Technique Magazine - December 1988

THE OFFICIAL TECHNICAL PUBLICATION OF THE UNITED STATES GYMNASTICS FEDERATION

December, 1988

Special Double Issue

Vol. 8, No.'s 3 & 4

PHYSICAL ABILITIES TESTING Plus • Gymnastics· In China • Gymnastics Safety • Mental Training • Coaching Behaviors • Flexibility Misconceptions • Dismount, Difficulty, Deductions • Round Off Entry Vaults • Back Toss To Handstand Technical Illustration by James H. Stephenson

Non-Profit Organization U.S. Postage

PAID Permit No. 7867 Indianapolis, Ind.

December, 1988

Vol. No's. 3 & 4

Inside This Issue The Developmental Gymnastics System of the People's Republic of China Stephen E. Posner I

Analysis of a Back Toss to Handstand Hideo Mizoguchi The Big D of Men's Gymnastics in the 1988 Olympics: Dismount, Difficulty, and Deductions James Howard and John Scheer Kinematics of Roundoff Entry Vaults Mohamed A. Ragheb and Virginia L. Fortney, Ph.D. Ideas For Developing Concentration Skills to Achieve Peak Performance Andrea 8. Schmid, Ph.D. Mental Training Programs for Rhythmic Gymnasts Linda M. Haack, M.A. Now You See It, Now You Don't Joseph Wickert and Kenneth West, Ph.D. Junior Elite Female Gymnast's Perceptions of Ideal vs. Actual Coaching Behavior Rich Gordin, William Sands, Ph.D., and Keith Henschen, Ph.D. Flexibility Misconceptions William L. Cornelius, Ph.D. Levels of Protection Gymnastics Safety Equipment: A Summary for Coaches William Sands, Ph.D., S.J. Cunningham, S.C. Johnson, S.G. Meek, and G.S. George, Ph .D. Junior Olympic Boys National Strength Test Ed Burch, Gene Watson, Kurt Golder U.S. Gymnastics Federation Physical Abilities Testing for Women William Sands, Ph .D.

CHANGE OF ADDRESS AND SUBSCRIPTION INQUIRIES: In order to ensure uninterrupted delivery of TECHNIQUE magazine, notice of change of address should be made six to eight weeks in advance. For fastest service, please enclose your present mailing label. Direct all subscription mail to TECHNIQUE SUBSCRIPTIONS, Pan American Plaza, 201 S. Capitol Ave., Suite 300, Indianapolis, IN 46225. POSTMASTER: Send address change to TECHNIQUE, Pan American Plaza, 201 S. Capitol Ave. , Suite 300, Indianapolis, IN 46225.

TECHNIQUE is published quarterly for $12.00 by the United States Gymnastics Federation, Pan American Plaza, 201 S. Capitol Ave., Suite 300, Indianapolis, IN 46225 (Phone: 317-237-5050). Third class postage paid at Indianapolis, IN. Subscription price: $12.00 per year in United States; all other countries $24.00 per year. Back issue single copies $2.00 plus $1.00 postage/handling. All reasonable care will be taken, but no responsibility can be assumed for unsolicited material; enclose return postage. Š 1987 by USGF and Technique. All rights reserved . Printed in USA.

2

Publisher Mike Jacki Education/Safety Director Stephen W. Whitlock Production Luan Peszek UNITED STATES GYMNASTICS FEDERATION BOARD OF DIRECTORS Executive Director: Mike Jacki; President: Mike Donahue; Preside nt Emeritus; Bud Wilkinson; Athlete Representatives: Brian Babcock, chair; Kathy Johnson , vice chair; Linda Kardos Barnett, sec; Kelly Garrison-Steves; Wendy Hilliard; Tim Daggett; Jim Hartung; Peter Vidmar, USOC Athletic Advisory Council; Amateur Athletic Union: Julie Sickles; American Sokol Organization: No rma Zabka; American Turners: Bruno Klaus; Junior Boys Gymnastics Coaches Association: Rich Boccia; Men's Elite Coaches Association: Jim Howard; National Association for Girls and Women in Sports: Dr. Mimi Murray; National Association of Collegiate Gymnastics Men: Fred Roethlisberger; National Association of Collepiate Gymnastics Women: Judi Avener; National Association of Women's Gymnastics Judges: Dale Brown; National Collegiate Athletic Association: Sylvia Moore, Gail Davis, Na ncy Latimore, Dave Mickelson; National Federation of State High School Associations: Sharon Wilch, Susan True; National Gymnastics Judges Association: Harry Bjerke; National High School Gymnastics Coaches Association: John Brinkworth; National Jewish Welfare Board: Courtney Shanken; Rhythmic Coaches Association: Pau lin e David; Special Olympics, Inc.: Kate Faber; U.S. Association of

~no~~Keesn~~~~c~J:. f~~~o~e~~eR~:o~~it~e~-5~;lJ~ ters; U.S. Sports Acrobatics Federation: Thom Blalock; Young Men's Christian Association: Cliff Lathery

UNITED STATES GYMNASTICS FEDERATION EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE President: Mike Donahue; Secretary: Judi Avener; Vice President-Women: Sue Ammerman; Vice President-Men: Jim Howard; Executive Director: Mike Jacki; FIG Women's Technical Committee: Jackie Fie; FIG Rhythmic Technical Committee: Andrea Schmid; FIG Men's Technical Committee: Bill Roetzheim; Members-At-Large: Mike Milidonis , Roe Kruetzer; Athlete Representatives: Kathy Johnson, Peter Vidmar, Wendy Hilliard, Brian Babcock; President Emeritus: Bud Wilkinson.

ASSOCIATE CONTENT EDITORS SPORTS MEDICINE COMMITTEE: Merrill A. Ritter, M.D. Frank A. Pettrone, M.D. James ). Campbell, M.D. SAFETY COMMITTEE: Dr. Marc Rabinoff EDUCATION COMMITTEE: Susan True BIOMECHANICS COMMITTEE: Dr. Marlene Adrian, Director SPORTS PSYCHOLOGY COMMITTEE: Dr. Keith He nschen, Ph.D. EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY COMMITTEE: Dr. Pat Eisenman, Ph.D.

Unless expressly identified to the contrary, all articles, statements and views printed herein are attributed solely to the author and the United States Gymnastics Federation expresses no opinion hereon and assumes no responsibility thereof.

Technique

USGF EDUCATIONAL &TECHNICAL MATERIALS MEN'S J.O. COMPULSORY MANUAL ('88-'92) Compulsory routines within the J.0. program have been developed to provide a means of progressional training and learning of individual skills, with the ultimate objective of displaying these skills in the form of a standardized routine. An excellent way for young gymnasts to develop their gymnastics skill.

Item #1202 •........................... $16.50

MEN'S J.O. COMPULSORY VHS ('88-'92) Class V - I Compulsories performed by members of the Junior National Team. This is an excellent training device and educational tool.

Item #2221 ...................•••........ .$19.95

RHYTHMIC GYMNASTICS COMPULSORY MANUAL ('88-'92) The Rhythmic Compulsory program has been developed with progression and sequence as its' main objective.

From the introduction of Gass IV up to Class II, the exercises are specific to text, music counts and floor patterns.

Item #1302 .........•.•.....•.......•.. .$26.50

RHYTHMIC GYMNASTICS COMPULSORY MUSIC ('88-'92) The Rhythmic Compulsory music, class IV - II, accompanies the compulsory text. Includes Pre-aero, RFX, Rope, Hoop, Ball, Club and Ribbon.

Item #2312 .•.............................$10.00

SEQUENTIAL GYMNASTICS PROGRAM PLANNING AND ADMINISTRATION CURRICULUM FOR Covers the basic philosophy of the GRADES 3-6 This publication expands the movement vocabulary of children through sequential gymnastics activities presented in a safe, noncompetitive environment. The selected exercises require either no or minimal spotting and are listed in progressive order.

Contents include supervision and class organization, in addition to activities on mat, vault, beam and horizontal bar.

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"Learning to be Active" program in teaching a preschool program, planning and marketing for the business sector.

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STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING Includes a tested program that builds strength and endurance while protecting the athlete against injury through proper conditioning.

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LEARNING TO BE ACTIVE This material will train preschool and K-3 teachers, while providing a safe, structured proven introductory sports program for primary grade students.

Item #2436 #1 Video and Lesson Plans 1-12 ...................................... .$123.00 Item #2437 #2 Video and Lesson Plans 13-24 ......................................$123.00 Item #2438 Complete Package ............................................... $229.00

(Please note - the Women's Compulsory material advance order forms will be available in the January /February issue of USA Gymnastics-magazine. Delivery of this content will be May '89)

For a complete catalog of U.S. Gymnastics educational/technical material, please send in the order form below and indicate that you want the catalog.

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Item #2321 .... Class II... •........... $29.95 Item #2322 •.. Class III/IV .......$29.95

Technique

3

The Developmental Gymnastics System of the People's Republic of China Stephen E. Posner Head Gymnastics Coach Springfield College The information included in the following article was collected by the author during an exchange visit between Springfield College and the Beijing Institute of Physical Education May 27-June 15, 1988.

he People's Republic of China formulated a new National Training Plan in 1987 for the continued advancement of Gymnastics.

This new plan was implemented for all sports by an "All-Sports Commission," of Government officials and top coaches. The Gymnastics Developmental Plan was formulated according to current trends in gymnastics, experience in training of the top Chinese gymnasts and coaches, and experience in training learned from other countries. This plan includes practical, advanced level, and scientific concepts .

The developmental emphasis is to build a good gymnastics foundation-basics, and to develop each individual according to his or her specific needs.

The Chinese have divided their Developmental Gymnastics System into the "Initial Stage, the Intermediate Stage (pre-intermediate and middle intermediate), and the Advanced Stage." There is a checklist of skills and movements which must be accomplished at each level, and proficiency of these skills must be achieved before the gymnast is permitted to advance to the next level. The gymnast must also reach the specified age in-

T

4

dicated for each level, before they are permitted to advance to the next level (see chart). It is interesting to note the following points. 1. The girls for each level are younger than the boys at that same level. 2. There is an increase in the number of training sessions per week, and an increase in the total number of hours spent training as the gymnast advances to each level. 3.

There is a smaller coach /gymnast ratio as one advances to each level.

Government financed sports teams for each province were initiated in 1953 to increase the caliber of Chinese sports on an international level. These special sports schools were developed in many provinces for the best Chinese athletes of their respective provinces. These schools are free to the children selected . Clothes, room and board, travel expenses to and from competitions, and a small stipend are provided for the athletes of the sports teams. Many different sports facilities are housed within the same multi-sport complex where the athletes train . The athletes, and in many cases the coaches, live together in the same dormitory. These athletes are also coached by China's best coaches who are paid more than other Chinese school teachers . The athletic facilities where they train are also China's best. Academic teachers are employed by these sports schools, and academic learning is scheduled around the athlete's training schedule .

There will be at least one major competition each year between the approximately 35 sports teams of the different provinces throughout China.

It is from these major national competitions that the top 24 gymnasts are

selected to become the Chinese National Team .

The National Team trains together all year, and is coached by the same coaching staff. They are also housed together . They train in a separate facility from the sports teams, and are given the same benefits as the sports teams along with a higher stipend.

This stipend is insignificant by our standards, but by Chinese standards the top athletes are well taken care of materialistically. Gymnasts can remain members of both their Province Sports Team, and the National Team until the coaching staff does not feel the athlete is making the necessary progress, at which point they are told they must leave the program. The athletes will then attend their local school, go to work, or attend college, depending on their specific situation .

Top Chinese coaches are often taught at Beijing Institute of Physical Education, China' s number one physical education institute. It is very competitive to get admitted to college in China, and most students at Beijing Institute have been outstanding athletes from their respective provinces .

China's best athletes, however, are not training at the colleges, but are training in the sports schools, or with the National Team. They attend college only after they have achieved their maximum competitive level in their sport.

There are three major areas of study at Beijing Institute of Physical Education; physical education, sport, and post graduate . The physical education major is similar to our physical education teaching concentration in the United States. The students are inTechnique

System of China continued traduced to many different sports skills, along with sport science and sport psychology classes. These students are studying to become physical education teachers within th e schools . The sport major is specific to each particular sport, and part of this student curriculum is to continue training in their respective sport. They will also be required to take other basic sport activity classes along with sport science and sport psychology classes.

The competitive level of the Men' s Gymnastics Team at Beijing Institute is similar to a good U.S.A . college men's team scoring about 270 points.

Past National Team Members are not permitted to compete for their college, but do continue training with the college team as part of their physical education curriculum. Beijing Institute has one of the strongest college gymnastics programs in China. There are two coaches for a team of about fifteen gymnasts . The physical education institutes, throughout China, have one or two National competitions each year.

Promising young children from the vicinity also train at Beijing Institute of Physical Education. Talented boys and girls are bused in during the morning to train for a few hours at the "Spare Time Sports School." These children are bused back to their homes or schools after their practice . The most talented children are invited to train at the Gymnastics Sport School at Beijing Institute . The children of the sport school live at the Institute, and train with the Beijing Institute of Physical Education Gymnastics Team .

They have their own separate coaches, and strive to develop the skills necessary to earn an invitation to the Beijing Gymnastics Team Sports School.

Acrobats, and Aero-Sport Tumblers also train with the College Gymnastics Team under the guidance of their own separate coaches. The aero tumblers are especially helpful to the gymnasts . All the gymnasts on the college team are "Gymnastics Sport Majors", studying to become gymnastics coaches. When the gymnastics majors earn their bachelors degree at the end Technique

of four years, they will be assigned to different coaching positions . The best potential coaches w ill be singled out to coach in the special sport schools.

Comparing and contrasting the developmental system of gymnastics in China with the United States, both similarities and differences can be found. Teaching gymnastics in the public school is not widespread in either China or the U.S.A. This strictly limits the amount of people that have the opportunity to experience our sport . In the United States, the amount of potential gymnasts is further limited by whether the child's parents can afford the cost of attending a private gymnastics school. This is not a problem in China, as the government takes care of the expenses for the promising athletes. Both countries have organized developmental gymnastics programs for specific levels and age groups . The Chinese, however, have a better opportunity to monitor their athletes, because the best athletes live and train together all year. There are more variables for the gymnast to properly develop in the U.S.A. , ie. will the promising gymnast have the proper body type to develop to an advanced level, will they have good coaching, will they have enough money to continue their gymnastics instruction on a longterm basis, will they have transportation to and from the gymnasium etc . .. These situations are controlled for the Chinese by their Government . Lastly, both countries realize the importance of sports medicine, sports science, and sport p sychology to the development of top level athletes . China is actively seeking to further develop these areas .

Beijing Institute of Physical Education, for example, has over 100 foreign visitors each year exchanging information in physical education, coaching, and sport science . The U.S.A . still appears to be more advanced than the Chinese in the areas of sports medicine, exercise physiology, biomechanics, and sports psychology, however, China is actively seeking to close this gap .

Men 's Developmental Gymnastics System of the People's Republic of China In itial

Stage

Int er- Middle me diat e Inte rStage m ediate

Advanced

Stage

Stage

Age

6·9

10-12

13-15

16-17

4

3

3

2

45

45

45

49

Classes per week

6

6-8

7-9

9 or more

Ho urs per wee k

l2- 18

18·24

27-32

32-36

second

first cl ass

prema ster

of spo rt

Years Tra in ing \'\1eeks

of Training

pe r year

Ra nk

cl ass

mas ter

of s po rt Coa ch/Gy mnast Ratio

Number of Coaches

8-10

6·8

4-6

4-5

1

1

1

1

Re pri nted from th e Na tio nal Tea m Tra in ing Pla n - Aug us t 1987

Women's Developmental Gymnastics System of the People's Republic of China Initial

Stage

Inter- Middle Advanced mediate Int erStage Stage mediate

Stage 6-7

8-9

10-12

13-14

Years Trai ni ng

2

2

3

2

Weeks of T rai ning per yea r

45

45

45

49

Cla sses per wee k

4-6

6

6·9

9-10

H ours per week

8·18

18-24

28·36

36-42

second cl ass

fi rst

pre-

cl ass

mas te r of s port

mas ter of spo rt

8-12

6·8

4-6

4-6

l ·2

l -2

2

2

Age

Ra nk

Coach/Gy mnas t Ratio N um ber of Coaches

Re printed fro m the N ationa l Team Tra inin g Plan - Aug ust 1987

5

Analysis of a Back Toss to Handstand Hideo Mizoguchi USGF Junior Men's Technical Coordinator Introduction This is the first in a series of articles that will discuss commonly used skills in today's 路national and international level gymnastics performances. Selection of the skills will be based upon evaluated needs of athletes in the Junior Program and problems encountered in day-to-day coaching.

Quite often, a small change in performance will make a big difference!

This series of articles will assist the coach in making small but steady changes in daily coaching. No matter how well written an article may be, it is often difficult to communicate the preferred technical point of view verbally. Therefore, this series will utilize many illustrations.

The first skill to be discussed is the Back Toss to Handstand. This skill is included as a compulsory element in the new Olympic Parallel Bar routine as well as the current Class I routine.

The following illustrates the perfor-

mance of the skill as shown by Vladimir Artimov (USSR) in the 1988 Olympic Games. A Panasonic Omni VP-330 Video Camera was used to record the performance; and a Mitsubishi Video Printer P-60U was utilized to obtain the selected sequence photos. Finally, the drawings were created utilizing a light box .

Coaching Tips Illustrations (1), (2), and (3) in figure 1 show that during the descending phase of the swing, there is a definite shoulder shrug action to create greater acceleration through the bottom of the swing. Notice, there is also a slight body arch to prepare for a " beating" action in the swing.

The " beating" action through the bottom of the swing is clearly identifiable in illustrations (3), (4), and (5).

Illustrations (6) and (7) show excellent shoulder flexibility for a greater range of motion, which is essential to establish counter rotation. Note that the head must stay neutral or slightly forward in order to avoid a premature turning action of the body.

In figure 2, it may be observed that the position of the legs and feet remain relatively in the same place - below (or behind) the hips. This is accomplished by rapidly thrusting the chest upward, thus creating a blocking action of the body rotation (angular momentum) . This ensures that the center of gravity is rising vertically.

Recommendations In order to achieve a consistent and well executed Back Toss to Handstand, focus on two basic elements: a . Excellent technical execution of the basic support swing - namely, the "shoulder shrug" and "beating" action through the bottom of the swing (as discussed above). b. Good flexibility of the shoulder joints, the chest, and the upper back portion of the body to achieve greater range of motion . (figure 3a) . Obviously, this will permit the gymnast to maintain grasp on the bar longer to ensure the effectiveness of the counter rotation . (figure 3b).

Figure 1

(8)

6

(9)

(10)

(11)

(12)

(13)

(14)

( 15) Drawings by Hideo Mizoguchi

Technique

Two types of arm release action are identified: a. Movement of the arms sideward with a slight dislocation of the shoulders while continuing to move upward . b. Swinging the arms along the side of the body, reaching backward throughout the flight phase. In figure 4, Artimov's arms travel close to his body. This results in the effective completion of the swing.

After a review of the 1988 Olympic videotaped performances, the technique demonstrated in figure 4 was found to be the most commonly used .

This technique is recommended .

F F

(6)

Figure 3 a .

,,,,.

,,,

___ _

"'

-, '--- -4:~---- -;

, , ..,

~; \

-- ---

.,,,.

.,,,

.,.,

.,. .,,, ) ., \ /

'

.•

Figure 3 b.

I

I

I

I

/ ' ~

"\. '

'.

I

.'. ... /

-

Figure 4

Technique

7

The Big D of Men's Gymnastics in the 1988 Olympics: Dismount, Difficulty and Deductions

by James Howard and John Scheer he impression which a gymnast makes on the judges can be an important factor in determining his score. The last impression, the dismount and the dismount landing, can affect the judges' overall perceptions of the whole exercise. The dismount usually represents a major difficulty part and is the culminating point of the exercise. Coaches, gymnasts and judges would agree that dismounts play an important part in determining an individual score and, ultimately, final all-around and team totals. How did the men's teams from the Soviet Union and United States compare on this one, vital aspect of routines in the 1988 Olympics in Seoul?

METHOD The writers, both nationally and internationally certified judges, evaluated the dismounts of the Soviet and U.S.A. gymnasts in both the compulsory and optional team competition from videotapes recorded in Seoul.

The skill values of optional dismounts were rated, and landing deductions were assessed for both compulsory and optional exercises using commonly accepted international judging criteria .

RESULTS Landing Deductions. The dismount landing deductions (including vaulting) on the Soviet compulsory routines totaled 1.10 points on 36 landings (see Table 1). The U.S.A., on the other hand, gave up 2.30 points in compulsory landing deductions, again on 36 routines.

T

Table 1 Dismount Landing Deductions In the 1988 Olympics URS USA EVENT c 0 c 0

FX PH R

v PB HB

TOTAL

8

.0 .0 .10 .60 .30 .10 1.10

.4S .0 .30 .6S .4S .1S 2.00

.SO .20 .80 .60 .10 .10 2.30

.60 .0 .60 .6S .30 .SO 2.65

In optional competition, the Soviets received 2.00 points in landing deductions, compared to 2.65 points on the U.S.A. (Table 1). Total compulsory and optional landing deductions were 3.10 points for the Soviets compared to 4. 95 for the U.S.A. Stuck Dismounts. Another point of comparison is the number of dismounts that received no landing deductions, a particularly effective way of getting the judges' attention. It can be seen in Table 2 that the Soviet gymnasts stuck 26 of 36 (72%) compulsory dismount landings, while the U.S.A. stuck 20 (55%).

Table 2 . Stuck Dismounts In the 1988 Olympics URS USA EVENT c 0 c 0

FX PH R

v

6 6

s 1 3

P:B HB

s

TOTAL

26

C IO STICKS72 %

STICKS

60째/o

2 6 3 2 0 4 17

20

0 6 1 1 3 1 12

47 %

55%

33%

3

s 2 0

s s 44%

In optional competition, the Soviets stuck 17 landings (47%) compared to 12 for the U.S.A. (33%) . In adding the compulsories and optionals, we found that the Soviets stuck 43 of 72 landings (60%), while the U.S.A. stuck 32 of 72 landings (44%).

Difficulty Values. The gap widened when the difficulty value of the dismounts performed was considered.

Under the Code of Points by which the 1988 Olympics were judged, the Soviets performed 27 D value, and 9 C value, dismounts. The U.S.A . men showed the judges 21 D and 15 C value dismounts. In addition, the Soviets stuck 10 of their 27 D dismount landings (37%), while the U.S.A. stuck only 6 of their 21 D dismounts (29%).

Devalued Dismounts Under the New Code of Points. A new quadrennium is just beginning. A new Code of Points is being implemented . Every four years this international rule book raises the competition standards and challenges the gymnasts of the world to meet them . Where do the men of the U.S.A . stand at this point in prepa-

ration for 1992? Again, using the D value dismounts and vaults as a guide, we can estimate where we are in the world of gymnastics using the new Code of Points by which we will be judged for the next four years.

As stated earlier, the Soviets executed 27 D value dismounts under the old code. Under the new code, only 4 of these skills will be devalued! This is only a 15% devaluation in the difficulty level of one of the most important aspects of gymnastics routines (see Table 3) . In contrast, the U.S.A. executed 21 D value dismounts under the old code, and fully 13 of these dismounts have been devalued in the new code!

This is a whopping 64% reduction in this critical area!

Table 3 Difficulty of Optional Dismounts In the 1988 Olympics Event

CDde

FX

Old Code New Code PH Old Code New Code Old Code R New Code v Old Code New Code PB Old Code New Code Old Code HB New Code TOTAL Old Code TITTAL New Code % Devalued "D"s

DValue URS USA 4 0 0 4 2 0 0 1

s 3 6 6

6

6 0 4 2

3 3

6 6 6 4 2 27 21 23 8 15% 64%

CValue URS USA 2 6 2 6 6 3

4 2

1 3

0 6 2 4 3

0 0 0 0 0 2

0 4

9 10

15 25

3

BValue URS USA 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0

0

0

0 0

0 0

0

0

0

0 3

3

Bonus Points. The USA falls yet further behind when Courage (old code) and Risk (new code) bonus points on dismounts are evaluated. Under the old code, the U.S.S.R. men were eligible for 3.1 Courage bonus points back on their optionaf dismounts in Seoul (Courage or Risk bonus points can only be earned back on D value skills).

Had they done the same dismounts under the new rules, they still would have earned back 2.4 bonus points for Risk. In contrast, the U.S.A. men were eligible for 2.1 Courage bonus points on their dismounts in Seoul. Had they done the same dismounts under the new rules, they would have earned back only .9 points.

Technique

tenths in d eduction s; in w hich case the judge cannot give back any bonus points. Picture the gymn ast who tries a couple of triples in competition, performs them reasonably well, but actually scores lower than normal. Is it any wonder that h e would throttle back to a layout d ouble (which has now been devalued) or a lesser C value dismount? Remember the 1984 Olympics? Any spectator who looked forward with anticipation to difficult, exciting dismounts had to be disappointed. To some extent, both the U.S.A . and Chinese gymnasts watered dow n their dismounts because of the way they were being judged . Many of the U.S.A . gymnasts were full y capable of doing triples, double-doubles, and other exceptional dismounts, but we didn' t see too many of those. Take one look at the Soviets, and one quickly realizes that the time for conservatism is gone.

Perhaps the collegiate program, in which most of our elite gymnasts train, unwittingly contributes to the problem. For instance, NCAA coaches demand that judges score routines strictly " by the book", which is probably as it should be for collegiate competition.

However, this may contribute to the conservatism noted above. In addition, the collegiate program requires gymnasts to be healthy for many competitions. Gymnasts often compete on a weekly basis. In this situation, would

The Soviets may have been eligible for the bonus points noted above, but, for most of their routines, by the time they got to the dismount they didn ' t need it, as they had already maximized their earnings! On th e other hand, the U.S.A. needed most of their bonus, and under the n ew code lost most of it!

DISCUSSION Still focusing only on dismounts, why might the Soviet men be so far ahead of the U.S.A . and the rest of the world? Think about it: they have become such excellent, high-scoring gymnasts that virtually the only way they have of differentiating themselves from one another is to stick difficult dismounts. With that kind of competition, a gymnast wouldn't need a coach to tell him to train dismounts and landings!

There may be other reasons, but they involve educated guessing . For example, the Code of Points may have pushed coaches and gymnasts into a conservative gear. Certainly, the old code did not penalize gymnasts for using C value dismounts, and in some cases it may actually have discouraged the use of more difficult dismounts.

The triple salto from rings or horizontal bar illustrates this point . In the U.S.A. , under the strict interpretation of the rules by which we judge, if a gymnast "cowboys" a triple and takes a step on landing, he would earn two-

a coach with a limited number of scholarships take a chance on training difficult dismounts on hard mats?

What can we do to accelerate the catch-up process? Two ideas are offered as food for thought. First, one must accept that there are differences betwee n the collegiate program and the USGF. In USGF competitions, allow the use of safety mats, without deductions, when a gymnast executes a D value dismount or vault. The Soviets have done this, and it may encourage our departure from conservatism. (For that matter, two spotters could even be allowed.)

Again in USGF meets, reduce landing deductions when a gymnast performs a D value dismount or vault.

Some will say, "but we eliminated mitigation years ago!" Well, maybe we need it back .

We understand that the Code of Points does not recommend increasing difficulty at the expense of execution .

We would never suggest that gymnasts attempt unsafe skills for which they are not ready. Rather, we are talking here about the gymnasts who can safely execute difficult dismounts, but who have chosen not to in order to minimize deductions, much as our gymnasts and the Chinese did in 1984.

The international ''ball game'' is different now, and these ideas may help us play it at a higher level.

USGF Official Gymnastics Safety Manual -

-

Official manu al for USGF Safety Certification Program Designed to raise the leve l of safe ty aware ness in th e e ntire indu stry.

-

U.S. GYMNASTICS FEDERATION

Includ es chapters on: The Need for Safety; Legal Responsibility of In structor; Accident Prevention

A Must For Every Serious Gymnastics Professional To o rd er e ith e r th e Gy mna s ti cs o r Trampolin e Sa fe tv Man u <i ls , se nd ch eck o r mon ey order to: -USG F Me rch a ndi s in g P.O. Box 5562 lndi<inapo li s , lndi<in <i 46255-5562

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Tota l a mount e n closed _ _ Edit e d hy

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Technique

Edit ed bv Wi ll ia m A lli Sllll

9

Kine1natics of Roundoff Entry Vaults By Female Oly1npic Gy1nnasts Mohamed A. Ragheb and Virginia L. Fortney Kinematics of Roundoff Entry Vaults or the last few years, side horse vaulting in women's gymnastics has improved tremendously. A recent modification in vaulting technique is the change of the final part of the approach phase from a hurdle step to a roundoff entry onto the board. The advantages of this entry are : 1) it enables the gymnast to face the side horse with her back from which she can easily initiate a backward salto, 2) it provides the gymnast an opportunity to perform a twist during the preflight onto the side horse, and 3) it may contribute to raising the degree of difficulty in terms of the judging code. A review of available gymnastic literature revealed a lack of biomechanical analysis of vaults with the roundoff entry . The aim of the present study was to investigate the kinematics of vaults with the roundoff entry performed by international gymnasts during the 1984 Olympic Games in Los Angeles. It was also a point of interest to examine the intraand inter-individual differences among and between these elite gymnasts in performing this movement on the vault .

F

Table 2 Roundoff Entry Vault Scores and Descriptions Score (pts) 9.80 9.90 9.90 9.80

Description ROE, 11/z back ROE, l 1/2 back ROE, l 1/2 back ROE, 1 1/z back

CHN

9.65 9.70 9.15 9.70

ROE, ROE, ROE, ROE,

Tu dos

CAN

9.45 9.50

ROE, with 1 twist on, 1 twist off ROE, with 1 twist on, 1 twist off

Munoz

ESP

9.35 9.65

ROE, l 1/2 back Saltos with 1 twis t ROE, 1 1/z back Saltos with 1 twist

Gymnast Talavera

Country USA

Zhou, P.

of the gymnasts included in this research and their vault performances are shown in Tables 1 and 2. The cameras were operated at speeds of 100 frames per second for the purpose of biomechanical analysis (Nelson, Gross, and Street 1985). Alternate frames were digitized for the 12 vaults.

The center of mass (CM) for the total body was calculated from the digitized data using the predictive regression equations of segmental mass proportions and segmental center of mass locations from Clauser, McConville, and Young's study (1969).

RESULTS and DISCUSSION Temporal Measurements The data showing the temporal structure of the roundoff entry are presented in Table 3 while a stick figure sequence of an exemplar roundoff entry, based on the mean values of the phases of the roundoff entry, is shown in Figure 1. The five sequential phases include the following: the turn off the run to a handstand at the beginning of the roundoff, the handTable 1 Descriptive Data of Gymnasts stand, the preflight onto the board, th e support on the board, and Gymnast Age (yr) Height (m) Mass (kg) preflight onto the side horse. The time consumed in assuming the handstand Talavera 1.62 51.8 17 reflects the effect of moment of inerZhou, P .

41.4 15 1.55 tia in slowing down th e movement.

Munoz 14 1.40 29.1 We compared Talavera w ith the other Tu dos 1.47 35.5 15 gymnasts since she was the tallest and Mean 15.3 1.51 39.5 heaviest gymnast to perform a round-

METHODS Twelve (12) roundoff entry vaults performed during the 1984 Olympic Games in the women's optional vaults and the individual finals competition, included in the original 16 mm scientific films, were analyzed. The gymnastic vault competitions were filmed under the authorization of the Medical Commission of the International Olympic Committee. Descriptive data

10

Saltos Saltos Saltos Saltos

l 1/2 back Saltos 11/z back Saltos 11/z back Saltos l 1/2 back Saltos

in layout with 1 twist with 1 twist in layout with 1 twist in layout in layout with 1 twist with 1 twist

off entry vault. She required the longest amount of time to assume the handstand and the reverse was the case for Munoz, the shortest and fas test in this phase of the vault. Interand intra-individual differences were too small to be considered in the second phase of the vault which ended when the gymnast was free of the floor . The thrust of that takeoff was developed by the upper extremities.

Bearing in mind the differences in the body mass, it was expected that differences would be found in the flight time onto the board. Although differences existed in flight times there were no discernable relationships to the differences and the body mass measures . Time on the board was a considerable percentage (23%) of the duration of the total time in the five phases included in this research . All of the gymnasts had longer times in the flight phase onto the side horse (26%) than onto the board (17%). Tudos apparently spent a longer time in that second flight phase because of the task demand of a twist onto the side horse which she included.

Spatial Measurements The location of the CM of the gymnasts throughout the roundoff entry vaults was of interes t to the investigators . The path of the center of mass for each trial was plotted in order to study the geometrical aspects of the path durin g the approach phase of the Technique

vault. A representative plot is shown The following instantaneous positions of the CM of the gymnasts were of in Figure 2. particular interest: the contact angle and takeoff angles with respect to the The 12 vaults analyzed have similar board, and the projection angle tanpatterns which were characterized by gent to the path of the CM at the insan inconstant increase in the vertical tant of takeoff . These three angles are displacement with respect to the graphically displayed in Figure 2. For horizontal displacement of the CM practical purposes, the horizontal disthroughout the five phases . The vertance from the toes of the thrusting leg tical displacement increased while the to the landing point on the board was gymnast was in contact with the board also measured. The measurements of as the gymnast initiated an extension spatial parameters (distances and anof the joints of the lower extremities, gles) are summarized in Tables 4 and spinal column, and shoulders in ord5 (see page 13) in terms of means and er to generate the required impulse to standard deviations of the whole samraise the center of mass for the proper ple and for each gymnasts in her anaheight at takeoff. lyzed number of trials which reflect The geometric parameters derived some inter-individual differences befrom the path of the center of mass tween the gymnasts. The differences were: the height (h) of the CM at the in the height of the CM at takeoff can moment of takeoff from the board, the be attributed to individual anthropommoment arm (mr) at the same instant.

Table 3 Means and Standard Deviations of the Temporal Parameters for the Phases of Roundoff Entry Vaults Tl*a T3 T4 T T2 TS Gymnast Talavera .15± .001 .11± .040 .12± .030 .17 ± .040 .13± .010 .68 ± .020 Zhou, P. .14± .001 .11 ± .004 .13± .001 .16± .090 .14± .010 .68± .030 Munoz .12± .000 .11 ± .001 .10± .001 .15± .000 .18± .030 .66± .030 Tu dos .13±.000 .11 ± .001 .13± .030 .15± .001 .25± .040 .77± .040 Mean .14±.040 .11± .020 .12± .020 .16± .040 .18± .050 .70± .080 *Mean units for the phases and total time are in seconds(s). aThe temporal phases of the roundoff entry vault were defined as time consumed in: Tl: assuming handstand position, T2: handstand, T3 : preflight on Reuther board, T4: support on board, TS: preflight onto side horse, T; total time phases Tl-5 .

etry. The antropometric differences have a direct effect on the path of the CM since many parts of this event are executed with contact to supporting surfaces.

This research was also concerned with the velocity of the gymnast's CM during the duration of the board contact. The two components of the average velocity: horizontal (Vx) and vertical (Vy) were calculated. The average horizontal velocity was considerably higher than the average vertical velocity as shown in Table 6.

The average horizontal velocity appears to be the highest predictor from all of the measurements for the quality of performance in terms of the judges ' mean scores . It was easy to notice the increase in score accompanying the increase in horizontal velocity. A correlation coefficient of 0.96 was found between the two variables.

Tudos demonstrated the lowest horizontal and vertical velocities, but as previously mentioned, she was preparing for a different task during the flight onto the side horse .

It was a point of interest to compare the parameters of the roundoff entry with the hurdle entry. Nelson et al (1985) analyzed the performance of the eight individual finalists, including data on the hurdle entry. It can seen that the time spent on the board was longer in the roundoff entry (0 .16 s)

Kinematics of Roundoff Entry Vaults

Figure 1 Stick figure sequence of an exemplar roundoff entry vault Technique

11

Kinematics continued which may be due to the loss of some horizontal velocity achieved through assuming the handstand than in the hurdle entry (0.11 s) . The height of the CM at takeoff was found to be higher in the case of the roundoff entry which can be attributed to the differences in body configuration at that instant in time as well as physique. From the stature measures and the different degrees of success for these four gymnasts, with the taller two (Talavera and Zhou) being superior to the shorter two (Munoz and Tudos), perhaps height could be one selector as to which gymnast is best suited to develop roundoff entries in vaulting.

An overview for all of the parameters measured indicate the con-

sistency of the performance of each gymnast from trial to trial. This consistency is statistically expressed in terms of standard deviations and may also be due to the higher proficiency of the elite gymnasts and in particular to the two finalists, Talavera and Zhou . The consistency may also be the result of a large amount of practice of the roundoff back dives performed on the floor exercise event.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Mohamed A . Ragheb wishes to express his gratitude to Richard C. Nelson, Director of the Biomechanics Laboratory, at The Pennsylvania State University who invited him to be a visiting scholar. While at the Biomechanics Laboratory he was able to develop this work under the direction of Dr. Nelson. The authors wish to ex-

press their appreciation to Jill McNittGray for suggestions made on the first draft of this paper and also to the Medical Commission of the International Olympic Committee for making the Olympic Film Archives of the 1984 Olympic Games available for study.

References Clauser, C.E ., McConville, J.T., and Young, J.W. (1969). Weight, volume, and center of mass of segments of the human body (Report No . AMRL-TR-69-70) . Wright Patterson Air Force Base, OH. Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory .

Nelson, R.C. , Gross, T.S. , and Street, G .M . (1985). Vaults performed by female Olympic gymnasts . Interna-

tional Journal of Sports Biomechanics, 1(2) :111-121.

Kinematics of Roundoff Entry Vaults

\

\

83

\ \ \

d

t

mr

Figure 2 Spatial parameters of the CM of the gymnast with respect to the board. The spatial parameters were measured in the following ways; d: horizontal distance from the toes of thrusting leg to landing point on the board, mr: moment arm due to gravity at takeoff from the board. The angles measured of the CM of the gymnast were; 01 and 02: at instants of contact and takeoff from the board, and 03: projection angle of CM tangent to the path of gymnast's CM at takeoff from the board.

12

Technique

Concentration Ideas For Developing Concentration Skills To Achieve Peak Performance Dr. Andrea B. Schmid Sport Psychologist San Francisco State University

oncentration is a vitally important mental skill to help rhythmic gymnasts perform consistently close to their optimal performance. The major component of con-

C

centration is the ability to focus one's attention on the task at hand and thereby not be disturbed or affected by irrelevant external or internal stimuli.

External stimuli may include audience applause or announcements of per-

Kinematics of Roundoff Entry Vaults Table 4 Means and Standard Deviations for Spatial Parameters of Roundoff Entry Vaults d*a Gymnast mr h Talavera 1.08 ± .020 2.68± .070 .23 ± .060 Zhou, P. 2.57±.100 1.05 ± .020 .27 ± .060 Munoz 1.65 ± .050 0.94± .000 .16±.050 Tu dos 2.65± .180 0.96± .000 .11± .110 Mean 2.47 ± .400 1.03 ± .060 .21 ± .070 *Average units for spatial measures are in meters (m). aThe spatial parameters were measured in the following ways; d: horizontal distance from the toes of thrusting leg to landing point on board, h: height of CM at takeoff from the board, mr: moment arm due to gravity at takeoff from the board Table 5 Means and Standard Deviations for Angles at Board Contact and Takeoff, and for Projection Angle Gymnast Ola 02 03 Talavera 126.5 + 2.89 75.8+3.95 38.5+ 1.73 Zhou, P. 120.5+ .100 75.8+0 .10 32.5+3.00 Munoz 126.5+0.71 80.5+0.71 40.5+0.71 Tudos 127.5+2.12 82.5+0.36 41.5+0.71 Mean 124.7 +3 .55 78.2+3.81 37.4+4.09 *Mean units for angles are degrees (dg). aThe three angles measured were in relation to the CM of the gymnast at a specific instant in time; 01: at contact angle of CM to landing point on the board, 02: at takeoff angle of CM to takeoff point on the board, and 03: projection angle of CM tangent to the path of the gymnast's CM at takeoff from the board.

Table 6 Means and Standard Deviations of Average Velocity Parameters During Board Contact Gymnast

V x *a

Vy

Mean Judges' Scores 9.88 9.55 9.48 9.48

4.85+0.850 2.40+ .230 Talavera Zhou, P. 4.53+ 1.950 2.47 + .070 Munoz 4.20 + .1400 2.35+ .001 3.92+ 1.290 2.01 + .410 Tu dos 4.68+0.830 2.35+ .240 Mean *Mean units for average velocity are meters/second (mis). aThe two components of velocity were measured; vx: horizontal velocity of the Cm, VY: vertical component of the CM .

Technique

former results. Irrelevant internal stimuli include thoughts, feelings, perceptions, or any internal information other than the salient features of the athletic performance (on which the athlete should be focused) . Paradoxically, trying to concentrate is not concentrating: Concentration is focusing, instead of forcing one's attention on the task.

There are many different exercises that coaches can use to obtain better concentration control in gymnasts.

These exercises can be divided into two sections: exercises to control distracting external factors and exercises to control internal distractions. The categorization is somewhat arbitrary, however, because the external and internal stimuli continually affect each other. Because of this interaction, exercises in one category may be equally effective in correcting apparent lack of concentration in the other category.

External Factors: Exercises To Maintain Concentration Athletes need to be trained not to react (orient) to irrelevant external stimuli. In a competition, these stimuli are the situational factors that coaches often expect the athletes to have learned to control by trial and error in previous competitive experiences. This "previous experience" strategy has obvious limitations and false assumptions. Coaches need to realize that athletes can be systematically trained before a competition to be situationally independent. The concept underlying training is based upon Pavlovian conditioning. The novelty of the competitive environment, compared to the practice environment, tends to reduce performance. Through training, the novelty of the competitive environment can be eliminated. In short, athletes need to experience simulated Continued on page 14 13

Concentration continued competition training in which they practice their physical skills while being exposed to all possible external stimuli that can occur during a real competition. For gymnasts, exercises that reduce the novelty effect upon performance by condition, an appropriate response may include " dress rehearsal" practice and mental rehearsal of concentration training.

which one member relaxes and mentally rehearses her routine while the other member attempts to distract the performer from the mental rehearsal.

Through this type of exercise, gymnasts learn how to detach themselves from external distractions and resulting unwanted internal stimuli while instead focusing on the task of mentally rehearsing their routines.

Exercise 1: Dress Rehearsal Dress rehearsal is a particularly effective strategy for sports such as rhythmic gymnastics. Dress rehearsal is based upon the concept that ease in skillful competitive performance is unconsciously conditioned by the external and internal stimuli that surround the athletes during practice. The greater the number of different stimuli present during competition compared to practice, the greater tendency for decreased performance. Stimuli can include things such as the gymnast's leotard and the announcer's voice.

Ironically, in order to make a good impression during the competitive event, gymnasts usually wear leotards different from the ones they wear during practice. This means than an unconscious stimulus of (the practice leotard) associated with the performance of the skill is absent during the competition.

Wearing the new leotard tends to be a new stimulus, which may inhibit performance. This may be one reason why some gymnasts tend to perform better during practice than during competition . A gymnast needs to practice her entire competitive routine in the same uniform that she will wear in actual competition . Dress rehearsal needs to be conducted frequently after the gymnast has learned a new skill and is practicing the whole routine for performance.

Internal Factors: Exercises To Stay Centered The coach must train the gymnast to control her mind; because concentration inhibits distraction. Lapses in concentration invite fear and self-doubt, and the resulting worry and anxiety lead to a decrease in the ability to concentrate, thus creating a vicious circle that ultimately leads to failure. The effect of internal factors becomes more pronounced in high pressure situations.

Centering helps the gymnast eliminate her concentration-breaking thoughts and improves her ability to focus on a task .

The following exercises are useful for enhancing focusing skills.

Exercise 2: Mental Rehearsal Using mental rehearsal to practice concentration and to learn not to react to purposely induc~d external distractions is another useful exercise for gymnas'ts. Such a strategy might involve having athletes form pairs in 14

Exercise 1: Focusing Sit quietly, close your eyes, and see how long you can focus on a single thought .

Exercise 2: Object Focus Look at an action photo or rhythmic gymnastics apparatus. For example, you might focus on the ball. If distracting thoughts enter your mind, bring your attention back to the ball; neither shut out the thoughts nor continue to explore the disruptive thoughts or feelings. Just gently bring your attention back to the ball .

Each gymnast should practice these two exercises daily for five minutes and chart her progress by recording how long she can focus her attention on a single thought or on the picture.

After initial practice, one can increase the difficulty of the exercise with artificial distractions such as loud noises to see if the athlete can block out every-

thing and concentrate fully.

The exercises outlined above can be employed during regular physical practice sessions. Gymnasts are responsive to them and especially enjoy being involved in the distracting stimuli.

Summary Concentration is the ability to direct one's full attention to appropriate cues in the present task instead of being controlled by irrelevant external or internal stimuli. Most top athletes have developed their own mental strategies for doing this. These strategies are often perceived as a component of natural athletic ability. They are, in fact, not innate. Instead, they are skills that the athlete acquired through regular practice of attention control training . The consistent control over one's attentional focus before and during competition is thus learned through practice, just as any physical skill is learned .

Reference: Schmid, A.B. , & Peper, E. (1986).

"Techniques for Training Concentration," (Chapter 17). In Williams, J. (Editor) Applied Sport Psychology:

Personal Growth to Peak Perfonnance, Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield Publishing Company

Technique

Mental Training Programs for Rhythmic Gymnasts

.

S

by Linda M. Haack, M.A.

port psychology deals with developing mental skills that will enhance athletic performance. Skills are developed in the areas of control, concentration, confidence, relaxation, self-esteem, direction and motivation. Physical preparation is essential in order to do a maneuver (e.g. , scales, tosses, and leaps) but mental preparation is just as important . If you see a situation as frightening, you may not be able to perform a skill you have done a thousand times before .

Through proper mental training, an athlete can learn to practice skills that enhance performance and communication.

Earlier this year, the Miami Twisters added a sport psychology program to their regular physical training. In order to help the Twisters and their coaches, Mary Ellen Holdreith and Maureen Holdreith, with performance issues, the first step was to assess their needs. A preliminary assessment not only points to the areas that need the most attention, but also provides a way to measure the effect of mental training . After meeting with the coaches and observing the athletes in the gym, a proposed program outline was presented. Adjustments were made to accommodate the competition schedule and the final program was documented and presented to the athletes . Each week, the coaches and I met with the athletes and parents for an hour prior to group time to discuss new issues. I also met just with the coaches prior to practice, with the athletes during group and during individual sessions, and the parents during the parent group meetings . The basic outline of the initial 8 week program is as follows: Mental Training Program #1 WEEK ONE • Introduction & needs assessment of gymnasts • Introduction to mental training (definition and program) Technique

• Introduction to Linda, as an ice skater (video footage) • Input from athletes • Learning styles • Individual time with each athlete WEEK TWO • Nervousness & competition • Breathing and centering attention • Pre-event routine • Individual time for clarification and needs of athlete • Competition schedule: Jan .

16-17, California State Meet: Class 1 WEEK 3 • Lessons learned from competition & goals for year • Share individual experience • Accepting your performance and outcome • Goals for practice, process and outcome • Individual time for specific needs and goals WEEK 4 • Performance issues • Nervousness and stress reduction exercises • Pre-event routine part 2 • Feedback from competition and questions • Individual time with athletes • Parents group 1: discuss needs and concerns • Competition schedule : Jan. 30-31, Local qualifying Meet: Class 1, 2,3.

WEEK 5 • Visualization • Education and explanation • Practical application to individual needs • Individual help • Parents group 2: needs of the athletes and coaches WEEK 6 • Projecting and performing a positive self image • Video footage • Definition and discussion • Individual time with athletes • Parents group 3: understanding

competition, stress, & goals • Competition schedule: Feb. 13-14, Florida State Meet : Class 1,2,3 WEEK 7 • Performing your best • Control and concentration • Positive self talk • Individual time with athletes • Parents group 4: supporting your child positively • Competition schedule : Feb. 20-21, Illinois State Meet : Class 1 WEEK 8 • Wrap-up session • Summary • New skills acquired • Lessons learned • Feedback and future needs • Individual time with athletes • Competition Schedule : Feb. 27, Georgia State;! Feb. 28, South Carolina State

The coaches evaluated the program and decided to continue it until the end of the competitive season. The program was extended and areas of interest which surfaced during discussions in previous weeks were added.

In the extended program I continued to meet with the gymnasts individually and met with the coaches on a regular basis. The extended program outline is as follows : Mental Training Program #2 TOPICS OF DISCUSSION: Goals • Review competition process and outcome goals • Review practice process and outcome goals Travel Issues • Preparation for athletes needs • Room and roommate arrangements • Coaches' expectations Competition Reviews • Discussion on personal gains and lessons learned

Continued on page 16 15

Mental Training continued Visualization • Rehearsals timed Team Spirit • Exercise enhancing group spirit • Athletes enhancing communication skills Thought Stopping • Exercise and practice Word Games • Negative statements to positive • Affirmations Wrap-up • Summarize new skills acquired

16

Each athlete completed a written evaluation of the mental training programs. Ratings were positive in the areas of achievement, acquisition of skills, enhancement of control, performance outcomes and enjoyment of the group and individual sessions. There were no negative ratings from any of the 10 athletes. All indicated that they wanted to pursue further mental training and added suggestions for future sessions.

Mental training, like physical train-

ing, requires constant effort and practice. Each gym program, athlete, coach and parent is different; and so each mental training program may be different and tailored to the needs of the participants. This is one example of a program with positive results. It should be remembered that although once learned, mental skills can be used by the athlete without professional help. Evaluation of needs and training in the appropriate techniques requires the guidance of a skilled professional.

Technique

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Flexibility Misconceptions

By William L. Cornelius, Ph.D.

NO RESULTS!

Dr. Cornelius is an Associate Professor of Physical Education at the Universi!Y_ of North Texas . he benefits of flexibility exercise are multifaceted .

There are simply many dimensions to its contributions. Flexibility misconceptions, however, can result in problematic conditions and certainly reduces the potential stretching exercise offers a gymnast. Figure 1 helps point to the dilemma associated with allowing an athlete to compile various misconceptions without correcting poor habits and misunderstandings .

Therefore, understanding and eliminating the following flexibility misconceptions is particularly relevant.

T

Stretch with pain. Pain is not necessary in order to receive benefits from stretching. In fact, there is no scientific evidence to support the use of stretching until pain is felt. The presence of pain sets up resistance to lengthening tissue by stimulating muscle spindle receptors (Guyton, 1981). Frankly, this is the opposite of what you are attempting to do in an effective stretching procedure. Muscle spindle receptors detect overstretched tissue and respond by initiating a monosynaptic reflex that causes related muscle fibers to contract. Never stretch with pain but attempt to stop at a point of tension. Very slight discomfort, however, also appears to be acceptable for stimulating sensory receptors (Golgi tendon organs) related to reducing resistance to stretch. These proprioceptors act to inhibit muscle con traction.

Bounce when stretching. A ballistic or fast stretch technique is not considered to be the most effective technique . Figure 2 depicts the bouncing effect in this technique. Repeated bouncing, characteristic of the ballistic stretching technique, creates an unsafe condition and encourages a stretch reflex. The stretch reflex creates 18

MISCONCEPTION

MISCONCEPTION

MISCONCEPTION

MISCONCEPTION

I

I

I

!

Figure 1. Misconceptions

Figure 2. Ballistic Technique

Figure 3. Static Technique

Technique

Misconceptions continued muscle contraction resulting in resistance to further ROM (Guyton, 1981). Although improvement in ROM can be accomplished with ballistic stretch, safety is not optimal in this procedure. It is easy to strain or tear soft tissue in the bouncing or ballistic condition . It is more difficult to gauge how far to stretch with. the e~颅 plosive maneuver accompanying this technique. Sensory mechamsfl1:s. detect pain or overstretched conditions and initiate a stretch reflex. Consequently, the resultin~ resista:ice to stretch is less than desirable. Figure 3 shows a final static position that is held for 10 seconds . The static stretch technique is considered by many to be the safest stretching maneuver (Beaulieu, 1981). This technique simply uses a slow, gentle movement to a point of tension. At this point the position is held. The technique can also be performed as the termina~ maneuver in Modified Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation as well .

Stretching will always reduce injury.

Although improved flexibility through stretching exercise appears to reduce injuries to the gymnast, there is insufficient scientific evidence to strongly support this relationship (Anderson, et al., 1984). It is difficult to control variables in a scientific investigation dealing with injury. The problem in setting up a controlled study lies in ethical considerations associated with exposing a group of individuals to an experimental condition which might be harmful. Problems like these keep us from knowing the true answer. Most educators, however, suggest that flexibility is an important factor in reducing the number and severity of injuries. When segments are capable of moving through complete ROM, there is less chance of placing stress on joints and tissues.

Particular placement makes a difference in ROM. Placing stretching exercise either before or after strenuous activity will increase flexibili~y .. Particular stretching placement w1thm a workout, however, does not appear to be better for increasing ROM than other locations (Cornelius et al., 1988, Cornelius et al., 1986). On the other hand, particular placement of stretching can Technique

be justified. Stretching before strenuous skills and sequences can prepare a gymnast for these activities as an extended part of a warmup and is thought to reduce injuries. Flexibility exercise placed at the end of vigorous activity will act as an excellent cooldown and serves to reduce soreness by reducing pooling of metabolic byproducts. Stretching both before and after a workout is recommended and can provide a gymnast with some of the essential benefits needed for gymnastic progress and normal growth and development.

Athletes are the only people needing flexibility. Everyone needs to stretch and receive the benefits derived from flexibility. This fitness component is not only for the athlete or the very active .

Flexibility benefits are not exclusive t.o a particular individual or group. It is best for everyone to stretch daily and include flexibility maneuvers for all parts of the body. Stretching the entire body not only allows for greater ROM and improved performance but 路 it helps you feel better. Some people do not know what it feels like to feel good. Discomfort and stress can be reduced throughout the body by stretching regularly. Stretching several times daily when emotional and physical stress is felt, can be an excellent practice. For example, stretch~ng _is needed following a study session m which you have been sitting in a particular position for an extended time.

Realigning body segments with the aid of stretching promotes good posture and relieves discomfort in areas like the neck and back.

There are double jointed individuals.

Double jointed is simply not a good way of describing a flexible individual. Although some gymnasts appear to be very flexible, they do not have two joints. They may be "loose jointed", however. Joints may not be strapped or supported firmly by connective tissue, and bony arrangement may permit greater movement. Joints can be so loose in their articulation that joint stability is lacking and injury is likely when subjected to strenuous activity.

Greater ROM may exist because of an inherited characteristic rather than the result of stretching exercise. There will also be some individuals classified as "stiff jointed", having less flexibility

in most joints. They will progress slower when attempting to increase ROM through regular stretching exercise. Joints are simply bound tighter from connective tissue. A lot of patience is needed because they begin to realize their limitation. The ideal is somewhere between the loose and stiff characteristic and is where most successful gymnasts fall. They have necessary joint stability but experience improved ROM with regular, effective stretching techniques.

Conclusion. Gymnasts should stretch regularly and attempt to convey a healthy attitude about exercise in genernl. Special care must be paid in reducing misconceptions. Stretching incorrectly can slow progress .

References

Anderson, B., Beaulieu, Cornelius, W. L., Dominguez, R.H., Prentice, W. E., and Wallace, L. (1984). Flexibility: roundtable. National Strength and Conditioning Association Journal, 6(4), 10-22, 71-73 .

Beaulieu, J. E. (1981). Developing a stretching program. The Physician and Sportsmedicine, 9(11), 59-69.

Cornelius, W. L., Hagemann, R. W., Jackson, A. (1988). A study on placement of stretching within a workout. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness. In Press.

Cornelius, W. L., Tyree, K., Wood, C. L., Jackson, A. (1986). Placement of static stretching exercise in a workout program. Technique, 6(2), 15-17.

Guyton, A. C. (1981). Textbook of medical physiology (6th ed.).

Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company.

19

Summary Training Safety Devices William Sands, Ph.D., S.J. Cunningham, S.C. Johnson, S.G. Meek & G.S. George, Ph.D. everal studies have been conducted since 1986 attempting to characterize the deceleration characteristics of various gymnastics safety equipment. These studies were funded by the U.S . Olympic Committee Sports Equipment and Technology Committee and the U.S . Gymnastics Federation. The initial studies dealt with mats. These were followed by a study of two different styles of pits, and a study of the overhead spotting belt. The studies were quite complex, investigating the relationships of many variables.

The studies consisted of attaching devices that sense a change in velocity on several human subjects and inanimate weight platforms. The subjects or weights were then dropped from approximately constant heights to impact with the mat or pit, or be decelerated by the overhead spotting belt and spotter.

The types of mats examined were those used commonly in training: 1. A two year old, 8 inch thick, 5 x 10 ft., training landing mat constructed of a single slab of 8 inch thick open cell foam.

2. A new 8 inch thick, 6 x 12 ft., bifold, competition landing mat with a layered construction including a layer of closed cell foam and a layer of open cell foam .

3. Two, two year old, 4 inch thick, 6 x 12 ft., bifold, competition landing mats with a layered construction, stacked on top of each other forming 8 inches of thickness.

4. An eleven year old, 12 inch thick, 6 x 12 ft., bifold, training landing mat with three single slabs of open cell foam .

5. A new, 12 inch thick, 6 x 12 ft., bifold, training landing mat with three single slabs of open cell foam.

Tests were performed on all equipment by instrumenting a subject with

S

20

accelerometers at the head and the pelvic bone and dropping the subject in a back drop position. Testing of the mats was performed first. The back drops were performed by falling from the uneven bar upper rail from a hands and feet hanging position.

Drops were performed on different areas of some of the bifold mats, the center, the seam, and the end .

Two styles of foam pits were tested: a pit filled with uniformly cut foam cubes (8 inch cubes), and a pit filled with randomly torn up pieces of foam.

The pits were under the uneven bars to allow a platform from which to drop . The tests included 15 consecutive falls to determine the long term behavior of the pits as well as differences in their absorptive qualities.

A fixed overhead spotting belt was tested using a standard (i .e. nontwisting) belt. The subjects hung from a single high bar rail in a basket position and dropped . The subject was held up by a variety of spotters so that a wide variety of subject to spotter weight ratios could be assessed .

The results of the tests indicated that the different safety equipment behaved in a stratified way with regard to deceleration characteristics . The mat results showed that the peak deceleration values were related to the thickness of the mat. Twelve inch thick mats showed that they were more able to absorb impact force than the eight inch thick varieties. Moreover, the old twelve inch mat showed a difference in the decelerations obtained from different areas of the mat. The end of the old twelve inch mat showed a lower deceleration value than the center or the seam, with the center and seam not differing from each other. This is important with regard to the age of mats. It appears that mats should be replaced prior to being totally "bottomed out." The peak decelerations of the mats were well below the values listed in the literature for the threshold of danger for whole body deceleration, indicating that mats basically do their job very well .

The two styles of pits showed that they produced much lower peak deceleration values than any of the mats, being only about 40-50 percent of the mat values. Moreover, deceleration characteristics of the pits showed that the first four or five drops were the least harsh and the most predictable.

The remaining drops were more variable and trending to harder and harder impacts. In spite of this upward trend, the pits remained a considerably softer landing area than mats.

The overhead spotting belt resulted in the lowest deceleration values of all, indicating that it provides the least harshness in deceleration of any of the devices tested. The mean value of the belt decelerations was only about 50% of the mean values of those obtained in the pits. The relationship between the person spotting and the athlete showed a negative relationship indicating that the heavier the person on the rope the better with regard to deceleration . However, even with the widest differences tested the athlete outweighed the spotter by over 70 pounds, and this resulted in a peak deceleration value comparable with those of pits.

In conclusion, the gymnastics teacher/coach should consider the use of these three types of safety devices by the order of their deceleration capabilities. The highest level of protection is offered by the spotting belt, followed by foam pits, and then training mats. All of the devices appear to perform their intended function admirably, however, each device may be more appropriate at certain stages of learning, with the higher protection devices being used with the earliest and / or most precarious learning stages.

See "Levels of Protection Gymnastics Safety Equipment", page 21, for more detail regarding this study.

Technique

Levels of Protection Gymnastics Safety Equipment: A Summary for Coaches William Sands, Ph.D., S.J. Cunningham, S.C. Johnson, S.G. Meek, & G.S. George, Ph.D. Funded through a grant from: The Sport Equipment and Technology Committee of The United States Olympic Committee and The United States Gymnastics Federation. tudies were conducted to determine the deceleration characteristics of five different types of mats; three mat areas; two different styles of pits (i.e . randomly torn up foam pieces and uniformly cut foam cubes); and an overhead spotting belt on human subjects. Because of the complexity of the studies, particularly in terms of the many variables investigated, a summary of the findings is presented here .

The studies consisted of suspending an instrumented human subject from the upper rail of the uneven bars and subsequently dropping the subject (back drop) onto various landing surfaces or in the overhead spotting belt.

The instrumentation for these studies consisted of small three dimensional accelerometers positioned at the head and iliac crest for the pit and mat evaluation, or the sternum only for the belt evaluation .

The accelerometers sense changes of velocity. As the subject strikes the landing surface or is restrained by virtue of the spotting belt, the change in velocity from the fall is recorded as an acceleration (or deceleration - which is a negative acceleration). The values obtained can indicate the ''harshness'' or "softness" of a landing impact. The subjects performed repeated back drop landings designed to simulate unplanned falls and furnish the experimenters with easily repeatable descents and landing positions .

S

Types of Equipment Examined and The Nature of the Tests

The following h;pes of landing mat surfaces were examined: Technique

1. A two year old, 8 inch thick, 5 x 10 ft., training landing mat constructed as a single slab of open cell foam inside a vinyl and nylon mesh covering (80CLM).

2. A new, 8 inch thick, 6 x 12 ft. , bifold, competition landing mat with a layered construction including a layer of Trocellen速 closed cell foam and a layer of open cell foam inside a vinyl cover (8CLM).

3. Two, two year old, 4 inch thick, 6 x 12 ft ., bifold, competition landing mats with a layered construction, similar to the 8CLM mat, stacked on top of each other (Two 4CLM).

4. An eleven year old, 12 inch thick, 6 x 12 ft ., bifold, training landing mat with three single slabs of open cell foam inside a vinyl and mesh cover (120M Old).

5. A new, 12 inch thick, 6 x 12 ft. , bifold, training landing mat with three single slabs of open cell foam inside a vinyl and mesh covering (120M New).

Drop positions on the mats included the center only for the 80CLM and Two 4CLM mats . However, for the 8CLM, 120M Old and 120M New bifold mats, drop positions included the center, the seam, and the end section.

Three consecutive drops were performed by each subject ~ = 10) on each mat area. The acceleration values for each area for both head and iliac crest were averaged following reliability analysis (Henry, 1967) . The mats/areas were tested in the same order for each subject.

The following types of pits were examined: 1. Randomly torn up foam pieces, in the above ground uneven bar pit at the University of Utah gymnastics training facility. (NUF) 2. Uniformly cut foam cubes (8 inch on each side), in the above ground uneven bar pit at the University of Utah gymnastics training facility. The pit structure was 53 inches high from the floor to the top of the walking surface for both types of foam examined. The same pit was used for both types of

foam. (UGF) The pits were tested to determine their deceleration characteristics and to determine if there were any trends across several drops. Each subject (!! = 10) performed fifteen consecutive drops in each pit to simulate the use of a pit in training. The change in the volume of foam due to subject impact was also determined by measuring the top surface topography of foam as the impact crater developed.

The type of overhead spotting belt studied was: A fixed overhead spotting belt (standard, uniaxial, non-twisting belt) was used to determine the nature of the decelerations following a fall. The cotton type rope was 3/8 inch thick and suspended from the ceiling directly above a single adjustable uneven bar rail positioned 99 .5 in. from the floor.

The pulley system is the same as that described in the USGF Safety Manual (1985).

Each subject hung from the bar and raised their legs up to approximately a front lever position, counted down, and released the hands to fall toward the mats below . The spotting belt was attached via ropes which were held by another subject who slowed the descent of the falling subject. The weights of the twelve subjects varied widely so as to result in a wide range of spotter to falling subject weight ratios and thereby simulate a wide variety of training situations.

Each of the subjects (!! = 12) dropped three times in this study. The mean of the three drops was calculated following reliability analysis (Henry, 1967) .

The accelerometers were placed on the sternum only in this study to eliminate high rotational components being measured at the head, and to avoid being struck with the spotting belt at the iliac crest .

Levels of Decelerations In each mat, pit, and belt condiCo11ti1111cd 011 pnsc 22 21

Safety Equipment continued tion - value for the peak acceleration achieved was obtained. These values were statistically analyzed within each study (i.e. mats, pits, belt). The results of the analyses of these values showed several interesting differences and trends. The full technical reports are available from the USGF National Office (Sands, Cunningham, Johnson, Meek, George : 1986, 1987).

Mats Figure 1 shows the peak accelerations achieved by the different mat and mat areas for the iliac crest accelerations .

Figure 1 shows that the peak decelerations are related to the thickness of the mat. Thicker mats with an open cell foam design tend to be softer than thinner mats with a layered construction . Areas of the mats did not differ appreciably except for the 120M old mat which showed a statistically significant difference between the end and the center and the seam, with the center and seam not differing from each other. This may indicate that old mats require replacement before they are obviously bottomed out so that the deceleration characteristics of the mat are consistent across the entire top surface. The peak G values of the mats are well below the value given by Stapp (1949, 1951) for a threshold of danger in whole body decelerations 35-50 Gs. Finally, the eight inch thick mats behave about the same with regard to peak decelerations regardless of construction design .

that tend to fill in the spaces between large pieces, while the UFG foam is all of the same dimensions. The reduced amount of UFG foam that could be placed in the pit compared to the NUF foam may have had an influence on the peak G values obtained.

The foam geometry used in the pit should be considered in the construction of the pit. Foam pits using UFG foam should be relatively deeper than pits using NUF foam. The penetration depths in the UFG foam were found to be greater than the NUF foam .

Moreover, for maximum safety, the pit should be fluffed up after every three to five falls. When attempting new or difficult skills, the attempts should be performed within the first three to five entries into a newly fluffed pit.

It is also important to point out that this study consisted only of multiple back drop landings, and increased penetration is likely during landings on the feet. Therefore, the body contact area during landings into the pit should be on the largest body surface area that is practical for the skill being performed . A larger surface area of contact will serve to limit the depth of the penetration and reduce the peak

G value. This implies a necessity for appreciating the importance of " how to land" in the pit as much as any given performance characteristics of the pit. For maximum safety, the pit should be as deep as possible so as to avoid striking the bottom of the pit during any unusual landing circumstances. Despite the low peak G values obtained in the pit, one should be aware that injuries in the pit can still occur. Other components of gymnastics skills, rotation, total body translation, or both can influence the nature of an impact possibly increasing the severity of the landing .

Overhead Spotting Belt The overhead spotting belt was studied with twelve different subject pair situations. The range of G values for the belt was from 1.57 Gs to 5.43 Gs, while the mean G value for all situations was 3.21 Gs . As can be seen

by Figure 3 (page 24), the mean G value for the belt was lower than that of the pit. We considered that the difference between the weight of the spotter on the ropes and weight of the subject would be influential on the peak G value obtained in any drop condition. We found that the relation-

Figure 1 Peak Accelerations of Mats and Mat Areas Iliac Crest Mats/Mat Areas

Pits The pits showed values considerably less than any of the mats tested with deceleration values only 40-50 percent of the mat values. Figure 2 shows the trends of the deceleration values across all fifteen drops . Note that drops one through five tend to change somewhat linearly while the drops six to fifteen tend to change less consistently. Following drops one through five the behavior of the pit becomes less consistent, but the values are still considerably less than those obtained on the mats . The NUF foam appears to be slightly "harder" on impact than the UFG foam, also, the NUF foam permits less penetration than the UFG foam. In this study, we were not able to get the same amount of UFG foam into the pit as NUF foam.

The weight of UFG foam that could be placed into the pit was 1257.4 lbs ., while the weight of the NUF foam was 1626.6 lbs . This may be due to the number of small pieces of NUF foam 22

80CLM 8CLM Center 8CLM Seam 8CLM End 2-4CLM 120-0LD Center 120-0LD Seam 120-0LD End 120-NEW Center 120-NEW Seam 120-NEW End 0

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8

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12

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18

Accelerations (Gs) . . Accelerations Data Fro m (Sands, et al. 1986) Technique

Figure 2 ship between the difference in the weights of the spotter and the subject and the peak value did not correlate signficantly (r=..,.. .1053, p..,. .05).

However there -was a signficant negative correlation between the peak G value and simply the weight of the spotter on the ropes(!= ..... 79, E_..,.. .01) .

The negative correlation indicates that the greater the weight of the spotter, the lower the peak G value. While this may appear to be an obvious relationship, the lack of a high correlation between body weight differences in the spotter and the subject was surprising.

What this analysis tells us is simply that the heavier the spotter the lower the peak G value obtained by the falling subject. In practical terms this implies considering employing the heavier spotter, all other things being equal, whenever a performer is attempting a skill that may require instantaneous spotting assistance .

The values obtained in the overhead belt spotting situation reached a high of 5.43 Gs . In this situation the subject in the belt outweighed the spotter by 77.5 pounds. This appears to indicate that despite a heavy subject and light spotter the spotting belt provides deceleration values comparable with the raw values of the pit decelerations (5.013 Gs to 6.450 Gs (Sands, et al., 1987) . This implies that in the initial stages of complex skill learning, belt spotting is recommended so as to minimize the peak G values realized by the performer.

Conclusion The results obtained in these three studies demonstrate that the range of fall protection available for gymnastics training begins with the overhead spotting belt showing the least peak G values and thereby offering the greatest ability to slow a falling gymnast gently . Second place, belongs to foam pits, the falls into foam pits showed that, regardless of type, and even after 15 falls, the pit resulted in lower peak G values than any of the mats . However, the values for the pits were slightly higher than those reported for the belt. Finally, the different types of mats tested showed that they offered the highest deceleration values and therefore result in slightly harsher landings than either pits or the overhead belt. Each type of mat demonstrates its own behavior with G values related to the thickness of the Technique

Peak Accelerations of Foam Pits NVF & UFG Foam 7

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Data From (Sands, et al., 1987) mat and its construction .

Gymnasts and coaches should view the learning and training situation carefully with regard to the levels of protection appropriate for any particular skill at a given level of learning.

Consequently, the maximum safety level available centers upon the employment of an overhead spotting belt prior to the utilization of pits, and then mats. Of course some skills may not require the spotting belt as the principal means of protection from a fall .

The judgement of which protection method to use, and when, is sensitive and requires highly trained, insightful, and cautious coaches . When in doubt, one would be well advised to use the highest level of protection available and appropriate until the athlete demonstrates that he/she is ready to perform at a reduced level of protection .

Finally, all of the means of protection resulted in values considerably less than those reported by Stapp (1949, 1951), for whole body deceleration. This indicates that the mats, pits, and spotting belts, perform their roles in protecting the athlete extremely well. One should be aware that these values are for whole body deceleration. Other impact situations where the head, a limb, or the torso

are accelerated differentially may also result in injury. This occurs when one part of the body is accelerated at one rate while another part of the body is decelerated at another rate. Obviously, the shear forces produced in such a situation can be dangerous and are reflected in the whole body values demonstrated here.

References George, G.S. (1985). USGF Gymnastics Safety Manual. Indianapolis, IN: USGF Publications Department.

Henry, F.M. (1967). "Best" versus "Average" individual scores. The Research Quarterly, 38(2) , 317-320.

Sands, W.A ., Cunningham, S.J., Johnson, S.C. , Meek, S.G. , & George, G.S. (1986). Deceleration Characteristics of Gymnastics Landing Mats. Unpublished Technical Report. U .S. Gymnastics Federation, Pan American Plaza, Suite 300, 201 S. Capitol Ave ., Indianapolis, IN 46225 .

Sands, W .A., Cunningham, S.J ., Johnson, S.C., Meek, S.G ., & George, G.S. (1987) . Deceleration Characteristics of Foam Pit Landing Areas in Gymnastics . Unpublished

Continued on page 24

23

Figure 3

Levels of Protection continued

Comparison of Peak Acceleration Mats, Pits, Overhead Belt

Technical Report. U.S. Gymnastics Federation, Pan American Plaza, Suite 300, 201 S. Capitol Ave., Indianapolis, IN 46225.

Stapp, J.P. (1949). Human response to linear acceleration: Part I. Preliminary survey of aft facing seated position. Air Force Technical Report

Accelerations (Gs) 18

16 14

Number 5915, Part 1.

Stapp, J.P. (1951) . Human exposures to linear deceleration: Part II . The forward facing position and the development of a crash harness . Air Force Technical Report Number 5915, Part 2.

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THE OFFICIAL TECHNICAL PUBLICATION OF THE UNITED STATES GYMNASTICS FEDERATION

ow Name Address City, State, Zip Phone Check one 0 Gymnast/Age_ 0 Parent 0 Coach 0 Other __

USGF Department of Education & Safety Pan American Plaza Suite 300 201 South Capitol Ave. Indianapolis, IN 46225

Technique

Junior Olympic Boys National Strength Test This test was reviewed and revised by Mas Watanabe, USGF Men's Technical Coordinator and Hideo Mizoguchi, USGF Men 's Assistant Technical Coordinator.

Strength Committee: Ed Burch Gene Watson Kurt Golder

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oncerning the 10-12 age group, under general strength, two of the previous testing skills will be

retained .

These general strength tests can greatly benefit young gymnasts for their overall development of gymnastics.

The procedure of these strength tests, push-ups and pull-ups, will remain the same as in the previous testing format.

The evaluation of this testing format is a 1 to 10 points system. However, due to a static nature of the skills, each strength part within a sequence should be evaluated 1 to 10 points and added all of the scores and divided by the number of the skills within a sequence, i.e . 10-12 age group: Strength on Parallel Bars: 1) V Support (hold 3 seconds)-8 points .

Straddle stiff stiff to H.S.-9 points Lower to straddle L support-7.5 points Total score, 8 + 9 + 7.5 = 24.5/3 = 8.16 Also, the number of attempts should be limited to one time, since most skills are static moves which do not reTechnique

quire a precise timing of technical execution. Besides, it is too much for a gymnast to tryout on the second time around .

The 25 meter run under general testing in each age group will be used for data gathering purposes only for this year. The scale of this test, 25 meter run, will be established through the State, the Regional and the National level testing programs and will definitely be a part of the strength test in 1989 .

The new strength test will be included as the 7th event, and in addition, flexibility will be !included as the 8th event of the total testing program.

Therefore, a final ranking of the gymnast will be determined according to the combined score of 8 events. For example : 1. Floor average score- 8.46 2. Pommel Horse ave. score- 7.96 3. Rings average score- 7.45 4. Vaulting average score- 9 .13 5. Parallel Bars ave. score- 8.66 6. High Bar average score- 7.18 7. Strength average score- 6.15 9. Flexibility average score- 9.00 total score-63. 99 Explanation and Breakdown of the Boys Strength Test 10-12 AGE GROUP

Strength on Parallel Bars: 1) V support (hold 3 sec.) - straddle stiff stiff press to handstand (hold 3 sec.) - lower to straddle L support (hold 3 sec.)

2) Handstand pushups x 2 (hold 2 sec. on each handstand) 3) Straddle Planche (hold 3 sec.)

Requirements: • The body must be straight and horizontal with the Bars 4) Dip-forwardswings x 3 Requirements: • Must execute in continuous motion without intermediate swing(s) Strength on Rings: 5) L Support (hold 3 sec.) bend arm, bend body press to handstand (hold 5 sec.) - Straight body, straight arm lower to L support (momentary hold) General Strength: 6) Push-ups 7) Pull-ups 8) 25 Meter Run 13-14 AGE GROUP

Strength on Parallel Bars: 1) L support (hold 3 sec.) - hollowback press to handstand (hold 3 sec.)

2) V support (hold 3 sec.) - stiff stiff press with legs together to handstand (hold 3 sec .) - lower to straddle L support (hold 3 sec.)

3) Dip swings forward and backward x 3 Requirements: • Start at the end of backward swing • At the end of forward swing elbows must show complete extension • At the end of backward swing - feet must be above the bars and elbow must show complete extension Strength on Rings: 4) L support (hold 3 sec.) - straddle stiff stiff press to handstand (hold 5 sec.) - Lower down to L support Co11ti1111cd on pngc 26

25

Junior Olympic continued (hold 3 sec.) with straight arm straight body 5) One of the following strength part: (hold 3 sec.) a) Cross b) Front Lever c) Straddle Planche General Strength: 6) 25 meter run 15-16 AGE GROUP

Strength on Parallel Bars : 1) V support (hold 3 sec.) through L support - hollowback press to handstand (hold 3 sec.) - one handstand pushup (hold 3 sec .)

2) Straddle L support (hold 3 sec .) straddle planche (momentary hold) to straddle straight body press to handstand (hold 3 sec.) - straight arm straight body, lower to L support (hold 3 sec.) - stiff stiff press with legs together to handstand (hold 3 sec .)

3) Dip swings forward and backward x 2 to handstand on second backward swing Requirements: • Start at the end of backward swing • At the end of forward swing elbows must show complete extension and feet above the bars • At the end of backward swing - body must be above horizon-

ta! and elbows must show complete extension Strength on Rings: 4) L support (hold 3 sec.) - hollowback press to handstand (hold 5 sec.) straight body straight arm, lower to L support (hold 3 sec.) - straddle stiff stiff press to handstand (hold 5 sec.)

5) L support (momentary hold) to straddle stiff stiff press to handstand (hold 5 sec.) - lower to B or better strength part (hold 3 sec .) i.e.

Straddle Planche, Planche with legs together, Maltese, Cross, L Cross, Olympic Cross, Inverted Cross or Front Lever 6) Kip to support - straight arm swing backward to horizontal - swing forward and swing backward to handstand (hold 5 sec.)

Requirements : • On support swing - straight arm, straight body with legs together General Strength Testing 7) 25 meter run 17-18 AGE GROUP

Strength on Parallel Bars: 1) V support (hold 3 sec.) through L support - hollowback press to handstand (hold 3 sec.) - lower to straddle planche (hold 3 sec.)

2) Straddle L support to straddle planche (momentary hold) -

straight body, straight arm press to handstand (hold 3 sec.) - straight arm straight body, lower to L support (hold 3 sec.) - stiff stiff press with legs together to handstand (hold 3 sec.)

3) Dip swing to handstand x 2 (in sequence) Requirements : • Start at the end of backward swing - swing forward and swing backward to handstand • At the end of forward swing elbows must show complete extention and feet above the bars Strength on Rings: 4) L support (hold 3 sec.) - hollowback press to handstand (hold 5 sec.) straight body straight arm, lower to Cross (hold 3 sec.) - through back lever to straight body inverted hang (momentary hold) 5) Kip to support - immediately to planche with legs together (hold 3 sec.) lower to L support (hold 3 sec.) - straddle stiff stiff press to handstand (hold 3 sec.) - lower to B or better strength hold part except planche or straddle planche i.e. Maltese, Cross, L Cross, Olympic Cross, Inverted Cross or Front Lever General Strength: 6) 25 meter run

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Technique

U.S. Gymnastics Federation Physical Abilities Testing ibility section. Each section is designed Order of Testing/Rotation: Strength and Power to be administered in its entirety. The 1. Vertical jump administration procedure is a "stations design'' with each station in each sec2. Handstand push ups 3. 20 meter sprint tion being evaluated with gymnasts 4. Leg lifts rotating through the section from sta5.

Push ups tion to station in small groups of four Introduction: 6. Pull ups to six athletes. Experience with the hysical abilities testing has testing program has shown that time long been a necessary as- requirement for testing 30-34 athletes Flexibility sessment of athletes and is 30-40 minutes per section (60-80 1. Active shoulder hyper-flexion students in any kind of minutes total) .

2. Left and right forward splits physical activity. The as3. Side split The testing was designed to be effisessment of physical abilities allows cient, relevant, and quick. Each athlete 4. Left and right forward leg lifts the coach to assess progress, identify gets one execution of each test only.

5. Left and right sideward leg lifts physical talent, evaluate for promotion, This is amended when an athlete obmotivate, and enhance performance. viously makes a mistake that precludes General Administration Each athlete receives one attempt at The physical abilities assessment of obtaining a representative score. This gymnasts has long suffered from a lack was done to expedite the testing and each test item unless there are obvious of a nationally recognized evaluation to force the gymnast to perform a test extenuating circumstances. Repetitions criteria and established norms for var- with only one opportunity that had to are only counted if completed preciseious populations of gymnasts. count. Some lenience in this approach ly. The tester should call out the numThe most basic intention of physical is allowed to ensure that scores remain ber of each repetition in a loud voice abilities testing is to determine the lev- representative of the physical ability of and simply repeat the previous el of fitness of an individual gymnast the athlete being tested . The norms repetition's number if a subsequent or group of gymnasts. This evaluation were derived by applying the normal repetition does not meet acceptable is of little value unless comparisons curve and the mean and standard performance criteria. The tester should can be made between the athlete(s) in deviation to the data obtained at the place a stop watch in the line of sight question and some other group rep- 1988 Junior National Team Training of the gymnast and simultaneously resenting a " normal" population with Camp. Mean age of the athletes was watch the stop watch and announce similar needs and characteristics.

12.62 years (N =35, SD= 1.11) with a the repetitions while noting correct exThe testing program presented in range of 10 to 14 years. Therefore, these ecution of the test skill. Inexperienced the following pages demonstrates a norms should be applicable to athletes testers may wish to have another administrator perform the timing chores. simple and quickly administered pro- ages 10 to 14 years.

All timing begins when the athlete ingram. Norms are also provided to offer a means of useful comparison from itiates her first movement. Repetitions that are not quite completed as time is this population group to other groups Equipment Needed: with similar needs, characteristics, exhausted are not counted. For more Strength and Power details refer to the individual test item. and/or aspirations.

1. 8 inch thick landing mat The testing program is quasi2. 5 stop watches complete at this time. Continued ef3. 2 uneven bars - upper rail forts with testing will be undertaken 4. Chalk Strength and Power Test Items and other specific populations will be 5. Open wall area added. The modification of these 6. Score Sheets 1. Vertical Jump norms or the development of addition7. 25 meter running area Equipment Needed: al norms may occur as future popula8. 2 tape measures 1. Open wall area tions are identified and tested.

2. Chalk Flexibility 3. Tape measure 1. 6 inch Dowel 4. Box for tester to stand on Testing Program 2. 2 tape measures Personnel Needed : Overview: 3. 1 regulation balance beam or 1. Recorder The testing program is designed to ballet barre 2. Measurer/Observer be administered in two sections. The 4. 1 low or floor balance beam first section is the Strength and Power Continued on page 28 section . The second section is the Flex-

William Sands, Ph.D. Motor Behavior Research Laboratory College of Health University of Utah Illustrations by: James Stephenson

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Technique

27

Abilities Testing continued Objective: Perform the highest standing vertical jump possible.

Movement: The gymnast begins by placing a generous amount of chalk on her dominant hand. The gymnast then stands with the dominant side of her body pressed against a flat wall with no encumbering projections. Then the gymnast reaches with her dominant hand to a position directly overhead and touches the wall leaving a smudge of chalk at the highest reach point of her finger tips.

Following the initial reach and

touch, the gymnast steps approximately 12 inches from the wall and lowers her arm to her side. The gymnast then performs a jump by swinging her arms, bending and extending her legs, and finally jumping and swinging her dominant arm overhead to touch the wall directly above. As the hand touches the wall the gymnast leaves a small smudge of chalk from her finger tips.

Test Administration: The vertical distance between the highest edge of the two smudges is measured as the jump distance. This distance, in inches, is recorded as the vertical jump score.

The gymnast is not allowed to per-

form any preparatory stepping prior to the jump. An arm swing is allowed.

%tile Rank 99.9 90.0 80.0 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0 0.1

Norms Distance (inches) 24.7 21 .1 19.9 19.2 18.6 18.1 17.5 16.9 16.2 15.0 11.5

Score Points 10 9

8 7 6 5 4

3 2 1 0

Technical Illustration by James H. Stephenson

{

I J

28

Technique

2. Handstand Push Ups

Equipment Needed : 1. 8 inch elevated surface (i.e. folded panel mat) 2. 8 inch foam landing mat 3. Stop watch Personnel 1. Recorder 2. Tester/Timer 3. Spotter Objective : Perform as many handstand push ups as possible in 10 seconds.

Movement: The landing mat is placed at the end of the panel mat or other raised surface . The gymnast begins facing the edge of the raised surface and thick landing mat. The gymnast then kicks to a handstand position with the 3. 20 Meter Sprint

Equipment Needed : 1. 25 Meter running area with padding in deceleration area 2. Place rear foot against heavy, immovable object.

hands placed at the edge of the raised surface (see illustration). A coach / spotter then grasps the legs of the gymnasts and holds the gymnast in a slightly underbalanced position . The gymnast then begins to perform handstand push ups, lowering to touch the top of the head to the mat and raising back up to a fully extended position and repeating.

Test Administration: The tester should place his/her hand under the head of the gymnast. As the gymnast lowers her head to the landing mat, the tester can feel contact on his/her hand which results in a successful or "counting" repetition. The addition of the landing mat helps prevent the athlete from lowering harsh3. Stop watch 4. Taped line for finish line Personnel Needed: 1. Recorder 2. Starter/Timer Objective : Sprint from a standing start for a distance of 20 meters as fast as possible.

Movement: The gymnast begins by placing her rear foot against a heavy immovable object to use as a starting block (see illustration) . The gymnast then sprints twenty meters. After crossing the finish line the gymnast decelerates to a safe stop.

Test Administration: The deceleration area should be free of obstructions and padded at the end to avoid striking the wall following the

ly on her head due to fatigue.

The coach/spotter who aids the gymnast in remaining slightly underbalanced during the test should not provide assistance in raising or lowering the athlete.

Norms %tile Rank 99.9 90.0 80.0 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0

0.1

Reps 14 11-13

10 9

9

8 8 7 7

4-6 3

Score (points) 10 9

8 7 7 5 5 3 3 1 0

run . The twenty meters is measured from the forward edge of the heavy immovable object against which the athlete places her rear foot. Timing begins as the athlete makes her first forward motion . Timing ends when the torso of the athlete crosses the finish line .

%tile Rank 99.9 90.0 80.0 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0

Norms Time (sec) 2.78 2.97 3.04

3.08 3.11 3.14 3.17

3.20

Score Points

10 9

8 7

6 5 4

10.0

3.24 3.31

3 2 1

0.1

3.50

0

Co11ti11ued 011 page 30 Technique

29

Abilities Testing continued 4.

Leg Lifts Equipment Needed: 1. Upper rail of uneven bars 2. Stop watch Personnel Needed : 1. Recorder 2. Timer/Tester 3. Spotter Objective : Touch the upper rail of the uneven bars with the feet or ankles by piking from a full hanging position as many times as possible in ten seconds.

Movement : The gymnast begins with a regular (over) grip in a full hanging position from the upper rail of the uneven bars, facing away from the low bar. A spotter stands to her rear and places both hands on the shoulder blades or upper back of the athlete to prevent swinging. The gymnast then performs a hip flexion motion to touch her feet or ankles to the high bar. The gymnast should begin in a full hang and return to a full hang after each repetition.

Test Administration: The repetition counts only if the gymnast touches her feet or ankles to the high bar. The spotter should not allow the gymnast to bounce her legs off of his/her lower body during the downward swing and transition to the upward swing of the legs. The gymnasts arms should remain straight and the spotter should push firmly against the gymnast's back to prevent pulling with the shoulders excessively and/or swinging. Timing begins at the initiation of movement by the athlete.

Norms %tile Rank 99.9 90.0 80.0 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0

0.1

5. Push Ups Equipment Needed: 1. Floor Space 2. Stop watch Personnel Needed: 1 . Recorder 2. Tester/Timer Objective: Perform as many hollow body push ups as possible in ten seconds

Movement : The gymnast begins in a hollow body push up position (see illustration) and maintains this position throughout the testing. The gymnast then lowers downward by bending the elbows and shoulders to touch her forehead to the hand of the tester,

30

Reps 9

8 7 6 6 6 6 5 5 4 3

Score Points 10 9

8 7 7 7 7 3 3 1 0

raises back to a hollow body position with fully extended arms and repeats.

Test Administration: The tester kneels or sits near the head of the athlete and places a hand on the floor beneath the forehead of the athlete . As the athlete lowers downward a successful repetition occurs only if the hand of the tester is touched by the head of the athlete.

Timing begins the moment the athlete initiates her first downward movement . Body position should not deviate significantly from the hollow body position, or the repetition does not count.

Norms %tile Rank

Reps

99.9 90.0 80.0 70.0 60.0 50.0

17 15-16 14

40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0

0.1

13 13 12 12 12 11 10 8-9

Score Points 10 9

8 7 7 5 5 5 2 1 0

Technique

6. Pull Ups Equipment Needed: 1. Uneven bar upper rail 2. Stop watch 3. Block for tester/observer to stand on Personnel Needed : 1. Recorder 2. Tester/observer 3. Spotter Objective: Perform as many overgrip pull ups as possible in 10 seconds

Movement: The gymnast begins in a regular (over) grip hanging position on the upper rail of the uneven bars. The gymnast begins with arms fully extended.

The gymnast then bends her arms and shoulders to pull herself upward. The gymnast rises to a position with the Adam's apple level with the bar and then returns to the original starting position and repeats.

â&#x20AC;˘

Norms the level of the bar. The observer/tester notes whether or not this was achieved before counting the repetition. Timing begins at the first motion of the athlete.

Test Administration: The gymnast should not simply rise to get her chin above the bar. The gymnast should pull slightly beyond this position so that her Adam's apple is at

Flexibility Test Items 1. Active Shoulder Flexibility Equipment Needed: 1. Dowel 2. Tape Measure Personnel Needed : 1. Recorder 2. Tester/Observer Objective: The gymnast should attempt to raise (hyper-flex) her arms as high from the floor as possible while keeping the thumbs touching each other.

Movement and Test Administration : The gymnast begins by lying prone on the floor with both arms stretched over head. She then grasps a dowel with both hands in a regular (over) grip with the thumbs extended toward each other and touching the tips (see illustration). The gymnast then keeps her elbows rigidly straight, her chin on the floor, and raises her arms upward to as high a position as she can . The tester then measures this height with the tape measure.

The tester measures to the bottom of Technique

the dowel from the floor surface with a tape measure. The gymnast should keep her elbows rigidly straight and not allow her thumbs to separate from each other.

%tile Rank 99.9 90.0 80.0 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0

Reps 10 8-9

7 6 6 5 5

4 4

10.0

3

0.1

1-2

%Tile Rank

Norms Distance (inches)

99.9 90.0 80.0 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0

29.9 23.2 21.0 19.7 18.6 17.6 16.5 15.4 14.1

10.0

11.9

0.1

5.3

Score Points 10

9 8 7 7 5

5 3 3 1 0

Score Points 10 9 8 7 6 5 4

3 2 1 0

Continued on page 32 31

Abilities Testing continued 2. Splits - Left and Right Equipment Needed: 1. Tape Measure 2. Line on the floor Personnel Needed: 1. Recorder 2. Leg lifter 3. Tester/observer Objective: The leg lifter raises the forward leg of the gymnast in a forward split position until the seat of the gymnast rises off the floor. The highest position prior to the seat leaving the floor is measured at the heel and this distance is recorded. Both sides are tested.

Movement and Test Administration: The gymnast adopts a forward split position on a line on the floor. A tester grasps the forward leg of the gymnast at the calf and raises this leg slowly upward. The tester/observer notes the height of the heel of the forward leg and the position of the hip on the side

of the raised leg. The highest position of the forward leg occurs just prior to the pelvis (seat) leaving the floor. The tester/observer measures the distance from the bottom of the heel to the floor of the forward leg at the highest position. This distance is recorded as the score. The same process is repeated on the other leg.

%Tile Rank 99.9 90.0 80.0 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0

0.1

3. Side Split Equipment Needed: 1. Low or floor balance beam Personnel Needed: 1. Recorder/observer Objective: The gymnast adopts a side split position on the low or floor balance beam with knees facing the ceiling.

Movement and Test Administration: The gymnast adopts a side split position on the low or floor balance beam. The gymnast should keep her hands on the balance beam (not on the floor), the knees should face the ceiling (not roll forward), and the torso should be upright. The observer/tester notes whether the crotch of the gymnast touches the beam. The test is pass/marginal pass/fail. If the crotch touches the beam the gymnast receives a pass. If the crotch is three inches or Jess distance from the beam the gymnast receives a marginal pass.

If the crotch is farther than three inches then the gymnast receives a fail.

32

Norms Distance (inches) 21.6 15.8 13.9 12.8 11.8 10.9 10.0 9.1 8.0 6.0 0.5

Score Points 10 9 8 7 6 5 4

3 2

1 0

Scoring Position Flat ,....3 Inches ..,.3 Inches

Score Points 10 5 0

Technique

4.

Forward Leg Lifts - Left and Right Equipment Needed : 1. Regulation height balance beam or ballet barre Personnel Need ed : 1. Recorder/Observer Objective: The gymnast attempts to raise a straight leg forward and upward as high as possible and hold for two seconds .

Movement and Test Administration: The gymnast begins by standing with the rear of the body touching the balance beam or ballet barre. The gymnast places both arms sideward to touch th e balance beam to aid in balance. The gymnast then raises a straight leg to as high a position as possible and holds this position for two seconds (see illustration) . The observer/tester notes the height of the ankle bone relative to the gymnast's body and records a score relative to the illustration below. The same procedure is repeated on the other side .

The tester should be very observant of good alignment and posture. Do not allow or co unt an attempt with poor posture.

LP

''

----~--~~-:-~~-=-~~>~

..

%tile Rank 99.9 90.0 80.0 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0 0.1

Norms Landmark Overhead Eye Chin Shoulder

Score 10 9 8 7

Chest

6

Hip

4

Below Hip

1

5. Sideward Leg lifts - Left and Right Equipment Needed: 1. Regulation height balance beam or ballet barre Personnel Needed : 1. Recorder/Observer Objective: The gymnast attempts to raise a straight leg forward and upward as high as possible and hold for two seconds.

Movement and Test Administration : The gymnast begins by standing with the side of the body touching the balance beam or ballet barre. The gymnast places one arm sideward to touch the balance beam to aid in balance.

The gymnast then raises a straight leg to as high a position as possible and holds this position for two seconds.

The observer/tester notes the height of the ankle bone relative to the gymnast 's body and records a score relative to the illustration below. The same procedure is repeated on the other side.

The tester should be very observant of good alignment and posture. Do not allow or count an attempt with poor posture.

Technique

%tile Rank 99.9 90.0 80.0 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0 0.1

Norms Landmark Overhead Eye Chin Shoulder

Score 10 9 8 7

Chest

6

Hip

4

Below Hip

1

Co11ti1111ed

011

pnxc 34

33

Abilities Testing continued Addendum Skinfold Measurements United States Junior and Senior National Teams

Skinfold measurements can be useful in the assessment of the change in body composition over time. The Junior and Senior National Teams, ages 10-19 years were tested using skinfold calipers (Lange) to determine the skinfold thicknesses of selected body landmarks. The millimeter thicknesses are presented here due to the lack of a reliable and valid body fat percentage prediction equation for young female gymnasts. The following norms may serve as a useful comparison for other populations of gymnasts.

The skinfolds were measured with three or more trials taken until the measurements became consistent.

These sites were chosen to best reflect the changes in body composition over time, and for convenience, (i .e. the gymnast does not have to undress) .

The skinfolds were obtained from the right side:

1. Medial Calf - the most medial protruding place on the medial head of the gastrocnemius.

2. Anterior Thigh - the skinfold is measured at the midpoint between the anterior iliac crest and the patella .

3. Tricep - posterior aspect of the upperarm at the midpoint between the acromion and olecranon of the elbow.

4. Chin - the measurement is taken below (inferior) to the chin on the underside of the lower jaw at the midpoint between the junction of the neck with the lower jaw and the point of the chin .

Norrns Junior A and B (n=35) %tile Rank Sum of Skinfolds 10 mm 99.9 90 17 80 19

70

21

60

22 23 24

50 40 30 20

10 0.1

25 26 28

35

Senior Team (n= 19) %tile Rank Sum of Skinfolds 99.9 9 mm 90 19

80 70

22 24 25

60

50

27

40 30 20 10

28 30 32 34

0.1

44

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Technique

Now You See It, Now You Don't By: Joseph Wickert and

Dr. Kenneth West

o see it is to nail it.

Whether it is the floor, the bars, the beam, or the horse, the key to timing and execution is seeing the apparatus being used. If the visual system is not properly aligned or focused, the apparatus may appear somewhere other than where it actually is. As the system fatigues the apparatus may be clear and in the proper place one moment and totally gone the next. When so much emphasis is presently being placed on all other aspects of developing performance, it is amazing that this key to performance is being overlooked in the field of gymnnastics. Especially, since the use of "Sports Vision" training programs has become one of the basics for improving the performance of professional and amateur athletes of almost all sports, including tennis, baseball, football, and hockey to name a few.

The visual system provides the information needed by the brain for accurate muscle movement to produce perfect execution.

The functions of the external and internal muscles of the eye are as critical as any other muscles involved in completing a skill . Improper alignment or focusing of the eyes results in false visual information. This inaccurate perception directly affects hand and foot placement as well as timing, balance and concentration. Adrenalin levels and fatigue cause marked changes in the efficiency of the ocular muscle system, even a system that functions well at all other times. By giving proper attention to preparing the visual system, an edge can be given to the competition performance of the individual. Visual training for gymnastics is advantageous, especially for cases where the proper technique and mechanics have already been established. If a gymnast, however, consistently misses a skill because of hand placement, foot place-

T

Technique

ment, or can never stick the landing, visual training can be most effective .

Analysis of the visual system is essential to find which areas are deficient. Up to this point, the correct spectacle or contact lens prescription for static (non-moving) visual acuity was thought to be all that was needed. Dynamic (moving) visual acuity must also be addressed. As the individual moves toward or away from the object of regard, there are several factors involved in keeping a clear picture of the object. The two major factors to consider are extraocular muscle coordination and accommodation .

The extraocular muscles line up the eyes to fixate on one particular point while the accommodative system brings the point into focus. In the everyday environment, the individual learns how to use these muscles in the primary position of gaze (straight ahead) with a relatively slow rate of approach to the object. In the field of gymnastics, many maneuvers require approaching the object with speed and rotation, thus making the object appear in an area of the visual field far from the primary position of gaze. The most common positions of gaze utilized in gymnastics are the extreme inferior (looking down as far as possible with the head in the straight ahead position) and the extreme superior (looking up as far as possible with the head in the straight ahead position). These factors can all be analyzed to indicate the appropriate training procedures to develop an efficiently functioning visual system for any task.

There are many different training procedures which can be used together or separately to improve visual skills . Many involve simple apparati made from items found in the average home. They range from pencil pushups to the saccadic fixator and should only be used with the proper optometric superv1s10n .

The philosophy of the training is to start with a visual task the individual can perform and increase the difficulty of the task until it is far more difficult than what is necessary under normal

conditions . This "over-training" produces a visual system that is so efficient it can handle any task necessary in gymnastics even when the system is burdened with adrenalin and fatigue . In competition, these two factors can destroy a visual system that functions adequately in the less stressful practice sessions. The training procedures used are selected to improve each and every area of the system that is not functioning efficiently.

Upon completion of the training, the visual skills developed do not deteriorate as long as these skills are used frequently. Some individuals need to have a maintenance program for these skills if normal workouts do not keep their efficiency level high enough . The best defense against deterioration and to keep performance at its peak is to incorporate a visual warm-up with the usual warm-up routine.

If an across-the-board program is not implemented, this type of training can be used to help with one specific skill that an individual has problems accomplishing after the necessary gymnastic preparation work. The visual task should be evaluated as far as the visual demands on the individual, followed by evaluation of the visual abilities of the individual for the task. Training procedures can then be selected to improve the visual skills necessary for the specific task. When visual proficiency is accomplished, the gymnastic skill may be approached again. Upon successful completion of the skill, the gymnast should be observed to make sure the quality of the skill remains the same, if not continuing to improve . This regression indicates the visual skills needed are also regressing and a maintenance program must be implemented for the gymnastic skill to remain . The gymnast can then return to normal training until another stumbling block is reached.

Other benefits of this improved visual system are improved concentration, consistency, and an increase in

Continued on page 36 35

Junior Elite Female Gymnast's Perceptions of Ideal vs.

Actual Coaching Behavior BY

Rich Gordin Utah State University Bill Sands University of Utah Keith Henschen University of Utah

uring the Junior National Team training camp in Allentown, PA (March 30 - April 3, 1988), those attending were assessed as to their perceptions concerning their coaches . A similar study concerning senior team members appeared earlier in USA Gymnastics entitled, "What Do Our Elite Athletes Want in a Coach?".

All 26 gymnasts attending the training camp voluntarily completed the Coach Evaluation Questionnaire (Rushall and Wiznuk, 1985) . Each question was answerable on a 5-point likert scale, "always", "often" , ''so metimes '', ''seldom'', and "never". The purpose of the instrument was to provide an assessment tool to judge coaching behaviors . The test consists of 36 items and has acceptable validity and reliability. The athletes completed the inventory twice. The first time, the athletes described the "ideal" coach . The se-

D

Now You See It, Now You Don't Continued from page 35 the learning rate. The concentration is increased due to less effort needed by the visual system to fixate the target.

By seeing the target where it actually is, gives the individual better judgment for hand and foot placement as well as timing. With the increased concentration and accurate judgment, the individual has fewer variables to deal with in learning a new maneuver.

These are only a few of the extra benefit s of incorporating this type of 36

TABLE I Rank Order of Differences Between "Ideal" Coach and Actual Coach Rank Order Question 1.

Coach is encouraging even after a loss or defeat.

2.

Coach encourages log books to trace improvement.

3.

Coach finds ways to make athletes feel good about themselves .

4.

Coach is patient. a. Coach never uses abusive or 5. foul language. b . Coach gives attention to each athlete. c. Coach provides easily understood instructions.

6.

Coach encourages social activities for athletes.

7.

Coach is a source of motivation. a. Coach has sense of humor.

8. b. Must be able to trust coach. c. Coach knows when and when not to discipline.

9.

Coach must be able to communicate.

10.

Coach dresses appropriately to set a good example.

11.

Coach is interested in athlete's school work.

12.

Coach must set a positive example during competition.

Coaches' appearance sets a 13. good example.

14.

I like the coach.

15. a. Coach sets achievable goals for the athletes.

program .

With the advancement of gymnastics comes increased levels of difficulty in the skills performed . Increased levels of difficulty mean increased demands on the visual abilities of the gymnasts. Advanced skills such as, Vaults from a Round-off, Janz-Saltos, Blind Catches, Jagers, and Tkatchevs, all require accurate visual systems to guide the precise release and regrasp necessary for proper execution. For these advanced skills, the same plan of action should be followed as for the

Difference Ideal Mean Coach Mean 1.46 4.96 3.5

1.35

3.00

1.65

1.31

4.69

3.38

1.12 .96

4.35 4.58

3.23 3.62

.96

4.77

3.81

.96

4.88

3.92

.93

3.85

2.92

.92 .89 .89 .89

4.69 4.62 4.85 4.77

3.77 3.73

.85

4.77

3.92

.81

4.69

3.88

.78

3.81

3.03

.76

4.88

4.12

.73

4.69

3.96

.70 .66

4.62 4.58

3.92 3.92

3.96

3.88

visual development for any gymnastic skill. First, evaluate the visual demands of the skill; second, evaluate the visual abilities of the gymnast; third, design a visual training program to strengthen deficient visual skills; fourth, re-evaluate the visual abilities until they can handle the visual demands of the skill; fifth, have the gymnast attempt the skill. By following this program, not only is the time involved in learning new skills reduced, but th e level of difficulty of skills learned can be increased.

Technique

FIGURE 1 Most Desired

SCORE 5.0

4.96

4.96

Least Desired A Coach co nce rned about h ea lth and safety .

4.5

B Coach encouragi ng after loss .

4.0

C Coach sets pos iti ve example.

3.5

D Good in structor .

3.0

E Trus t coac h .

2.5

F Ph ysica ll y prepares at hl etes.

G Coac h is in co mma nd in practice.

2.0

H Coach interacts \\' ith at hl etes.

1.5

I

Is in volved in soc ial acti vities.

1.0

J

Is in volved in sch ool work .

0 .5

K S trict

L Uses log books.

0.0 A

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22 .

23 .

24.

25.

26 .

27.

28.

29.

B

c

D

E

b. Coaches' judgement is logical.

Coach allows athletes to voice opinions during meetings .

Coach is interested in me as a person.

Coach attends clinics and workshops.

Coach is concerned about health and safety of the athletes.

Coach provides organized training sessions.

Coach is dedicated to the Sport.

I must respect the coach.

Coach makes best use of practice time. a. Coach is sportsmanship like to athletes during competitions. b. Coaches responsibility to prepare the athletes . a. Coach interacts with each athlete during training. b. Coach must know how to teach difficult skills .

Coach is in command during practice.

After a performance coach should point out good and bad aspects of performance.

Coach is strict .

Coach is sportsman like to officials during competition.

Technique

F

G

H

K

.66

4.54

3.88

.65

4.38

3.73

.62

4.35

3.73

.61

4.46

3.85

.58

4.96

4.38

.53

4.65

4.12

.50 .40 .38

4.77 4.58 4.69

4.27 4.19 4.31

.35

4.62

4.27

.35

4.85

4.50

.31

4.19

3.88

.31

4.81

4.50

.23

4.23

4.46

.19

4.73

4.54

.15 .12

3.35 4.54

3.50 4.42

L

cond time, the athlete indicated their perceptions of their current coach .

RESULTS Table 1 illustrates the differences between the " ideal" coach and each gymnasts perceptions of their current coach. The means are listed and each question is ranked from the highest discrepancy to the lowest discrepancy between ideal coach and actual coach (Ties are listed A, B, etc .).

From the results, it is interesting to compare the ranked discrepancies with the actual behavior that these junior female gymnasts perceive to be important for the ideal coach to exhibit. The athletes believed very strongly that their coach should be concerned about the health and safety of the gymnasts, and that he/she should encourage the athlete after a defeat or loss. The highest discrepancy between the ideal coach and actual coach occurred on the item stating that the coach ''is encouraging after a defeat" . Evidently, gymnasts perceive that this need is not adequately addressed by their current coaches .

Another finding that was interesting is that these athletes perceived that instructions given by their current coaches were not as clear as they would like. It might be advisable to be sure that these young gymnasts really do understand what is being asked of them and instructions be provided in language understandable at the athletes level .

Continued on page 38

37

Female Perceptions continued According to the athletes it is important for the coach to establish trust and to physically prepare the gymnasts for competitions, as well as, to set a positive example during competition.

These findings are very similar to the findings reported by the senior national team members . Of less importance is for coaches to be in command during practice, to be involved in the socal life of gymnasts out of the gym and to be overly strict. Finally, the athletes do not see a particular need to use log books in training .

When the results from these junior national team members were compared to the results of senior national team members, previously reported, it was interesting to see the similarity of response concerning an "ideal

coach". It appears that all national team members have a similar concept of the behavior they desire in an ideal coach. However, it must be understood that sometimes these young athletes may not always know what they need, even though they think they know.

SUMMARY This study further supports the recommendation made in the previous article that coaches should listen to athletes descriptions of coaching behavior. These athletes adamantly feel that it is not so important for the coach to be highly involved in life outside the gym nor to be overly strict in order to be effective.

On the other hand, it is very important for the coach to be sensitive to

WORLD

providing clear instructions, to be cognizant of safety, to set a positive example in competition, to physically prepare the gymnasts, and to develop trust. Also, the coach should make an effort to be more encouraging to the athlete after a poor or difficult performance.

Finally, although the feelings of junior team members are very similar to senior team members and there appears to be a discrepancy between the athletes perception of ideal and actual coaching behaviors, it seems that overall most coaches are effectively working with their athletes. However, coaches need to become more aware of what behaviors are most effective with their individual athletes .

â&#x20AC;˘

mnas 1cs

World Gymnastics magazine, the official publication of the lnternationl Gymnastics Federation (FIG) has gone from a quarterly publication format to that of a bimonthly. Beginning with six issues in 1988, World Gymnastics will continue to be published on top quality glossy paper with beautiful photos and coverage of all major gymnastics events.

38

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Technique

AMF American, an official sponsor of the United States Gymnastics Federation, is the all-around favorite . The one selected for use in the Olympics, and the Olympic Trials, the World Gymnastics Championships, the Pan American Games, the World University Games ... and many other major tours and meets.

Why this unequaled popularity?

Because our concern rests with the athlete.

Because we believe gymnastic apparatus should enhance an athlete's performance, never hinder it.

It's no wonder AMF American is the choice of champions. Shouldn't it be your choice, too? Bring out the best in your athletes, bring out AMF American.

For information about the complete line, call Ken Cysewski at 1-800-247-3978 toll-free today. Telex 910-520-1031.

lAmerican ~F 200 American Avenue Jefferson. Iowa 501 29. U.S.A.

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