight

Normal level in leaf Tabela Element 12. Mikroelementi IMain njihove roleosnovne in plant osobine

Interveinal chlorosis on new growth, sunken tan spots on leaves

Yellowing in new growth

Pale green, withered new growth, yellowing, wilting

Interveinal chlorosis on new growth

retarded internodal growth, the terminal bud often dies, less fruit set

Young leaves start to change color from light green to yellow

Deficiency symptoms

young and productive orchard

productive orchard

young and productive orchard

productive orchard

Young and productive orhcards, after heavy rains, on the soils with low organic matter

When to take care?

foliar

soil application and foliar application, depending on deficiency level

foliar

soil application and foliar application, depending on deficiency level

Application method

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Table 12 - Other nutrients and micronutrients critical values in leaves

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FERTILIZATION

planning and implementation

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FERTILIZATION- Before Planting a) Soil analysis Before planting, growers should conduct soil analysis to determine whether the site is suitable for hazelnut growing. Soil physical analysis provides percentage of sand, dust and clay in g/kg of sample. Chemical analysis provides information about soil pH, cation exchange capacity (CEC), percentage of N and organic matter, content of phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and sodium in soil. Particular attention should be paid to carbonate presence and salinity, which can represent limiting factors for hazelnut production, as shown in Table 13. Testing the soil one or two years prior to planting provides an idea of the nutritional potential of the site and allows defining a proper pre-planting fertilization application (Table 14 - Additional parameters to consider in order to planning a proper pre-planting fertilization plan). How to conduct soil sampling:

• • • • •

Sampling should be carried out with a digging shovel or a soil auger according to the chosen sampling plan (Picture 5); this allows you obtain representative samples of the soil that the plant roots are growing in. With a shovel or a soil auger take samples from at 3 depths: at 0-30 cm, 30 - 60 cm, 60 - 90 cm, because hazelnut roots do not usually go deeper than 70 cm. If you use a shovel, choose only the central strip of soil for sampling (3-4 cm width) and discard the rest (Picture 4); Samples should be collected from soil within the root zone of the plant. Label bags correctly to avoid mixing of samples in the laboratory

1 0-30

1 30-60

1 60-90

SAMPLE 1

Picture 5 - Example of a sampling plan.

3 0-

1 0-

Picture 4 - Sampling method

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Table 13 - Suitable soil types in Serbia for hazelnut orchards and their attributes (modified from Nešić L. et al., 2002).

Soil type

Water permeability, temperature and aeration properties

Chernozem

Good water permeability, good temperature and aeration properties

Vertisol

Low water permeability but high capacity, good temperature and low aeration properties

Eutric cambisol

Good water permeability, good temperature and aeration properties

% humus

pH and NPK content

Notes

3-4%

About pH 7, needs to be fertilized with N and P every year

Needs to be irrigated during the summer due to intensive evaporation

3-5%

pH 4.5-6, poor on N and P but optimal % of K

Needs to be carefully irrigated because the clay particles swell when they are wet, while when it is dry, they make cracks in soil (can be bad for root)

2-6%

pH 7 to slightly acid, content of N depends on humus, low P and moderate K content

With optimal irrigation it can be very good for hazelnut orchards

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Table 14 - Soil suitability assesment (critical values are in bold) Parameters Texture

Sand (g/kg) Silt (g/kg) Clay (g/kg)

250-550 250-500 100-300

6.5-7.3

Electrical conductivity (mS/cm)

<2.3

CEC (meq/100g)

CEC total Potassium Sodium Calcium Magnesium

10-20 2-4 max 15 65-85 8-12

Carbonates (g/kg)

Total limestone Active limestone

25-100 ≤80

Organic matter (g/kg)

15-20

Parameters

Optimal range Chlorides Sulfates Nitrates

max 50 10-250 20-30

N (%) P2O5 (mg/kg) K2O (mg/kg) CaO (mg/kg) MgO (mg/kg)

1.0-1.8 35-45 sandy-loam soils: 100-150 clay soil: 120-200 3500-4500 180-320

Microelements

Fe B Mn Cu Zn

5-30 0,4-1 2-10 2-4 2-3

Elements ratio

C/N Ca/Mg Ca/K Mg/K Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR)

8-12 5-10 25-40 2-5 <0.8

Aqueous extract

Macroelements

Optimal range

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b) Correction of chemical characteristics of the soil Depending on results of soil analysis, we need to perform several different soil corrections to make sure that our soil is completely ready for planting of hazelnut. Most corrections are nutrients correction (mainly phosphorus, potassium and magnesium), organic matter correction and pH level correction. CORRECTION OF MACRONUTRIENTS LEVEL IN THE SOIL When planning a pre-planting fertilization application, P and K are the main elements to consider. Phosphorus is not mobile in the soil and remains at the place of application, unless surface runoff occurs. The mobility of potassium in soil is intermediate – it is more mobile than phosphorus, but much less mobile than nitrogen. Therefore, it is important to properly incorporate into the soil both P and K after applied them. Nitrogen in the nitrate form (NO3–), is not retained by soil particles and, therefore, might quickly leach to below the root zone, whereas urea and ammonium could be converted into ammonia gas (NH3) and volatilize in warm, moist and high pH soils. Therefore, pre-plant application of N may lead to major nitrogen losses.

Example of pre-planting correction of P content in soil Initial P content in soil: 20 mg/kg at 30 cm depth (from soil analysis) Soil density (D): 1.2 g/cc (from soil analysis); Desired P level in soil (Pf): 35 mg/kg

1. Calculate soil weight based on soil density

Soil weight = D (tn/m3) × depth × area Soil weight = 1,2 tn/m3 × 0,3 m × 10000 m2 = 3600 tn/ha

2. Calculate initial P content in soil (kg P/ha)

Pi = P initial × Soil weight Pi = 20 g/tn × 3600 ton = 72 kg P/ha

3. Calculate desired P content in soil (kg P/ha)

Pf = P desired × soil weight Pf = 35 g/tn × 3600 tn = 126 kg/ha

4. Calculate the difference between P desired and P initial

P to be applied = Pf – Pi P to be applied = 126 kg P/ha – 72 kg P/ha = 54 kg P/ha

5. Convert amount of P to P2O5 (Conversion factor 2.29; Table 13 – Conversion of molecular weights for main plant nutrients.).

54 kg P/ha × 2.29 = 123 kg P2O5 /ha

6. Calculate the amount of triple superphosphate to apply (46% P2O5)

Fertilizer dose = 123 kg P2O5/ha ÷ 0.46 = 267 kg/ha triple superphosphate

The P term refers to the weight of only the single atom within the P2O5 molecule. To obtain the weight of the entire molecule a conversion factor is needed.

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Table 15. Conversion of molecular weights for main plant nutrients. From-to

Multiply by

From-to

Multiply by

N to NO3

4.426

NO3 to N

0.226

N to NH3

1.216

NH3 to N

0.823

N to NH4

1.288

NH4 to N

0.777

P to P2O5

2.292

P2O5 to P

0.436

K to K2O

1.205

K2O to K

0.83

Mg to MgO

1.658

MgO to Mg

0.603

Ca to CaO

1.399

CaO to Ca

0.715

CaO to CaCO3

1.785

CaCO3 to Ca

0.560

Organic matter correction COVER CROPS - It is very important to start preparing the soil for the hazelnut orchard some months before the actual planting. Cover crops could help improving soil fertility and soil structure as well as suppressing weeds, insects, nematodes, and other plant pathogens. Residues from cover crops can be incorporated as “green manure” to supply macro and micronutrients for increasing soil fertility for the next crop. It is recommended to plan a cycle of a nitrogen fixation cover crop (vetch, clovers, and peas) over the spring/summer prior to the hazelnut planting. Most used cover crops and their nutrients content are listed in the table below (Table 16).

Table 16.– Cover crop species and corresponding nutrients content and biocidal properties (modified from Agrion, 2018).

Cover crop

N (kg/ha)

P 2O 5 (kg/ha)

K 2O (kg/ha)

Use

Biocidal properties

Seeding rate (kg/ha)

Sowing period

Horse bean (Vicia faba minor)

50-150

10-35

30-120

Green manure

130

Mach

Crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum)

40-80

10-20

40-60

Green manure

28 - 30

March - April

White clover (Trifolium repens)

40-60

10-20

40-60

Grass cover

12 - 14

March

Sub clover (Trifolium subterraneum)

40-60

10-20

40-60

Grass cover

20 – 25

September

Common vetch (Vicia sativa)

50-80

10-25

0-90

Green manure

100 - 120

March

White mustard (Sinapis alba)

50-80

25-30

80-110

Green manure

Nematicidal

March

Brown mustard (Brassica juncea)

90-100

25-30

80-110

Green manure

Biofumigant

March

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MANURE – It is best applied and incorporated in the year before planting, as will provide organic matter and nutrients, overall improving the quality of the soil. Besides providing nutrients, animal manure increases the content of humus and the biogenicity of the soil, which is to say the numbers of microorganisms and the activity of soil enzymes. Further information about the use of organic matter is given in the organic fertilizers section below. Animal manure has always been the primary organic fertilizer worldwide. Animal manure can vary greatly in chemical content and physical properties. Nonetheless, its application is advisable before planting any fruit orchard to improve the characteristics of the soil. Besides providing nutrients (mainly based on nitrogen content), animal manure increases the content of humus and the biogenicity of the soil, which is to say the numbers of microorganisms and the activity of soil enzymes. Usually organic fertilizers are applied in autumn after vegetation growth stops or in early spring. It is important that manure incorporation in soil comes shortly after spreading to reduce the unnecessary losses of nitrogen due to evaporation or washing out by rain. If manure is applied at planting, do not put fresh manure directly into the planting hole or trench to avoid burning the young root system. Recently, application of commercial organic fertilizers in forms of pellets and powders is getting more and more popular. Compared to the manure or compost, nutrient values are similar or higher while handling is much easier.

Table 17 -Indicative NPK content of main types of manure (kg/tn) Manure type

Organic matter (%)

N (kg/tn)

P2O5 (kg/t)

K2O (kg/t)

Cow

4.9

4.4

6.5

Pig

5.8

3.8

6.3

Chicken

38.5

19.0

15.5

Sheep

8.0

2.0

8.0

Horse

7.0

2.0

7.0

Correction of soil pH Soil pH is important because it affects the availability of nutrients in the rooting zone. Optimal soil pH range for hazelnut cultivation is 6.5-7.3. In those situations where the selected site shows pH higher or lower than abovementioned values, strategies might be used to lowering or increasing soil pH, as described in the paragraphs below. However, it should be kept in mind that it might be impractical – in terms of cost and feasibility – to improve soil pH and great care should be taken when selecting the cultivation site.

YOUNG ORCHARD NUTRITION GUIDELINES

CORRECTION OF ACID SOILS / LIMING

Table 18 – Types of liming. Types of liming

Source of calcium

Agricultural lime

Calcium carbonate

Burnt lime

Calcium oxide

Hydrated lime

Calcium hydroxide

Dolomite

Calcium carbonate + Mg

Table 19 shows estimated quantities of lime needed to change pH in 0-15 cm topsoil based on soil structure. Large quantities of liming should not be applied in a single application, but rather split in multiple applications over time. Sometimes over-liming can show some deficiencies of other nutrients such as iron, magnesium and/or manganese. Moreover, over-liming can accelerate soil drying out, thus reducing water use efficiency. Occasional soil pH analysis can help to check liming progress. Usually, liming reaches its major impact after one to one and half year after being applied. However, the liming process can also last a few years.

Table 19 - Estimated quantities of lime needed to change pH in 0-15cm topsoil based on soil tructure. pH

t/ha of agricultural lime required

From

Sand

Sandy loam

Loam

Silty loam

Clay loam

6.5

4.5

6.7

11.25

4.5

6.5

3.3

3.5

6.75

7.5

6.5

2.25

3.75

5.25

7.5

5.5

6.5

1.5

3.75

4.5

6.5

0.75

1.5

1.8

2.25

5.25

3.3

5.25

6.75

7.5

4.5

2.25

3.75

5.25

7.5

1.5

3.75

4.5

5.5

0.75

1.5

1.8

2.25

5.25

5.5

2.25

3.75

5.25

7.5

4.5

5.5

1.5

3.75

4.5

5.5

0.75

1.5

1.8

2.25

5.25

YOUNG ORCHARD NUTRITION GUIDELINES

CORRECTION OF BASIC SOILS

Certain amendments and fertilizers can react with the soil to form acids, which lower soil pH. These reactions can be purely chemical or might involve microbial activity, when microorganisms must metabolize amendments before they can affect soil pH. Table 20 summarizes the main types of soil amendments and their effects in soil.

Non-biological reactions

Biological reactions

Table 20 - Main types of soil amendments used for correction of basic soils and their effects.

Amendment

Effect

Notes

Organic matter

The reduction in pH is due to microbial degradation and production of organic acids

• Sphagnum peat and pine bark mulch are particularly effective. • Large amounts are required.

Ammonium fertilizers

Ammonium fertilizers include urea, ammonium nitrate, and ammonium sulfate. Bacteria in the soil convert the ammonium into acidic compounds.

Elemental sulfur (S)

Elemental sulfur is often used to dramatically acidify the soil (by 1 or more pH units). Soil bacteria combine elemental sulfur with oxygen and water from the soil to form sulfuric acid.

Aluminum sulfate (Al2(SO4)3) and iron sulfate (FeSO4)

• Simultaneously fertilize your plants and acidify the soil. • To avoid applying too much nitrogen, use these products only to make gradual changes to the soil pH.

• Sulfur compounds may take up to a year before they have their full effect on soil pH. Incorporate to the soil for speeding up the process. • Select carefully the amount of sulfur to apply. Too much sulfur can reduce the soil pH below the optimum range for your plants.

Iron sulfate and aluminum sulfate lower • This speed carries the risk soil pH faster than of applying excessive iron or elemental sulfur since aluminum if you add too much they require chemical of these products (typically rather than biological more than 0.2 kg/m2). reactions.

YOUNG ORCHARD NUTRITION GUIDELINES

AFTER PLANTING After planting you must provide your plant with enough nutrients for securing balanced vegetative and generative development. Disbalance in nutrition in this period can significantly reduce number of catkins and female buds, fruit setting and nuts development. Also disbalanced plants are more sensitive on different excesses. Because of above mentioned it is recommended to perform soil analysis at least every 4 years after planting and leaf analysis every year, because on that way you can be sure that you provide everything for your “hazelnut factory”. Main principles of post-planting fertilization: Application of N in young orchards

• • •

In the first 2 years after planting apply reduced amount of N (25-40 kg N/ha) Prefer Temperature Release Fertilizers to avoid burning the new root systems and increase usage efficiency; Avoid application of N fertilizers after September.

Application of P in young orchards

• • •

Perform application only if soil or tissue analysis shows P deficiency; Young hazelnuts do not require large quantities of P; P fertilizers should be applied during spring and early autumn.

Application of K in young orchards

• •

Perform application only if soil or tissue analysis shows K deficiency; Excess level of K affects uptake of other nutrients.

Application of Ca in young orchards

•

If it is necessary after planting to improve root development.

GOOD TO KNOW:

• • • •

Application of other fertilizers should be performed only if deficiency symptoms occur. Apply fertilizers in narrow bands near the tree to maximize usage and reduce wastes of product. Suppress weeds around the plants to avoid competition for nutrients. Weeds can quickly overgrow young trees, reducing nutrient and water availability. During the first growing seasons, it is recommended to use mechanical wedding or contact post-emergent (aka burn-down) herbicides rather than using systemic products that can persist for a long time within a plant.

YOUNG ORCHARD NUTRITION GUIDELINES

EXAMPLES OF HOW TO CALCULATE FERTILIZER DOSAGE a) STANDARD DOSAGE FERTLIZATION: the table below represents a quick and ready-to-use tool to determine the amount of fertilizers to be applied. The standard dosage is defined as the amount of nutrients that should be applied in situations of ordinary yield, soil fertility and climatic conditions. Table 21. Standard dosage fertilization for hazelnut (modified from Agrion, 2018)

Nutrient

Decreases

Standard

Increases

Quantity to deduct from the standard

Normal situation with 1.5 - 1.9 tn/ha

Quantity to add from the standard

⃝ - 20 Kg: if production foreseen below 1.5 t/ha

⃝ - 20 Kg: if high content of O.M. in the soil

⃝ + 20 Kg: if production foreseen above 1.9 t/ha

70 Kg/ha of N

⃝ + 20 Kg: if low level of organic matter Max increase: +30 Kg/ha

⃝ - 20 Kg: if manure was applied the previous year

For young orchards: 1st year 30 kg/ha; 2nd year 40 Kg/ha ⃝ - 15 Kg: if production foreseen below 1.5 t/ha

P2 O 5

⃝ - 20 Kg: if high level in the soil

⃝ + 10 Kg: if production foreseen above 1.9 t/ha

40 kg/ha of P2O5

⃝ + 10 Kg: if fertilization mainly organic ⃝ + 20 Kg: if condition favorable to the P immobilization (low

For young orchards: 1st year 15 kg/ha; 2nd year 20 Kg/ha ⃝ - 30 Kg: if production foreseen below 1.5 t/ha

K 2O

⃝ - 40 Kg: if high level in the soil

90 Kg/ha of K2O

⃝ + 20 Kg: if production foreseen above 1.9 t/ha

For the first years: 1st year 20 kg/ha; 2nd year 35 Kg/ha

YOUNG ORCHARD NUTRITION GUIDELINES

b) PARTIAL NUTRIENT BALANCE: Some easy calculations allow determining the amount of nutrients that need to be applied in order to compensate losses due to crop harvest. In young hazelnut orchards, this approach can still be used, if reductions for young orchards shown in Table 23 are included in the calculations. The amount of nutrient to be applied is calculated as follows: Y x B = (Fc x kc) + (Fo x ko) +Nc Y = yield. For young orchards, this is expected yield (example 1.9-2 tn/ha) B = coefficient of nutrient removal due to crop harvest (kg/tn of harvested crop). For hazelnut, the following coefficients are considered: N = 32; P2O5 = 17; K2O = 37. Fc = Nutrient input deriving from mineral fertilizers kc = Efficiency of mineral fertilizers (considered as 100%) Fo = Nutrient input deriving from organic fertilizers ko = Efficiency of organic fertilizers (variable from 30 to 70% depending on the type of fertilizer and method of application) Nc = Nutrient input deriving from previous cropping. To be considered only if the area was cultivated with legume cover crops or grassland (Nc reference values: 80 kg/ha for ≥ 3 years old alfa-alfa fields; 40 kg/ha for clover grasslands; 30 kg/ha for legume and gramineae grasslands and legume cover crops). Example of partial nutrient balance calculation for N 1. Calculate expected N removal Expected yield (Y): 2 tn/ha

YxB 2 t/ha x 32 kg/t = 64 kg N/ha

2. Apply reduction for young orchards 1st year, 40% of N compared to adult trees

64 kg N/ha x 0.4 = 25.6 kg N/ha

3. Calculate the amount of fertilizer to apply – Fc = 25.6 kg N/ha ammonium nitrate Example: only mineral fertilizer is used. Efficiency 25.6 kg N/ha / 0.34 = 75,3 kg AN/ha coefficient for mineral fertilizer (kc): 100% Ammonium nitrate contains 25% N Table 22 - Reductions for young orchards to apply when using the partial nutrient balance. Nutrient amount compared to adult trees

1st year

2nd year

3rd year

4th year

5th year

40%

60%

70%

80%

100%

P2O5

30%

50%

70%

80%

100%

K2O

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Granular fertilization

Phenological Phase

Bare trees

Leaf out

Budbreak

Nitrogen (N) Phosphorus (P)

40%

Potassium (K)

20%

Harvest

Leaf shedding

45%

10%

40%

20%

30%

December

November

October

September

August

July

Immature Mature fruits fruits

Cluster formation

Fruit set

45%

Nitrogen (N) Fertigacija

June

May

April

March

January

February

YOUNG ORCHARD NUTRITION GUIDELINES

Bare trees

50%

90%

10%

Phosphorus (P)

80%

20%

Potassium (K)

60%

40%

Figure 5 - Indicative calendar of N-P-K applications for young hazelnut orchards.

Table 23 - Fertilizer compatibility chart: √ = compatible; X = incompatible; R = reduced compatibility (modified from IFA, 2011) Urea

Ammonium nitrate

Ammonium sulfate

Calcium nitrate

Potassium nitrate

Potassium chloride

Potassium sulfate

Ammonium phosphate

Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn sulfate

Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn chelate

Magnesium sulfate

Phosphoric acid

Ammonium nitrate

√

Ammonium sulfate

√

Calcium nitrate

√

Potassium nitrate

√

Potassium chloride

√

Potassium sulfate

√

Ammonium phosphate

√

Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn sulfate

√

Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn chelate

√

Magnesium sulfate

√

Phosphoric acid

√

Sulfuric acid

√

Nitric acid

√

Sulfuric acid

√

YOUNG ORCHARD NUTRITION GUIDELINES

Table 24 – Fertilizers classification based on their form. FERTILIZERS CLASIFICATION type

time and way of use

Non-organic

pre-planting

spreading all over surface or in bands

post-planting

in bands, dissolved with fertigation or with foliar application

post-planting

dissolved with fertigation or with foliar application

post-planting

dissolved with fertigation or with foliar application

Granular Organic (pellets)

Cristal

Liquid

Non-organic

Non-organic Organic

Controlled release fertilizers

Non-organic

pre-planting post-planting

Non-organic granular fertilizer

manually incorporated in soil

advantages

disadvantages

depending on fertilizer

lower cost, good for massive import of nutrients

not for precise nutrition

good

plant can use nutrients much faster, good for precise nutrition, easy to use

not for massive import of nutrients, need additional equipment for usage

good

plant can use nutrients much faster, good for precise nutrition, easy to use

not for massive import of nutrients, need additional equipment for usage

good

possible to apply once per season, no roots burning effect, higher usage of nutrients

higher price, need a lot of manual work, need specific conditions for dissolution

Crystal fertilizer

Granular organic fertilizer

Controlled release fertilizers

solubility

Liquid fertilizer

YOUNG ORCHARD NUTRITION GUIDELINES

FERTILIZER APLICATION In hazelnut orchards, proper placement of fertilizers in relation to the plant roots is important for maximum response and the most efficient utilization of the nutrients, In particular, fertilizing the soil beyond the spread of trees is not required as the root spread is restricted. This facilitates nutrient uptake by the plant as the fertilizer is placed right above the trees’ root zone. In addition, it allows reducing significantly the waste of fertilizer, which is spread only where needed. 1. Manual application of granular fertilizers Although labor-intensive, manual application of fertilizer is considered a suitable practice in newly planted hazelnut orchards, since it allows spreading the fertilizer right where the plants need it, thus avoiding product waste.

2. Mechanical application of fertilizers Mechanical application of fertilizers can be conducted in different ways and using very different machines. The three main techniques are:

• • •

broadcasting band application sub-surface band application.

Picture 5 - Hand-held tool for application of granular fertilizer

2.1. Broadcasting It refers to spreading fertilizers uniformly all over the field. While suitable for crops with dense stand, broadcasting is not recommended in young hazelnut orchards. The main disadvantages of application of fertilizers through broadcasting are that nutrients cannot be fully utilized by plant roots; weed growth is stimulated all over the field; it implies considerable waste of fertilizer. There has been a trend away from broadcasting fertilizer over the whole orchard towards tree line application, which allows a more efficient use of nutrients as the majority of roots are found in the tree line. If for equipment or specific management reasons fertilizer is broadcast, fertilizer type should be carefully selected as mobile fertilizers are prone to leaching losses as a result of rainfall and excessive irrigation.

YOUNG ORCHARD NUTRITION GUIDELINES

Picture 6 - Example of broadcast fertilizer spreaders 2.2. Band application (surface) In this method, fertilizers are placed close to the plant in bands on one or both sides of the plant. Localized placement of fertilizer near the plants, rather than uniform distribution over the entire area, results in more effective utilization of the plant nutrients. All nutrients are placed in the root area of the crop, saving valuable fertilizer.

Guides for lateral spreading of fertilizers into the soil

Picture 7 - Example of fertilizer spreaders for band application

YOUNG ORCHARD NUTRITION GUIDELINES

2.3. Sub-surface band application Subsurface placement is the practice of getting nutrients placed into the soil. Most fertilizer sources commonly used today are highly soluble products that once exposed to water, can move off-site in the water flow. Exposing a fertilizer source to a greater volume of soil can provide more binding sites and/or reduce exposure to runoff. Devices that apply fertilizer in such a manner are vast in number and are very different in function and suitability of use for each producer. One type of machine and how it works is shown in pictures 8. and 9.

Picture 8. Example of an underground fertilizer spreading machine

Picture 9. The way the fertilizer is distributed in soil

Table 25- Pros and cons of main methods of fertilizer application Method of fertilizer application

Broadcast

Band application

Sub-surface band application

Pros

Cons

• Ease of application • Waste of fertilizer • No soil disturbance • Low efficiency • Appropriate when treating bulk soil • Stimulates weed growth properties (Lime, gypsum) • Localized distribution of nutrients • High nutrient efficiency

• Exposure to runoff

• Localized application • High nutrient efficiency • Reduced exposure to runoff.

• Low application speed

YOUNG ORCHARD NUTRITION GUIDELINES

1. Fertigation Fertigation is the application of liquid or 100% water soluble forms of fertilizers through the irrigation system. Fertigation has many advantages over other fertilization systems. Fertilizer can be applied at any time during the year and at the frequency desired. With fertigation nutrients can be applied when most needed in a soluble form directly in the crop root zone. Therefore, fertigation reduces the amount of fertilizer used, while increasing the percentage of nutrients that are absorbed by the plant (Table 26). In addition, fertigation systems may be automated and remote controlled thus reducing labor and equipment costs compared with granular fertilizers spreading.

Table 26. Indicative values of nutrient use efficiency with fertigation and application of granular fertilizer Macronutrient

Fertigation

Granular fertilizer

75-85%

40-60%

30-45%

10-30%

80%

60-70%

Fertigation system consist in Figure 6: Pump station takes water from the source (groundwater, river, dams) and provides the right pressure for delivery into the pipe system. Pressure valves control the discharge and pressure in the entire system. Filtration system cleans the water. Common types of filter include screen filters and graded sand filters which remove fine material suspended in the water. Injectors: The simplest and least expensive fertilizer injectors are the venturi types (Figure 7). The venturi injectors create a vacuum when irrigation water is forced through a constriction. As water flows through the venturi orifice, a rapid change in velocity occurs. This velocity change creates a reduced pressure (vacuum), which draws the liquid to be injected into the irrigation system, eliminating the need for a separate chemical injection pump. This is one of the major advantages of drip irrigation over other methods. Pipes supply water from the control head into the orchard. They are usually made from PVC or polyethylene hose. Driplines carry emitter which will provide a specified constant discharge which does not vary much with pressure changes and does not block easily.

YOUNG ORCHARD NUTRITION GUIDELINES

Figure 6 - Fertigation system overview

Figure 7 - Fertigation injector (Venturi type)

YOUNG ORCHARD NUTRITION GUIDELINES

Picture 10 - Details of fertigation system left: control valves; right: drip lines

However, for effective on-going operation, fertigation systems have certain requirements. These requirements include:

• • • • • • • • 40

Moderate to high initial investment for storage tanks, valves and injectors; Water quality must be monitored and adjusted if necessary. Fertigation may increase total dissolved salts level of irrigation water and when used in combination with water already high in Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) may cause damage to the trees (Table 27). Moreover, water nutritional value should be considered when defining a fertigation program; The efficacy of fertigation is maximum when the pH of the water is between 6-7. If water pH is high, acidification of the water could be accomplished by adding sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid or nitric acid that temporarily lower the solution pH Careful selection and management of fertilizers to avoid incompatibilities between specific fertilizers and emitter and pipe clogging (e.g. avoid mixing fertilizer solutions that contain calcium with solutions containing phosphates or sulfates when the pH in the solution is not sufficiently acidic) (Table 28); Use of fertilizers with adequate solubility; Adequate maintenance and operation of all components to ensure optimal operation of system e.g. filters; The salinity of the solution should remain always low (EC < 2 dS/m). Therefore, it is recommended to split the calculated amount of fertilizers into several applications, with additional benefits for the plant uptake. The irrigation system must have a high application uniformity to ensure uniform application of nutrients.

YOUNG ORCHARD NUTRITION GUIDELINES

Table 27- Guide values of water for drip irrigation in the field – the highest safe concentration (Bres et al, 2010). Parameter

Maximum concentration (mg/dm3)

N-NO3

100

150

100

S-SO4

100

HCO3-

500

SAR

As last, next to the physiological requirements of plants, one must also consider the factors that contribute to the blocking of the fertigation systems, especially iron, manganese and dissolved solids (Table 28 and Picture 11). Dissolved solids (TDS) are a measure of the content of all inorganic and organic substances contained in a liquid in molecular, ionized or colloidal sol suspended form. Suspended solid refers to small solid particles that remain in suspension in water as a colloid or due to the motion of the water. Table 28- Water quality classification relative to its potential for drop emitter clogging (Bres et al., 2010). Degree of restriction on use Potential problem

No restriction

Slight to moderate

Severe

Suspended solids

mg/dm3

<50

50-100

>100

Total dissolved solids

mg/dm3

<500

500-2.000

>2.000

mg/dm3

<0.1

0.1-1.5

>1.5

Fe (total)

mg/dm3

<0.1

0.1-1.5

>1.5

H2S

mg/dm3

<0.5

0.5-2.0

>2.0

Bacterial population

No./cm

<10.000

10.00050.000

>50.000

Picture 11 - Iron precipitates clogging drip lines and emitters (Source: Dr. Ivan Vidal, UdeC)

YOUNG ORCHARD NUTRITION GUIDELINES

REFERENCES Norme Tecniche di Produzione Integrata della Regione Piemonte 2018. Published by Agrion, 2018. Nocciolo in Piemonte - Linee tecniche per una corilicoltura sostenibile. Assessorato Agricoltura Regione Campania, 2011. Guida alla concimazione. Breś W., Kleiber T., Trelka T., 2010. Quality of water used for drip irrigation and fertigation of horticultural plants. Folia Horticulturae Ann. 22/2: 67-74 Hadžić, V., Nešić Lj., Belić M., Furman T., Savin L., 2002. Zemljišni potencijal Srbije. Traktori i pogonske mašine 0354-9496(2002) 7:4, p.43-51 IFA, 2011. Fertigation: A Tool for Efficient Fertilizer and Water Management. First edition, IFA, Paris, France and IPI, Horgen, Switzerland, May 2011, ISBN 978-2-9523139-8-8 Ohio State University Fact Sheet FABE-564.01. Opportunities for Sub-surface Nutrient Placement in Ohio. Available at https://ohioline.osu.edu/ accessed on August 2019 Oregon State University Extension Publication EM 8786, 2011. Nutrient management guide – Hazelnut. Oregon State University Extension publication EM 9080, 2013. Growing Hazelnuts in the Pacific Northwest Orchard nutrition. Poblete Fernández R., 2019. Nutrición eficiente y efectiva del Avellano Europeo (Corylus avellana L.) en el periodo posterior a la cosecha. Programa de Desarrollo de Proveedores (PDP), Agrichile Los Rios. Purdue Extension publication HO-241-W. Lowering Soil pH for Horticulture Crops. Available at https://www. extension.purdue.edu/extmedia/ho/ho-241-w.pdf, accessed on August 2019 Román S., 2016. Manejo de Suelos, Fertilización y Riego de Avellano Europeo para Alta Producción. Curso Taller de Actualización y Capacitación Yara, Tree Nut Plantmaster. Yara International ASA, Oslo, Norway

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NOTES