UH Mānoa MLA Capstone, Spring 2022 - Hana Fulghum

THE PURPOSE OF PLANTS CONSIDERING CARE OF KEYSTONE SPECIES

By Hana Morgan Matsui Fulghum

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The Purpose of Plants Considering Care of Keystone Species A capstone design research project submitted in partial fulfillment of the Plan B requirements for the degree of MASTER OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE May 2022

By Hana Morgan Matsui Fulghum Capstone committee: Phoebe White Lalepa Koga

Keywords: native plants, ahupuaa, biocultural, urban interventions

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements...................................................................5 Introduction ................................................................................ 7 Biocultural & Agroecological Systems................................. 15 Design ....................................................................................... 39 Conclusion (For Now)..............................................................85 Bibliography.............................................................................. 86

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS If I have learned anything in these last six years of my architecture journey, is that it takes a village and there is no joy in doing this alone.

Thank you Phoebe, for keeping me grounded and focused, and constantly pushing me to produce and produce and produce, while always encouraging me to be selfish.

Mahalo e Lalepa, for dealing with my carelessness and correcting my many errors, but also for all of your ‘ike and mana‘o. Your support means the world.

Thank you to my friends, for all that you do, but especially for always, always, being there.

Thank you to my family for your constant support, 2600 miles has not been easy for the past 6 years, but it was worth it.

I can‘t wait to make you all proud. & thank you Troy, for everything.

I am forever grateful for the last six years.

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INTRODUCTION Kanaka ‘Ōiwi: native hawaiians

Ahupua‘a: tracts of land that run from mountain to ocean

Ali‘i: Chief

Pae ‘āina: Archipelago

Mokupuni: Island

Moku: District

‘Okana: Subdistrict

‘Ili: Land Section

Māla:Cultivated Patch, typically dry land

Kīhāpai: Cultivated Garden

Kanaka ‘Ōiwi created a natural resource management system called the ahupua‘a 600 years ago, which supported various agricultural and biocultural systems specific to the unique and varied climates of Hawai’i, and all through extreme isolation over thousands of years. Unfortunately, the knowledge and application of these systems suffered due to 200 years of the colonization of the native Hawaiian population, leading to only a fraction of these sustainable systems being active today and multiple ahupua‘a being interrupted by urbanization and western system implementations. Nevertheless, the ahupua‘a system is an incredible example of environmental management that focuses on sustainable practices at various scales. The ahupua‘a itself was a more extensive comprehensive system, but there were also meticulously designed microtopographic interventions that supported sustainable and holistic cycles.

These biocultural and agroecological systems appear in various forms depending on the biocultural zone and environment, specifically, work in conjunction with the plants they are producing. The plants also perform uniquely, depending on the biocultural system and environment. Altogether, these combinations led to an incredibly productive and sustainable society for Hawaiians, supporting a population of close to a million at its peak.

With that said, we shouldn’t romanticize the ahupua‘a system as a utopian solution to all of our challenges here in the 21st century, but rather frame it as a source of inspiration and basis of management. Many of these biocultural

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systems are still active and there are many restoration initiatives to continue incorporating them into our society today, the environmental, social, political, and cultural conditions in Hawai‘i are very different from 600 years ago. We cannot copy-paste this ahupua‘a system from centuries ago into today’s world because it would not respond to today’s issues or environment appropriately. However, because the ahupua‘a system was so specific to Hawai‘i, we can learn and apply many lessons to current and future climate, cultural, and community risks. From significant infrastructural ideas to smaller, more intimate plant performances, the ahupua‘a system should be investigated and implemented on a broader scale appropriate for today’s risks and challenges here in Hawai‘i.

Ali‘i: Chief

In the 13th century the ali‘i, Mā‘ilikūkahi, created the ahupua‘a system on the island of O‘ahu. He marked and defined the land division boundaries of O‘ahu, and proposed that the ahupua‘a system be considered a solution to food supply and land right disputes. With a cease in fighting, food and social productivity increased as each ali‘i could focus on issues within their respective ahupua‘a. Productivity increase meant the creation of complex biocultural and agroecological systems that supported the production and cultivation of many plants. As a result, a significant era of peace and prosperity began, as well as the implementation of an iconic natural resource management system that would support a population of close to a million at its peak.

Kīhāpai: Cultivated

The Ahupua‘a system begins with a pae ‘āina, an archipelago, and then mokupuni, or island. Then the moku, which is a social-ecological region. Next, the ‘okana or kalana, an intermediate category that is either a group of ahupua‘a within a moku that make up a larger watershed, or a smaller watershed within a single, larger ahupua‘a. The ahupua‘a comes next, acting as a social and ecological community.

Within ahupua‘a are ‘ili, which is essentially a division of land associated with a specific family. In an ‘ili, māla and mo‘o, which are both sections of cultivated land, are established.

Within māla and mo‘o, are pauku and kīhāpai, which are smaller cultivated plots. These are the divisions of land, from largest to smallest, that make up the entirety of the ahupua‘a system. Within these divisions are where we find our biocultural and agroecological systems, but these systems don’t go wherever they please, as they require specific

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Pae ‘āina: Archipelago

Mokupuni: Island

Moku: District

‘Okana: Subdistrict

‘Ili: Land Section

Māla:Cultivated Patch, typically dry land

Garden

Wao: Forest

resources or conditions to properly and productively function1.

Wao Akua: Forest of the Gods

Wao Kele: Wet Forest

Wao Nahele: Remote Forest

Wao Lā‘au: Managed Forest

1 Winter, Kawika, et al.

2018.

2 Mueller-Dombois, Dieter. 2007

Biocultural zones are identified by physical elevation, socio-cultural activities, and vegetation. It’s important to note that not all ahupua‘a are made up of the same biocultural zones. Depending on the mokupuni, and moku, the biocultural zones depend on the environments present. While the summary I will give will include all of the zones that can be found in an ahupua‘a, know that depending on the ahupua‘a some may not be applicable. The first portion of biocultural zones all begin with wao, which means forest. From the top, there is wao akua, which is revered as a sacred forest. It is remote and seldom penetrated, left to exist as it is. Next, the wao kele, which is considered a wet forest, and often is where aquifers recharge. Then wao nahele, the remote forest. It’s primary function is to maximize native habitats for birds and is left as a dominant native plant community.

These three wao zones are the least managed and most preserved. The role of these three wao is to remain healthy and untouched, because they supply important water resources throughout the rest of the ahupua‘a that support sensitive ecosystems and provide essential canopy for native species2. As we continue to transition down the ahupua‘a, the next biocultural zone is wao lā‘au. This is the uppermost zone of cultivation, and where we begin to see human management and intervention begin. Wao lā‘au is typically a modified existing forest that grows crops within a subcanopy. Crops planted here were left to grow wild as a security measure against drought and famine. Next is Wao Kanaka, which is better known as the habitation or agricultural zone.

Here we see our typical biocultural systems like lo‘i, māla, kīhāpai, and mahi lā‘au, but in larger production layouts and in smaller familial plots. We would also see denser layouts of hale and heiau, and other people oriented programs, which is continued in kula, or the lowland plains. Within kula we see larger cultivation of non-edible resource crops, like hala, wauke, pili, and ipu and slash and burn agricultural methods.

This is also where we typically see the densest concentration of homes. In kahakai, or the coastal zone, this theme of non-edible resources continues with plants that were used for practical, cultural, and construction purposes, but we can still find lo‘i systems here. Finally we reach kai, the sea, where loko i‘a and kuapā interventions were implemented, and where the wai that has flowed all the way from wao akua

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is now being discharged to create estuary conditions that support the health of the ocean and important aquaculture practices3.

The ahupua‘a system was an incredible example of resilient and sustainable natural resources management, and within ahupua‘a there were also meticulously designed microtopographic interventions that supported sustainable and holistic cycles. These biocultural and agroecological systems are found in a variety of forms depending on the biocultural zone and environment, and support agricultural production and ecological resilience. These various systems were all created with the goal of supporting the medicinal, practical, architectural, cultural, and agricultural cultivation of plants.

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3 Lincoln, Noa Kekuewa, and Peter Vitousek, 2017

GLUE IN AHUPUAA DIAGRAM

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Plants provided the basis of culture and society but were also performative. All plants perform in some way, whether through phytoremediation, nitrogen fixation, heat reduction, evapotranspiration, or simply as seasonal indicators, their performance and cultivation was essential in supporting island life. And this was known. When we look at the migrations and voyages of various peoples in polynesia, we can see that they quickly learned to equip themselves with a collection of plants and animals as they voyaged. This collection of plants and animals is referred to as a “portable biocultural toolkit”, a term used to a group of plants and animals that cultural groups take with them as they migrated globally4. These plants served as the foundations for agriculture, culture, and society, and provided the essential keys of survival of communities. Some of these plant species ended up playing larger roles in the development of culture and society, and those are known as keystone species.

But overall it was understood that in order to survive in a new place, establish culture, and create a productive society, plants and even some animal species needed to come to these new lands.

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4 Winter, Kawika, et al.

2018

5 Winter, Kawika B., Noa K. Lincoln, and Fikret Berkes. 2018

Kalo is an example of a keystone species for Hawaiian cultural landscapes, as it played a major role in almost all biocultural systems, and a large role in kanaka ‘ōiwi identity.

It’s cultivation as a keystone component was essential for Hawaiian social-ecological systems. But due to sociocultural changes such as changes in government, land tenure, economies, language, and with the influence of colonization, westernization, and settlerism, many of these processes are no longer functioning at the scale that they once were. But the significance of kalo has not altered, as it is still valued and identified as the foundation of Hawaiian cultural landscapes. While kalo is arguably the most important keystone species, there are other plant species that are also incredibly influential and significant in defining cultural landscapes in Hawai’i. This suggests the key to any biocultural restoration is related to specific keystone species and the idea of biocultural toolkits. Plants may be able to provide the necessary opportunity to reinvigorate and restore cultural landscapes, specifically because of their significance, their need for human management and stewardship, and their relationship with environmental processes5. And because everything is connected in an island system, if one thing is affected, all systems are thrown off, the actual systems that were cultivating plants needed to be sustainable.

This is why the biocultural systems like loko i‘a, lo‘i, ‘āina malo‘o, and mahi la‘au are so important because these biocultural and agroecological systems support the cultivation and growth of plants in sustainable ways that did not negate the island system.

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BIOCULTURAL & AGROECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS

6 Noa Kekuewa Lincoln, et. al, 2018

These biocultural and agroecological systems are typically categorized into two general categories: ‘Āina Wai, wetland systems, and ‘Āina Malo‘o, Dryland systems. Examples of ‘Āina Wai systems are varieties of lo‘i and loko i‘a, while ‘Āina Malo‘o systems include mahi lā‘au, māla, and kīhāpai 6.

Within these two larger categories, there is rain-fed, flooded-field or irrigated, and agroforestry, and within all of these systems there were smaller farming methods that were commonly coupled in conjunction with the larger system.

The first category is ‘Āina Wai, or wetland and flooded systems. Wai systems like lo‘i and loko i‘a are most often identified as the main biocultural and agroecological systems in Hawai‘i, and in the 21st century they are the two systems that are most prevalent in Hawai‘i. Much work has been done to revitalize and restore these systems at a larger scale for sustainable farming and aquaculture cultivation, because they are strongly identified as being key systems in cultural landscapes.

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LOKO I‘A Loko i‘a, or fish ponds, encloses a portion of ocean with sand or pōhaku walls known as kuapā. Loko i‘a were used for aquaculture production of i‘a, limu, ‘ōpae, pāpa‘i, and other ocean critters. Depending on the type of loko i‘a, as there were many, species varied as well as purpose. Some did allow for sustainable i‘a farming, but others served as points of refuge for pua i‘a to ensure sustainable farming practices and replenished fish populations. Estuary conditions were important, so loko i‘a typically had a fresh water source, whether kahawai or a pūnāwai to create brackish water conditions that supported the overall health of the ocean edge.

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Pōhaku : stone I‘a: fish, sea animal Limu: Seaweed, algae ‘Ōpae: Shrimp Pāpa‘i : Crab, Crustecean Pua i‘a : Baby Fish Kahawai : Stream Pūnāwai: Artesian Spring

glue in loko ia

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LO‘I Lo‘i were artificial ponds specifically designed to cultivate kalo. Hawaiians deliberately created and altered ‘aina wai specifically for lo‘i cultivation through the building of terraces, excavating of lands, and construction of dams and canals. Lo‘i is arguably the most significant biocultural system because of it‘s role in cultivating kalo, which has a large biocultural relationship with kanaka ‘ōiwi. One ‘ōlelo no’eau says, Ola ke kalo, ola ke kanaka, which essentially means that as long as kalo lives, so shall the people.

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‘Ōlelo No’eau: Proverb

glue in loi

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‘ĀINA MALO‘O The second category, ‘Āina Malo‘o, is the overall category of dryland, rain-fed farming systems. ‘Āina malo‘o supported a broad range of agricultural strategies that included kīhāpai, mahi lā‘au, mahi ‘ai, and a range of other strategies like pā‘eli, pu‘epu‘e, and makaili. Additionally, there were “hybrid” systems that developed from diverting water from wet areas to irrigate dry lands intermittently, or dry lands that were intermittently wet on their own through seasonal rivers and springs. ‘Uala, kalo, mai‘a, wauke, ipu, and ‘ulu are some of the popular crops utilized in ‘āina malo‘o techniques7.

Kīhāpai were cultivated garden plots that were often specific to a single family or ‘ili. Their size varied depending on the environment, crops, and family, but they were usually small. Within a kīhāpai other techniques like pāeli, pu‘epu‘e, and makaili were used. Pā‘eli utilizes an ‘ō‘ō to break up the earth, then surround the soft soil with pōhaku. The combination of the soil and pōhaku create moist and cool conditions for crops like kalo and ‘uala to grow 8. Pu‘epu‘e uses soil to create compact mounds where ‘uala is placed into and then grown9. Makaili similarly uses soil mounds to cultivate ‘uala but then is surrounded by a layer of pōhaku. Makili were typically created in incredibly dry and rocky environments.

When the leaves shoot out of the stones is when the ‘uala is ready to be harvested10.

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Pā‘eli: Soil mound surrounded by rocks Pu‘epu‘e: Soil mound Makaili: Rock mound ‘Ō‘ō : Digging stick 7 Noa Kekuewa Lincoln, et. al, 2018 8 Kalokuokamaile, 1922 9 Kupele, 1857 10 Kaululaau, 1857

glue in ʻāina maloo

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MAHI LĀ‘AU Mahi lā‘au or Agroforestry, which is agriculture incorporating the cultivation and conservation of tree’s, was a significant component of ‘āina malo‘o. Tree crops, such as ‘ulu, kukui, niu, hala, and ‘ōhi‘a ‘ai were the primary crops utilized extensively by Hawaiians, primarily in places that were too dry, too rocky, too steep, too salty, too infertile, or too small for other biocultural systems like lo‘i or kuaiwi to be implemented11. Mahi lā‘au were minimally managed, and were vital resources for famine times, but were also recognized as creating essential ecosystems and habitat for various animal populations.

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11 Noa Kekuewa Lincoln, et. al, 2018

glue in mahi laau

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But in order for these biocultural and agroecological systems to function and properly support plant cultivation at all scales and on all levels, they required a very specific thing: Lōkahi.

LŌKAHI The relationship between ke akua, honua, and kanaka creates lōkahi, or balance. The balance of those three forces is essential to maintain and is a reminder of how we should conduct ourselves as kin with ‘āina12. This balance was incredibly vital for kanaka to achieve quickly after arriving to Hawai‘i, as island ecosystems are incredibly sensitive and if thrown out of balance, are difficult to repair. In order for things to be pono, you needed to first ensure lōkahi was being maintained. This is why the relationship between honua and kanaka is such a necessary element, as it was the very system that ensured their survival. In order for biocultural and agroecological systems to be productive, lōkahi is necessary to attain. The relationship between people and plants is a biological and sociocultural relationship, and depending on the plant, the person, and the environment, these biocultural relationships were performing in different ways. Within the various biocultural and agroecological systems in Hawai‘i, we can see many of these unique relationships occur, creating the larger overall success and function of these systems. But these relationships were also what created a Hawaiian sense of place. These relationships are key. The participation and management by humans is essential, just as much as the environmental processes and plants are. When lōkahi is maintained, the land, the people, the gods, are balanced and healthy. But when lōkahi is lost, as it has been for the last 200 years, we are stuck in chaos.

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Lokahi: Balance, Harmony, Unity

Pono: Correct

12: Paglinawan, Lynette K., et al. Nānā i Ke Kumu

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“I welcome the opportunity to note how quickly one's customs and religion can be swamped by the newcomer, bent on complete change, tolerating nothing of the old.”

Dr. Isabella Abbott, 2002: 3-6

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glue in timeline

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In the context of Dr. Isabella Abbott’s quote, newcomers can be referred to as missionaries, westerners, asian settlers, and colonizers. The arrival of missionaries in the early 1800’s sparked decades of disease and epidemic that wiped out the majority of the Native Hawaiian population.

With the loss of kanaka, the Hawaiian Monarchy did their best to collaborate with western interests to provide opportunities for the islands and the people, such as Kapiolani Park, the construction of major ports and harbors, and the expansion of tourism initiatives. But when Queen Lili‘uokalani was forcibly removed from her throne by a bunch of American sugar planters, Hawai‘i saw large-scale and permanently damaging changes. The reefs were dredged, lo‘i and loko i‘a were filled and buried under layers of soil, communities were forcibly removed and their homes destroyed to build military bases, hotels, and pleasure grounds. This destruction continued for some time, and with the exploitation of Hawaiian culture prompting the tourism boom in the 1920’s, we continue to see land shaped specifically to serve visitors. Until finally, in the 1960’s, kanaka had had enough.

The Hawaiian Renaissance that took place through the late 60’s to early 80’s, while technically not the first, was a resurgence of cultural identity that drew upon traditional kanaka ‘ōiwi practices, with a specific goal of diverting away from tourism which had dominated Hawai‘i’s reputation for the last century. Kanaka prevented the destruction of ‘Iolani Palace, they sent the Hōkūle‘a on a successful voyage to Tahiti exclusively using traditional navigation techniques, they established the beloved annual Merrie Monarch Festival, integrating ‘ōlelo with mele and oli, and hula, which had been banned for over 50 years, and Hawaiian immersion schools. But an era of intense land struggles also followed, some famous examples being Kalama Valley, WaiāholeWaikane, and the bombing of Kaho‘olawe. Even today, kanaka are fighting for their land, their rights, their culture, with recent examples being the Mauna Kea Protests, and the poisoning of Red Hill. These recent protests are incredibly hopeful, but we cannot ignore the damage that has been done. The effects of westernization, settlerism, and colonization are further exacerbated by the physical state of our landscapes today. An example of these changes can be seen in our very own watershed, of Mānoa Valley.

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‘Ōlelo : Langauge Mele : Song Oli : Chant Hula : Hawaiian Dance Style

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Kohola: Reef, Coral

By 2022, the biocecoligcal zones look very different. The reality of our urban landsacpes and built environments is that they have slowly suffocated out land for concrete. And this experience is not exclusive to Mānoa Valley, it is in many ahupua‘a all over the pae ‘āina. The idea of bioecological zones was introduced earlier in this book, but as a reminder these zones are determined by elevation, vegetation, and socio-cultural activity. But with the loss of plants, land, and systems, what is really left? Can wao akua exist without ōhia lehua and koa? Can wao kanaka be without kalo and loi? Is there kahakai without limu and kohola? Renee Sylva, the founder of Native Hawaiian Plant Society claims that “85% of Hawaiian culture is plants. But what is happening to the plants, has happened to the birds, and is happening to Hawaiians.” If the plants aren’t there, then socio-cultural activities have also changed, and what does that mean?

The erasure of biocultural sustems, within bioecological zones, has resuletd in the disappearance of plant stewardship as an essential practice of island life.

In order to achieve lōkahi, ‘āina must be prioritized and the relationship between ke akua, honua, and kanaka must be restored. As one ‘ōlelo no’eau goes, he ali‘i no ka ‘āina, ke kauwā wale ke kanaka, “the land is chief, the people merely servants”. Land must come first, and once satisfied, then the land can provide and support the people who live upon it. While our relationship to ‘āina is not the same as it once was, the state of the world, the climate, and the people is in a place where connection with land is more necessary than ever. Our urban environment over time has physically disconnected people from ‘āina, and with that disconnection the idea that it is in fact humans who play an active role in management has slipped from our moral obligations and responsibilities. The design portion of this project is an attempt at beginning to further understand and restore these vital relationships that invest in the ‘āina as an entity that when taken care of will care for us in return. It is important to recognize that there are many issues that occur at a policy and legal level that prevent kanaka ‘ōiwi from their relationship with ‘āina, that prevent people from engaging with the environment in general, and that a desin proposal cannot fix alone. But to restore these relationships, we simply have to start. All the work, all the answers, do not have to be resolved in one semester, one year, or even one decade. But we do have to start, and this capstone will start with plants.

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“DESIGN” In order to design, plants must be investigated thoroughly in their performances, cultural and ecological significance.

By understanding the plants role in symbiotic relationships between people, animals, environmentall processes, and other plants, specifically in the indigenous context, we can begin to understand plants as tools and how they might be able to address specific issues. There are many plants that play significant roles in Hawai‘i, both culturally and physically, but for the design portion of this capstone I am investigating only three. Limu in the kahakai zone, Pili in the kula zone, and Kalo in the wao kanaka zone. Each of these plants were catalysts for the health and performance of those bioecological zones and their biocultural systems, and the plants are very much keys to the future health and performance of these zones and communities.

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13 Abbott, 1999

KAHAKAI & LIMU The pae ‘āina supports more than 500 species of marine algae13, and species new to science are still being discovered on a regular basis. To Hawaiians the word “limu” is used to describe seaweeds, many of which are important for food and cultural activities. The term seaweed specifically refers to photosynthetic marine organisms that are members of a kingdom of organisms known as Protista. Technically, limu is not considered to be a true plant, even though the evolutionary ancestor of land plants was a green alga. They are generally simpler in organization, lacking typical plant organs such as leaves, roots and stems, and they do not reproduce by making fruits and seeds. Because seaweeds are immersed in water, they generally do not need specialized organs to take up water and nutrients (although some seaweeds do have specialized structures). Instead, the entire algal thallus (body) can photosynthesize and absorb nutrients from the water. Regardless, limu is a foundational “plant” of Hawaiian culture and ecologies, and for this capstone is considered a keystone species when it comes to restoration in the kahakai zone.

Limu is an essential part of any benthic habitat, as it is the first organism in the aquatic food chain that ensures aquatic species growth. It is also an essential component of a traditional diet here in Hawai‘i, while having many other purposes for things such as various cultural, medicinal and religious practices. Invasive limu species are used as fertilizer after being dehydrated, and have shown to benefit soil quality with nutrients. And as we know, what every is happening in the soil, will find it’s way into the ocean, so healthy soil, does benefit brackish environments, which again support the overall health of the benthic habitat.

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TRADITIONAL CONDITIONS Loko i‘a are the biocultural systems that we typically see in the kahakai zone, and acted as the icebox for kanaka ‘ōiwi, but were also essential edges in maintaining reef health. Humans played a key role, as loko i‘a had to be managed in order to productively function. Kanaka created makaha sluice gates that deterred larger carnivorous fish from entering the loko, and allowed for pua i‘a and smaller herbaceous fish to hide within the kuapā in order to grow to maturity, which is when they would be released. Kanaka built pōhaku imu, or rock houses, to create habitat for fish and also use to catch fish. They actively monitored what fish were in there and would remove any threats, and ensure that the freshwater stream connection, whether a stream or spring, was flowing. And all that management, was to ensure that the basis of the benthic habitat, limu could thrive.

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glue in traditional conditions

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PRESENT CONDITIONS But our current coastal conditions are suffering, especially with the lack of limu. Climate change is affecting the temperatures of our oceans, which are directly affecting the health of aquatic organisms. Coral bleaching is an example of this. But there are issues such as pollution, storm water run off, and erosion that are also contributing to unhealthy coasts. According to the Department of Land and Natural Resources (DLNR) there were 37 sea walls constructed in Waikīkī in the early 1900s, and 42 groins, or groin like structures, have been constructed for further reinforcement, all while the beaches have been chronically eroding since the 1980s. While the intention of these tectonics is to stabilize shorelines, the impervious surfaces are working against tides and are in fact exacerbating erosion. The impervious surfaces also make it difficult for any aquatic animals to make habitat or hide, as there is little reef, limu, or rock for them to use in the first place.

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glue in existing conditions

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PHASE 1 RESTORATION In order to begin restoring our coastal edges, we can learn a lot from traditional methods. We know that removing invasive species such as gorilla ogo, can relieve native limu species from being outcompeted, but can also be harvested for fertilization in the forests. Collecting bleached coral and broken reef to utilize as building materials or anchors, is a way to recycle the unfortunate demise of these ocean animals. Breaking down sea walls is important as well, but of course material can be reutilized. And these steps, these moments of management, are necessary, to ensure that the reintroduction of limu results in a more productive and healthy coast, one that will hopefully last for years to come

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glue in phase 1

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PHASE 2 RESTORATION Rebuilding sea walls by using traditional kuapā methods will create porous edges that catch sediment, sand, and provide habitat for aquatic animals. Stabilizing shorelines with rip rap recycled from broken reef and bleached coral will create transitioned coastal edges that can support native habitat and native plants, all while specifically providing limu with the necessary conditions in order for it to perform in symbiotic ways.

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glue in phase 2

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PROPOSED FUTURE CONDITIONS Ideally, sometime in the future, our coasts will still function with and support the many activities that people love to do, such as surfing, swimming, and fishing, but tie it into managing our kahakai in a more sustainable way. Limu is reintroduced as an important plant, one full of cultural significance but also ecological performance. Limu harvesting and education can be practiced at a wider scale through grassroots organization, like the Limu Hui, helping otheres in understanding the essential role of limu as a keystone species that supports the overal health of our kahakai, and all the life that resides in it.

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glue in proposed conditions

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KULA & PILI Kula is described as being vast grasslands and were hot and dry with gusting winds. Traditionally kula grew fields of pili grass, which were used to thatch hales. ‘Āina maloo systems were found here as well, as plains typically had little trees and were very dry, and pili commonly served as fertilizer and mulch to support evapotranspiration and moisture retention in the dry parts. Pili could also be slashed and burned in large proximity to provide a nutrient rich ash layer ontop of hard soils or even stone. Pili also served as a vast habitat for various bird, small mammal, and insect species. For many animals who journey from mauka to makai, pili offered moments of refuge and rest. Pili is also known as a pioneer species, meaning it is used to initiate ecological development of a place where currently no life exists.

The mokupuni of Kaho‘olawe uses pili to help remediate the land from the many miliary bombings that took place in the 1950s-1960s.

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TRADITIONAL CONDITIONS Kula was typically filled with some hale and communities, but was more often used as habitat by native bird species, small mammals, and insects. Pili grass created dense habitat and nesting sites, and was the perfect material for birds to build nests from. Kanaka, as well, enjoyed using pili as a popular thatching material for their homes.

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PRESENT CONDITIONS Today our kula plains are dominated by our urban environment. Today’s kula, while there is a large absence of vegetation now, is still hot and uncomfortable, but more so because of the many impervious materials such as concrete and asphalt that add to urban heat island effect. The many layers of impervious surfaces has also greatly reduced the quality of soil, and decimated top soil layers. Our urban sprawls are also food deserts, meaning it’s difficult for residents to access quality and affordable food. We see many vacant parcels overgrown with invasive weeds, pollution, and undesirable activities. With the combination of heat and vacancy, urban heat island effect, lack of public green spaces, and food accessibility, our urban environments do little to support people.

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PHASE 1 RESTORATION In order to transform our urban environments into supportive and enjoyable public spaces for residents, we can utilize vacant lots to create urban kīpukas. A kīpuka is a clear oasis of forest typically seen in a lava field, but in this context, it's a clear oasis of forest in our urban sprawls. While housing and infrastructure is necessary to create, vacant lots between homes and apartment buildings can also serve as the perfect place for an urban kīpuka to pop up. Kīpuka can provide food, shade, gathering space, in very bustling urban environments that otherwise are consistently uncomfortable and loud.

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PHASE 2 RESTORATION In order to prepare these now hard soils for plants, pili grass can be planted and grown over time. After clearing a vacant parcel of polution and other debris, pili can begin the remediation process. While slash and burn could occur in the urban environment to prompt that nutrient rich layer quicker, allowing pili to grow and decompose naturally over time will also ensure a new layer of healthy, fertile top soil that can soon be planted with juvenile trees.

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PROPOSED FUTURE CONDITIONS After many cycles of pili decomposition, a new layer of topsoil and remediated hard soil is established and will support an urban kīpuka which can serve as a community garden, a food forest, or just a really enjoyable shared community space. This is an opportunity to establish community and collaboration, these kīpuka would most likely be managed by surrounding residents or communities, as they would be the ones utilizing them most. In the end, pili may not be as visible in this stage of environmental restoration as it has been replaced by other native and canoe plants that offer food security and shade, but pili is the keystone species that creates the necessary basis for any urban restoration.

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KANAKA & KALO The wao kanaka, or the habitation zone, is known as an inland region where people may live or occasionally frequent, usually considered below the wao zones. Wao kanaka were typically associated with lo‘i and other farming methods that grew kalo. Kalo is a keystone species in this capstone, but is also identified as the keystone species for Hawaiian culture.

Kalo holds a pre-eminent role in Hawai‘i on both a practical and philosophical level. Kalo was a preferred staple food, but is also considered to be an ancestor of the Hawaiian race and the ancient religious system. Because of kalos’ influence and importance in relation to identity, diet, religion, in todays context and the old, the hypothetical disappearance of kalo would have drastically altered Hawaiian culture and disrupted society. Kalo is most often associated with loi, and plays crucial performances in loi, but kalo can also be found in dry land and rain fed systems and because of its cultivation in other biocultural systems, it most likely influenced the development of those systems as well.

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TRADITIONAL CONDITIONS Loi‘ drew wai from kahawai or punawai, and were most often built to flank streams as they needed to be consistently flooded. Hawaiians deliberately created and altered ‘aina wai specifically for lo‘i cultivation through the building of terraces, excavating of lands, and construction of dams and canals which also performed by catching sediment and cleaning and retaining water. Kahawai required maintenance as well, so as to ensure that water flowed correctly into lo‘i. Edges of streams were flanked with rich layers of native and canoe plants that strengthened the banks and edges of streams. Healthy streams were home to various fish, birds, and other small animals, while birds enjoyed nesting in the thick layers of canopy or the lo‘i themselves.

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PRESENT CONDITIONS Layers of invasive species have infiltrated the edges of streams, outcompeting native species for essential resources and space, preventing important symbiotic relationships from happening, and potentially introducing diseases. Channelization of streams has also degraded areas of stream that were left untouched. Without natural conditions, and lo‘i, water and sediment come rushing through streams at large volumes, slowly breaking down natural conditions and leaving conditions bleak and naked. With the influx of communities, residences, and infrastructure weaving next to and above streams, pollution has flooded this critical resource.

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PHASE 1 RESTORATION Before even reimplementing and building lo‘i next to streams again, stream health must be prioritized and reestablished, which means carefully removing any pollution or debris that is harming stream flow and health. By removing invasive species to ensure native species can be replanted and grow in and replace them, invasive species and their materials such as trunks and branches can be recycled into rebuilding healthy stream banks and bottoms.

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PHASE 2 RESTORATION Using trunks and branches from invasive species, they can be bound together and used to create small berms and terraces on stream bottoms and banks. The built terraces will act as mini lo‘i, growing kalo but again catching sediment, retaining, and cleaning water. Lo‘i traditionally were at significantly larger scales, but in order to accomodate for the built environment that has surrounded streams, we are proposing smaller interventions to begin.

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PROPOSED FUTURE CONDITIONS Eventually native canopy will grow back in, protecting streams and providing the necessary habitat to support native birds and web relationships. Lo‘i terraces stabilize stream bank edges and add layers of catchment for water and sediment, and also provide habitat for waterfowl and native fish species. Kalo initially will clean the water, but over time can be harvested as crops to feed surrounding communities. Public park spaces can serve as floodable interventions, and residential backyards are replanted with native plants which can serve as a mini food forest or kīpuka.

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CONCLUSION (FOR NOW) This capstone investigated only three plant species. While these plants play incredible roles and are of great significance, so are many other plants that I simply did not have the time to investigate. When we think about designing our landscapes, plants are our tools. Their purpose is not just as beautiful ornamental objects, but as literal keys to restoring sense of place, cultural and traditional practices, and the land itself. The three interventions proposed are meant to be implemented by people, by communities, and many kanaka are already doing this where they are able and when they can. Over time, more and more people will realize that they have the power to change our environments. As landscape architects, architects, engineers, planners, we play a key role in our built environments. We cannot ignore the need for infrastructure, housing, or public spaces, the need for built environments. But we also cannot ignore that the effects of our designs have been historically detrimental to the environment and culture. I would argue that this is because our designs do not start at the correct scale. In order for us to design for land and for people we really have to understand our tools. Our primary tool is plants, and when we begin to unravel and understand them from a cultural and performative lens, especially in a place like Hawai‘i where plants are very much the backbone of the culture, we learn how to design with plants better. If we learn to design with plants better, our designs will simply be better.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Abbott, I.A. Lā‘au Hawaii Traditional Hawaiian Uses of Plants ; Bishop Museum Press: Honolulu, HI, USA, 1992.

2. Craighill, Handy Edward Smith, et al. Native Planters in Old Hawaii. 1972.

3. Noa Kekuewa Lincoln , Jack Rossen, Peter Vitousek, Jesse Kahoonei, Dana Shapiro , Keone Kalawe, Mahealani Pai , Kehaulani Marshall 8 and Kamuela Meheula. (2018). Restoration of ‘Aina Malo‘o on Hawai‘i Island: Expanding Biocultural Relationships. Sustainability. 10, 3985; doi:10.3390/ su10113985 4. Mueller-Dombois, Dieter, The Hawaiian Ahupua‘a Land Use System: Its Biological Resource Zones and the Challenge for Silvicultural Restoration.Bishop Museum Bulletin in Cultural and Environmental Studies 3: 23–33 (2007).

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6. Kalokuokamaile, Z.P.K. Ka Nupepa Kuokoa, 1922.

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8. Lincoln, Noa Kekuewa, and Peter Vitousek. “Indigenous Polynesian Agriculture in Hawai‘i.” Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Environmental Science, 2017, https://doi. org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199389414.013.376.

9. Rose-Marie Kapā’anaokalāokeola Nākoa Oliveira Katrina-Ann. Ancestral Places: Understanding Kanaka Geographies. Oregon State University Press, 2014.

10. Rose-Marie Kapāanaokalāokeola Oliveira Katrina-Ann, and Erin Kahunawaika‘ala Wright. Kanaka ‘ōiwi Methodologies: Mo‘olelo and Metaphor. University of Hawai‘i Press, 2016.

11. Paglinawan, Lynette K., et al. Nānā i Ke Kumu. Lili’uokalani Trust, 2020.

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12. Winter, Kawika & Beamer, Kamanamaikalani & Vaughan, Mehana & Friedlander, Alan & Kido, Mike & Whitehead, A. & Akutagawa, Malia & Kurashima, Natalie & Lucas, Matthew & Nyberg, Ben. (2018). The Moku System: Managing Biocultural Resources for Abundance within Social-Ecological Regions in Hawai‘i. Sustainability. 10. 3554. 10.3390/ su10103554.

13. Winter, Kawika B., Noa K. Lincoln, and Fikret Berkes.

2018. “The Social-Ecological Keystone Concept: A Quantifiable Metaphor for Understanding the Structure, Function, and Resilience of a Biocultural System” Sustainability 10, no. 9: 3294. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10093294

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