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PRACTICING CRITICAL WRITING HANDBOOK Developing skills in literary writing

Julia Haba Osca Departament de Filologia Anglesa i Alemanya Universitat de València 2016

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PRACTICING CRITICAL WRITING HANDBOOK: Developing skills in literary writing

Dr. Julia Haba Osca

Departament de Filologia Anglesa i Alemanya Universitat de València 2016

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This handbook is a publication done by the unit RED (Research on Education and Development) working at the Departament de Filologia Anglesa i Alemanya at the Universitat de València (UV) in Spain.

1. WRITING ABOUT LITERATURE PRACTICING CRITICAL WRITING HANDBOOK: DEVELOPING SKILLS IN LITERARY WRITING is a concise handbook of important general information that students need in order to succeed when they are composing essays or writing on test questions about literature: recognizing key verbs in essay questions; how to write and revise an essay; and how to document sources in a research paper.

This book explains the principles of good writing in practicing literary criticism, showing us the paths to clear communication and point out pitfalls along the way.

More importantly, it provides ample opportunities to assimilate these principles through controlled practice.

In literature, as in every other field of life, communication is crucial. The advancement of literary studies depends on the sharing of knowledge and the critical exchange of complex ideas through publications, debates and congresses.

Contributions to these forums must be expressed clearly so that others can evaluate their validity and importance. An individual scientist’s or team’s success ultimately depends on communication skills, because funding depends on grant proposals and publications.

Speaking and writing, like analytical thinking itself, are “transversal skills”. Too often educators focus exclusively on imparting knowledge rather than on developing skills. I am grateful that my teachers in secondary school recognized the importance of effective communication. No matter what specific knowledge we were suppose to assimilate, we had to demonstrate our competence in the material by expressing our own ideas. Thus, we learned to develop and organize our ideas through writing and rewriting. Likewise, my lectures and professors at university demanded clear exposition in both written and oral communication. My education provided me with the basic tools I would need to take on the challenges of any career path I would choose to follow.

Therefore, this handbook provides description about writing papers in literature.

It discusses research topics, how to begin to research, how to use information, and formatting. “For the things we have to learn before we can do them, we learn by doing them.” (Aristotle, II. 1103a33).

1.1 WRITING ANSWERS TO ESSAY QUESTIONS The following strategies will help you write answers to the essay questions following each selection in this book. Instructions on the writing process may also be found in the Exercises in Critical Thinking and Writing.

1. Begin by reading the essay questions carefully. Make sure you understand exactly what the question is asking you to do, and note how much evidence it asks you to provide.

2. Identify the key verb in the question. It will help you pinpoint your assignment. Look for these key verbs: -­‐ Analyse (Examine). To analyse something is to take it apart and see how it works. You might be asked to analyse one element of a work and explain its effect on other elements or on the work as a whole. For example, you might be asked to analyse Gregor’s reaction to finding himself an insect in Franz Kafka’s The Metamorphosis. Begin by identifying his reaction, and then show how it affects his relationship with his employer, his relationship with his family, and his sense of self.

-­‐ Compare/Contrast. When you compare, you point out similarities: when you contrast, you point out differences. You might, for example, be asked to compare and contrast two short stories. The best way to organize information for your essay is to use a chart like this one, which shows you similarities and differences at a glance: Story A

Story B

Character Setting Plot Vary the chart to suit the particular assignment. If you are asked to compare and contrast two poems, for example, you might use imagery, figures of speech, and tone as your points of discussion. If you are asked to compare and contrast two characters within a play, you might use personality, goals, and change. Once you have decided what points to discuss in your essay, decide on the order in which you will present your ideas. You can discuss all the elements of the first work and then all the elements of the second work (AABB order). Or you can discuss each element in turn (ABAB order), showing how it is similar or different in the two works.

-­‐ Describe. To describe means to paint a picture in words. For example, if you were asked to describe the scene at the entrance to Hell in Dante Alighieri’s Inferno, you would try to convey its sights, sounds, and mood so that your readers can experience the scene. If you were asked to describe Eveline in James Joyce’s story of the same name, you would discuss what you know about her through direct and indirect characterization – how she looks, acts, speaks, feels, and affects others.

-­‐ Discuss. To discuss means to comment about something in a general way.

For example, if you were asked to discuss the point of one of Jean de La Fontaine’s fables, you might summarize the fable and comment on its moral.

-­‐ Evaluate. To evaluate something is to judge how good or bad – or how effective or ineffective – it is. In thinking about your evaluation, start with your personal reaction to the work. Did you like it or hate it? Did you find it fascinating or boring? Next, refine this reaction into a more specific judgment. (“Even though the play was written in the nineteenth century, it still speaks to us today”, or “This poem was too rambling to hold my interest.”) In the body of your essay, state the reasons for your judgment. For each reason, examine an element of the work and back the reason up with evidence from the work.

-­‐ Illustrate. To illustrate means to provide examples to support an idea or statement. For example, you might be asked to illustrate the principles of Japanese haiku poetry. You would first define haiku and then show how several haiku poems fir this definition.

-­‐ Interpret. To interpret something means to explain its meaning and importance. For example, if you were asked to interpret a Shakespearean sonnet, you might explain each quatrain in turn, then show how the final couplet summarizes or comments on the ideas in the quatrains. If you were asked to interpret a story’s meaning, you would first identify the theme and then cite specific details from the work to support your interpretation.

-­‐ Respond. To respond is to give your personal reaction to something. If you were asked to respond to Santha Rama Rau’s “By Any Other Name”, for example, you would state explicitly whether you liked or disliked it, how it made you feel, and what it made you think about. Be as specific as possible as you explain the reasons for your response.

3. Write a thesis statement in which you state the main idea of your essay.

Include your thesis statement in the first paragraph, along with any additional sentences that help you catch the reader’s attention.

4. Gather evidence to support this thesis statement. If you can use your book, look back over the work for examples and illustrations. For a closed-­‐book essay, make notes on all the supporting details you can remember.

5. Write one paragraph for each main point. Include a topic sentence for each paragraph, and express your ideas as clearly as you can. Don’t pad your answer with unrelated details or ideas.

6. End with a concluding paragraph. Summarize or restate your main points, and, if you wish, give your personal response to the work. Try to end your essay with a “clincher” sentence.

1.2. WRITING AND REVISING AN ESSAY You may be asked to choose your own topic for an essay on a specific work.

PREWRITING 1. Choose a limited topic that you can cover adequately. If your assignment is an essay of four paragraphs, you can’t possibly analyse all the characters in Ibsen’s A Doll House. But you do have room to analyse one character of the significance of the title.

2. Write a thesis statement. Ask yourself, “What main idea about my topic do I want to discuss?” Then write one or two sentences that state this main idea. If you have trouble expressing your ideas in only one or two sentences, consider narrowing the topic.

3. List two or three main ideas that develop your thesis statement. Jot down the ideas that come to mind when you think about your thesis statement, and choose the strongest two or three. Then go back over the work to find specific points you may have overlooked. Don’t rely simply on your memory.

4. Gather and arrange supporting evidence. Your essay should include quotations, specific details, and incidents from primary sources, which include the literary work you are writing about, as well as other works, letters or interviews by the same writer. Secondary sources – books, reviews and critical essays about the work or the writer – may also provide supporting evidence for your ideas. Before you begin writing, decide which evidence best supports your thesis statement. Then discard any weak or unrelated material. Once you’ve arranged your main ideas and evidence in the order that seems the most logical, you’ll have an informal outline to work from.

WRITING Draft your essay following your outline and notes. Include evidence to support your thesis statement and the main idea of each paragraph. Structure your essay according to this plan: 1. Introductory Paragraph Catch the reader’s interest.

Tell what the essay will be about.

Begin or end with the thesis statement.

2. Body (Paragraphs 2, 3, etc.)

Develop the thesis statement.

Include a topic sentence and supporting evidence in each paragraph.

3. Concluding Paragraph Let the reader know that the essay is completed.

Restate or summarize the thesis statement and main ideas.

Include a personal response (personal).

EVALUATING AND REVISING Reread your first draft at least twice, checking once for content and once for style.

1. Content. Check to see that you’ve supported your thesis statement with at least two main ideas and that you’ve supported each main idea with sufficient evidence.

If any part of your evidence appears weak or vague, go back over the work to find more convincing examples.

2. Style. To make your essay read smoothly, you may need to combine related sentences or break up long sentences into shorter ones. Cut unnecessary or repetitive words and phrases.

PROOFREADING AND PUBLISHING The titles of poems, short stories, and essays should be enclosed in quotation marks; the titles of plays, novels, and other long works (such as epic poems) should be in italics. Sacred works like the Bible and the Koran and the individual books of these works are neither italicized nor placed in quotation marks. In handwriting and typing, italics are indicated by underlining.

1.3. DOCUMENTING SOURCES FOR A RESEARCH PAPER 1. Parenthetical citations give brief information in parentheses immediately after a quotation or other reference. More detailed information about each source is given in the bibliography. This method of documenting sources is recommended by the Modern Language Association (MLA): -­‐ For quotation from a prose passage by a writer who is identified in the text (page number): Joyce ends the chapter with a beautiful image, “the tide… flowing in fast to the land with a low whisper of her waves, islanding a few last figures in distant pools” (173).

-­‐ For quotation by a writer whose name is not mentioned in the text (author’s last name, page number): In Dubliners, Joyce’s collection of short stories, “The recurrent situation is entrapment” (Levin, 5).

-­‐ For a quotation from a play (act and scene, and line number if a poetic drama): At this point Miranda rejoices, “O brave new world / That has such people in’t!” (Act 5, Scene 1, lines 213-­‐14).

For a quotation from a poem (line number): In Paul Verlaine’s “The Sky is Just Beyond the Roof,” the speaker asks, “Say, what have you done, you who are here,/With your lost youth?” (lines 15-­‐16).

2. Footnotes are placed at the bottom of the page on which the reference appears.

A superscript number at the end of the reference within the essay indicates a footnote. Footnotes are generally numbered consecutively within a work.

1Harry Levin, ed. The Portable James Joyce (New York: Viking, 1965).

2Frank O’Connor, A Short History of Irish Literature (New York: G. P. Putnam’s

Sons, 1967).

Check a writing handbook or ask you teacher for the style for footnoting poems, magazine articles, interviews, and books with more than one author.

3. Endnotes are identical to footnotes except that they are listed on a separate page entitled “Notes” at the end of a paper. Endnotes are numbered consecutively.

4. A Works Cited section should be included at the end of your essay. This is an alphabetical list of all of the print and nonprint sources you referenced in your essay. The list may include not only books but also magazine articles and videotapes. Entries in your Work Cited section are listed alphabetically by the author’s last name. Here is a sample Works Cited section.

Works Cited Alazraki, J. ed Critical Essays on Jorge Luis Borges. Boston: G. K. Hail & Company, 1987.

Paz, O. “In Time’s Labyrinth.” The New Republic 3 November 1986: 30-­‐35.

2. WRITING CRITICAL ESSAYS It is common for feedback on student writing to focus on the need to engage more critically with the source material. Typical comments from tutors are: “too descriptive”, or “not enough critical analysis”. After the previous chapter, a study guide that gave you ideas how to improve the level of critical analysis you must demonstrate in your writing.

Therefore, students should always keep in mind the most characteristics features of critical writing are: -­‐ a clear and confident refusal to accept the conclusions of other writers without evaluating the arguments and evidence that they provide; -­‐ a balanced presentation of reasons why the conclusions of other writers may be accepted or may need to be treated with caution; -­‐ a clear presentation of your own evidence and argument, leading to your conclusion; and a recognition of the limitations in your own evidence, argument and conclusion.

This second chapter includes several Critical Thinking and Writing option, which leads students through the steps of writing process towards the successful completion of a major critical writing assignment.

2.1. DISCOVERING CONNECTIONS IN LITERATURE

What characteristics do your close friends have in common? What similar features do your favourite singing groups share? Whenever you compare two or more items, you can discover new relationships among people, places, events or ideas you’ve always thought of as different.

WRITING ASSIGNMENT Write an informative essay identifying and discussing connections, or similarities, between any two texts. Assume that your audience is familiar with the literature and wants to know more. In this essay, you’ll use classification to develop your main idea.

BACKGROUND By now, you have read myths and folktales from a variety of cultures and backgrounds. Because these traditional narratives reflect basic questions about the world and the individual’s place in it, many similarities link the tales. Here are some of the kinds of connections you can find: -­‐

Similar Subjects. On the simplest level, two stories may deal with the same subject. You may have two stories about the origins of life, about bravery or about death.

-­‐

Similar Characters. Similar characters may pop up in stories from dissimilar cultures. You may recognize such archetypes as the brave hero, the wise prophet or the selfish trickster.

-­‐

Similar Plots. Throughout the world’s literature, some plots occur again and again – with different characters and settings. For example, an average person receives unexpected rewards for acts of kindness, or a hero sacrifices something for the good of society.

-­‐

Similar Imagery. You may discover works that share strong images – for example, images or water, storms, mountains, forests, valleys or animals.

-­‐

Similar Themes. Two different stories may convey similar insights about life or human nature.

PREWRITING Focused Reading and Questioning. To find common elements among works in this unit, answer the following questions:

1. Which works deal with the subject of loyalty to others and/or love for others?

2. In which works does the main character go on a quest?

3. In which works does the plot trace how something originates or how the world changes after a catastrophe?

4. Which works include imagery of a peaceful, fertile world?

5. Which works explore themes of love and marriage, or the loss of love?

Use one of these questions as the basis for your writing, or ask a question of your own.

Using Classification. One way to develop a main idea is to classify information.

From your answers to the questions above, choose two works that have at least two elements in common. Then develop material for your essay by using a chart like the following one: Selection 1

Selection 2

Subject Main characters Minor characters Plot summary Imagery Theme Synthesize the charted information into a thesis statement, a sentence stating one main idea about the similarities in the two works.

WRITING Use the following plan as you draft your essay.

1. Introductory Paragraph. Cite the titles of the two works you’ll examine and identify the cultures they come from. Place your thesis statement at the end of this paragraph.

2. Body Paragraph. Choose an order for presenting your ideas. Either discuss all the charted elements in the first work and then compare the second work to it (AABB order), or take each element separately and show the similarities in both works (ABAB order). In either case, use transitions to connect your points of comparison. To illustrate the similarities, present specific details from each work.

3. Concluding Paragraph. Summarize the similarities you’ve discovered. In your final sentence, make an observation about how the similarities between the two works might be meaningful.

EVALUATING AND REVISING Use the following questions to evaluate and revise your draft.

1. Does your first paragraph include a thesis statement as well as the titles of the two works you’ve chosen?

2. In the body paragraphs, have you discussed at least two similarities between the works, including specifics to support your points?

3. Have you used transitions to clarify links between the ideas in your sentences and paragraphs?

4. Have you checked paragraph organization and sentence structure?

PROOFREADING AND PUBLISHING Proofread to eliminate errors in grammar and mechanics, and make a final copy of your essay. Meet with a group of classmates, exchange papers and discuss the connections that group members have discovered.

2.2. A PERSONAL RESPONSE TO LITERATURE

“I think I know what this poet’s talking about – I’ve had days like that.” “I’m not sure I get the point of the story.” “That character’s a lot like my crazy cousin.” All these comments reflect personal connections between readers and literary works.

By exploring your personal responses to what you read, you can discover new depths, both in literature and in yourself.

WRITING ASSIGNMENT Write an essay expressing your feelings about one of the works in this unit. You might explain how some aspect of the work relates to your own life. You might explore your thoughts or feelings about some aspect of the work. Or you might trace your reading process, recalling your initial responses to the work and recounting how your responses changed as you reread the work and thought about it or discussed it. Assume that your audience is familiar with the literature and is curious about your opinion. In this essay, you’ll develop and support a generalization.

BACKGROUND In this unit, you’ve found examples of ancient written literature as well as timeless oral literature. Each selection speaks to readers in a unique way, and each reader brings to the literature a unique set of responses. For your essay, consider the range of your personal responses. As you read, you may have felt amusement or boredom, sorrow or delight, puzzlement or deep understanding. Consider, too, the range of elements that evoked your responses. Rely especially upon: -­‐

Imagery drawn from daily life, in which words evoke for readers the sights, sounds, smells, tastes and textures familiar to the writer.

-­‐

Figurative language, in which a striking comparison can deepen readers’ insights.

-­‐

Irony, in which readers’ expectations are reversed, creating surprise or humour.

-­‐

Repetition and parallel structure, in which words, phrases or sentence structures recur, creating patterns that underscore ideas.

-­‐

Onomatopoeia and dialogue, in which sound effects and speech patterns communicate subtleties of emotion.

PREWRITING Focused Reading and Questioning. To generate ideas, first choose the work that you liked most or least. Then freewrite answers to these questions: 1. Did you like or dislike the selection? Why? 2. Which image or idea from the work is most memorable to you? Why? 3. In what ways does the work relate to your own experience?

4. What was the author trying to accomplish?

5. What questions do you have about the work?

Developing a Generalization. Look over your freewriting and group responses that can be connected. Choose the set of responses you’d like to write about. Next, draft a generalization, a broad statement covering the responses in the best set. Fill in a chart like the one below to be sure you have enough specific material to support your generalization.

Generalization Support 1 Example Example

Support 2

Support 3

Example Example

Example Example

WRITING Use the following plan as you draft your essay: 1. Introductory Paragraph. Catch your reader’s interest by quoting, from the work you have chosen, a line or phrase that is especially relevant to your response. Explain how the quotation relates to your response. Then use your generalization as a thesis statement. Be sure to cite the title of the work you have chosen and specify the culture from which it comes.

2. Body Paragraphs. Referring to your chart, present the material that supports your generalization. From your freewriting, draw examples that will help you express your response. Use quotations from the work, as well.

If you are tracing your response process, arrange paragraphs chronologically. Otherwise, more from your simplest response to your most complicated, or from your least powerful point to your most powerful.

3. Concluding Paragraph. Restate your generalization in new terms. Leave readers with a strong impression of your main response.

EVALUATING AND REVISING Use these questions to evaluate and revise your essay.

1. Does your introduction catch your readers’ attention and clearly state your general response?

2. Is your generalization valid? Does it cover all the specifics you’ve cited?

3. Have you explained your generalization with enough specifics (including examples and quotations)?

4. Do your paragraphs follow a logical order?

5. Have you worked your quotations smoothly into your sentences?

PROOFREADING AND PUBLISHING Proofread to eliminate errors in grammar and mechanics. Then make a final copy of your essay. Organize the response essays into a class literary journal for everyone to read.

2.3. WRITING AN AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL NARRATIVE After reading many tales, short stories and parables, it’s your turn to be a storyteller. By delving into literature, you have found reflections of a variety of human experiences: the loss of a loved one, failure to reach a goal, and leaving one’s home for new surroundings, among others. You can find similar reflections by narrating incidents, either large or small, from your own life.

WRITING ASSIGNMENT In a narrative essay, tell the story of an incident in your life: a success or failure, a realization about yourself, a special time with a friend. Bring the event to life for your audience, and show how it has affected you. Assume that you are writing for teen and adult readers of a general interest magazine. For this assignment, you will analyse causes and effects.

BACKGROUND Sometimes characters in literature respond to their experiences in realistic ways.

Some, like Gilgamesh, gain insight from adversity. Others, like Adam and Eve, the prodigal son and the lazy servant, suffer because of their actions. Still others, like Noah and Ruth, are rewarded for their choices. Think of your own experiences, large and small. Which have most affected your attitudes, feelings and behaviour?

PREWRITING Recalling an Incident. The incident you choose needn’t be dramatic; simple, everyday events can also have lasting effects. Think of two or three different experiences that changed you or brought new discoveries about yourself, about another person or about life in general. Choose the incident most meaningful to you. Then freewrite about it, focusing on sensory details (sights, sounds, scents, tastes and textures) and your thoughts and feelings during the incidents.

Analysing Causes and Effects. Reflect on causes and effects of your incident, and fill out a diagram based on the one below. Decide which effects have in turn created further effects.

Cause à incident à effect à further effect à effect à further effect à effect Next, sum up in one or two sentences the significance your experience had for you.

WRITING Follow these guidelines for drafting a narrative: 1. Introductory Paragraph. Draw readers in immediately by beginning with action. Your freewriting may provide strong, sensory verbs that will be useful here. Go on to work in any background information (about setting or characters, for example) that readers will need to understand the incident.

End the paragraph with a reference to the significance this incident has for you.

2. Body Paragraphs. Again, pull the most vivid details out of your freewriting, and bring your narrative to life by showing rather than telling. Well-­‐chosen details describing sights, sounds, textures, and so on can convey your experiences more effectively than whole paragraphs of explanation could.

Organize your narrative chronologically, beginning with the causes of the incident, then recounting the incident, and finally showing its effects on you.

Or, if appropriate, use flashback: begin with the effects, and then move backward in time to show how and why they occurred. In either case, refer to your cause-­‐and-­‐effect diagram as you write, so that you can include details showing not only what happened, but also why it happened and what resulted from it. Use transitions to keep both the time order and the cause-­‐and-­‐effect relationships clear.

3. Concluding Paragraph. Your conclusion should communicate your reflections about the incident. Leave readers with a definite idea of how this incident affected your life.

EVALUATING AND REVISING Use these questions to evaluate and revise your draft.

1. Does your introductory paragraph show action and refer to the significance of the incident?

2. Do you use enough specific, sensory details? Are all details relevant to your focus?

3. Have you recounted the incident from beginning to end in a clear and logical way?

4. Have you shown causes and results of the incident? Have you clearly stated its significance and its effect on your life?

PROOFREADING AND PUBLISHING Proofread your work, correcting errors in spelling and mechanics, and make a final copy. With your teacher’s guidance, select a local or national periodical that features personal-­‐experience articles, and submit your essay for publication.

2.4. CREATING AN EPIC ADVENTURE Today’s heroes are usually people like us, fallible but capable of courageous acts.

Heroes of Greek and Roman antiquity, however, are far larger than life, superhuman in bravery and prowess. Which kind of hero makes a more appealing role model?

WRITING ASSIGNMENT Write a brief adventure featuring a hero of your own invention. Your audience is fourth-­‐ and fifth-­‐graders, and you want to offer them a new way of looking at the world, as well as to entertain them. In this assignment, you will use the literary elements that you have become familiar with: setting, characters, plot, and theme.

BACKGROUND Though they represent different time periods and cultures, the tales of Achilles, Oedipus, and Aeneas share a number of epic conventions. Consider the following points as you invent your hero. (You don’t have to pattern your hero after the Greek or Roman models, however).

-­‐ Lineage. The hero is the offspring of a mortal and a deity. (Oedipus, the exception, is of royal birth.) Heroes have divine powers but human weaknesses.

-­‐ Childhood. The hero shows early signs of unusual wisdom, strength or courage.

-­‐ Character. Heroes are virtuous, determined, passionate, valiant, and noble.

Their strength of character lets them endure pain and loss to achieve their goals.

-­‐ Journeys. The hero goes on a quest, endures trials, and emerges as a leader.

Heroes are helped and hindered by gods and goddesses.

PREWRITING Brainstorming. Brainstorming background information about a hero. Decide which time period and place the hero comes from, what his or her society values, and what the hero hopes to accomplish. Also, consider the epic conventions listed above.

Planning. Drawing on the material you have brainstormed, plan a single adventure featuring your hero. Use a story map like the one on the following page.