MAMG25 Proceedings

The Middle Ages in Modern Games Conference Proceedings Volume 6, 2025 Edited by Vinicius Marino Carvalho and Tess Watterson © Contributors

Funding graciously provided by

Cover image courtesy of Paradox Interactive (‘Raja’s of Asia’ Mod, Crusader Kings III, 2021).

Centre for Medieval and Renaissance Research, University of Winchester, 2025

middleagesinmoderngames.net @MidAgesModGames | #MAMG25

Middle Ages in Modern Games Organising Committee Robert Houghton, University of Winchester Blair Apgar, Kutztown University of Pennsylvania James Baillie, Austrian Academy of Sciences Arturo Mariano Iannace, IMT School for Advanced Studies Lucca Lysiane Lasausse, University of South-Eastern Norway Mariana Lopez, University of York Vinicius Marino Carvalho, State University of Campinas Markus Eldegard Mindrebø, University of Stavanger Juan Manuel Rubio, Central European University Tess Watterson, University of Adelaide

Contents Introduction ............................................................................................................ 1 Globalisms and Regionalisms in Medievalist Games: International Opportunities, International Challenges ....................................................................................... 1 Robert Houghton, Tess Watterson, and Vinicius Marino Carvalho Opening Keynote ..................................................................................................... 5 Playing with the Past: Cultural Integrity in Narrative Gaming .................................... 5 Stevan Anastasoff Field of Glory: Kingdoms ......................................................................................... 12 Rajas and Tribes Interview ................................................................................... 13 Robert Houghton, AGEod, and Slitherine Authority in Field of Glory: Kingdoms. Mechanics, referents, and possible developments .................................................................................................... 21 Arturo Mariano Iannace Religious coexistence and Rough Tolerance in Field of Glory: Kingdoms ................. 24 Juan Manuel Rubio Arévalo On Piety and Power: Faith in Field of Glory: Kingdoms ........................................... 31 James Baillie Game Design ......................................................................................................... 34 The Birds and The Bees in Lombard Law-Scape .................................................... 35 Thom Gobbitt

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The Middle Ages in Modern Games, 2025 Conference Proceedings Vol. 6 The Visualization of Medieval Knowledge in Modern Video Games: Artistic and Architectural Approaches ................................................................................... 39 Baykar Demir DropCaps: A Word Game with a Medievalist Spin ................................................. 46 Jessie Contour and Kelcey Gray

Global Perspectives ............................................................................................... 50 Prosuming Regional Medievalisms – depictions, perceptions and imaginations of Rus’ in Russian-language computer games .......................................................... 51 Kristina Wittkamp William Adams: A Monogatari Samurai Hero - Fictionalisations of Japanese History in Rekishi-Monogatari Games ................................................................................. 59 Benjamin Dorrington Redder Chivalric Quests and Nostalgic Aesthetics: Final Fantasy IX as Global Medieval British Romance ................................................................................................. 64 Enrique Torres-Hergueta Gnosticism in the Medievalist Game Genshin Impact ........................................... 69 Emilienne Parchliniak Eurocentric Globalism ........................................................................................... 73 Harnessing Nature by Hand: An Ecofeminist Critique of Age of Empires II ............... 74 Shu Wan Pixel to Parallax: Low-Poly Cartographies of Medieval Spatial Narrative in Games ... 80 Xinyu Kang and Yuantong Yun

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How Civilization V Brings Historical Nations to the Global Stage: Analysis of the Game’s Majapahit-Era Indonesia ......................................................................... 83 Pratama Wirya Atmaja, Andreas Nugroho Sihananto, and Gredy Christian Hendrawan Putra Alternative Approaches to Globalism ...................................................................... 88 A Left-Coast Medieval: Progressive Medievalism in Age of Empires IV .................... 89 Robert Rouse Stranger in a Strange Land: Eivor’s Encounter with the Mohawk Culture in Assassin’s Creed: Valhalla .................................................................................................. 94 Renata Leśniakiewicz-Drzymała Gaming Beyond the ‘Commons’: Counter-Hegemonic Readings of Medievalist Tropes ......................................................................................................................... 97 Vinicius Marino Carvalho Participatory Heritage .......................................................................................... 100 Social Media is Dungeons & Dragons ................................................................. 101 Stephen Yeager Teaching the 16th Century with Pentiment ......................................................... 105 Lucas Haasis and Patrick Heike We can be heroes, just for one day – Concepts of history in LARP......................... 115 Merle Stratmann Race and Culture ................................................................................................. 122 Globalities and Regionalities in Roleplaying across Culture and Race in Black Desert Online.............................................................................................................. 123

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The Middle Ages in Modern Games, 2025 Conference Proceedings Vol. 6 Johansen Quijano L’era dei rumors e il razzismo – Kingdom Come: Deliverance II / The Era of Rumours and Racism – Kingdom Come: Deliverance II ...................................................... 127 Simone Vitolo Framing the Other Within: Sebhat of Sadai, Narrative Inversion, and Ethiopian Manuscript Aesthetics in Pentiment .................................................................. 134 Blair Apgar

Fantasy Medievalism in The Witcher ...................................................................... 140 Female Voices in a Medieval-Inspired Universe: a Brief Comparative Study of the Representation of Women in The Witcher Books and Video Games ...................... 141 Jéssica Iolanda Costa Bispo The Witcher 3: un viaggio nel tempo e nello spazio dell’Europa medieval / The Witcher 3: a journey in Medieval Europe time and space .................................................. 143 Simone Fleres Dungeons & Distortions: The Pseudo-Norse berserkir in The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt 149 Roderick Dale and Markus Mindrebø Globalism and Religion ........................................................................................ 155 Religious Tensions: The Itatehyōzu Shrine in Assassin’s Creed Shadows .............. 156 Hirohito Tsuji “Denn häufig haben sich auf seinem Wink und Befehl viele von ihnen von einer hohen Mauer hinunter gestürzt […]“: Die Tradierung des mittelalterlichen Mythos der Nizari Ismailis in Narration und Gameplay in Assassin’s Creed / "For often, at his signal and command, many of them have thrown themselves from a high wall [...]": The

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transmission of the medieval myth of the Nizari Ismailis in narrative and gameplay in Assassin's Creed .............................................................................................. 160 Ron Heckler The Eternal Presence of Holy War: The Procedural Rhetoric of Jihad and Crusade in Total War: Medieval 2 ........................................................................................ 173 Juan Manuel Rubio Arévalo Closing Keynote ................................................................................................... 180 Making Rajas of Asia: Modding Cultural Representation and Stateless Government in an Imperialist Game ......................................................................................... 180 William Chen

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Introduction Globalisms and Regionalisms in Medievalist Games: International Opportunities, International Challenges Robert Houghton (University of Winchester), Tess Watterson (University of Adelaide), and Vinicius Marino Carvalho (State University of Campinas)

In recent years, the Middle Ages in games has become more visibly and obviously global.

In Western games, we’ve seen a shift away from a tight focus on Europe (and often on the British Isles and Scandinavia) with occasional nods to the crusades. We’ve seen Assassin’s Creed, Crusader Kings, Field of Glory and other long running series reaching into ever broader parts of the world.

We’ve seen games from studios based in Eastern Europe (The Witcher, Kingdom Come: Deliverance) or Asia (Mount and Blade, Dragon’s Dogma, Black Myth Wukong) enjoy huge commercial success while presenting their own distinct visions of the Middle Ages. In doing so, these games have often revitalised genres and introduced players to new regions and ideas.

There are also countless popular and influential medievalist games

beyond the

Anglophone world. Quraish, Hiệp Khách Chi Ca, and Tormenta have huge Arabic, Vietnamese and Brazilian playerbases respectively, each drawing on very different traditions in their depictions of the period.

Vibrant indie and modding scenes have also spurred the production of multiple games exploring different corners of the medieval world – indeed our two keynotes address this very issue with games about Welsh and East Asian cultures respectively.

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All in all, we’re seeing more medievalist games which incorporate a larger part of the globe and more games which focus on previously underrepresented regions. The spread of these approaches (broader globalisms and deeper regionalisms) are in many ways a huge positive for the industry and for players, giving us access to new stories and ideas.

There’s also a lot to be analysed here from both design and academic perspectives.

Of course, even as we’re getting more varied and interesting (not to mention cool) medieval worlds to explore in our games, we’re still seeing a lot of limitations to these worlds. There’s still a prevailing tendency to focus on Western Europe and to impose models and stories from this part of the world on other regions. Depictions of politics, society, gender, sexuality, racial identity and a trove of other issues tend to retain trends and tropes common in the popular conception of the medieval West regardless of their geographical or cultural setting. Even where these cliches have been avoided broad globalisms can lose a lot of detail while deep regionalisms can feel isolated from the rest of the world. And that’s not to mention the impact of well documented social and political issues around games and medievalism on depictions of a global or regional medieval world.

The sixth Middle Ages in Modern Games Asynchronous Conference held in 2025 took the twin themes of globalisms and regionalisms as its core strand. In addition to our standard range of papers addressing a plethora of themes around medievalist games in general, a swathe of our contributors this year addressed these themes and the various issues surrounding them. Many of our papers this year highlighted different regional or national approaches to medieval history and heritage and the impact this can have on games. Others have catalogued and analysed the prevalence of Western perspectives within the settings, characters, and mechanics of games, emphasising the limitations this places on their worlds and often suggesting and demonstrating different ways to create more interesting history, stories and gameplay. There’s a lot of appetite for these sorts of varied approaches and a definite trend in games across genres and platforms towards looking beyond the standard Anglo-centric focus and view of the Middle Ages and incorporating deeper and more meaningful consideration of historically underrepresented, marginalised, or subaltern cultures.

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Perhaps partly as a consequence of the conference themes (Globalisms and Regionalisms), we’ve seen a particularly broad geographic distribution of papers and participants this year. We’ve retained a sizeable contingent from Western Europe and the Americas, but gained a number of contributions from and about Eastern Europe and Asia. This fits well with a running trend and goal of the conference to bring different perspectives and approaches together.

This broad approach is particularly important as the field of medievalist game studies (and historical game studies more generally) matures. I highlighted that language and national barriers are a key factor in the siloing of the field last year and, despite some notable and impressive attempts to bridge these divides, they are likely to remain a central issue in the immediate future. Scholarly discrimination of games based on platform and payment models is another problem. Recent titles for PC and consoles still dominate our conference, whereas mobile games do not receive nearly as much attention. Likewise, while MAMG has included papers on analogue games from its very first edition, there remains a preference towards digital games among contributors. In this point, our conference mirrors general developments in the field of game studies as a whole, which is gradually opening up to the undeniable importance of analogue games while reckoning with its computational bias. Looking at a broader variety of games and scholarship is going to be essential for the continued growth and flourishing of the field.

It’s going to be important to look at regional differences alongside global similarities, and finding the balance will be challenging.

There are without doubt some significant challenges in broadening our approaches to game design and scholarship. Commercial demands and vocal player backlash continue to limit the exploration of broader medieval worlds. Language and cultural barriers often prohibit the exchange of ideas and stories. Translation can hold to some extent here, but, as we’ve seen in some papers this week, translation inevitably loses some of the original context. This has, historically, been an issue with medievalist games from outside the Anglosphere that circulated in fan-made translations. Due to lack of context, disparate transcriptions of non-Latin script or other reasons, historical references could be misrepresented or buried altogether. As an aside, translation work for this conference

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and proceedings has highlighted that the German translation of ‘Leap of Faith’ in the Assassin’s Creed series is ‘Todessprünge’ (literally ‘Death Jump’): an apt description, but one with very different connotations.

But these attempts to move across cultures in games are almost always worthwhile, even if we can never truly gain the understanding facilitated by linguistic fluency or lived experience. After all, we’re talking about games that look to transport us back centuries, to worlds drastically different from our own. None of us have the full array of cultural touchstones or mentalities to completely understand any part of the Middle Ages, but that doesn’t mean that games set in the period are meaningless (or that they can’t be fun or educational). Despite the limits, playing a greater variety of games from a greater range of perspectives is generally a good thing. It’s just important to play them critically.

We’re sponsored this year by Slitherine, Exilian and the Centre for Medieval and Renaissance Research at the University of Winchester. Slitherine have a large range of medievalist games amongst their vast portfolio: including new DLC Rajas and Tribes for Field of Glory: Kingdoms. Exilian provide wideranging forums and articles addressing all aspects of the Middle Ages and medievalism (including, but not limited to, medievalist games). And the Centre for Medieval and Renaissance Research conducts research, public engagement, and teaching on several themes including the Middle Ages in Modern Games.

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Opening Keynote Playing with the Past: Cultural Integrity in Narrative Gaming Stevan Anastasoff (Game Designer)

Hello, I’m Stevan Anastasoff, and I’ve been making games of one sort or another professionally for most of the past three decades, but for the past couple of years I’ve been focused on a smaller, more personal project, a narrative exploration game rooted in medieval Welsh literature: Tales from the Mabinogion.

Figure 1

The game itself, which is currently in development, is an atmospheric third-person adventure, that blends storytelling with exploration of the forests, coastlines, and mountains of a mythic Wales. It draws principally on the First and Third Branches of the Mabinogi, using these ancient stories not just as a superficial dressing, but as the

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foundation of the game. You play as Pryderi, ruler of the ancient Welsh kingdom of Dyfed, returned home to find your land devastated by a cursed magical fog. It’s a game about grief, and forgiveness, about memory, and loss. But more than that, it’s a game about the importance of letting stories speak with their own voice.

Figure 2

When you hear the term “medieval fantasy”, for the big majority of people this conjures images of ancient dragons and powerful wizards, magic swords and mystic prophecies.

There’ll be a chosen one, and a dark lord, almost invariably they’ll have British, usually English, accents… We’ve seen it in Lord of the Rings, Game of Thrones, Narnia, and plenty of others.

For a game developer, there is admittedly something very powerful about having this common set of tropes. It allows us to step away from the ordinary, but without having to deliver a massive amount of exposition and backstory. We’re spared the need to justify our design choices, in everything from level building, to UI, to voice acting. But this is a version of “fantasy” built on a very narrow view of the past, a view largely perceived

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through a lens of English language literature and culture, and most notably this kind of post-Tolkien aesthetic that has dominated the genre for decades. We have started to see other cultures gaining ground - with games scaffolded on Slavic, Chinese, Japanese cultures, and others - but most of what we call “medieval fantasy” still speaks with that same voice.

While there’s a lot of strength in that shared language - it makes building worlds easier, it helps players feel at home - it can also box you in. The same ideas, the same emotional beats, the same mechanics start showing up again and again.

It’s not that other types of story are not gameable, far from it. But if you take an Armenian Epic, or a Kashmiri folktale, or a Sardinian ballad, and feed it into the same design framework that’s been tuned for post-Tolkien fantasy, the outputs will all start to look alike. It’s like if the only material your game engine supports Is brick, then no matter what you try to build, it’s going to end up looking like a house!

Figure 3

The very first draft of the narrative for Tales from the Mabinogion centered on King Arthur, since many of the oldest Arthurian legends are indeed found within the pages of the

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original Welsh text. It felt like something players would be able to “grab on to”, a familiar entry point into what is a less familiar mythology. But quickly it felt like this was dragging the story into being something it wasn’t.

In most modern treatments, in games and other media, Arthurian stories come with built in expectations: the chosen one, the kingdom to reclaim, the rise to power. There’s the finding of the magical weapon, often the building of the castle, always the grand quest.

Once you step into that narrative framework, the standard design tropes begin to take over: tracking objectives, doling out loot. The player’s journey becomes a checklist, and the game acts like that’s what a story is.

But that’s not where the Mabinogion leads. There isn’t a main quest-line, with a final boss. There’s no hero leveling up to claim their destiny. The stories don’t build towards triumph. They drift, through grief, and guilt, betrayal and consequence. Conflicts don’t always resolve. Justice doesn’t always arrive. These are tales that offer atmosphere rather than resolution.

So that just wasn’t the right lens to view these stories. Too often what we see is this standardised narrative and gameplay structure being used, with cultural material names, and styles, and locations - just being layered on top. But the Mabinogion doesn’t work in that way. The tales are older, and stranger, than this framework can accommodate. And it became clear that the way the stories were originally told, would have to shape how I could retell them.

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Figure 4

You’ll have noticed something unusual in these game clips, a language that may not sound familiar to most listeners. I’ll come back to that in just a moment. What I want to talk about with you is why I’m choosing to do this, why make a game that doesn’t filter its voice? What happens when we stop designing around familiar, Anglo-centric defaults?

What does it bring to the game, and to the player, when you make different choices about the voices that define your world?

And that’s why the game is narrated entirely, and exclusively, in Welsh! Not as a simple localisation option, or a flavour pass, but a core design decision, as fundamental to the game design as the camera or the control schemes. We often treat language as something to bolt on at the end, it’s a part of the localisation pipeline. But that’s exactly what I wanted to avoid. This was the voice that the story already had, and it was only one that could make sense.

When you view it in this way, language becomes more than just the meaning of the words.

It becomes a part of the emotional texture of the game, it’s shaping the mood through

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rhythm, tonality, and cadence, working in much the same way as a musical score in the background So this is not just about cultural authenticity for its own sake. It’s a deliberate design decision, a way to create resonance. Inflection, timbre, breath - these things carry weight, just like music or lighting.

In a recent discussion about the character of Geralt, in the Witcher 3, with some native Polish speakers, they shared how they perceived his personality differently than Englishspeaking players. “The grunts have a different cadence” as one said. Here’s something you can try, a little challenge for you. Take a game like the Witcher 3, which is already one of the more culturally grounded titles in mainstream fantasy, and play it in its original language. Set the voice over to Polish, with only subtitles in your own native tongue, and see what that gives you.

If you’re curious to push it even further, turn off the subtitles completely. Let the meaning of the words fall away entirely, and let the shape of the language alone define your experience. See what it changes, see what it reveals.

Figure 5

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The goal isn’t to reject the familiar. There is a real creative strength in working with a shared set of tropes. But as developers, we should be honest about how narrow we’ve let that shared language become. Medieval fantasy, as a genre, has become so flattened by repetition that it becomes difficult for it to say anything new. The settings shift. The visuals change. But the foundations remains the same: the same pacing, the same stakes, and the same voices.

But genre is not something written in stone, it’s not a law of nature, it’s very simply what we’re used to. It’s a habit. And habits can be broken. More and more developers around the world are doing just that, and letting different voices, languages and traditions do more than skin the surface of their games.

And when we do that, we get games that move differently, and feel differently, and stay with players in different ways. We just need to recognise that not every story wants to be told in the same way.

Figure 6

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Field of Glory: Kingdoms

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Rajas and Tribes Interview Robert Houghton (University of Winchester), AGEod, and Slitherine

Field of Glory: Kingdoms is a marvellously deep and complex Grand Strategy Game set in the central Middle Ages and developed by AGEod and published by Slitherine (sponsors of this conference). There’s a lot of scope for reimagining the course of history in the Grand Campaign or any of the various smaller scenarios and the in-built connectivity with the battle simulator Field of Glory II: Medieval provides the opportunity to lead armies on the tactical scale. It’s not just about warfare though: the game provides a detailed and varied model of politics, society, and economics across its world. As a result, there’s significant scholarly potential to the game.

At release, Field of Glory: Kingdoms encompassed a large part Europe, North Africa and the Middle East, but the game’s first DLC – Raja’s and Tribes – substantially expands this world, incorporating the steppes of Asia, India and large parts of Africa, providing detailed representations of these regions and their kingdoms, empires and other polities.

It introduces new mechanics for nomads and the Silk Road, and provides new smaller but more focused campaigns around Alexander Nevsky in the Baltic and the Guelphs and Ghibellines in Italy. I spoke to the developers about the expansion and their design choices.

Can you tell us a bit about the motivation for this expansion? Why were you so keen to include India and East and West Africa in this DLC? The expansion aims to do justice to many nations who were not playable in the base game. The nomads of the steppes, tribal peoples such as the Prussians and Samogitians of the Baltic, as well as numerous African and Indian kingdoms with diverse profiles (Ghana, Solomon, Chola, etc.). However, properly representing them required a

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significant amount of work due to their diversity, which couldn’t be fully achieved in the base game.

Figure 1. The new map greatly changes the dynamics and opens up possibilities. A unique challenge with this Jewish kingdom in Africa!

How will the new factions be different from those in the base game? Can we expect new art or audio for these regions? What sort of new units and buildings will be available? Are there any new mechanics unique to any of these cultures?

First, we sought to identify what would allow these factions to remain formidable competitors in the race for victory, even against powerful and sophisticated nations such as the Holy Roman Empire or the Byzantines. By combining historical facts with appropriate gameplay, we concluded that they could differentiate themselves by the presence of highly lucrative trade routes and the ability to launch significant conquest or raiding campaigns (particularly the Mongols).

There are indeed new audio elements, as we are introducing new terrain types and natural obstacles called Impediments, each with their own sounds. These function as roadblocks that slow regional development, including salt flats, sand dune deserts,

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animal migrations, etc. These nations also have numerous unique buildings, some enriching their trade mechanics, while others appropriately illustrate their tribal or nomadic nature—such as rituals marking the transition to adulthood or scarification practices. Additional distinctive features include idol circles, warrior festivals, the intriguing secret societies of certain African tribes where participants wore masks, and more. However, we had to subdivide further to properly reflect the diversity of these nations…you won’t find, for example, the famous rock-hewn churches in Ethiopian kingdoms outside their historical context.

Figure 2. Requested for a long time, the building browser is a major new feature of the patch and will help you find your way.

Can you tell us some more about the Silk Road in the game? Does it play a part in any of the new mechanics?

It is indirectly integrated in several ways through Trade Road Sites, which are buildings that appear spontaneously under certain commercial conditions and form a chain via the Great Trades feature. Most of the new nations introduced in the expansion can earn

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Legacy points through powerful buildings that exploit and sell resources such as salt, spices, indigo, amber, etc.

Figure 3. With some effort, great trades provide a significant legacy boost.

I’m really interested in how you’ve modelled nomadic nations. Normally, strategy games are very focused on settled societies, so what drew you to include nomads?

How are the nomads different from settled kingdoms? Can you give us any details about their mechanics?

Nomads represent only a fraction of the newly added nations, but they do have some unique mechanics and several regional sites (classified as buildings in the game, though they are not truly static!). These sites ignore land ownership rules and literally migrate from one region to another. In most cases, movement is restricted to the player’s own nation to prevent excessive frustration, but occasionally, nomads may cross into neighbouring territories—much to their neighbours’ dismay! After all, the steppe belongs to no one! But don’t worry—your neighbours can also cause trouble for you in the same way…

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Figure 4. Fight your way through Kashmir, but be wary of the Mongols — they will arrive sooner than you think.

The new scenarios sound incredible and introduce characters and factions we don’t often see in games (at least in Anglophone games). Can you tell us a bit about why you chose to focus on Alexander Nevsky? How will you represent the Teutonic Knights, the Rus, and other factions? Can we expect any additional mechanics around winter warfare in the frozen Baltic regions?

The scenario, as we designed it, is an interesting three-way struggle where no one is truly allied with another. The Teutonic Knights tolerate the Danes but do not cooperate with them; the Danes and Swedes dislike each other but still seek to expand at the expense of the Rus’ principalities; meanwhile, Novgorod and Polotsk resist all invaders as best they can—while the Mongols loom not far to the east.

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Figure 5. Scandinavians can attempt to settle new lands and gain rewards from it, albeit at a cost.

Several Baltic tribes also mount fierce resistance from within their deep forests, keeping the game highly dynamic. The harsh weather conditions are indeed a challenge, and players will frequently encounter bad weather, even in autumn (we have introduced four turns per year). Additionally, there are over a dozen custom rules that ensure each nation remains distinct.

I’m particularly interested in the Guelphs vs. Ghibellines scenario. Why do you think Italy in this period gets so little coverage in strategy games? How will you represent the various Italian city-states in this period?

The Italian city-states in the scenario are almost all aligned with either the Guelph or Ghibelline factions, leading to complete chaos in every turn (though changes are always logical).

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The scenario is quite complex because of its fluidity—alliances shift rapidly, and armed refugees may appear at any moment. The Papacy can use excommunication, causing loyalty issues among the Holy Roman Empire’s vassals. In short, it’s a mess…but an interesting one!

Are there any parts of the DLC that you’re particularly proud of or excited for players to see? Is there anything in particular that makes this DLC distinct?

War Campaigns are indeed a major feature of the DLC, allowing certain nations to climb to the top of the victory rankings through military exploits. But that’s not all—it fundamentally alters their behaviour, making warfare a near-necessity without necessarily seeking to hold onto conquered territories. This leads to raids, pillaging, and neighbours you definitely wouldn’t want living next door.

Figure 6. Kanem Bornu launches a war campaign against Gao. If the capital were to fall, the legacy gain would be quite significant

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.

Moreover, the Mongols—already formidable in the base game (they could, as in reality, reach Poland effortlessly, conquering everything in their path)—are even more dangerous with the War Campaigns, which grant them additional bonuses.

Additionally, the significantly larger map allows for better representation of nations that were somewhat diminished in the base game. The Seljuks, for example, are now far more powerful … much to Byzantium’s misfortune!

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Authority in Field of Glory: Kingdoms. Mechanics, referents, and possible developments Arturo Mariano Iannace (IMT Lucca)

Authority is a central concept in Field of Glory: Kingdoms. According to the game manual, Authority “represents the control the ruler has over his realm.” 1 While the definition is fundamentally correct, it seems almost underwhelming compared to the relevance the concept plays in the game. In FoG: Kingdoms, Authority does not simply equate with ‘control’. It involves something akin to ‘glory’ when it is earned (or lost) due to the battles won (or to defeats); it comes closer to ‘reputation’ when it becomes the fundamental element of comparison between the player’s realm and its various opponents and neighbours. It is through this sort of ‘reputation’ mechanism (that is, via the comparison between the Authority enjoyed by the player’s realm and that enjoyed by the others) that a realm can progress (or regress) to different forms of governance, stabilizing and strengthening itself or stepping forward on the path to disaggregation and collapse. It should be noted that Authority in FoG: Kingdoms is a ‘consensual’ asset: it does not rest on the brute use of force, but it implies the building of a consensus. As the manual puts it, after all, it also leads to a “grateful population”.

As such, Authority in FoG: Kingdoms could perhaps be re-defined as ‘the level of social and political legitimate power a ruler enjoys both inside and outside his realm’. This definition has a double advantage: it comes closer to existing definitions in Political Science and History (for example that proposed by Robert Dahl and reprised by Isabelle Duyvesteyn)2; and it emphasizes its exercise beyond the borders of the realm, making those same borders far less rigid and, thus, more akin to the medieval reality.

Once re-defined in this way, Authority also emerges as one of the most original and interesting concepts in FoG: Kingdoms, and an element of strength for the game compared to its competitors. For example, in Crusader Kings 3 players mainly control their realms via the Stewardship attribute, eventually combined with networks of

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interpersonal relationships, while diplomatic relations are managed through the Diplomacy attribute (and, therefore, almost completely disjointed from domestic issues).

As presented in FoG: Kingdoms, then, Authority is a powerful analytical tool. This becomes even more evident when taking into account its potential applications in the modelling of processes that, for lack of a better term, we will label ‘realm-building’.

A prime example is given by the Norman conquest of Southern Italy, a process in theory covered, chronologically speaking, by the Grand Campaign of FoG: Kingdoms, but otherwise completely neglected in the game. The Norman conquest of Southern Italy, differently from what happened almost concurrently in England, was a long, ‘anarchical’ process intertwining the ebbs and flows of the power of the Lombard principalities with the interests and goals of various warlords, which ultimately led to the consolidation of a unified Norman polity under the guise of the Kingdom of Sicily. Such a complex historical process finds in the concept of Authority a suitable key for representation: it is versatile enough to render the fluid dynamics of power between the Lombard principalities, the shifting of borders, and the processes of social and political disintegration and (re)consolidation that changed Southern Italy forever.

This is but a proposal, but it hints at how a key concept of FoG: Kingdoms could lead to an improvement of the game itself, while also serving as a powerful analytical tool for historians.

Slitherine. 2024. Field of Glory: Kingdoms Manual.

Dahl, Robert. 1976. Modern Political Analysis. Englewood Cliffs.; Duyvesteyn, Isabelle. 2005.

Clausewitz and African War. Politics and Strategy in Liberia and Somalia. Routledge.

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Further Reading

Delogu, P. 1973, “L’evoluzione politica dei Normanni d’Italia fra poteri locali e potestà universali”, in Atti del Congresso Internazionale di Studi sulla Sicilia Normanna (Palermo, 4-9 dicembre 1972), Instituto di Storia Medievale, Università di Palermo S. MacLean, S. 2003. Kingship and Politics in the Late Ninth Century. Charles the Fat and the End of the Carolingian Empire. Cambridge University Press.

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Religious coexistence and Rough Tolerance in Field of Glory: Kingdoms Juan Manuel Rubio Arévalo (Central European University)

Field of Glory: Kingdoms presents a notably nuanced approach to interreligious relations in the Middle Ages—one that stands out among strategy titles. While medieval religiosity is often framed in games through rigid conflict and intolerance, FoG:K more closely reflects what Christopher MacEvitt terms rough tolerance in his study of Crusader-period Levantine societies. MacEvitt’s model emphasizes three key dynamics in medieval interreligious interactions: silence (the overlooking of religious difference in everyday life in written sources), permeability (the movement of people and practices across boundaries), and localization (the centrality of local conditions over broader religious policy). This model is especially useful to approach frontier societies such as the Levant, Sicily, or Hispania FoG:K nuance to medieval religiosity can be seen in three interrelated element: by distinguishing between local and diplomatic interreligious relations; by simulating the internal diversity of religious groups; and by simulating the permeability of religious practices in some buildings. Religion plays a dual role in FoG:K. Diplomatically, religious differences augment tensions between kingdoms in the absence of a treaty stabilizing their relations. If tensions rise enough, a Crusade or a Jihad might be launched against a kingdom of the opposite religion (Figure 1). This is an important mechanic, since events like a Crusade was a concrete moment out of the control in the life of medieval people and not a ubiquitous experience.

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Figure 1.

However, the dealing with divergent groups at the local level, while influenced, is not as confrontational as at the diplomatic level. Each region in the game has different types of population, such as peasants, freemen, nobles, and clergymen (Figure 2). While many strategy games take the presence of a different religion as a neat negative, in FoG:K religion is only one of various factors influencing the behaviour its population, including culture, local piety points and religious affiliation (Figure 3).

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Figure 2.

Figure 3.

The productivity of clergymen is a case in point, as a priest from a divergent denomination but from the same broader faith might be able to generate piety points (though less efficiency), which does not happen with those of a different religious group. For instance, in the Norman Kingdom of Apulia and Sicily an Orthodox priest produces some piety as a fellow Christian, while a Muslim imam does not (Figures 4 and 5). This reflects how, in

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practice, local coexistence could accommodate religious diversity, even amid overarching ideological conflict, as MacEvitt’s theoretical model states.

Figure 4.

Figure 5.

Permeability can also be seen in FoG:K through certain religious buildings. The player might be motivated to build certain structures that might decrease their piety while providing other benefits. A good example of this is the Fortune Teller which, being a practiced condemned by the Church, reduces the piety of the region by three, but

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provides some income and a local loyalty bonus (Figure 6). Furthermore, the Fortune Teller comes with a mystic advice mechanic that generates the resource “luck” which can impact stability, conversion, and other events. Such features reflect the interweaving of formal and informal religious practices in medieval life, even when disapproved by Church or secular authorities.

Figure 6.

Finally, the treatment of heresy differs sharply from other religious groups. Although religious diversity might cause unrest, heresies actively reduce loyalty, stewardship, piety, and can spread among the player’s territories. This means that while the player can passively convert other religious groups such as pagans or Jews, heretics must actively be rooted out, often through a military intervention. This happens with the building “Minor heresy” which the player cannot manually disassemble but must be done using an army of at least 100 combat power (Figure 7). This is significant since part of rough tolerance was the negotiation of religious spaces between the authorities and the local clergy leadership of different religious groups, such as Latin authorities and Eastern Christians in the Levant. However, heresy was always seen as subversive of the social order which demanded more drastic measures, like the Albigensian Crusade or the Hussite

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Crusades show. Unlike other religious groups, heretics were not part of this rough tolerance but were framed as internal enemies requiring violent suppression.

Figure 7.

In this short paper I have sought to expose how FoG:K use of layered and dynamic game mechanics offer a nuances portrayal of interreligious life, offering a valuable example of how strategy games can move beyond conflict-based models to reflect the complexities of religious coexistence in the medieval world.

Further Reading Barkai, Ron, 2007. El Enemigo En El Espejo: Cristianos y Musulmanes En La España Medieval. Ediciones Rialp Constable, Olivia Remie, 2014. “Islamic Practice and Christian Power: Sustaining Muslim Faith under Christian Rule in Medieval Spain, Sicily, and the Crusader States.”

In Coexistence and Cooperation in the Middle Ages: IV European Congress of Medieval

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Studies F.I.D.E.M., 23-27 June 2009, Palermo (Italy), Alessandro Musco and Giuliana Musotto., 25–36. Officina di Studi Medievali Griffith, Sidney, 2008. The Church in the Shadow of the Mosque: Christians and Muslims in the World of Islam. Princeton University Press MacEvitt, Christopher, 2008. The Crusades and the Christian World of the East: Rough Tolerance. University of Pennsylvania Press Moore, R. I, 1996. “Heresy, Repression, and Social Change in the Age of Gregorian Reform.” In Christendom and Its Discontents: Exclusion, Persecution and Rebellion, 1000-1500, Scott L. Waigh and Peter D. Diehl, Cambridge University Press, 19–46.

———, 2012. The War on Heresy. Harvard University Press Rist, Rebecca, 2016. “The Medieval Papacy, Crusading, and Heresy, 1095-1291.” In A Companion to the Medieval Papacy: Growth of an Ideology and Institution, Keith Sisson&Atria A. Larson., 309–32. Brill

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On Piety and Power: Faith in Field of Glory: Kingdoms James Baillie (Austrian Academy of Sciences)

For this look at Field of Glory: Kingdoms, I’m going to take a brief look at how the game handles religion. For my examples, I’m going to zoom in on the Caucasus: its crosscultural nature makes it both a great case study and a fun base for a campaign.

Figure 1

In strategy games, religion is often largely tied to unrest and popular opinion and is better for the player the more homogeneous they can make it. This is a structural/materialist ‘opiate of the masses’ view of religion, where religion is part of a system of control, a distracting and illusory alleviation of people’s suffering that makes them more satisfied with their conditions. Implementing this in games gives an effective tie-in between the player’s goals as ruler or abstracted leader of a political unit, and the need to represent something we know was vital to people’s lives in the past.

Field of Glory is a classic example of these sorts of mechanics. Piety, generated by clerical population units, gives a bonus to regional loyalty, and reduces the chance of

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“heretical” and “occult” events which can have negative effects. It also adds to wider legacy gain: more piety generation essentially scores more victory points.

Figure 2

Let’s unpack what this does and doesn’t say about religion. It suggests that imposing religious unity was important both for population control (loyalty) and in and of itself (legacy gain). With ties into the building system it explains conspicuous religious displays, like church-building. A real, honestly believed religion is, however, more than a tool of statecraft. Religious actions were not always taken strategically and clerics were themselves power-brokers: like religion did not always mean like minds. The game also enforces very clear dividing lines between ‘correct’ religion and heresy as a major threat: real faith was often more heterodox.

There’s also a modern viewpoint in this: being able to manipulate religion effectively was beyond the capacity of most medieval political units. Converting people en masse requires reach, manpower, and education – and, for rulers who relied on local nobility to govern, near total aristocratic buy-in. In fact, in the medieval Caucasus, there were different strategies on display to those a Field of Glory player is presented with. Medieval Georgian rulers in the C12th, despite their own Orthodox Christianity, patronised Armenian Apostolic churches and even Tbilisi’s mosques. Medieval faith didn’t always preclude actively courting support across religious lines, or even holding together multifaith political alignments.

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Figure 3

Field of Glory has some systems that could explore this more. Its population system does represent mixed religious populations like Tbilisi’s Muslims, and regional decisions are good ways to model specific acts of patronage. The opiate of the masses route is a tried and tested strategy game mechanic and is implemented well here, but building on the strategies real medieval rulers used in places like the Caucasus could also open up new strategic avenues in Field of Glory and similar games – challenging players with the messy realities and balancing acts of medieval religious and cultural exchange.

Figure 4

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Game Design

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The Birds and The Bees in Lombard Law-Scape Thom Gobbitt (University of Graz)

Early medieval law codes offer an excellent resource for inspiring and informing the settings of “Pen & Paper” or Tabletop Roleplay Games (TTRPGs),1 whether for purely entertainment purposes or as a means of getting historical information onto the table and facilitating education or academic research. In this paper I want to explore a facet of the legal landscape of seventh-century Italy, the ‘law-scape’ as it were, through the lens of the first written Lombard law-code, the Edictus Rothari issued in 643 CE.2 Specifically, the Lombard laws relating to the theft of apes [bees] and acciptres [hawks, falcons] from another person’s forest, with an eye to their potential for gamification. In the TTRPG which I am slowly writing, Langobard (forthcoming), these laws have inspired a range of Skill traits for the game (especially beekeeping and falconry/hawking); entries for the Bestiary and Inventory chapters, character classes in relation to landowners and specialists in the respective skills, and of relevance here, have informed on the early medieval landscape against which the stories unfurl.

[318] If anyone steals one or more apeculare [hives] with apes [bees], let them pay twelve solidi as composition. [§319] If anyone takes apes from an arbore signato [marked tree] in someone else's silva [wood, forest] let them pay six solidi as composition. If the tree is not marked, whoever finds the apes may have them, according to the law of nature, except in the gahagio regis [king's preserve]. If the lord whose silva it is comes along, he may take the mel [honey] but no further blame will follow.

[§320] If anyone takes an acceptur from someone else's silva they may have it, except in the gahagio regis. But if the lord of the silva comes along, he may take the acceptur and no further blame will be imputed to him…

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The Middle Ages in Modern Games, 2025 Conference Proceedings Vol. 6 [§321] If anyone takes acceptures from a nest in an arbore signato in someone else's silva, they shall pay six solidi as composition.3

The four laws here refer to things that a person — whether gamer or an early medieval Lombard — might well consider significant resources, bees, beehives and honey, or falcons ready to be trained to hunt, as well as revealing a complex system of land ownership and rights of access.

Both in the case of falcons and bees we have direct reference to the acquisition of woodland-resources in either a silva [forest] owned by another person, or worse (in terms of legal response), woodland owned by the king. In the latter case, this probably was not only such land that was directly owned by the king, but also the various lands across Lombard Italy that were used to sustain the local curtes regis [royal courts], where local legal officials administered justice. In addition to these, there is of course also the implication of forests and woodlands that were not owned by anybody, the borderlinestereotypical, untamed and wild woods of the “dark age” medieval landscape, and a poetic counterpoint to the relatively densely populated and exploited sylvo-pastoral landscape of owned woodlands, whether royal or private.4 The second point to consider is the marking of trees to convey a claim to the resources developing within them. Falcons —- in the early medieval period, at least — could not be bred in captivity, but instead had to be left to breed in the wild and then to mature just enough to be independent but trainable.5 Drawing a comparison with an alreadypublished TTRPG applicable to the medieval setting, the 4th edition of the GURPS (2020) includes a “falconry” skill with a system for arbitrating a would-be falconer’s acquisition of young birds to train: essentially it requires that they spend a week searching the woods for nests during the spring, then on a successful skill roll acquires 1d3 chicks.6 Here, then, finding the birds, has a fixed duration and time of the year when it can be performed, and ends with the player character having somewhere between zero and three birds to train, depending on the luck of the dice. The marking of trees referred to in the laws indicates a less haphazard approach being imagined in the Lombard laws, in which the identification of nesting sites occurs over a longer period, and the falconer

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returns at the right time of year. As falcons usually return to the same nesting site each year, this process would be even more sustainable.

The dominus silvae [lord of the woods], therefore, can identify likely trees that they wish to return to each year in search of new birds, while the interloping falconer perhaps makes an impromptu search for chicks in the manner of the GURPS skill, at the appropriate time in the spring — coming earlier and laying claim to a tree themselves would not be wise, as another law a little earlier in the code set a forty solidi fine for a freeman who marks a tree in someone else’s woods, while an enslaved man would lose his hand for committing the same crime (Edictus Rothari, §240–41).

Comparable situations can be found in the laws for taking swarms of bees from marked trees. As with the falcons, the person who takes them from an unmarked tree in someone else’s forest is permitted to keep them, unless they are caught in the act and the owner claims the spoils from them: honey or chicks. The emphasis that, nevertheless, no guilt should be imputed to the hopeful falconer or beekeeper who took resources from an unmarked tree, somewhat suggests that many a lord probably tried to punish it as theft anyway.

In the case of the gahagio regis [royal enclosure] there are less options for the would be falconer or beekeeper, as even in unmarked trees such acquisition is not permitted. The law does not state the exact degree of compensation due, but if we assume it was essentially the same as taking them from a marked tree then we can assume that the amount was doubled as was traditional for royal cases, suggesting twenty-four solidi for the bees or twelve solidi for a falcon (Edictus Rothari, §369).

More than just a geographic landscape for our plot to unfurl on (that is a specific forest with specific trees, some of which contain nests with falcon fledgelings and hives of bees swimming in honey, which might then be captured… with intent and appropriate dice rolls) the geography is enriched through these interconnecting webs of social and legal ownership, restrictions and permissibility. Effectively, a “law-scape”, that can result in further twists and turns in the plot and interactions with other characters, arising from ownership and access, what was permitted, forbidden or deemed ideal (regardless of

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whether it was enforced, enforceable or imaginary) and what actions and responses the legal actors, that is our player and non-player characters, might then take in such situations.

Players in the TTRPG, through their characters in the story, centre human agency in response to the sometimes-dry language of the laws, and opening an analytical dialogue with them. A game of Langobard might well see our players find a falcon in the woods, and while they may well lose the bird to the owner of the woods, hopefully they will also emerge with an enriched and empathetic view of early medieval laws and how they might play out on the law-scape.

On TTRPGs as a medium, see: William J. White et al., ‘Tabletop Role-Playing Games’, in Role-Playing Game Studies: Transmedia Foundations, ed. José P. Zagal and Sebastian Deterding (Routledge, 2018); William J. White, ‘The Right to Dream of the Middle Ages’, in Digital Gaming Re-Imagines the Middle Ages, ed. Daniel T. Kline (Routledge, 2014).

2 The Edictus Rothari is edited in the modern day as: ‘Edictus Langobardorum’, in Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Leges, ed. Friedrich Bluhme, vol. 4 (Hahn, 1868); Claudio Azzara and Stefano Gasparri, eds., Le leggi dei Longobardi: Storia, memoria e diritto di un popolo germanica (Viella, 2005).

3 Translation emended from: Katherine Fischer-Drew, tran., The Lombard Laws (Penn: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1973), 114–15.

4 On the woods in early medieval Italy, the best place to begin is: Paolo Squatriti, Landscape and Change in Early Medieval Italy: Chestnuts, Economy, and Culture (Cambridge University Press, 2013); And on early medieval woodland, from the perspective of the pasturing of pigs: Jamie Kreiner, Legions of Pigs in the Early Medieval West, Yale Agrarian Studies, ed. James C. Scott (Yale University Press, 2020).

5 For some older but foundational studies on medieval falconry, see: William H. Forsyth, ‘The Noblest of Sports: Falconry in the Middle Ages’, The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 2, no. 9 (1944): 253–59; Hans J. Epstein, ‘The Origin and Earliest History of Falconry’, Isis 34, no. 6 (1943): 497–509; For the important argument that falconry did not become restricted to the elites until the ninth century, in the reign of Louis the Pious (and, therefore, that our Lombard falconers are free and unfree alike), see: Eric J. Goldberg, ‘Louis the Pious and the Hunt’, Speculum 88, no. 3 (2013): 613–43.

6 Steve Jackson et al., GURPS Fourth Edition: Basic Set, Character (Steve Jackson Games, 2020), 194.

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The Visualization of Medieval Knowledge in Modern Video Games: Artistic and Architectural Approaches Baykar Demir (Istanbul Bilgi University)

Introduction This paper examines how modern medievalist video games draw on art historical motifs to create immersive visions of the Middle Ages. Focusing on Kingdom Come: Deliverance II (2024), The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt (2015), and Diablo IV (2023), it explores how medieval art, architecture, and iconography are reimagined in interactive form. By blending historical visual languages with digital world-building, these games turn familiar motifs into explorable spaces that convey the aesthetics, symbolism, and ideological frameworks of the medieval past.

Kingdom Come: Deliverance II and the Realism of Romanesque and Gothic Architecture Kingdom Come: Deliverance II recreates medieval Bohemia through late Romanesque and early Gothic styles. Churches, town halls, and fortifications include ribbed vaults, pointed arches, and stained glass. Interiors feature fresco cycles arranged in historically grounded sequences shaped by patronage. Urban layouts with market squares, walls, and ecclesiastical buildings reflect fourteenth-century Central European models.

Beyond architectural accuracy, the game builds a convincing atmosphere of the Middle Ages. By combining visual detail with lighting, sound, and spatial design, it immerses players in a world that evokes medieval sensibilities while reinforcing cultural context.

Thus, the game functions both as entertainment and as an informal learning environment where players absorb aspects of medieval life through direct engagement.

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A notable example is the quest “Thou Art But Dust,” where players reconstruct an ossuary, directly referencing the Sedlec Ossuary in Kutná Hora. 1 Assembling skull pyramids and bone piles mirrors historical arrangements such as crosses, chandeliers, and arches that honored the dead and reflected on life’s transience. 2 The quest title recalls the memento mori tradition of late medieval theology and art, where reminders of death prompted reflection. 3 This mechanic also resonates with the Danse Macabre, a widespread fifteenth-century motif showing skeletal figures leading all social classes to their graves. 4 By arranging the dead, players enact a digital memento mori that bridges art history and interactivity. 5e association is reinforced on the player’s death screen, where imagery directly recalls the visual vocabulary of the Danse Macabre, making the theme of mortality not only part of the quest but also embedded in the game’s broader visual system.

Figure 1. Screenshot from Kingdom Come: Deliverance II. Interior wall fresco depicting the Baptism of Christ, located within a digitally reconstructed medieval chapel. The artwork features star-studded vaults, vegetal borders, and angelic figures in a Central European Gothic style.

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The Witcher 3 and the Late Gothic Fantasy Aesthetic The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt constructs a world shaped by the artistic and architectural vocabulary of late medieval Europe, especially the Flamboyant Gothic traditions of Central and Eastern regions. Castles, cathedrals, and towns feature ornate tracery, rib vaults, and sculptural programs emphasizing verticality and intricacy. These elements evoke the late medieval fascination with sacred geometry and visual excess, while also suggesting a world on the verge of reform, superstition, and upheaval.

The game’s visual narrative draws on grotesque aesthetics rooted in late medieval and early Renaissance art. Allegorical and demonic imagery reminiscent of Bosch and Bruegel appears in corrupted chapels and in character design.

A striking example is the Crones of Crookback Bog (Figure 5), whose grotesque forms and mythic backstory align with early modern depictions of witches. Their imagery recalls Bosch, Hans Baldung Grien, and Frans Francken (Figure 6), who portrayed women as monstrous or morally decayed. Features such as sagging flesh, hybrid limbs, and exaggerated body parts reflect associations between female bodies, sin, and chaos.

Their dominion over the swamp, a liminal and decaying space, parallels medieval ideas of untamed nature as spiritually charged and unstable.

The Crones are first introduced as the “Ladies of the Wood” through a woven tapestry and folkloric narrative, evoking mythological triads such as the Moirai. This frames them as a fate-weaving feminine trinity. As the story develops, their image incorporates early modern witchcraft traditions, particularly the sabbath. Cauldrons, dismembered flesh, and ritual objects recall Baldung, Francken, and demonological texts like the Malleus Maleficarum, where witches appear in cannibalistic settings. This convergence of mythology and demonology positions the Crones as a hybrid construct, part seer and part devourer, that embodies cultural anxieties about female power and bodily transgression.

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Figure 5. The Crones—Whispess, Brewess, and Weavess—from The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt bestiary.

Figure 6: Hieronymus Bosch, The Temptation of St. Anthony, 1501.

These figures also align with fifteenth- and sixteenth-century demonological literature, especially the Malleus Maleficarum, which codified the witch as sexually deviant and

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physically deformed.6 The inclusion of supernatural female entities such as succubi and water hags extends this imagery, framing the monstrous feminine as a source of both danger and mythic power. Through this blend of grotesque aesthetics, folklore, and late Gothic visuality, The Witcher 3 presents a fantasy world shaped by the visual and psychological legacies of medieval Europe.

Art and Iconography in the Sacred Spaces of Diablo IV The interior environments of Diablo IV create visual depth and immersion while reflecting the historical relationship between art and power. Throughout history, churches, cathedrals, and religious spaces functioned as stages for ideological authority where doctrine was visualized, power asserted, and belief shaped. 7 Artistic programs adapted to political or theological needs, such as fresco cycles of heaven and hell or apse mosaics narrating the life of a ruler, operated as doctrinal tools as well as aesthetic choices.

Diablo IV adopts these strategies most clearly in the Cathedral of Light, where architecture and iconography act as instruments of control. The design builds a world in which inhabitants are shaped by visual cues, staging a convincing theocracy where art functions as propaganda.

One scene shows Inarius standing beside a lifeless figure, extending his hand in a gesture of resurrection (Figure 7). The composition closely recalls the Christian depiction of The Raising of Jairus’s Daughter (Figure 8). The parallel in gesture and framing transforms Inarius into a salvific figure. In another scene, he appears in white, ascending over kneeling figures (Figure 9), evoking the Resurrection or Transfiguration. This imagery elevates him both narratively and theologically, aligning him with messianic representation.

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Figure 7: Screenshot from Diablo IV. Inarius standing over a lifeless figure, mirroring the composition of The Raising of Jairus’s Daughter.

These strategies are not directed at the player but influence the in-game population in the conflict between Inarius and Lilith. Lilith is rarely shown directly; her presence is conveyed through blood rituals, dark scriptures, and ruined spaces. She is associated with nature and subversion, opposing Inarius’s regime of order and light.

Ultimately, the sacred spaces of Diablo IV operate as ideological constructs that use architecture, iconography, and light to structure belief, reimagining the political role of sacred art in a digital context.

Figure 8: Ilya Repin, The Raising of Jairus’s Daughter, 1871.

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Figure 9: Screenshot from Diablo IV. Inarius ascending in white robes above kneeling figures, visually evoking the Resurrection or Transfiguration.

Conclusion This study demonstrates that modern medievalist video games are not merely escapist entertainment but sophisticated visual systems that reinterpret and project art historical knowledge in interactive environments. Drawing on medieval and early modern traditions, Kingdom Come: Deliverance II, The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt, and Diablo IV create spaces of ideological, theological, and aesthetic meaning. Through Gothic and Romanesque reconstruction, grotesque allegories of witchcraft, and the visual theology of sacred spaces, these games offer a contemporary reimagining of the Middle Ages.

Paul Koudounaris, The Empire of Death: A Cultural History of Ossuaries and Charnel Houses (London: Thames & Hudson, 2011), 100–107.

2 Ibid., 106.

3 Émile Mâle, Religious Art in France: The Late Middle Ages (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986), 180–200.

4 Elina Gertsman, The Dance of Death in the Middle Ages: Image, Text, Performance (Turnhout: Brepols, 2010), 67–74.

5 Philippe Ariès, The Hour of Our Death, trans. Helen Weaver (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1981), 137–142.

6 Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger, Malleus Maleficarum, trans. Montague Summers (London: Pushkin Press, 1928), 41–63.

7 David Freedberg, The Power of Images: Studies in the History and Theory of Response (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), 54–85.

1

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DropCaps: A Word Game with a Medievalist Spin Jessie Contour and Kelcey Gray (University of Texas at Austin)

Illuminated manuscripts are celebrations of letterforms. So, too, is Dropcaps, a strategic word game with a medieval spirit. The name itself draws from the decorated capitals of manuscripts and hints at the core game mechanic: falling letters and spelling words.

Gamers are no strangers to spelling. “Currently, about 23% of mobile gamers play word games, making it the 5th most popular game genre.”1 That’s likely thanks to the success of games like Words with Friends and Wordle. As of 2023, the latter was played by a staggering one in three people in the U.S. daily.2 To appeal to this mass audience of word smithers, mobile word games either use generic designs that lack personality or identity, or they rely on familiar skeuomorphic visuals akin to Bookworm.

Figure 1. Dropcaps fall down the board, player spells M-E-O-W

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Dropcaps combines elements of familiar grid-based game mechanics—spelling words á la Scrabble and falling tiles like those in Tetris—with unique gameplay derived from the architecture of the medieval page. Large decorative drop caps push down from the top of the board. Players must manoeuvre and position the small sans-serif letter tiles around the drop caps to spell words. Successfully spelled words must relate to the theme of each level, adding a layer of intellectual difficulty to the game. Dropcaps encourages a monastic kind of focus—the board remains still until the player moves, rewarding patience and strategy. Players who spell ten words are rewarded with medieval quippery in the form of fun facts from medievalist Dr. Maureen Quigley.

Figure 2. A sampling of Dropcaps visual language in-game. Left to right: fun fact screen and victory screen

The game’s visuals are loaded with references to the manuscript. Rather than leaning into skeuomorphic visuals like parchment and ink, which would neither be necessary to communicate gameplay nor tone, the game harnesses pixel art and a restrained palette, including an approachable pseudo-textura font3 [3], vibrant hits of red nodding to rubrication, and manicules as calls to action. The visual direction for Dropcaps also includes curated imagery and custom sprites that capture the irreverence and humor oft

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found on the medieval page. Within the game’s win screens, players can encounter illuminated bonnacons, “arcane animatronics,” and a pixelated pile of poo. Of special note is the use of two cloaked figures from the Psalter and Office of the Dead4 throughout the game's tutorial—the archangel Gabriel and the Virgin Mary serving as dead-ringers for the developers Contour and Gray (see Fig. 3).

Figure. 3 Left: Developer Doppelgangers at the start of the tutorial. Right: A well-worn tome serves as the game’s level select screen

Dropcaps’ technical development centres on two key components: the systematic curation of thematic word banks and the design of an intelligent letter-delivery algorithm.

The word banks prioritize common first letters (Barn, Bark, Bat, Bear, Ball) while avoiding words that are long or have uncommon single-use letters (Qs, Xs, etc.). The word banks were born out of requests to ChatGPT for “words related to Animals that start with A”, and expanded by way of Natural Language Processing with Python's NLTK Package5, cross-referenced with a Scrabble Dictionary tool. The letter algorithm evolved over time

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from a random letter generator into a complex system of grouping and sorting based on shared letters and character frequency to increase playable options with fewer tiles. The ultimate goal of which is for players to spell desirable words efficiently while also feeling smart.

Perhaps most significantly, Dropcaps was created by professors Kelcey Gray and Jessie Contour as a pedagogical case study for their first-of-its-kind course offered at the University of Texas School of Design and Creative Technologies: Typography in Games.

Dropcaps is available on the Google Play Store and the App Store.

Ludography Words with Friends, Zynga, 2009 Wordle, Josh Wardle, 2021 Bookworm, Popcap Games, 2003 Tetris, Alexey Pajitnov, 1984

Scrabble, Hasbro/Mattel, 1948

Eisenberg, Erich. 2023. “Crunching the Numbers: The Stats Behind Popular Word Games”, Medium. https://wordgames.medium.com/crunching-the-numbers-the-stats-behind-popular-word-gamesd0827a3af601#:~:text=Currently%2C%20about%2023%25%20of%20mobile,5th%20most%20popular% 20game%20genre 2 Gardner, Matt. “American ‘Wordle’ Fans ‘Spend 3 Days A Year Playing’” Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/mattgardner1/2023/05/27/american-wordle-fans-spend-3-days-a-yearplaying/ 1

3

https://floodfonts.com/ferryman/

Walters Art Museum, Psalter and Office of the Dead, Annunciation, Walters Manuscript W.117, fol.

158v, ca. 1265-80 4

5

https://realpython.com/nltk-nlp-python/

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Global Perspectives

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Prosuming Regional Medievalisms – depictions, perceptions and imaginations of Rus’ in Russian-language computer games Kristina Wittkamp (Universität Passau)

Computer games as an important part of our media-related participative environment enable audiences, players and prosumers (hybrid of consumers and producers) to use various modes of reception. Therefore, playing and its perception constitute basic categories of human (inter-)action and agency (adapting Johan Huizinga’s dictum).

Playful interactions create simulations of reality or Heterotopias (adapting Foucault’s understanding) correlating and interrelating with our real everyday life. Since games are always bound to their surrounding contemporary discourses, they represent a selective and functional reception of the past.

By analysing depictions, receptions and perceptions of Eastern Slavic medievalisms concerning Rus’ in selected Russian-language computer games, this paper discusses emerging patterns of retrospective communication about playing practices, imaginations and usages of these virtual constructions and emotional perceptions.

Thus, an illuminated selection of Russian-language games apprehend bricolage-like recognizable aspects in different settings and genres.

Regionalisation of a specific Rus’ian medievalism Rus’ian medievalism instrumentalizes the history of Rus’ (especially Kyivan Rus’) for peculiar purposes by emphasizing the Eastern Slavic region’s special role within Europe and European history. Various modes like teleological, banal, gendered or collective medievalisms accentuate diverse discoursive orientations. They focus on the instrumentalization of the first multi-ethnic Eastern Slavic polity for various national communities, its fate under Mongol rule or its semi-fantastic interpretation (e.g. by combining historical with folklore narratives, thus blurring the line between authentic

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historical reconstructions and narratological imagologies of a legendary past). By combining temporalities with spatial spheres, such medievalisms act as mnemotic containers and chronotopes (in Bakhtin’s sense). Therefore, they work as regionalised resp. as region-focused discoursive constructions. Both RTS-oriented and folklorefantasy games take advantage of these well-established narratives and their spatial focus, thus advertising their regionality as distinctive cultural supremacy.

Military historical strategy games like Imperija: Smutnoe vremja (English version loosely translated as Reign: Conflict of Nations, 2009) interpret these centuries as violent but crucial for the region’s development. Its audience claims to play this clone of the game Europa Universalis because it is presumably designed for its Eastern European audience claiming itself as living in ‘swamp lands.’ Therefore, producers create familiar products for their local audience by perpetuating common clichés (e.g. stating East Central Europe as wild, uncivilized and therefore impassable territory). The biased discourse (of civilisation) capitalistically promotes that game to its consumers.

Figure 1. Cover depiction of Imperija: Smutnoe vremja.1

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Another vivid example provides the epic folklore-fantasy mix RPG Ostrov Rus’ (Island Rus’, available only in Russian, 2008). The interchangeable adventure story line takes place with Kyivan Prince Volodymyr’s famous legendary warriors (so-called Bogatyri) in a scenario visually related to the since 2004 produced Russian cartoon series Bogatyri.

By perpetuating well-established and commonly known narratives about these warriors protecting their sacred Rus’ian homeland, their prince and their Rus’ian virtues (howsoever these are defined), this game continues to depict this collective medievalism containing peculiar regionally fixated aspects in an immersive and cross media-related reception mode.

Its gaming community surpasses the mere consume-oriented experience by creating and sharing own content. By composing game video-scenes into short films, the new product re-narrates the gaming experience. Therefore, the community prosumes the content via different medialities. This bricolage-like approach deconstructs the formerly fixed in-game story line and enables creating new means, memes, narratives and reusages.

Figure 2. Screenshot of starting dialogue of Ostrov Rus’-protagonist Ivan and his father. Father: “Do not search for adventures, they will find someone stupid on their own. Take 15 silver roubles with you, the family mace and a letter of recommendation.”2

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Finding a specific place for Eastern Slavic fantasy medievalism between roleplaying and stereotypisation Folklore and fantasy are often assigned to banal medievalism, thus being widely transmitted, well-popularized and frequently bricolage-like reassembled. Being on the first glance apolitical narratives, they enable escapist immersive roleplay, but, on the second glance, they also encompass the danger of stereotypisation.

An example for percepting Eastern Slavic folklore is the fantasy game Vorona (Crow, even available in an international version, 1992). Consisting only of 6 levels full of arcadeaction adventures with widely popular and well known Eastern Slavic folklore characters, this game not only provides a stereotyped folklore overview, but also limits its deeper understanding to its Eastern Slavic gamer community – English-speaking prosumers do not understand peculiar visualities e.g. the hidden meaning of the witch’s Baba Jaga’s attributes, why the game protagonist Ivan Durak (Ivan the Fool) rides a stove or the depiction of the final boss fight against the dragon Zmej Gorynyč as medievalist St. George-inspired fight.

Figure 3. In-game screenshot from Vorona depicting protagonist Ivan Durak fighting Emelja Durak (Emelja the Fool).3

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In the beginning of the 1990s, rediscovering (Eastern) Slavic folklore correlated with an ‘own’ renewed identity construction (being evidently regionally bound). Despite its demanding gameplay, Vorona’s former players therefore by remembering its cultural impact become producers of cultural discourses, as Kirill Korolev suggests: “[…] the history of virtualisation of the Slavic sphere started in 1992 with the game Crow […] where they used stereotype images of the Russian past. It became quite popular, because characters like [witch] Baba Jaga or [three-headed dragon] Zmej Gorynyč could compete with foreign elves and gnomes.” Therefore, the producers provided their recipients a popular-folklore game product full of narrative stereotypes that gained (mostly retrospectively) its distinct popularity being another and therefore supreme mnemotic container of folklore narratives even surpassing well-established Western Tolkien-style stereotypes.

Rus’ian medievalism as (indigenous) culture of distinction Obviously, also historical strategy games simultaneously embed Rus’ian into European history distinguishing peculiar developments. Especially the XIII vek-(13th century)series (international version available, since 2007), anticipated as a Medieval Total War clone , instrumentalizes a specific image of Novgorodian Prince Aleksandr Nevskij. By alluding to film citations and images of the 1938 Ėjzenštejn-film Aleksandr Nevskij, the gamers produce and participate in interpreting its contents, thus creating a discoursive intermediality. Reviews simultaneously depict in-game scenes correlating with distinctive film scenes and popularized phrases. Gamers act in reviews and comments as recipients, consumers and critics, often rephrasing film citations, articulating their disgust for the Teutonic Order and even creating memes. Therefore, by playfully negotiating a culture of distinction and identification, the prosumers (re)adapt top-down established teleological and collective medievalisms for their own purposes.

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Figure 4. Marija Narodickaja comments in her review the game play by using a famous film phrase from the 1938 Ėjzenštejn-film Aleksandr Nevskij (“Stand up, Russian people…”).4

Concluding, as computer games include cross-media related reciprocities and hybridities, a reception and production centered analysis enables insights into selective and functional prosumptions of the past encompassing regionally and culturally limited spheres of reception and comprehension.

https://www.1c-interes.ru/catalog/igry/imperiya_smutnoe_vremya_pc_tsifrovaya_versiya/ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M4FoqODDo3M&list=PLnQHNIqy7OM40QxZi6efsNbDBvRs4Jqx&index=21 3 https://www.old-games.ru/game/screenshots/1151.html 4 https://stopgame.ru/game/xiii_vek_rusich 1 2

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Further Reading Albin, Andrew et al, 2019. Whose Middle Ages?: Teachable Moments for an Ill-Used Past. Fordham University Press Alvestad, Karl C. and Robert Houghton, eds, 2021. The Middle Ages in Modern Culture.

History and Authenticity in Contemporary Medievalism. Bloomsbury.

Bachtin, Michail M, 2008. Chronotopos. Suhrkamp.

Chapman, Adam, 2016. Digital games as history. How videogames represent the past and offer access to historical practice. Routledge.

Domsch, Sebastian, 2013. Storyplaying. Agency and Narrative in Video Games.

DeGruyter Foucault, Michel, 2005. Die Heterotopien/Der utopische Körper. Zwei Radiovorträge, zweisprachige Ausgabe, übersetzt von Michael Bischoff. Mit einem Nachwort von Daniel Defert. Suhrkamp Frissen, Valerie et al., eds, 2015. Playful Identities. The Ludification of Digital Media Cultures. Routledge, 2015.

Heinze, Carl, 2012. Mittelalter Computer Spiele. Zur Darstellung und Modellierung von Geschichte im populären Computerspiel. Transcript, 2012.

Houghton, Robert, ed, 2023. Playing the Middle Ages. Pitfalls and potential in modern games. Bloomsbury Huizinga, Johan, 1938. Homo Ludens. Versuch einer Bestimmung des Spielelementes der Kultur. Akademische Verlagsanstalt Pantheon Kerschbaumer, Florian and Tobias Winnerling, eds, 2014. Frühe Neuzeit im Videospiel.

Geschichtswissenschaftliche Perspektiven.

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Lackner, Thomas, 2014. “Computerspiel und Lebenswelt”. kulturanthropologische Perspektiven. Transcript.

Marchart, Oliver, 2008. Cultural Studies. UTB Välimäki, Reima, ed, 2022. Medievalism in Finland and Russia. Twentieth and TwentyFirst Century Aspects. Bloomsbury

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William Adams: A Monogatari Samurai Hero - Fictionalisations of Japanese History in Rekishi-Monogatari Games Benjamin Dorrington Redder (JSPS International Research Fellow at the Ritsumeikan Centre for Game Studies, Ritsumeikan University)

Fictionalisations of history within Japanese historical video games constitute a distinctive style of representing the Medieval past in contrast to the more commonly researched fictionalisations within games set in Europe and North America. A close inspection of Japanese historical games reveals a larger array of fictionalised representations, including ‘rekishi monogatari games’ as a relatively understudied group of Japanese history games that recontextualises Japan’s past in the form of ‘monogatari’ historical tales. In practice, these games represent Japanese history by remediating the representational conventions, content, aesthetics, and cultural motifs from Japan’s monogatari traditions of historical/cultural storytelling, entailing literary, oral, visual, and performative sources. The primary value of these remediations is dissemination of experiences that playfully re-examine and/or challenge both past and contemporary retellings, receptions, and recognitions of Japan’s past.

The game Nioh (Team Ninja, 2017) is chosen as an exemplar late Medieval rekishimonogatari text. Nioh re-contextualises the life of the Englishman and first European samurai William Adams (c. 1564 – 1620) during the last years of Japan’s Sengoku (Warring States) period (1476 – 1603) as an individualised warrior tale in a dark historical fantasy style. The monogatari conventions are present in many areas, two of which are chosen for illustrative discussion. Namely, Nioh’s fictionalisation of the player’s protagonist Adams as a warrior hero and yōkai hunter constitutes a recent addition to Japanese warrior protagonists (e.g. Minamoto no Raikō, Minamoto Yoshitsune, Taira Kagekiyo, Jiraiya) recounted in monogatari histories, legends, and creative adaptations across Medieval and post-Medieval eras.

As an opportunity to create their own version of Adams as a monogatari warrior hero, the player is able to collect, choose, and/or wear or use many types of attire and weapons

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pertaining to the samurai, ninja, or onmyōji (specialists in magic and divination) professions.

Figure 1. (left) William Adams wearing Karakawa armour worn by samurai Taira no Sadamori from the tenth century. Self-Authored Screenshot: Redder, B. (2025, 28 April). Episode 11 [Footage Screenshot], min 2:24:22.

Figure 2. (right) William Adams wearing the youngblood armour shown in the trailer and promotional artwork. Self-Authored Screenshot: Redder, B. (2025, 16 April). Episode 4 [Footage Screenshot], min 24:02.

Moreover, the combat system consists not only of Adams engaging in Medieval melee and ranged combat akin to the Sengoku samurai warrior (including access to unlocking melee weapon skills or arts), but also the opportunity to use and unlock new ninjutsu (ninja) and onmyo (magic) arts. In discussing onmyō arts further, this element ranges from offensive (e.g. elemental magic) and defensive spells (increased temporary protection again weapon damage), with the action to cast this spell usually depicted by Adams performing a mudra (hand gesture). This combative aspect is a remediation of

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samurai heroes employing both physical and magic (mudra techniques or talismans/scrolls) in defeating supernatural entities as evident in tales (e.g. Onzōshi Shimawatari, and Kagekiyo).

Figure 3. (left) William Adams’s activation of the ōnmyo spell by a mudra gesture. Self-Authored Screenshot: Redder, B. (2025, 17 April). Episode 5 Part ii [Footage Screenshot], min 12:54.

Figure 4. (right) William Adams performing a fire ball shot, a type of fire elemental ōnmyo spell.

Self-Authored Screenshot: Redder, B. (2025, 25 April). Episode 9 [Footage Screenshot], min 43:22.

As a yōkai hunter, Adams fights not only human combatants but also yōkai (supernatural entities) that plague Japan. Among the yōkai encountered are a number of game bosses usually encountered at the end of the main mission. These yōkai entities are reconstructed from a combination of literary, oral, and/or performative sources based on warrior monogatari tales, folklore, and drama plays (e.g. Shuten-dōji, Tsuchigumo, and Tawara Tōda Monogatari).

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Figure 5. Nue creature within Mt. Heizen (Mt. Hiei) near Kyōto . The Nue is primarily remediated from descriptions (Tale of Heike), and visual depictions, like Figure 6. SelfAuthored Screenshot: Redder, B. (2025, 17 April). Episode 5 Part ii [Footage Screenshot], min 12:54.

Figure 6. (left) Utagawa Kuniyoshi’s Ukiyo-e woodblock print ‘Kyoto Nue Taibi’.1

Figure 7. (Left) A depiction of Hattori Hanzō II (Hattori) Masanari, 17th century.2 Figure 8. (Right) Hattori Hanzō II (Hattori) Masanari revived as an ōgama (giant toad) yōkai, alluding to Edo period kabuki depictions of ninja magically shapeshifting into a toad. SelfAuthored Screenshot: Redder, B. (2025, 24 April). Episode 8 [Footage Screenshot], min 1:16:04.

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Examining re-contextualisations of monogatari Japanese warrior heroes illustrates some of the material, folkloric, and poetic literacies about the Sengoku period and postMedieval receptions of that history in Nioh.

Wikipedia. (2006, 10 March). Kuniyoshi Utagawa, 'Taiba (The End)', 1852 [Image]. Wikipedia. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kuniyoshi_Taiba_(The_End).jpg 2 Wikipedia. (2012, 28 January). Hattori Hanzo from the 17th century [Image]. Wikipedia. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hattori_Hanzo.jpg 1

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Chivalric Quests and Nostalgic Aesthetics: Final Fantasy IX as Global Medieval British Romance Enrique Torres-Hergueta (University of Extremadura)

Squaresoft’s Final Fantasy IX (2000) means a nostalgic tribute to earlier entries in the franchise and also a richly layered narrative artifact, as it deeply draws from the narrative traditions of late-medieval British romance. This paper argues that Final Fantasy IX echoes classic JRPG motifs while globalizing medieval British literary frameworks through Japanese design sensibilities and the technological canvas of the PlayStation era. The discussion follows three distinct aspects: Zidane’s chivalric quest structure, the game’s global medieval aesthetic, and its transcultural reception among Englishspeaking and international fan communities.

FFIX unfolds its main quest as a sequence of episodic adventures imbued with moral complexity, reflecting the essence and framework of Middle English romances. As the game’s protagonist, Zidane Tribal sets out on a path shaped by challenges, personal growth, and moral decisions, thus subtly echoing the spirit of Arthurian legends. His evolution from rogue to self-aware protector indeed follows a pattern of chivalric testing seen in figures like Gawain. Yet, the late-1990s Japanese media style’s influence critically transforms this model, so Zidane’s humor emotional fragility, and the importance of his chosen family reflect traits typical of the manga heroes of the era. The resulting fusion reimagines knightly virtue through the lens of JRPG character design and narrative pacing.

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Figure 1. Zidane risks his life in the end to rescue Kuja, the game’s main antagonist.

The world of FFIX is composed of cities that blend architectural motifs from multiple historical periods and regions: Alexandria’s stone and wood buildings evoke the Romanesque architecture; Burmecia’s ruined grandeur resembles the Gothic; and Lindblum’s mechanical technology suggest a reflection of the Renaissance. These styles further contribute to a visual vernacular that draws from pan-European sources while resisting strict historicism, hence constructing a globalized medieval aesthetic that transcends the British Isles while retaining echoes of their literary past. The game’s environments are not accurate recreations but atmospheric invocations, inviting players to experience a medievalism that is both familiar and cosmopolitan.

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Figure 3. A street in Alexandria

Figure 4. (Left). The dark city of Burmecia.

Figure 5. (Right) Lindblum, the city of technology.

The medieval connections of the game are emphasized in its English localization via intentional language selections, particularly in the antiquated dialogue of characters such as Steiner and Beatrix. An English medieval register is therefore included into the language, enhancing the game’s Arthurian themes. Nevertheless, the game’s significance persists in evolving beyond the official narrative as fans reinterpret it via

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active participation. Unofficial translations, speedruns, and lore discussions create a dynamic environment in which medieval themes are perpetually reinterpreted. The outcome illustrates how international gamers amalgamate cultures to sustain the game's medieval essence in a vibrant manner.

Figure 6. Beatrix using an uncommon and educated word like “valediction.”

Ultimately, in Final Fantasy IX, we find an example of how late-medieval British romance is reimagined through the lens of Japanese game design. The dialogue between globality and regionality is provided through the game’s storytelling, art direction, and the way players around the world engage with it. FFIX hence demonstrates how global media cultures can reshape regional literary traditions into new, resonant forms.

Further Reading Consalvo, Mia. “Hot Dates and Fairy-Tale Romances: Studying Sexuality in Video Games.” The Video Game Theory Reader. Routledge, 2013. 171-194.

Huber, William H. “Epic Spatialities: The Production of Space in Final Fantasy Games.”

Third Person: Authoring and Exploring Vast Narratives. MIT Press, 2009. 373-384.

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Kaeuper, Richard. Chivalry and Violence in Medieval Europe. Oxford University Press, 1999.

Kizzire, Jessica. ““The Place I’ll Return to Someday”: Musical Nostalgia in Final Fantasy IX.” Music in Video Games. Routledge, 2014. 183-198.

Moher, Aidan. Fight, Magic, Items: The History of Final Fantasy, Dragon Quest, and the Rise of Japanese RPGs in the West. Running Press Adult, 2022.

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Gnosticism in the Medievalist Game Genshin Impact Emilienne Parchliniak (Sorbonne Nouvelle University)

If Western games usually consist of an amalgamation of Christian stereotypical material perceived as medieval, many non-European games have appropriated the Middle Ages, drawing inspiration from other religious sources to shape a new kind of medievalism. A perfect example of this is found in Teyvat, the multicultural world of Genshin Impact.

Figure 1. Genshin’s world map: Teyvat

In this Chinese-owned game released in 2020 by Hoyoverse, players begin the game in what seems to be an archetypal version of medievalism. They start their journey in a region with green plains and mountains reminiscing of European landscapes, before entering the clearly German-inspired capital city of Mondstadt, towered by a Gothic church dedicated to the God of Freedom.

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Figure 2. Genshin’s first region: Mondstadt Figure 3: Favonius Cathedral of Mondstadt

Most playable characters are either clergymen or knights: the former are usually healing units and the latter are damage-dealing, while most non-playable characters are civilians. Mondstadt’s society therefore parallels the tripartite social order in medieval Christendom, with oratores (those who pray), bellatores (those who fight) and laboratores (those who labour).

Yet, what seems to be a monotheistic world hides a thinly-veiled polytheistic system. If the inhabitants of Teyvat do worship a single¬ God—usually the one that presides over their region—they also recognize the existence and might of other deities: the Archons.

Figure 3. All seven Archons’ various names and titles

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Despite appearances, these deities are named after biblical demons (see Goetic names in figure 4), implying malevolence. Rather than Christianity, such a reversal of order points to Gnosticism, the main inspiration behind Genshin’s worldbuilding. In Gnostic mythology, the Archons are low-level gods that serve not the real god, but the Usurper god, creator of the physical reality. This trope is reinterpreted in Genshin with the leader of the Archons usurping the original ruler of Teyvat. While the Archons are not necessarily evil, they are flawed, prone to mistakes, and closer to humans—thus deviating from a monotheistic conception of divinity.

Figure 4. The origins of Gnosticism and its resurgence

If the worldbuilding suggests devout faith, the playable characters do not systematically revere the Archons: some can be critical, others can consider them friends, or even be indifferent. The plurality of postures raises questions on the nature of the Archons’ divinity. The Archons themselves supplement this idea, by mingling among humans

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anonymously, or behaving like celebrities and heads of state. They ultimately all lean towards a godless world where humankind takes over the divine.

This posture aligns with the original acceptation of the Greek term “archons” who were rulers in Ancient Greece. For Hoyoverse, the use of Gnosticism as a source of inspiration allows for the conception of a form of medievalism more fitted to the ever-increasing secularization of the real world. Furthermore, the syncretical nature of Gnosticism renders the worldbuilding coherent. Borrowing from Classical Antiquity, Christianity and countless Eastern traditions, Gnosticism also helps both local and global players familiarize themselves with Teyvat’s laws despite the exoticism related to the game’s multiculturalism. If within Genshin’s narrative, Teyvat’s inhabitants are inclined to break free from the Usurper God, outside of it the players are invited to re-enchant with multicultural fantasy their world brimming with unrest.

Further Reading Campbell, Heidi, and Gregory P. Grieve. Playing with Religion in Digital Games. Indiana University Press, 2014.

De Wildt, Lars. The Pop Theology of Videogames: Producing and Playing with Religion.

Amsterdam University Press, 2021.

Elias, Natanela. The Gnostic Paradigm: Forms of Knowing in English Literature of the Late Middle Ages. Palgrave Macmillan, 2015.

Leibbovitz, Liel. God in the Machine: Video Games as Spiritual Pursuit. Templeton Press, 2013.

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Harnessing Nature by Hand: An Ecofeminist Critique of Age of Empires II Shu Wan (University at Buffalo)

Age of Empires II (1999) is one of the most successful real-time strategies (RTS).

Collecting resources constitutes an essential component of its gameplay. Situated in the history of RTS as a game genre, the centrality of taking resources originated in Dune 2 (1991). The first RTS game “introduce[d] resource filtering, based and unit buildings, consulting different factions with unique weapons - all features that are now part of any RTS game.” Regardless of the abbreviation of ‘Real Time Strategy,’ the “RTS” could be interpreted as the aberration of "Resources-taking Strategy." This emphasis on collecting resources represents the exploitative view of human-nature relations.

This chapter contains an ecofeminist approach to the Age of Empires II, critically assessing its exploitative view of nature, in which non-human existence is reduced to "natural resources" and human beings maintain mastery over nature.

Interdisciplinary and Intersectional Approaches to the “Nature” in Age of Empires II As one of the longest-lived and most influential RTS game series, the Age of Empires has drawn game scholars’ attention over the last two decades; the most relevant academic writings concern the influence of colonialism and imperialism in the spatial setting and historical representation in the games. For example, Dillon pointed out in 2009, “(colonialist) design aesthetics to a game with Indigenous characters without regard to incorporating Indigenous aesthetic is one of misrepresentation and simplification of a culture to game mechanics used universally throughout the series.”1 Following his step, Lamme addressed in 2010 that "games like the Age of Empires (AOE), Civilization, and Rise of Nations may differ greatly in certain ideological aspects, but all share a strong fascination with colonial history, including its militaristic, economic and technoscientific dimensions.”2 In the recent decades, Mukherjee addressed in 2017, “the rules of the

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game, here, are necessarily to promote colonialism and just as reflected in games such as the Age of Empires and the Civilization series, success in the game is measured by increasing levels of control. In 2018, Mukherjee and Hammar further point out: “Video Games had consistently addressed colonialism from their very early days. Highly successful game titles such as Civilization (MPS Labs, 1991) and the Age of Empires (Ensemble Studios, 1997) are obvious indicators of this interest.” 3 In 2019, Mukherjee continued to contend that “the Age of Empires video games, however, see almost all of human history as the history of imperialism.”4 These studies all cast light on the influence of colonialism and imperialism on the representations of non-Western civilizations and cultures.

Supplementing these critiques of the game series from the perspective of postcolonialism, this chapter contends for assessing the representation of humannature relations by taking an ecofeminist approach. Concerned about the special and historical origin of toxic consequences of mass industrialization, over reliance of technology and their gendered implication, pioneering ecofeminist theorists delved in their gendered ideological origin in the male-dominant society under the influence of Eurocentric modernity, especially since the Engagements The three major figures during the rise of ecofeminism, Maria Mies, Vandana Shiva, and Val Plumwood, all have nonWestern cultural backgrounds or intense working experience in Oceania, African, and Asian contexts. In Ecofeminism, Mies criticized the risk of biotechnology in modern society, “for women farmers, biodiversity has intrinsic value — for global seed and agribusiness corporations, biodiversity derives its value only as 'raw material' for the biotechnology industry.”5 The “outsider” position enables them to recognize the blind spots of the other schools of feminism in Western society and imagine alternative human-nature relations.

Age of Empires II: Nature as Resources In light of the persistence and prevalence of the exploitative perception of human-nature relations in RTS games, there is an urgent need to solve the problem throughout its history. The integration of ecofeminist consideration into the game design could advocate inclusiveness and diversity.

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In the setting of the Age of Empires II, resource-gathering is vital for gameplay. While in different models in the game, collecting the utmost resources is not the criteria for victory, it is critically important for winning a game in most models, except the model of the death game. Resources and its gathering counties are an important component of the game that originated in the design of the Age of Empires II. According to its official guideline, players need to "manage four different resources”6: stone dug from stone mines, gold dug from gold mines, wood obtained from jungle and forest, and foods fetched from food-producing plants and animals. The natural environment is reduced to resources in the game setting.

The technology tree in the Age of Empires II also reflects game developers' definition of economic technologies. It is predominantly embodied in the technology tree, the common setting in RTS games. According to Tuur Ghys, “the tech tree model can embody technological determinist assumptions in (at least) three ways: by forcing a set sequence, by influencing social changes in history and by characterizing (thus determining) eras and civilizations.”7 In the Age of Empire II, most economic technologies are featured with the transformation from raw materials into products, as follows.

Name

Description

Villagers work more efficiently by moving 10% faster and carrying Wheelbarrow

25% more resources.

Villagers work more efficiently by moving 10% faster and carrying Hand Cart

50% more resources.

Gold Mining

Villagers mine gold 15% faster.

Gold Shaft Mining

Villagers mine gold 15% faster.

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Stone Mining

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Villagers mine stone 15% faster.

Stone Shaft Mining

Villagers mine stone 15% faster.

Double-Bit Axe

Villagers chop wood 20% faster.

Two-Man Saw

Villagers chop wood 20% faster.

Bow Saw

Villagers chop wood 10% faster.

Farms produce +75 food so they last longer before you must

Horse Collar

rebuild them.

Farms produce +125 food so they last longer before you must

Heavy Plow

rebuild them. Farmers carry +1 food each trip.

Farms produce +175 food so they last longer before you must Crop Rotation

rebuild them.

All these technologies in the chart above refer to the advancement in the efficiency of exploiting nature. In other words, it renders the better way of taking raw materials and natural resources the centrality for the gameplay. While they are not fabricated but retrieved from the real medieval and early modern history of technology, the underlying criterion for selection indicates the game developers' predisposition to understand humans-nature relations from the ground instructional rationality. Although the temporal setting in the Age of Empires II was in advance of the emergence of biotechnology in the 20th century, the one-directional and progressive narrative about the trajectory of these technologies throughout human history is the consequence of the high stage of modernity.

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Repairing the Human-nature Relations by Integrating Ecofeminist Voices Subsequent to exploring the reductionist view of non-human existences and mastery narrative in the game setting of the Age of Empire II, this chapter’s last part attempts to seek solution to these distracted representations of nature. Taking from ecofeminist moderation with how to repairing human-nature relations in the male-dominated society, this part provides the following suggestions.

The first issue game developers ought to consider when reforming the Age of Empires II involves the ignorance of the importance of ethic of care when simulating the history of human beings and their relations with nature. As ecofeminist scholar Sherilyn MacGregor addressed almost twenty years ago, "one of the themes in contemporary feminist literature is that women's care-related perspectives on human-nature relations should be adopted as a generalized normative stance, a form of ecological civic virtue.”8 Ecofeminists convince us of the crucial role women played in taking care of different species throughout human history. However, the mimicry of real history in the Age of Empires II seemingly overlooks the women's work of taking care of non-human species.

While including sheep, turkeys, and other domesticated animals, the game misinterprets these species as food resources awaiting slaughtering without the need for care. This unrealistic representation of them as tamed creatures reflects the biased definition of other species through the criteria of being harmful or useful. To overcome this bias, game developers may consider how to make the ethic of care visible in the game by adding the relevant subjects into the tree of technology.

Beside changing the game setting, another issue involves eliminating the prejudice and discrimination in the game industry. Besides simulating human history, the Age of Empires II also mirrors the gender inequality and cultural appreciation in the contemporary game industry. While we may have conceived the historical representation in the game as alternative history or commented on the design as the projection of late-1990s game developers’ modern worldviews, this chapter contends for comprehension as an exploitative view of nature in the male-dominated game industry.

The overwhelming number of male programmers within the development of video games

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significantly shaped the “taste” of game-design, in particular the exploitative view of nature.

An increasing employment of women-of-colour game developers could bring an equal and environmentalist view of nature into the game design. Contrary to their male colleagues, female programmers and their presence in the game industry may repair the nature-human relations. As the previously mentioned native American game designer addresses, Conclusion Traversing the representation of nature in the Age of Empire II and criticism of them from the ecofeminist perspective, this chapter foregrounds the need for reassessing the nature-human relationship in the game. Furthermore, it provides some suggestions on overcoming the biased view within the game design. Besides the case study, this chapter hopes more game scholars consider taking an ecofeminist approach to the representation of nature in video games.

Beth A. Dillon. (2008). View of Signifying the West: Colonialist Design in Age of Empires III: The Warchiefs: Eludamos: Journal for Computer Game Culture. https://eludamos.org/index.php/eludamos/article/view/vol2no1-10/5837 2 Sybille Lammes. (2010). View of postcolonial playgrounds: Games and postcolonial culture: Eludamos: Journal for computer game culture. Eludamos. https://eludamos.org/index.php/eludamos/article/view/vol4no1-1/6111.

3 Souvik Mukherjee & Emil Lundedal Hammar. (2018). “Introduction to the Special Issue on Postcolonial Perspectives in Game Studies”, Open Library of Humanities 4(2), 33.

4 Matthew Thomas Payne & Nina Huntemann. (2019). How to play video games. New York University Press, 158.

5 Mies Maria and Vandana Shiva. (2014). Ecofeminism. London: Zed Books, 172.

6 Bruce C. Shelley. (1999). Official Strategies and Secrets to Microsoft's the Age of Empires II the Age of Kings. San Francisco: Sybex. 5.

7 Tuur Ghys. (2012). Technology Trees: Freedom and Determinism in Historical Strategy Games. Game Studies. https://gamestudies.org/1201/articles/tuur_ghys.

8 Sherilyn MacGregor. (2004). From care to citizenship: Calling ecofeminism back to politics. Ethics & Environment, 9(1), 57.

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Pixel to Parallax: Low-Poly Cartographies of Medieval Spatial Narrative in Games Xinyu Kang (Peking University) and Yuantong Yun (Tsinghua University)

Introduction: Low-Polygon Medievalism as Technical Mediation Low-polygon 3D assets dominate medieval-themed games, with 47% of Steam titles (2020-2023) using this optimization. While broadening accessibility, this approach creates historical homogenization as game engine constraints (vertex limits, texture budgets) reduce architectural complexity to calculable data. This study argues for "parametric disenchantment," where historically significant structures lose material and cultural specificity—flying buttresses become triangular meshes, cathedral spires pixelated silhouettes. Through Kittler’s media materialism lens, engine limitations (not creative intent) determine medieval space representation, producing a standardized "pan-medieval" aesthetic erasing regional diversity. Asset marketplaces worsen this, with Unreal Marketplace showing a 17:1 ratio of Western European to non-European templates. The research advances two frameworks: "Polygonality Politics," where technical reduction functions as an epistemological filter privileging engine-compatible geometries, and "Negative Historicity," where players cognitively compensate for omissions by projecting cultural references onto simplified models. The study challenges technological neutrality in historical games, revealing how polygon counts enforce digital colonialism.

Parametric Disenchantment: Engine-Mediated Historical Erasure Game engines prioritize technical efficiency over historical fidelity, reducing complex medieval architecture to quantifiable data units—a process termed "parametric disenchantment." Gothic flying buttresses, designed for both structural and theological purposes, become mere triangular meshes in low-poly models, divorced from material contexts. Engine constraints enforce homogenization: UV mapping flattens intricate

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carvings into texture sheets, shader limitations standardize material properties across regional architectures, erasing cultural distinctions. This generates a pan-medieval aesthetic prioritizing engine compatibility. Asset stores accelerate this trend by incentivizing reusable, topology-optimized models. Kittler’s axiom manifests here: engine parameters act as nonhuman actors predetermining representational possibilities. When developers prioritize frame rate over structural authenticity, technical imperatives replace historical intentionality. This disenchantment is epistemological, naturalizing a decontextualized medievalism where technical feasibility dictates historical imagination.

Negative Historicity: Cognitive Insurgency of Players "Negative historicity" describes how players cognitively compensate for low-poly medieval architecture’s representational limitations. When technical constraints reduce complex structures to simplified geometries, a perceptual void emerges between game representation and material history. Players project extratextual cultural knowledge onto minimalist models. Empirical observations from Stronghold (2001) show schematic architectural renditions catalyse associative cognition, mobilizing cultural memories from films, literature, or education. Eye-tracking experiments indicate prolonged visual fixation on abstracted contours rather than detailed textures, suggesting geometric primitives activate historical imagination neural pathways. Post-play interviews confirm participants unconsciously graft narrative layers onto polygonal forms. This challenges conventional historical simulation paradigms: while high-fidelity graphics create hermeneutic passivity, low-poly abstraction necessitates imaginative labour. Players become active co-constructors of subjective historicity, democratizing interpretive agency and resisting monolithic historical discourses encoded in asset pipelines.

Conclusion: The Dialectics of Low-Poly Medievalism This study demonstrates that low-polygon modelling in game engines operates as a techno-historical mediator, simultaneously enabling and constraining narratives of medieval architecture. Through the framework of parametric disenchantment, we have documented how engine-imposed technical parameters—polygon budgets, texture

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resolution limits, and modular asset requirements—systematically reduce architectural complexity to computationally tractable data. This process divorces structures from their material histories, producing a homogenized "pan-medieval" aesthetic that erases regional specificities. Crucially, these technical constraints function not as neutral tools but as nonhuman actors that naturalize Eurocentric historical narratives through asset production pipelines.

The concept of negative historicity reveals how players cognitively compensate for this technical reductionism. Empirical evidence indicates that minimalist representations trigger associative thinking, prompting users to project extratextual cultural memories onto abstracted forms. This participatory gap-filling transforms players into coconstructors of historical meaning, challenging developer-authored narratives.

However, this compensation mechanism cannot resolve the political economy underlying asset ecosystems. Our analysis of marketplace supply chains exposes how capital-driven optimization metrics privilege Western architectural templates, reinforcing cultural hegemony through technical standards.

These findings necessitate a fundamental reorientation in game production praxis. We propose critical asset design as an interventionist framework with three operational principles: (1) exposing technical mediation through visible LOD transitions and mesh simplification processes, (2) embedding historical metadata within assets to preserve contextual knowledge, and (3) decentralizing production through open-source tools that resist standardized aesthetic templates. This approach repositions games not as passive historical simulations but as contested terrains where technological infrastructures, economic imperatives, and cognitive practices continuously negotiate the past.

Ultimately, low-poly medievalism embodies a dialectic: its technical limitations perpetuate historical erasures while simultaneously creating spaces for democratic narrative engagement. Acknowledging this duality is essential for developing ethically grounded practices in historical game design.

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How Civilization V Brings Historical Nations to the Global Stage: Analysis of the Game’s Majapahit-Era Indonesia Pratama Wirya Atmaja, Andreas Nugroho Sihananto, and Gredy Christian Hendrawan Putra (University of Pembangunan National “Veteran” Jawa Timur, Indonesia)

Regardless of the world’s increasing globalization, every nation still relies on its history to anchor its identity and inspire its future paths. Among modern media through which history can propagate successfully are games, whose “ludo-narrative” mechanics bring historical stories to life.1 More specifically, these mechanics deliver procedural rhetorics that frame history in a specific way,2 whether to glorify one’s nation, cast its rivals as evil oppressors, raise a “what-if” question, or achieve other things.

Regarding “what-if” scenarios, the Civilization series is notable for reimagining historical nations as if their regionalities mattered little,3 and this reimagining raises intriguing yet underexplored questions about the value of such a nation’s traditional culture on the global stage. We explore these questions by close reading 4 the Majapahit-era Indonesia 5

in Civilization V,6 specifically its Brave New World expansion pack.7 By employing the

lens of conceptual blending 8 and Figure 1’s world, storytelling, asset, and UI layers of ludonarrative media,9 our close reading uncovers with precision how the game blends Majapahit’s culture with 4X gameplay mechanics10 and other design elements to deliver procedural rhetorics on the global role of Indonesia’s traditional culture.

Figure 1. The world, storytelling, asset, and UI layers of ludonarrative media

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Our results comprise some of the game’s blends of design elements and each blend’s conceptual blending procedure: composition, completion, or elaboration.11 Firstly, the “Spice Islanders” unique ability in Figure 2 blends Gajah Mada-led Majapahit and 4X’s exploration and expansion aspects into Indonesia’s thalassocratic gameplay rules in the world layer.12 Procedure-wise, this blend is composition-oriented since it takes the historical strength of Majapahit and the flexibility of 4X to compose the ultimate thalassocracy: one that lasts over millennia regardless of the distances between its islands. When this quality further blends with Civilization V’s world maps, the resulting gameplay dynamics elaborate the potential for a global-scale and enduring thalassocracy.

Figure 2. Gajah Mada and Indonesia’s “Spice Islanders” unique ability.

Three other blends involve the Kris Swordsman combat unit, the wielder of the renowned Kris, as seen in Figure 3. The first happens in the world layer between the myth of Kris’s

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mystical power and 4X’s combat aspect. This completion-oriented blend adds something new, i.e., carried by neither Kris’s myth nor typical 4X combat, to “complete” the Kris Swordsman: a permanent attribute chosen randomly from a set of many powerful attributes and a few debilitating ones. This exciting yet risky mechanic then blends with the game’s unit upgrade mechanic, allowing the mystical attribute to carry over to the modern era should the medieval Kris Swordsman survive that long to evolve into newer units. In turn, this evolution’s strange gameplay dynamics—e.g., real-world mechanized infantry does not normally repel attacks as if protected by a supernatural aura—implicitly elaborate how preserving its mystic-nuanced traditions may accelerate or hinder Indonesia’s progress in a rational and globalized world. The anachronistic blend between the Majapahit-era unit and 19th-century Balinese soldiers (Figure 4) in the storytelling and asset layers further highlights this elaboration.

Figure 3. An army of Kris Swordsmen.13

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Figure 4. A 19th-century Balinese soldier on whom the appearance of Civilization V’s Kris Swordsman is based.14

Considering these blends, the game can serve as a commercial-off-the-shelf (CotS) tool for history education, particularly to build critical thinking.15 The skill dissects a subject into its fundamental components according to certain logic or principles.16 The thinker may then explore or rearrange these components to find their most appropriate arrangement.

The game can help fulfil these requirements by being part of a discoursal cycle between the instructor and the students.17 This cycle puts playing the game between briefing and debriefing, during which metagaming takes place,18 letting the students perform metacognition by modifying their gameplay strategy or even the game’s configuration.

Under the instructor’s guidance, this cycle gradually unravels the material and sociopolitical fundamentals of the topics, i.e., the possible longevity of Majapahit-style thalassocracy and the double-edged potential of Indonesia’s centuries-old traditions.

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Textbooks and other non-game sources on both Indonesia’s history and adjacent topics like economics closely accompany this cycle.

Jeremiah McCall, “The Historical Problem Space Framework: Games as a Historical Medium,” Game Studies 20, no. 3 (2020).

2 Ruud S. Jacobs et al., “Procedural Arguments of Persuasive Games,” Journal of Media Psychology 33, no. 2 (April 2021): 49–59, https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-1105/a000278.

3 Andrés Bijsterveld Muñoz, “National Identity in Historical Video Games: An Analysis of How Civilization V Represents the Past,” Nations and Nationalism 28, no. 4 (October 28, 2022): 1311–25, https://doi.org/10.1111/nana.12845.

4 Clara Fernández-Vara, Introduction to Game Analysis, 3rd ed. (New York: Routledge, 2024), https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003355779.

5 Kenneth R. Hall, “Majapahit Empire,” in The Encyclopedia of Empire (Wiley, 2016), 1–3, https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe134.

6 Firaxis Games, “Civilization V” (Digital game directed by Jon Shafer, published by 2K and Aspyr, 2010).

7 Firaxis Games, “Civilization V: Brave New World” (Expansion pack designed by Ed Beach, published by 2K and Aspyr, 2013).

8 Manfred Eppe et al., “A Computational Framework for Conceptual Blending,” Artificial Intelligence 256 (March 2018): 105–29, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.artint.2017.11.005.

9 Pratama Wirya Atmaja et al., “The Many Ludonarrative Professions of a Ludified and Narratified Future Society,” in Money | Games | Economies, ed. Nikolaus Koenig et al. (University of Krems Press, 2024), 255–79, https://doi.org/10.48341/29jx-be71.

10 Dom Ford, “‘EXplore, EXpand, EXploit, EXterminate’: Affective Writing of Postcolonial History and Education in Civilization V,” Game Studies 16, no. 2 (2016).

11 Eppe et al., “A Computational Framework for Conceptual Blending.”

12 McCall, “The Historical Problem Space Framework: Games as a Historical Medium.”

13 https://civ-wiki.de/wiki/Kris-Kämpfer_%28Civ5%29 14 https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Balinese_soldiers_1880s.jpg 15 Stéphane Lévesque and Penney Clark, “Historical Thinking: Definitions and Educational Applications,” in The Wiley International Handbook of History Teaching and Learning (Wiley, 2018), 117–48, https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119100812.ch5.

16 Anne Collins McLaughlin and Alicia Ebbitt McGill, “Explicitly Teaching Critical Thinking Skills in a History Course,” Science & Education 26, no. 1–2 (March 20, 2017): 93–105, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11191-017-9878-2.

17 Afifatul Khasanah et al., “Dialogic Education for Sustainable Development as a Pathway to Critical Thinking,” Thinking Skills and Creativity 57 (September 2025): 101783, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2025.101783.

18 Jan H.G. Klabbers, “On the Architecture of Game Science,” Simulation & Gaming 49, no. 3 (June 9, 2018): 207–45, https://doi.org/10.1177/1046878118762534.

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Alternative Approaches to Globalism

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A Left-Coast Medieval: Progressive Medievalism in Age of Empires IV Robert Rouse (University of British Columbia)

Introduction The latest iteration of the long running AAA franchise Age of Empires was developed in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada during the period 2017-21. Development was undertaken by Relic Entertainment, a Vancouver developer, in conjunction with World’s Edge, the Microsoft owned studio and IP holder. From 2017-21, I acted as a SME (subject matter expert) consulting with Relic on historical, cultural, and linguistic aspects of this popular recreation of the medieval world (in particular the English civilization). This short paper addresses some of the design features of the game that contributed to its ‘progressive’ view of the medieval, a conceptual decision that was not uncontroversial amongst parts of its fan base. This ‘progressive’ Middle Ages can be seen to reflect the cultural values of the locus of its regional development (British Columbia and the US Pacific North-west), and the corporate policies (as they were active in this period, prior to the rolling back of DEI initiatives in the past 12 months) of the IP holders, Microsoft.

The significance and impact of this iteration of the Middle Ages is grounded in the both the franchise’s reputation for historical accuracy, and in its large player base (over a million copies were sold on launch, and over 5 million since 2021, without taking into account X-box live subscription play).

The Progressive Design Spurred partly by advice regarding recent scholarly work on racial and gender diversity in medieval Europe, and partly by a desire to represent the game’s diverse potential audience, design decisions were made to have recruited units represent a diversity of skin colour and gender in the game. To this end, variation in the appearance of spawned units was built into the game design. For the purposes of this paper, I will examine the

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appearance of, and controversy surrounding, the presence of female troops in the Mongol civilization.

Figure 1. Alternate design for the female (left) and male (right) Mongol troop units.

The alternate unit designs for the female and male Mongol troop units (pictured in Figure 1) were replicated across many unit types across the various civilizations.

The Inevitable Reaction As anticipated in the consultation process, this design decision produced a predictable response from certain corners of the online community. The progressive aspects of AOE4’s game design provoked outrage from some online commentators on social media sites, picking up on discourse that was reminiscent of the post #gamergate video game world and also intersects with the growth of reactionary commentary and right-wing

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political sentiment witnessed in many parts of the anglophone world over the past decade or so. Some examples of this type of response follow below:

Figure 2. Screenshot of a Steam forum post.

In Figure 2, we see the pejorative of ‘SJW’ (social justice warrior) being applied to the design decision when witnessed in a pre-release trailer. The decision to highlight diversity is immediately associated with the prevailing culture war politics of the early 2020s, bewailing the (supposed) anachronism of female-coded soldiers in the reveal trailers.

Figure 3. Screenshot of a Reddit forum topic ‘Females in Mongol Army?’.

In Figure 3, the observation focusses on the Mongol civilisation, the most gender diverse troops in both the game design and historically, again complaining about the apparent lack of historical authenticity in relation to female Mongol army units.

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Figure 4. Screenshot of replies to the Reddit forum post in Figure 3.

The replies (Figure 4) continue this outraged debate, characterizing the design decision as a doubly ‘ridiculous’ choice and reading it as ‘social politics’ and ‘social nonsense’.

The next comment counters this by accepting the fact the women were indeed present in historical Mongol armies, but then changes direction to cast a personal critique that they ‘hate to hear a women’s voice’ in this medieval video game, as it is ‘so unappealing’.

The interplay between supposed historical authenticity breaches and personal misogyny is a common trope in the online complaints about female representation in AOE4, both in terms of graphical unit representation and in leader presentation in the cut scenes and campaign introductions.

The ‘So What?’

When we make games, or other representations of the past, we make choices that are grounded in the present. The past is thus always mediated through the discourse of the present. For some creatives, the medieval acts as a space of radical potential, a place where progressive values can be identified and progressive genealogies highlighted, making it vital to a view of history that aligns with current progressive values. We all recognise that many progressive values have deep genealogies – often disrupted by modernity, the enlightenment, and a host of other historical moments and movements – that track back into the premodern, and excavating these in our reconstructions of the medieval highlights their value to our understanding of the past, present, and future.

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Such progressive visions of the medieval are constantly under assault by other more conservative visions of the past; alt-right, white nationalist, and other nostalgic visions compete to define the popular experience of the medieval. In Age of Empires IV, produced in the late 20-teens, we see one particular re-creation of the medieval past that was rich with a diversity – linguistic, cultural, gendered, and ideological – that speaks to a particular progressive view of our own time and place. These priorities, and the design choices and decisions made by the development team at Relic during this period, speaks to the policy, community, and personal priorities of all involved, and creates a particularly contingent vision of medieval history and warfare that reflects as much early 21st century West Coast culture as it does the Middle Ages itself.

Further Reading Age of Empires IV Behind the Scenes Dev Diary, “Music and Voice-Over”, October 2021: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wZE5TPGfntw.

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Stranger in a Strange Land: Eivor’s Encounter with the Mohawk Culture in Assassin’s Creed: Valhalla Renata Leśniakiewicz-Drzymała (Jagiellonian University)

During her mission to defeat the Order of the Ancients in Assassins Creed: Valhalla (henceforth AC: Valhalla), the main character Eivor finds herself in Vinland, a Viking colony in North America. The players taking on her role must not only start from scratch, without their previous equipment, but also find their way in quite new surroundings. The natural environment that Eivor experiences is different from what she has known from her travels in Northern and Western Europe: unknown landscapes, previously unseen animals and birds (such as moose or turkey). But even more interesting is the cultural environment: meeting the indigenous inhabitants of these lands. Eivor has the opportunity to see the architecture that astonishes her and wear Indian clothing (Figure 1) or even use an Iroquois canoe.

Figure 1. Eivor in the Mohawk village.

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However, the most interesting aspect of the stay in Vinland is the language. Eivor (and the player) constantly listens to dialogues that are not translated into English and can only read the intentions of the interlocutors from such subtle signals as intonation or body language (Figure 2). Local names and item names (such as the Arenhare'ko:wa Outfit or Onà:kara Bow) also remain untranslated. This creates a very intense sense of immersion and experiencing the emotions of a person who feels like a “stranger in a strange land”. The culminating point of the encounter with the Native American culture is an evening by the campfire, during which Eivor listens to a long story without understanding a word of it and is asked to tell her own. Despite the complete lack of communication on the linguistic level, a clear bond is created between the characters based on cultivating the tradition of oral transmission of important stories and sharing the emotions associated with them.

Figure 2. The Kanien'keháka language in the game subtitles.

Characteristically, in the game we never have the chance to learn not only what the indigenous people we meet are trying to tell us, but even what specific Native American culture we are dealing with, apart from the fact that it is an Iroquois tribe. It was only the

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efforts of the Access the Animus fan community, with the help of the Montreal’s Kanien'kehá:ka Onkwawén:na Raotitióhkwa Language and Cultural Centre, that revealed that the language present in AC: Valhalla is Mohawk and led to the translation of all the dialogue in the game.1 From the translation video posted by Access the Animus on YouTube, we can learn that the story around the campfire is a Mohawk creation myth, concerning the Sky Woman Iottsi'tsíson and showing interesting connections to one of the previous instalments of the Assassin’s Creed series, as well as to its internal mythology of the Isu, the First Civilization.2 In Assassin’s Creed: Rogue, the Sky Woman was an important figure in Iroquois beliefs: her fall from heaven contributed to the creation of North America, and after her death her eyes became the sun and the moon, and her tears became the stars. The game creators’ use of the Kanien'kehá:ka language not only provides a unique experience of immersion in the world of Vinland and of contact with a non-anglophone or non-European culture but also serves as a way to hide additional secrets for inquisitive fans of the series.

Tom Phillips, “Assassin's Creed fans translate all of Valhalla's Vinland dialogue”, Eurogamer, updated May 17, 2021, https://www.eurogamer.net/assassins-creed-fans-translate-all-of-valhallas-vinlanddialogue; Rich Stanton, “Fans translate Assassin's Creed Valhalla's Mohawk language sequences”, PC Gamer, May 19 2021, https://www.pcgamer.com/fans-translate-assassins-creed-valhallas-mohawklanguage-sequences/.

2 Access The Animus, “Assassin's Creed Valhalla - All the Mohawk Dialogues TRANSLATED”, Youtube, May 15, 2021, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ccrr115My70.

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Gaming Beyond the ‘Commons’: Counter-Hegemonic Readings of Medievalist Tropes Vinicius Marino Carvalho (State University of Campinas (UNICAMP))

Modern fantasy shares a relatively consistent set of narrative and aesthetic references, roughly informed by medievalist artistic traditions dating back, in some cases, to the age of Romanticism. These tropes are “tightly linked to Northern and Western Europe.”1 Yet, they are often drawn upon as an intellectual ‘commons’ which “belongs to everyone – and so do not belong to anyone in particular.”2 The Commons has its uses. Most game developers thread lightly around borrowing elements from non-Western, non-Hegemonic cultures. After all, even established academics have (been accused of) cultural appropriation. 3 ‘European’ fantasy, on the contrary, is perceived as safe. King Arthur, Vikings, fairies, and druids, are, for all intents and purposes, stock characters at everyone’s disposal.

The problem is that the ‘West’ is not as stable an entity as some of its inhabitants believe.

Its borders shift in times of geopolitical uncertainties. Places like South America are othered by Europe and North America, yet struggle to come to terms with our own Europeanized cultural heritage. Medievalist reception reacts accordingly4 : we’re denied belonging within the Commons, yet, like Eco,5 still dream about the Middle Ages.

Possibly, and worryingly, because this dream “is the only one still alive” in our colonized imagination.6 At the same time, the fiction of the stable West ignores centuries of internal colonialism within Europe itself7. This can be observed, for example, in the case of the Celticspeaking communities. Celtic languages are often used in games as a proxy for gibberish. Dragon Age: Veilguard, for example, tells us that the name of its main antagonist, Solas, means ‘pride’ in Elvish. ‘Solas’, however, is an actual Irish word, which means not ‘pride’, but ‘light’ (or ‘fire’). The fact that this choice does not inspire the same ridicule as would the name ‘Lumière’ or ‘Lux’ indicates that Irish is perceived as a

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database of exotic-sounding words, more than an actual language. Solas’ Elvishness adds to the stereotype: as Orla Ní Dhúill pointed out,8 Celtic peoples and countries are associated with backwardness, magic and an exotic love for nature – often, in a racialized manner. Naturally, whether a given depiction is culturally harmful or not is a matter of debate.9 The situation is more delicate when it comes to endangered minority languages, the learning and survival of which can be directly harmed by the proliferation of incorrect spellings and pronunciation.10 Beyond the immediate appropriateness of particular cultural borrowings, it is important to acknowledge that the processes through which fantastic tropes have been appropriated are as much part of the genre’s legacy as the tropes themselves. One notable example is the frequent mixture of Nordic and Celtic elements in fantasy, illustrated by the Pseudo-Norse tropes Roderick Dale and Markus Mindrebø analysed in their contribution to this volume. Unbeknownst to most game fans, this conflation is but a modern expression of a much older scholarly trend which sought to find a common origin – or, at least, a shared set of references - for Insular and Scandinavian myths.11 Stressing the regional character of certain fantasy tropes can also safeguard parts of the Western Commons in an age when the ‘West’ is threatening to crumble as a cohesive concept. Between the looming threat of climate change, political inaction over the genocide in Gaza, and the geopolitical chaos brought upon by an ultra-nationalistic U.S. administration, the world is looking increasingly disenchanted by old-standing myths of Western exceptionalism. Contemporary fantasy literature has long been looking for different foundational myths.12 Games can do the same – and minority and/or forgotten traditions from the Middle Ages can serve as inspirations.

Utopianly, drawing on these ancient13 sources would allow games to explore new story structures and reward mechanics better suited to a post-Western world within which the hegemonizing clarity of the ‘commons’ will no longer be appealing. Pragmatically, even if games fall short of such a cultural impact, the mere existence (and, hopefully, future ubiquity) of games like Tales of the Mabinogion, from our first keynote speaker Stevan Anastasoff, is a reminder that there is a way out: authenticity – not in terms of history, but

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in being true to oneself – is a choice we still get to make, even in a cultural landscape that tries to steamroll us into homogeneity.

Houghton, Robert. 2024. The Middle Ages in Computer Games. D.S. Brewer, 224 Harrington, Nat. 2025. “The Celts meet Celtic fantasy”. Strange Horizons, January 27 http://strangehorizons.com/wordpress/non-fiction/the-celts-meet-celtic-fantasy/ 3 Moa, Júlia. 2024 “Brazil’s Kadiwéu force international debate about authorship of Indigenous art” Mongabay. December 26 https://news.mongabay.com/2024/12/brazils-kadiweu-force-internationaldebate-about-authorship-of-indigenous-art/.

4 De Souza, Rebecca. 2024. “Are there limits to globalising the medieval?” postmedieval 15: 257-283.

5 Eco, Umberto. 1986 [1973]. “Dreaming of the Middle Ages.” In: Travels in Hyperreality. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich 6 Cf. Chakrabarty, Dipesh. 2000. Provincializing Europe. Princeton University Press, 5 7 For the concept, cf. Hechter, Michael. 1977. Internal Colonialism. University of California Press 8 Ní Dhúill, Orla. 2019. “Do Fantasy Writers Think Irish is Discout Elvish?” Orla Ni Dhúill. August 19. https://orlanidhuill.com/2019/08/24/do-american-writers-think-irish-is-public-domain-elvish/ 9 Cox, Angela. 2023. “Celtic appropriation in twenty-first-century fantasy fan perceptions” In: Imagining the Celtic Past in Modern Fantasy edited by Fimi, Dimitra and Sims, Alistair J.P. Bloomsbury.

10 This particular issue goes beyond external appropriation. Celtic language media published in Celticspeaking countries not always adhere to a high language standard, especially when native speakers are not sufficiently involved in the production. Cf. e.g. Ó Muirchú, Éoin P. 2025. “Scannán uafáis millte ag Gaeilge lofa dhothuigthe” Tuairisc.ie, April 3. https://tuairisc.ie/scannan-uafais-millte-ag-gaeilge-lofadhothuigthe/ 11 Cf. e.g. O’Connor, Ralph. 2016. “Monsters of the tribe: beserk fury, shapeshifting and social dysfunction in Táin Bó Cúailnge, Egils saga and Hrólfs saga kraka. In: Kings and Warriors in Early NorthWest Europe edited by Rekdal, Jan Erik and Doherty, Charles. Four Courts.

12 Oziewick, Marek, Attebery, Brian and Dedinová, Tereza. 2022. Fantasy and Myth in the Anthropocene.

Bloomsbury.

13 I am using ‘ancient’ in lieu of pre-modern or non-modern to avoid interpreting this past in the terms of what came after. I do not mean exclusively Antiquity though; my comments also apply (and are primarily aimed at) the medieval period.

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Social Media is Dungeons & Dragons Stephen Yeager (Concordia University)

Social media platforms like Facebook, Instagram, and X should be categorized generically as free-to-play ad-based mobile role-playing games (RPGs), so tightly coemergent with the frameworks for collaborative storytelling developed for the medieval fantasy RPG Dungeons & Dragons (D&D) that they should be imagined as variant versions of the same social systems, branching out from the same procedural roots.

The word “troll” for what we might call an Internet provocateur does not originally come from the D&D monster with which it is now associated, but rather from the style of fishing, where a boat goes by at a slow pace and the fisher let the line dangle in its wake. The underlying metaphor is the same as the term “engagement bait.” The particular “bait” used by “trolls” is most commonly the performance of a persona or character, who offers extreme positions to be argued with in the same way that a fisher will offer a worm or minnow to a fish. According to “Poe’s Law”,1 the more a poster tries to sound like a particular sort of on-line extremist, the more other users will believe the poster in fact holds those extreme views, and the more engagement the poster will receive from other posters. Successful trolling therefore requires constant posting, whose rewards are not only emotional satisfaction (e.g. “clout”) but also financial remuneration (e.g. if a poster attracts enough followers to profit from a revenue-sharing platform like YouTube).

Trolling, in other words, is form of role-playing that is also a good strategy for succeeding according to the implicit incentives of social media, and as such it exposes how social media platforms are at their core role-playing games, which reward posters who can maintain high levels of engagement to perform consistent characters according to received expectations.

In his book The Elusive Shift, historian of D&D Jon Peterson argues that a central mechanic of the role-playing game form that distinguishes it from its antecedents is its progression mechanic of “experience points” or XP.2 When D&D players choose actions to shape the game story surrounding their characters, they roll dice, which determine if

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their actions succeed or fail. XP rewards player successes by improving the odds in future rolls, thereby giving players more control over the shared emergent narrative of their D&D adventure. Peterson documents how the evolution of XP mechanics were driven by the desire of game designers to motivate consistent role-playing, beginning with a debate over whether D&D players should even know the rules whereby XP is awarded or whether the game master alone should have this knowledge. Game masters and players wished to prevent “min/maxing,” wherein players set aside story, character, and world consistency to maximize XP gain for its own sake.

Of course it was impossible to prevent players from learning the rules, and now it is assumed by game designers that RPG players will be primarily motivated by progression mechanics like XP. Accordingly, D&D encourages game masters to use XP to motivate players to immerse themselves in the game’s imagined narrative. In the fifth edition of the D&D Dungeon Master’s Guide, for example, DMs are encouraged to identify story “milestones” and to award XP for their successful completion.3 D&D emerged from an analogue social network that began in the late 1960s around the magazine Avalon Hill General, which published want ads for wargamers who wanted to conduct games through correspondence.4 In this same period, the US Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) developed ARPANet, the ancestor of the modern decentralized Internet. The first edition of D&D was published in 1974, and in 1976 the ARPANet programmer Will Crowther posted online the first major free-to-play D&Dbased adventure game.5 The overlapping communities of wargame hobbyists, computer engineers, and RPG enthusiasts have relied on digital networks to stay in touch ever since, beginning with the platforms of the BBS (bulletin board system) and the MUD (multi-user dungeon) that in turn provided proof of concept for later social media.

As Patrick Jagoda has argued, the co-emergence of D&D and the Internet reflects the origins of digital technology in the “gamification” which he argues is endemic to neoliberal infrastructures.6 For Jagoda, neo-liberal gamification aims to bring all subjects into a state of totalizing active engagement, through two means in particular: first, competition (which may be with others or may be with oneself) and second, worldmaking (as the activities motivated by competition are typically based not in the natural world but in fantasies and artificial rulesets).

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In his own discussion of games and computer technology, Jagoda writes: Digital games were not merely window dressing that attracted people who might otherwise be uninterested in computers. From the beginning, these games also mirrored, animated, and experimented with the fundamental affordances of computation. To an unprecedented degree, they made computers palpable and palatable as major technologies with which anyone might think.7 Modern social media platforms are similarly used to mirror, animate, and experiment with the fundamental affordances of computation, particularly insofar as they serve as tools that people use to think. It is no wonder, then, that they are formally co-extensive with the D&D-based games that Jagoda is describing.

In 2006 Facebook introduced the first social media algorithm, EdgeRank. EdgeRank curated the posts on each users’ feed, assessing what could be called the “XP” of each poster to promote certain posts over other posts. To “min/max” this algorithm, each user had to build the broadest network of friends possible and post as frequently as possible to make future posts even more likely to gain views, leading in turn to larger networks and higher-engagement posts. Like XP, this mechanic rewarded “staying in character,” which is to say the development and promotion of a “brand,” often around the achievement of discreet and frequently competitive “milestones”—making a rival delete their account, getting an employer to fire someone, and so on.

In 2025, social media algorithms are much more sophisticated than EdgeRank, and D&D is more significant and more widely played than at any point in its history. This is not a coincidence. Like D&D, social media algorithms draw users into a shared fantasy world of collaborative storytelling by rewarding consistent storytelling with greater personal control over the shared emergent narrative. This parallel in game mechanics probably arose because of the central role played by fantasy RPGs in the development of digital networks over the last 50 years, as indeed the game systems and the global communication networks arose at the same time and were developed by the same people, working within the same neo-liberal economic and social forces. The striking persistence of D&D’s original “sword & sorcery” setting throughout this time and the movement of specifically medieval fantasy role-playing into the mainstream suggests

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that the study of popular medievalism provides a vital starting point for understanding the mechanisms of neoliberal gamification underlying these striking cultural and technological developments.

S. F. Aikin, “Poe’s Law, Group Polarization, and Argumentative Failure in Religious and Political Discourse,” Social Semiotics 23, no. 3 (2013): 301–17.

2 J. Peterson, The Elusive Shift: How Role-Playing Games Forged Their Identity (Boston: MIT Press, 2020), pp. 96-102.

3 Dungeon Master’s Guide [Dungeons and Dragons] (Renton, WA: Wizards of the Coast, 2014), p. 261 4 J. Peterson, Playing At The World: A History of Simulating Wars, People, and Fantastic Adventures, from Chess to Role-Playing Games (San Diego CA: Unreason Press, 2012), pp. 5-6 5 J. Lessard, “Adventure before Adventure Games: A New Look at Crowther and Woods’s Seminal Program,” Games and Culture 8, no. 3 (2013): 119-35.

6 P. Jagoda, Experimental Games: Critique, Play, and Design in the Age of Gamification (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2020).

7 Jagoda, Experimental, 23.

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Teaching the 16th Century with Pentiment Lucas Haasis and Patrick Heike (Gamelab ‘Villa Geistreich’ in Oldenburg)

Figure 1. Pentiment (2022) Main Art1

Pentiment is a narrative adventure and crime game set in 16th-century Bavaria. It has attracted considerable attention from the gaming community, the media, and academic circles, primarily due to its vivid, detailed depiction of everyday life and the sweeping changes of the era.

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Figure 2. In the Convent

The game is based on meticulous historical research and brings to life a period often overshadowed in public perception by the Middle Ages: the threshold to the Early Modern Period, characterized by the Reformation, the Peasants’ War, and profound societal transformation.

Figure 3. Everyday Life

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Pentiment offers significant potential for educational use, enabling learners to actively experience epochal change rather than merely passively reading about it. Players are confronted with moral dilemmas and social conflicts – such as those arising from tensions within the estate society, religious upheaval, or gender roles.

Figure 4. Revolt in Kiersau

Through these interactive experiences, historical self-efficacy becomes tangible: learners gain insight through play into how change occurs and how history is shaped by individual actors – artists, clergy, printers. This microhistorical approach can be effectively combined with the analysis of primary sources in the classroom.

A salient example is the Peasants’ War: while many students have limited prior knowledge of this conflict, allows them to experience the dynamics of uprisings and the complexity of revolution firsthand.

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Figure 5. Tassing revolts

Another central theme is the Reformation, from the intellectual world of Martin Luther (see Figure 13) to the role of the printing press (Figure 6 and 7). Encounters with the Printing Press and the “Twelve Articles of Memmingen” or discussions about human rights can be compared both in-game and with historical sources.

Figure 6. The Printing Press and dialogue about The Twelve Articles.

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Figure 7. The Twelve Articles of Memmingen shown in the game.

Social mobility is also illustrated, for instance, through the protagonist Andreas Maler – whose journey from journeyman to renowned artist mirrors historical figures such as Albrecht Dürer or Matthäus Schwarz, chief account of the Fugger family, who is sometimes referred to as the “first influencer” in history (see Figures 8 and 9).

Figure 8. (Left) in-game ‘Ex Libris’ player journal with profile of Andreas.

Figure 9. (Right) Page from Matthäus Schwarz of Augsburg: Trachtenbuch, 1520– 1560, 32 jar 5 1/2 monet [18th century copy].2

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The spread of new ideas becomes tangible as players participate directly in conversations and debates within ordinary people. The game demonstrates that history is shaped not only by “great men,” but above all by the dissemination of ideas and the actions of many.

Figure 10. Praying Hands – inspired by a drawing by Albrecht Dürer c. 1508

From a didactic standpoint, Pentiment is particularly valuable because it offers a lowthreshold introduction to source criticism and the materiality of history. Learners interact with ruins, inscriptions, and manuscripts, analysing them as historical sources.

The game’s sophisticated representation of language and script – such as different fonts for various social groups (see in Figures 11, 12 and 13) – offers inspiration for interdisciplinary projects.

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Figure 11. Religious life

Figure 12. Post rider on walking horse

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Figure 13. Dialogue about the work of Martin Luther.

For classroom use, it is recommended to focus on playing selected scenes or utilizing Let’s Play videos, combined with analysis on historical sources and discussions on social roles, media change, and societal transformation. Although Pentiment was not developed for educational purposes, its immersive, multi-perspective narrative style and the integration of gameplay with historical reflection create new opportunities for historical learning.

All Pentiment game images: Courtesy of Obsidian Entertainment. Thanks to Shyla Schofield and Josh Sawyer.

2 Image Courtesy of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Bibliothek – Niedersächsische Landesbibliothek, Hannover, Ms XVII, 988, fol. 91r. (1497–1574).]

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Recommended Videos Interview with Josh Sawyer: Alan van Beek and Lucas Haasis, Interview and Q&A with Josh Sawyer, Game Director of ‘Pentiment’, 2023, DOI: https://doi.org/10.26012/mittelalter-31324

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Watch the keynote "Illuminating Those Who Illuminated Me. Micro- and Macrohistorical Sources for Pentiment" by Josh Sawyer, Studio Design Director at Obsidian Entertainment, Oldenburg 2024. https://youtu.be/EQZWcMo_m0w?si=vVLchw8UIPaqlr0_ Watch Noclip – Video Game Documentaries. The Making of Pentiment - Noclip Documentary. Video. YouTube, 9 April 2024. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ffIdgOBYwbc&t=1818s Further Reading Beek, Alan van, Aurelia Brandenburg und Lucas Haasis, eds, 2024. “Zeitenwende.

Interdisziplinäre Zugänge zum Spiel Pentiment”, Mittelalter https://doi.org/10.58079/128we.

Haasis, Lucas, 2024. “An Epoch on the Rise. On ‘Pentiment’, the Early Modern Period in Games and Microhistory”, Mittelalter, https://doi.org/10.58079/128wi.

Winnerling, Tobias, 2024. “Das Tänzeln auf der Epochenschwelle”, Mittelalter, https://doi.org/10.58079/128wj.

Wright, Esther, 2024 “‘Layers of history’: History as construction/constructing history in Pentiment.” ROMchip: A Journal of Game Histories 6.1, 191, https://www.romchip.org/index.php/romchip-journal/article/view/191.

McCall, Jeremiah, 2023. Gaming the Past. Using Video Games to Teach Secondary History. Second Edition. Routledge Houghton, Robert (ed.), 2022. Teaching the Middle Ages through Modern Games. Using, Modding and Creating Games for Education and Impact. De Gruyter.

Preisinger, Alexander, 2022. Digitale Spiele in der historisch-politischen Bildung.

Wochenschauverlag Geschichte Haasis, Lucas, 2024. Games im Geschichtsunterricht. Handreichung zum Einsatz von Games im Unterricht. Themenportal Let’s Remember. Games–Erinnerung–Kultur https://www.stiftung-digitale-spielekultur.de/themenportal/games-imgeschichtsunterricht Levi, Giovanni, 1992. “On Microhistory.” In New Perspectives on Historical Writing, edited by Peter Burke. The Pennsylvania State University Press Rublack, Ulinka, 2011. Dressing Up: Cultural Identity in Renaissance Europe. Oxford University Press

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Chrisman-Campbell, Kimberly, 2015. “A 16th-century German accountant compiled a book of personal fashion that rivals today’s Instagrammers in detail and dedication,” The Atlantic: https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2015/11/first-bookfashion-selfie-king/413047

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We can be heroes, just for one day – Concepts of history in LARP Merle Stratmann (Carl von Ossietzky-University Oldenburg)

‘Live Action Role Playing’ (LARP) is a form of public history. Conventions can take place in the setting of historical times, such as the Middle Ages, or in other worlds. Participants create characters they will play at the convention. All these settings feel authentic to the players.1 As part of a seminar at the University of Oldenburg, I conducted the following research to investigate on the question of which historical impacts inspire the participants and what kind of media influences their concept of history. I also investigated on what makes LARP feel historically authentic.

Concept of history (German: ‘Geschichtsbilder’) is a metaphor. According to Jeinsmann, it describes the interpretations and beliefs of a certain historical time that is granted validity by a group of people.2 The research is based on a survey via LimeSurvey, which 63 participants, who all attend LARP-Conventions in any kind of function with a historical setting, such as “Conquest of Mythodea“, took part in. I developed the survey from my own experiences and observations in LARP (inductive research). The participants were also asked to evaluate their interest in history from 1 (“I am not interested in history at all“) to 5 (“I am really interested in history“).

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Figure 1: Answers to a multiple choice-question. The majority of the participants visits LARP conventions that have a big or rather big influence of fantasy elements, such as magic. High Fantasy (52), Low Fantasy (40), HistoLARP/ReenLARPment (11), Others (3).

Figure 2: Overall, most of the participants of the survey categorize the LARP conventions they visit as medieval LARPs. Early Middle Ages (7), High Middle Ages (21), Late Middle Ages (25), Early Modern History (6), Others (4).

In average, the participants rated their interest in history with 4 (“I am rather interested in history”). Most participants answered that they play rather fantastic characters than rather historical characters. Participants who participate in LARPs roughly set in the

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Middle Ages play characters such as knights, squires, elves, hobbits or priests.

Characters mentioned in Early Modern History were mermaids, marine admirals or pirates.

Although some participants mentioned that they were inspired by historical tradition, the majority said that they were influenced by (popular cultural) media. The movies and series that were mentioned were ones one can find in popular culture, such as Game of Thrones or Vikings, and video games like Skyrim. Lots of the media that contributes to the inspiration for LARP-characters produce actual visual images, such as movies or art.

Whilst other media, like other roleplaying-games, books or computer games, enable the person to experience another role in another setting. Moreover, not every series mentioned for inspiration has a setting fitting for the time period. Pirates Of The Caribbean being mentioned as an inspiration for Late Middle Ages and Early Modern History. Whilst Lord Of The Rings and the Tolkien-universe are mentioned as inspiration for characters in Early and High Middle Ages. In addition to that, as with roleplaying games, the media may feature a pre-constructed world, that will allow the player to create a character relying to constructs of that specific world.

Figure 3: Movies/series (17), books/stories (15), Video games (14), Roleplaying-games (14), Art (14), Documentaries (2), Games (3), own fantasy (14), historical tradition (6), Guidelines (2), Others (8).

Regarding the choice of clothing and belongings of the character, the answers given underline the purpose of visual story telling: clothes and items express the character and

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the historical setting. ‘Matching the historical epoch’ was the most given answer, although most of the participants did not specify the period to which they were referring.

Aesthetic preferences can be expressed, too. Clothing and items fitting into an epoch can support the immersion of a different setting. But also the answer ‘functionality’ or ‘practicability’ was given frequently, which shows that clothes and items do need to be functional.

Figure 4: Matching the character (16), colours (3), comfort (6), matching the historical epoch (16), practicability (15), materials (8), looks (15), others (16). LARP clothing and items need to look a certain way and be functional at the same time.

Furthermore, there was a big variety of the source for clothing and items belonging to the LARP character. Some participants answered that they made everything by themselves, some buy everything and some participants modify bought items.

Most participants answered that they do not have a specific role model for their character. This suggests that the LARPers who participated in the survey are inspired by popular cultural media and scientific findings rather than trying to fit into the certain world and orient themselves towards a specific role model.

The feeling of authenticity is created by various factors, some being material (objects fitting into the epoch, scenery, no modern technology), and other being non-material

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(experiencing stories, music, character concepts (e.g. professions), skills (e.g. magic), fights and battles). The results show that there is no certain aspect that is clearly needed to make the setting feel authentic. An authentic world is created by both, material, visual and non-material, personal aspects. These results underline that authenticity is developed by an interaction between subject and (historical) object. Experiencing something that feels historical to one, either because it seems like an original historical artefact or because it is experienced as historically authentic, increases the authenticity.3 Some factors rely on the support of other players, such as reenacting fighting scenes or embodying other historical characters. It is shown that authenticity is created by multiple people and their contribution to an overall experience. Furthermore, the absence of technology is not enough to create an historical setting that feels authentic.

Figure 5: Answers to a multiple choice-question. Absence of (modern) technology, experiencing stories and character concepts fitting into a certain period of time contribute to the feeling of authenticity. Scenery (37), Objects that fit in a certain time period (35), absence of (modern) technology (45), experiencing stories (43), music (26), character concepts (42), skills that are acted out (e.g. magic) (32), difference in speech (26), battles and fights (16), others (5).

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To summarize, the concept of history, which can be shown in the design of characters, is influenced by popcultural media. The certain media is producing certain concepts of history which reproduce in LARP: We find pirates rather in Early Modern History-LARPs and knights, wizards and elves rather in Middle Age-LARPs. According to Velten and Specht, the depiction of the Middle Ages in popular culture is rather a depiction of the imagination ‘how it should have been’, which influences our expectations in a depiction of medieval settings.4 Authenticity is an overall experience, created by not only items but also the interaction with others, all contributing to a certain setting.

Further Reading Brolund, Thea et al. 2006 “Live Action Role-Playing Games: Control, Communication, Storytelling, and MMORPG Similarities”, in: Games & Culture 1/3, 252 – 275.

Jacke, Christoph 2025. “Populärkultur”: https://filmlexikon.unikiel.de/doku.php/p:popularkultur-8155 LARP-Wiki: High Fantasy, https://www.larpwiki.de/HighFantasy LARP-Wiki: Low Fantasy, https://www.larpwiki.de/LowFantasy LARP-Wiki: ReenLARPment, https://www.larpwiki.de/Genres/ReenLARPment Meier, Jan-Niklas; Preußer, Ulrike. 2019. “Mit Würfel und Stift – Das Pen-and-PaperRollenspiel und seine Potentiale für medienübergreifendes literarisches Lernen: Ergebnisse einer Interviewstudie”, in: Medien im Deutschunterricht 1/1, 31-42.

Müller, Anja, 2024. “Transformationen mittelalterlicher Welten und Literatur im analogen Rollenspiel. Drei Fallstudien”, in: Specht, Theresa; Velten, Hans Rudolf (Eds.): Mittelalter und Populärkultur. Rezeption – Aneignung – Beachtung (Populäres Mittelalter Band 5), transcript Verlag, 137-160.

Janesch, Alexande, 2014. “LARP – ein Definitionsversuch”, Teilzeit Helden https://www.teilzeithelden.de/2014/04/05/larp-ein-definitionsversuch/; Lamm, Lisa, 2023. “Live-Rollenspiel: Mehr als Kostüme und Mittelalter-Hype”, National Geographic. https://www.nationalgeographic.de/geschichte-und-kultur/2023/10/live-rollenspielekostueme-mittelalter-hype-larp-live-action-role-play 2 Jeismann, Karl-Ernst, 2008. “Geschichtsbilder: Zeitdeutungen und Zukunftsperspektive”, BPB: https://www.bpb.de/themen/erinnerung/geschichte-und-erinnerung/39810/geschichtsbilderzeitdeutung-und-zukunftsperspektive/, 3 Brauer, Juliane et al. 2021 Schlüsselbegriffe der Public History, UTB 1

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Specht, Theresa; Velten, Hans Rudolf, 2024. “Das Mittelalter in der Populärkultur – zwischen Stereotypen und Authentizität. Eine Einführung”, in: Specht, Theresa/Velten, Hans Rudolf (Eds.): Mittelalter und Populärkultur. Rezeption – Aneignung – Beachtung (Populäres Mittelalter Band 5), transcript Verlag, 9-22.

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Globalities and Regionalities in Roleplaying across Culture and Race in Black Desert Online Johansen Quijano (Tarrant County College, Trinity River Campus)

Figure 1.

Black Desert Online (BDO)’s struggles with globalities vs regionalities stem from how it draws from Western and East Asian aesthetic traditions, offering a world that is both familiar and alien to different cultural audiences. BDO’s character creation system offers an impressive level of customization. It allows for the manipulation of facial structures, skin tones, and body proportions with a level of precision that allows for an unusually wide range of possibilities. However, despite this technical flexibility, the underlying racial and cultural frameworks of the game’s narrative impose subtle but significant limitations on identity projected unto the lore. This is due to the game’s lore being, largely, colourblind. For example, while a player can create a character with any skin tone, the game does not provide narrative contexts that acknowledge or integrate racial diversity into the world’s social and political structures.

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Figure 2.

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Interestingly, BDO’s world design presents a Eurocentric medieval fantasy world with influences from East Asian and Middle Eastern aesthetics. The playable classes, each tied to specific in-game cultures, reflect stylized archetypes rather than historically or geographically grounded identities. This results in an ambiguous racial landscape where characters can appear diverse but are not acknowledged as such by the narrative. In other words, while BDO’s character creation tools allow for visual representation, the absence of in-game racial discourse means that players must rely on external roleplaying conventions or personal storytelling to construct meaningful identities within the game world. Thus, players build their more nuanced identities through roleplay.

Language plays a key role in shaping how race and culture are expressed. Players borrow from regional dialects and colloquialisms to differentiate factions and ethnic identities, creating elaborate character backstories that compensate for the game’s lack of worldbuilding. The absence of a game-enforced racial framework allows players to construct identity fluidly, but it also leads to inconsistent portrayals of race across different communities. that could lead to performative strategies further shaping how players embody racial and cultural identities.

Figure 3.

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As a globally distributed game, BDO presents a medieval fantasy world with a highly stylized aesthetic that blends Eurocentric, East Asian, and Middle Eastern influences.

This allows the game to appeal to diverse audiences, but also creates an ambiguous racial and cultural landscape where identity is visually expressive yet narratively underdeveloped. While the game’s character creation system allows near-unlimited customization, its lore imposes constraints that limit how race and culture can be meaningfully represented. This dynamic reflects a broader trend in gaming, where fantasy settings are designed for mass appeal but are stripped of the historical and sociopolitical nuances that shape real-world identities. At the same time, BDO’s communities demonstrate how players negotiate these constraints through localized cultural reinterpretation. These localized practices reveal roleplaying spaces as sites of both restriction and creative agency, where players work within the game’s limitations while expanding and reshaping cultural narratives. Through this process, BDO becomes a microcosm of broader tensions in global gaming, where fantasy universes are simultaneously homogenized and fragmented, reinforcing shared structures while allowing space for emergent, regionally specific reinterpretations.

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L’era dei rumors e il razzismo – Kingdom Come: Deliverance II / The Era of Rumours and Racism – Kingdom Come: Deliverance II Simone Vitolo (University of Modena) English translation below

Il primo Kingdom Come: Deliverance, fu oggetto di critiche a causa della totale assenza di persone nere . In merito a questo argomento una delle risposte da parte del team arrivò da una intervista dal principale storico impiegato nello sviluppo del gioco, Petr Čornej: «As historians, we obviously encounter this confrontation with 21th century postmodernism, which would like to transfer its principles and visions into the Middle Ages or the 19th century [...]. Irrespective of the fact that if there were any Moors, as black people were called at the time, then you could say there were unique curiosities that a ruler might have one or two of in his court to liven it up. » L'impazienza del pubblico e la sete di notizie hanno reso i "rumors" pre-lancio un elemento cruciale, capaci di influenzare significativamente l'opinione generale.

Indiscrezioni negative possono scatenare reazioni intense e condizionare il successo di un titolo ancora prima della sua uscita, come dimostra il caso di Concord. Difatti, a diversi mesi dall’uscita di Kingdom Come: Deliverance II, rimbalzò la notizia su tutti i portali d’informazione videoludica che nel titolo sarebbero state presenti persone nere .

A questa notizia è corrisposto un forte backlash da parte di quell’utenza che urla al “woke game!” sempre più spesso e sempre più in modo insensato .

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Figura 1. Presentazione di Musa del Mali, Kingdom Come: Deliverance II, PC Windows 11. “Mi chiamo Musa e vengo dal Mali. Sono un erudito, medico ed esploratore. E gestisco l’infermeria.”

Per fortuna alla fine Kingdom Come: Deliverance II si è rivelato come uno dei titoli più acclamati di sempre e dopo qualche settimana dalla sua uscita i giocatori hanno iniziato ad incontrare l’unica persona di colore presente nel titolo, Musa del Mali. Questo personaggio, come sostenuto anche dagli sviluppatori nella voce del codex interno, è un miscuglio fra due personalità storiche come l’esploratore Ibn Battuta e l’imperatore del Mali, Mansa Musa.

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Figura 2. Codex, scheda personaggio di Musa del Mali Kingdom Come: Deliverance II, PC Windows 11.

Il team Warhorse Studios ha utilizzato il personaggio di Musa per rappresentare in modo decisamente interessante un possibile incontro difficile, ma non impossibile, fra culture molto diverse. Musa permette al giocatore di fare molteplici domande sui suoi viaggi, sulla sua cultura e sulle sue usanze. In questo scambio non manca un siparietto comico inziale dato dall’impatto che ha Henry, il protagonista, nel vedere per la prima volta una persona di colore e di Musa che si trova di fronte all’ennesima reazione curiosa e sospettosa.

Anche in questo caso abbiamo assistito ad una reazione eccessiva da parte di una frangia di utenza che si sta sempre più estremizzando, con forti connotazioni razziste e sessiste. A manforte di questa utenza si possono spesso annoverare le testate giornalistiche sempre alla ricerca di click e visualizzazioni cavalcando, senza pensare alle conseguenze, il fenomeno dei rumors.

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Sitografia https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/9kzqxd/kingdom-come-deliverance-waypointradio (ultima consultazione 13 aprile 2025). https://www.ign.com/articles/warhorse-studios-kingdom-come-deliverance-iiinterview (ultima consultazione 13 aprile 2025). https://www.reddit.com/r/KotakuInAction/comments/1c7cyq9/ign_already_interrogati ng_warhorse_about/ (ultima consultazione 13 aprile 2025). https://x.com/ethangach/status/1781032404926288346 (ultima consultazione 15 aprile). https://steamcommunity.com/app/1771300/discussions/0/601892961775548123/ (ultima consultazione 15 aprile). https://www.pcgamesn.com/kingdom-come-deliverance-2/preorder-backlash (ultima consultazione 15 aprile). https://www.thegamer.com/kingdom-come-deliverance-2-discuss-woke-diversitycomplaints-culture-war/ (ultima consultazione 15 aprile).

English translation by the author:

The Era of Rumours and Racism – Kingdom Come: Deliverance II

The first Kingdom Come: Deliverance was the subject of criticism due to the total absence of Black people . Regarding this topic, one of the responses from the team came from an interview with the main historian involved in the game's development, Petr Čornej: “As historians, we obviously encounter this confrontation with 21st century postmodernism, which would like to transfer its principles and visions into the Middle

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Ages or the 19th century [...]. Irrespective of the fact that if there were any Moors, as black people were called at the time, then you could say there were unique curiosities that a ruler might have one or two of in his court to liven it up. “ The impatience of the public and the desire for news have now made rumours one of the most important aspects before a title's release, becoming true catalysts of public opinion. A piece of information perceived as negative often leads to very strong reactions from the public, which can determine the fate of a title even before its release, as exemplified by the case of Concord. Indeed, several months before the release of Kingdom Come: Deliverance II, the news circulated on all video game information portals that the title would feature person of colour . This news was met with a strong backlash from that segment of the user base that increasingly and nonsensically shouts "woke game!” .

Figure 1. Presentation of Musa from Mali, Kingdom Come: Deliverance II, PC Windows 11. "My name is Musa, and I come from Mali. I am a scholar, physician, and explorer. And I run the infirmary”.

Fortunately, Kingdom Come: Deliverance II ultimately proved to be one of the most acclaimed titles ever, and a few weeks after its release, players began to encounter the

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only person of colour present in the game, Musa of Mali. This character, as also stated by the developers in the internal codex entry, is a blend of two historical figures: the explorer Ibn Battuta and the Emperor of Mali, Mansa Musa.

Figure 2. Codex, Musa of Mali character profile, Kingdom Come: Deliverance II, PC Windows 11.

The Warhorse Studios team used the character of Musa to represent a potentially challenging, but not impossible, encounter between very different cultures in a decidedly interesting way. Musa allows the player to ask numerous questions about his travels, his culture, and his customs. This exchange includes an initial comical scene stemming from the impact Henry, the protagonist, experiences upon seeing a person of colour for the first time, and Musa's reaction to yet another curious and suspicious response.

In this case as well, we witnessed an excessive reaction from a fringe of the user base that is becoming increasingly extremist, with strong racist and sexist undertones.

Supporting this user base are often journalistic outlets constantly seeking clicks and views by riding the wave of rumours without considering the consequences.

Bibliography

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https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/9kzqxd/kingdom-come-deliverance-waypointradio (last accessed April 13, 2025). https://www.ign.com/articles/warhorse-studios-kingdom-come-deliverance-iiinterview (last accessed April 13, 2025). https://www.reddit.com/r/KotakuInAction/comments/1c7cyq9/ign_already_interrogati ng_warhorse_about/ (last accessed April 13, 2025). https://x.com/ethangach/status/1781032404926288346 (last accessed April 15). https://steamcommunity.com/app/1771300/discussions/0/601892961775548123/ (last accessed April 15). https://www.pcgamesn.com/kingdom-come-deliverance-2/preorder-backlash (last accessed April 15). https://www.thegamer.com/kingdom-come-deliverance-2-discuss-woke-diversitycomplaints-culture-war/ (last accessed April 15).

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Framing the Other Within: Sebhat of Sadai, Narrative Inversion, and Ethiopian Manuscript Aesthetics in Pentiment Blair Apgar (Kutztown University) “I know Tassing seems big to you, but the world is so much bigger than we can imagine.” – Brother Sebhat, Pentiment As past iterations of the Middle Ages in Modern Games Asynchronous Conference have demonstrated, representations of the Middle Ages in video games have traditionally been steeped in Euro-coded (albeit it highly genericized) visual language, implicitly reinforcing the notion that the Middle Ages belongs only to white Europeans. Pentiment (Obsidian Entertainment, 2022) offers a rare and instructive departure from this trend through its portrayal of Sebhat of Sadai, an Ethiopian monk whose character is grounded in the distinct traditions of Ethiopian manuscript illumination, grounding his presence in a coherent and legitimate historical world. Sebhat’s design exemplifies how regional visual language can be effectively used, if briefly, to decentralize Eurocentric notions of the medieval past in games.

Figure 1. Andreas meeting Sebhat for the first time in Act One in Pentiment.

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Sebhat is introduced in Pentiment’s first act, staying at Kiersau Abbey as an envoy from the Ethiopian Church in Rome, perhaps based on three Ethiopian monks, P̣etṛos, Bärtälomewos & Ǝntọnǝs, who Verena Krebs has traced across various fifteenth-century sources and who were documented in attendance at the Council of Constance—the same council of which Sebhat makes mention to Andreas.1 While his appearance nominally conforms to the game’s decorative use of simulated pigment on paper, Sebhat’s character design is marked different from that of Andreas and the other monks at Kiersau (Figure 1). Andreas, like most characters in the game, is drawn in a style reminiscent of late medieval Central European visual culture, particularly influenced by woodcuts, marginalia, and the illustrative conventions of early printed books. His features, distinctly influenced by the numerous illustrations of the fifteenth-century Nuremberg Chronicle, are defined by sharp contours, minimal shading, and a linear emphasis on outline over volume.2

Figure 2. Sebhat’s character portrait (left); Andreas’ character portrait (right) from Pentiment.

In contrast, Sebhat’s character design draws from the Ethiopian Christian manuscript tradition. His elongated, almond-shaped eyes, narrow nose, darker skin, and stylized curls reflect visual conventions found in medieval Ethiopian manuscripts. That Sebhat’s

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face is lined in red (Figure 2), rather than black as his European counterparts, reflects a tradition found in Early Solomonic Period manuscripts (Figure 3).

Figure 3. (Left) The Ascension, from Book of the Gospels, late 14th–early 15th century, Ethiopia, Lake Tana region. Vellum, acacia, tempera, ink; 41.9 × 28.6 × 10.2 cm. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Rogers Fund, 1998 (1998.66).

Figure 4. (Right) Evangelist Luke. New York, The Morgan Library and Museum, MS. M.828 (Zir Ganerla Gospels), fol. 108v. Purchased on the Lewis Cass Ledyard Fund, 1948.

His clothing is marked by rhythmic folds and bold colour contrasts, evoking the palette and visual construction of figures found in contemporaneous Ethiopian texts such as the Zir Ganela Gospels (New York, The Morgan Library and Museum, MS. M.828, Figure 4). 3 Additionally, Sebhat’s robes are rendered with layered textural patterns—repetitive bands, crosses, and woven-like motifs—that recall the traditional textiles of his homeland.4 These same patterns later appear in Sebhat’s recollection of the Raising of Lazarus and The Feeding of the Five Thousand on the garments of Christ and his apostles (Figures 5, 6).

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Figure 5. The Feeding of the Five Thousand from Brother Sebhat’s book, Act One of Pentiment.

Figure 6. The Resurrection of Lazarus from Brother Sebhat’s book, Act One of Pentiment.

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Thus, these patterns are not simply decorative but signal a different cultural system of visual storytelling, one in which materiality and surface intricacy are charged with intermingled historical, theological and liturgical meanings. Though his appearance within the game is restricted to the first act, the player is offered a chance to more deeply engage with Sebhat during a shared meal. In the background appears a portrait of Saint Maurice who, by the fifteenth century, was predominantly depicted with African features (Figures 7, 8), subtly anchoring the game within a network of African-European contact.5

Figure 7. Portrait of St Maurice at The Shrine of St Moritz, Act One of Pentiment.

Figure 8. Saint Maurice sculpture, c. 1240-1250. Magdeburg, Germany.

After the meal the player is transported into Sebhat’s illustrated stories. Like his character portrait, the scene adopts the aesthetics of medieval Ethiopian illuminations: vivid yellows, reds, and greens with thick graphic lines. The top of the page features harag, a Ge’ez term referring to the bands of interlacing tendrils used to frame scenes.6 Biblical characters such as Christ and Lazarus are depicted with African features and darker skin. When asked about this difference, Sebhat’s answer notions to the world beyond Tassing, recentring the story through his cultural lens.

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This scene casts Andreas and Tassing as outsiders, repositioned within a new visual language. Though brief, this inversion destabilizes the default Eurocentric aesthetic and places Sebhat’s perspective on equal visual footing, generating a moment of aesthetic parity. Crucially, this does not exoticize Sebhat, but affirms the presence and legitimacy of the Ethiopian Middle Ages. In effect, the game stages a dialogue between manuscript cultures—Central European and Ethiopian—without collapsing one into the other, allowing each to retain its visual and epistemological specificity. Sebhat’s inclusion in Pentiment represents a meaningful intervention in the typically Eurocentric visual culture of medievalist games—one that re-centres a non-European manuscript tradition within the game’s visual and narrative logic, positioning it as a part of the extended medieval world, rather than as an exotic aside. When a game depicts an outsider through the aesthetic style of their own tradition, it not only expands medievalist game aesthetics beyond the European Middle Ages, but also models a compelling strategy for reimagining how the medieval world can be visualized in games.

Krebs, Verena. Medieval Ethiopian kingship, craft, and diplomacy with Latin Europe. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan, 2021, 34-37. Krebs, Verena (@KrebsVerena/@Tweetistorian). “How 3 Ethiopian monks crossed the Alps…” Twitter, April 20, 2021, 15:37. https://x.com/Tweetistorian/status/1384597109664534528 2 Bedingfield, Will. “Pentiment’s Director Wants You to Know How His Characters Ate.” WIRED, November 17, 2022. https://www.wired.com/story/pentiment-josh-sawyer-interview/.

3 Zir Ganela Gospels, 1400-1401, 207 leaves (2 columns, 25-29 lines), vellum, 362 x 251 mm, MS. M.828, The Pierpont Morgan Library, New York. https://www.themorgan.org/collection/zir-ganela-gospels 4 Gervers, Michael. “Cotton and Cotton Weaving in Meroitic Nubia and Medieval Ethiopia.” Textile History 21, no. 1 (January 1990): 13–30. https://doi.org/10.1179/004049690793711244.

5 Jung, Jacqueline E. “Reflections on Africans in Gothic Sculpture, Part 1.” Yale University Press, April 12, 2022. https://yalebooks.yale.edu/2020/07/21/reflections-on-africans-in-gothic-sculpture-part-1/.

6 Zanotti-Eman, Carla “Linear Decoration in Ethiopian Manuscripts,” in African Zion: The Sacred Art of Ethiopia, ed. Marilyn Heldman (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993), 63–67.

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Fantasy Medievalism in The Witcher

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Female Voices in a Medieval-Inspired Universe: a Brief Comparative Study of the Representation of Women in The Witcher Books and Video Games Jéssica Iolanda Costa Bispo (Nova University Lisbon/CETAPS)

The Witcher Geralt of Rivia became, especially of late, a remarkable character in the Western collective imaginary, as a prominent figure in popular culture. Having first appeared in Polish writer Andrzej Sapkowski’s short story The Witcher (Wiedźmin, 1990), and later in the novel The Last Wish (Ostatnie życzenie, 1993), this character (which continued to figure in later works by Sapkowski), as well as the complex medievalinspired heterocosm in which it performs, gave rise to an enthusiastic interest on the part of the general public and scholars alike. This happened, to a large extent, following the numerous adaptations of the saga to different media, including movies and TV series, but especially after the release of the well-known The Witcher video games. The third instalment, The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt (2015) – by far the most popular and awarded of the series – functions as a sequel to the novels, revisiting Sapkowski’s intricate characters.

Among these figure many women who, depending on the medium in which we read (or play) them, see their agency expanded or diminished.

One such character is Yennefer of Vengerberg, who serves as Geralt’s main love interest in the novels and games. While Sapkowski constructs Yennefer as a somewhat powerful character (due to her ability of using magic), Yennefer’s identity is regularly framed not as an individual but as a gendered and sexist archetype: the sorceress. While both the novels and games define sorceresses as untrustworthy women, The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt does strive to construct sorceresses as fundamentally distinct from one another in terms of personality and goals, also incorporating different traits according to each’s sociocultural background. Sapkowski’s novels, however, imply that being a female magic user means being inherently deceitful and manipulative, and sorceresses are thus written through a lens of suspicion and cynicism. Similarly, more often than not, Yennefer is defined through her relationship with Geralt, frequently being shown as emotionally unstable, and irrevocably bound to him only through the work of a djinn. The

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game, however, strives to emancipate Yennefer from this representation, especially during the quest “The Last Wish”, which sees the sorceress removing the ties of fate that bind her to Geralt, leaving the player to decide whether the relationship continues or not.

In any case, Yennefer is shown as being assertive, capable of making independent decisions and confronting Geralt on her own terms, and even holding political power.

A not so different approach is developed in relation to Ciri, Geralt’s protégé. Despite being described as one of the most powerful beings in Sapkowski’s fictional universe, in the novels, Ciri is frequently victimized despite her abilities, and her journey includes instances of sexual violence, control, and grooming, which substantially undermine her empowerment arc. On the contrary, the game comes to highlight Ciri’s power, as well as her capacity to face countless enemies (of a much powerful nature than those presented in the novels) alone, and this is emphasised by expanding the player’s agency and allowing them to experience the game through Ciri’s perspective at times, making her a playable character. Ultimately, Ciri’s ending can involve her becoming an empress or a full-fledged Witcher based on player choice, which also comes to emphasise her agency.

Much could be analysed in relation to other relevant female characters in The Witcher universe, namely Triss Merigold, Philippa Eilhart or Fringilla Vigo. However, the tendency is to find these characters only limitedly empowered in the novels, often lacking agency.

This portrayal is potentially influenced by the historical status of women in Medieval Europe, as they were not allowed to participate in political affairs. Furthermore, the dominant religious ideology of the time – primarily shaped by Roman Catholic Christianity – perceived them as inherently disobedient and, thus, in need of being controlled. Although The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt contains many female characters who appear to fall within this spectrum, it does so, mainly, in relation to NPC’s, as a way to enrich the gameworld, making it more plausible in the process. Narratively important female characters, however, seem to be exempt from this representation, and it is then possible to note that not only does the game subvert the traditional role of women in the Middle Ages when taking into account these characters, but also expands their agency when compared to Sapkowski’s novels.

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The Witcher 3: un viaggio nel tempo e nello spazio dell’Europa medieval / The Witcher 3: a journey in Medieval Europe time and space Simone Fleres (Tor Vergata University of Rome) English translation below

Per quanto si tratti di un gioco fantasy il lavoro di world building fatto prima dallo scrittore della saga Andrzej Sapkowski, e poi dagli sviluppatori del gioco ad essa ispirato, ci permette di immergerci in atmosfere rurali e cittadine dai toni fortemente medievali. Le campagne in cui fin dai primi minuti di gioco Geralt, il protagonista, muove i suoi passi richiamano le campagne inglesi medievali, le grandi città invece si rifanno alle capitali europee del nord, ma anche dell’est Europa con architetture imponenti e castelli dai toni più rinascimentali. L’ambientazione fantasy permette di far convivere in uno stesso contesto architetture ispirate ad altezze cronologiche diverse.

Figura 1 - Kaer Morhen

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Figura 2: Libera città di Novigrad

Un primo esempio specifico interessante da analizzare è sicuramente la città di Novigrad che tra la sua ispirazione da Danzica. Sebbene dichiarata “libera”, Novigrad è dominata da un’autorità religiosa e da una potente criminalità organizzata, offrendo spunti di riflessione sul rapporto tra potere temporale e spirituale. La presenza di cacciatori di streghe riflette una visione del Medioevo che tende ad associare erroneamente la caccia alle streghe a quell’epoca, mentre il fenomeno raggiunse l’apice solo in età moderna.

Altro esempio significativo è l’arcipelago delle Skellige, chiaramente ispirato a culture nordiche e vichinghe. Questi isolani, presentati come fieri guerrieri e pirati, evocano l'immaginario degli antichi popoli scandinavi, pur rischiando una rappresentazione stereotipata. I riferimenti ai jarl, al saccheggio come mezzo di sussistenza e alla marina da guerra rafforzano questo legame culturale.

A sud troviamo Toussaint, ambientazione del DLC Blood and Wine, ispirata ai paesaggi mediterranei di Francia e Italia. Qui il valore della cavalleria di stampo militaresco è ancora centrale, evocando un contesto storico vicino all’XI secolo. Tuttavia, l’iconografia delle armature, molto più simile a quelle rinascimentali, crea un contrasto tra il periodo storico evocato nell’apparenza e quello a cui si rifà il comportamento dei personaggi, rivelando una fusione di epoche a scopo narrativo ed estetico.

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Sul piano culturale e simbolico, il gioco propone una visione del Medioevo intrisa di superstizione. I personaggi si affidano a racconti magici e spiegazioni mistiche, mentre Geralt, pur essendo un mutante, agisce come figura razionale che ristabilisce l’ordine.

Questo contrasto tra irrazionale e razionale, tra medievale e fantastico, viene ben analizzato da Christen Lidén, che vede in Geralt una figura anacronistica che riporta equilibrio in un mondo dominato da credenze arcaiche.

Infine, la religione è un tema centrale. Oltre al culto del Fuoco Eterno, molto simile alla Chiesa medievale e spesso rappresentato come intollerante e fanatico, sopravvivono culti pagani legati alla natura e al matriarcato, come quello di Melitele. Questa coesistenza riflette la realtà storica di un Medioevo non completamente cristianizzato, dove antichi culti rurali sopravvivevano in forme sincretiche.

Bibliografia Lidén, C, 2017. “The quest for medievalism in The Witcher 3”: https://www.academia.edu/110454711/The_quest_for_medievalism_in_The_Witcher_3 Maire Vigueur, Jean-Claude, 2004. Cavalieri e cittadini. Il Mulino, 100-101 Schmitt, Jean-Claude, 2004. Medioevo “superstizioso”, Laterza, 124 Boccia, L.G, 1982. Armi difensive dal Medioevo all'Età Moderna, Ministero per i Beni Culturali e Ambientali Istituto Centrale per il Calalogo e la Documentazione Ateneo di Brescia. Accademia di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti Stuppel Price, N, 2022. N. Vichinghi. Ritratto di un popolo tra storia e mitologia, Mondadori Dendle, P. “The Middle Ages Were a Superstitious Time”. In Misconceptions About the Middle Ages. Stephen J. Harris & Bryon L. Grigsby.

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English translation by the author:

The Witcher 3: a journey in Medieval Europe time and space

Although it is a fantasy game, the world-building work done first by the saga’s writer Andrzej Sapkowski, and then by the developers of the game inspired by it, allows us to immerse ourselves in rural and city atmospheres with strongly medieval tones. The countryside in which Geralt, the protagonist, moves his steps from the very first minutes of the game recalls the English medieval countryside, while the large cities are reminiscent not only of the European capitals of the north, but also of Eastern Europe with imposing architecture and castles showing more Renaissance tones. The fantasy setting allows architectures inspired by different chronological heights to coexist in the same context.

Figure 1. Kaer Morhen

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Figure 2. Free City of Novigrad

A first specific example that is interesting to analyse is the city of Novigrad, which draws its inspiration from Gdansk. Although declared to be “free”, Novigrad is dominated by both a religious authority and a powerful organised crime, offering food for thought on the relationship between temporal and spiritual power. The presence of witch-hunters reflects a view of the Middle Ages that tends to wrongly associate witch-hunting with that era, whereas the phenomenon only reached its peak in the modern age.

Another significant example is the Skellige archipelago, clearly inspired by Nordic and Viking cultures. These islanders, presented as proud warriors and pirates, evoke the imagery of the ancient Scandinavian peoples, while risking a stereotypical representation. References to the jarls, plundering as a means of subsistence and a navy focused on war reinforce this cultural link.

To the south we find Toussaint, the setting of the Blood and Wine DLC, inspired by the Mediterranean landscapes of France and Italy. Here, the value of military-style chivalry is still central, evoking a historical context close to the 11th century. However, armour iconography, much more akin to Renaissance models, creates a contrast between the historical period evoked in the appearance and that to which the characters’ behaviour refers, revealing a fusion of eras for narrative and aesthetic purposes.

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On a cultural and symbolic level, the game proposes a vision of the Middle Ages steeped in superstition. The characters rely on magical tales and mystical explanations, while Geralt, despite being a mutant, acts as a rational figure who restores order. This contrast between the irrational and the rational, the medieval and the fantastic, is well analysed

by Christen Lidén, who sees Geralt as an anachronistic figure who restores balance to a world dominated by archaic beliefs.

Finally, religion is a central theme. Besides the Eternal Fire cult, very similar to the medieval Church and often portrayed as intolerant and fanatical, pagan cults linked to nature and matriarchy, such as that of Melitele, survive. This coexistence reflects the historical reality of a incompletely Christianised Middle Ages, where ancient rural cults survived in syncretic forms.

Bibliography C. Lidén, The quest for medievalism in The Witcher 3, https://www.academia.edu/110454711/The_quest_for_medievalism_in_The_Witcher_3 Jean-Claude Maire Vigueur, Cavalieri e cittadini, 2004, Il Mulino, Bologna, pp. 100-101 Jean-Claude Schmitt, Medioevo “superstizioso”, Laterza, Bari, 2004, p.124 L. G. Boccia, Armi difensive dal Medioevo all’Età Moderna, Ministero per i Beni Culturali e Ambientali Istituto Centrale per il Calalogo e la Documentazione Ateneo di Brescia.

Accademia di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti, 1982.

N. Stuppel Price, Vichinghi. Ritratto di un popolo tra storia e mitologia, Mondadori, Milano, 2022 P. Dendle. The Middle Ages Were a Superstitious Time. In Misconceptions About the Middle Ages. Stephen J. Harris & Bryon L. Grigsby.

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Dungeons & Distortions: The Pseudo-Norse berserkir in The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt Roderick Dale and Markus Mindrebø (University of Stavanger)

There is a long history of distorting the historical phenomenon of the berserkir in postmedieval memory and culture. In this paper, we explore the particularly egregious use of berserkir memory in a recent highlight of modern mythological memory culture, The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt (2015).

In the game’s explicitly Viking-inspired Skellige Isles, we find Viking identities drawing on post-medieval research and the expectations engendered by four centuries of superficial readings of Old Norse literature that set up early medieval Scandinavians as hyperviolent raiders and pillagers without a thought for the real people of the time and their own identities. This trope is now so entrenched that it is what a player of the game would expect from a Viking archetype. As such, it gives the game’s presentation of “Vikings” the “selective authenticity” required to satisfy audience expectations.1

Figure 1. Skellige in The Witcher 3’s early concept art.

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As part of the Skellige questline, the player encounters a group of bears who have been manipulated into murdering the guests at an important aristocratic feast. Through the player’s investigation, it turns out that the bears are vildkaarls (a direct reference to Old Norse words for “wild men”), human warriors who have transformed into bears through a blood ritual. While investigating the brutal murders, the player learns that the vildkaarls are the last remnant of a cult to the ancient deity Svalblod centred in the village of Fornhala, another Norse-ism alluding to halls of past glory. In Fornhala, the player confronts the remaining members of this group, and fights them directly after personally watching one transform into a bear.

Beyond these transformations, more can be gleaned by investigating the minigame gwent, an in-universe game of cards representing figures from the narrative and the wider lore of the Witcher world. The Skellige gwent deck, introduced in the Blood & Wine expansion pack, contains several interesting cards. For instance, the cards representing the vildkaarls are simply titled Berserker and Young Berserker respectively. Both of these can transform into ‘Wild Vildkaarl’ and ‘Wild Young Vildkaarl’ cards, with images of bears, when the ‘Mardroeme’ mushroom card is played.

Figure 2. The “Berserker” and “Transformed Vildkaarl” Gwent cards from The Witcher 3.

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Unlike the game narrative itself, the gwent cards thus clearly link the transformation from human warrior into raging bear to the consumption of poisonous mushrooms, and the ‘Mardroeme’ card description presents the ominous threat seen in the image below.

Figure 3. The “Mardroeme” Gwent card from The Witcher 3.

Berserkir existed, but not in the form most imagine. Early research into berserkir treated Old Norse sagas as history and interpreted berserkir in them on that basis.2 Subsequent research then adjusted that earliest research without revisiting the primary sources in detail. Thus, the concept of the shapeshifting berserk warrior possessed by madness arose and became embedded in popular consciousness. This is the stereotype that vildkaarls are built on. The developers of The Witcher 3 could have drawn on many different theories, from possession to hangovers to PTSD, but they chose the perennially popular mushroom theory.

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Figure 4. Amanita muscaria (the so-called Berserker mushroom).

A holistic, medial reading of Old Norse literature shows that the medieval audience perceived berserkir as bodyguards and champions with a strong association to duelling.

It suggests that berserkir were connected to certain rituals related to Odin, but that they were not shamans of Odin. This accords with pre-Christian religion in Scandinavia, where relationships with the gods were personal and did not need to be mediated through others. It is further supported by the presence of Christian berserkir in Barlaams ok Josaphats saga and Karlamagnus saga, among others, and in the historical figures of Thorer berserkr and Master Oghmunde berserkr mentioned in fourteenth century diplomas.3 Thorer is recorded as paying the tithe to the Church for himself, his wife and his stepdaughter, while Oghmunde was a clergyman and/or scholar, who is stated to be buried in St Hallvard’s Church in Oslo. These clearly show that berserkir could be upstanding members of society and of the social elite, and were not only stereotypical villains. They were champions with a special connection to Odin, and who would call on him before a fight. They were not drug-taking madmen who were completely out of control.4

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Figure 5. The burial site of Master Oghmunde berserkr at the ruins of St Hallvard’s Church, Oslo.

Instead, what the game presentation draws from is not the medieval, but older forms of medievalism emphasising extremity and madness. CD Projekt Red’s berserkers are, like much of the game, not based on medieval material, but on selective framing and reiteration of medievalist stereotypes, adding some ‘selective authenticity’ by inserting elements players expect from a “Viking” framework.5 This medieval raging warrior trope can also be seen as far back as the berserkers in the 1974 edition of Dungeons & Dragons where they are described as not wearing much armour and able to undergo ‘battle lust’, a type of temporary insanity that resulted in them attacking their enemies without a thought for their own safety.6 Most TTRPGs do not reference mushrooms, unlike The Witcher 3, but the frenzied barbarian untrammelled by civilised convention is clearly present from an early date.

In these depictions, there is also a conflation of Norse and Irish material, where both sources are often considered to be so similar as to be reflective of each other. This conflation of Irish and Norse cultures has a fairly long history in scholarship, so it is not particularly surprising that pop culture does the same. Both cultures were considered to be similar warrior cultures and thus scholars have used the one to analyse the other and vice versa. One clear example is the use of OI ríastrad and its use to inform analysis of

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ON berserksgangr and the reverse, although this is often a circular argument where the one is used to confirm the meaning of the other and vice versa.7 Much earlier, Hermann Güntert in 1912 suggested the fían were Norsemen in Ireland and that Cú Chulainn’s battle rage was an actual example of berserksgangr, so this crossover is demonstrably not a recent phenomenon.8 This scholarly focus on comparing two different cultures has transferred into the pop-culture world such that their boundaries are so fuzzy as not to exist, as we see with Skellige in The Witcher 3.

As these examples show, many stereotypes have roots in post-medieval research rather than in the primary source material, and our understanding of the past is inevitably shaped by contemporary perspectives. While in many ways a masterpiece of medievalism rather than of medieval representation, The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt thus becomes part of a long heritage of misrepresentation of the berserkir, while the vildkaarls become a fun addition to the game’s Viking package.

Andrew J. Salvati and Jonathan M. Bullinger, “Selective Authenticity and the Playable Past,” in Playing with the Past: Digital games and the simulation of history, ed. Matthew Wilhelm Kapell and Andrew B. R. Elliott (Bloomsbury, 2013), 153-68.

2 See, for example, Stephan Stephanius, Saxonis Grammatici Historia Danicae: Libri XVI (Joachim Moltke, 1664), where berserkir are interpreted as possessed by demons because of the actions of the black magician Odin, and subsequent analyses that adjust, but do not challenge, this interpretation of the sagas as factual descriptions.

3 Diplomatarium Norvegicum, ed. by Chr. C. A. Lange and Carl R. Unger, 22 vols (P. T. Mallings Forlagshandel, 1847-1972), II (1852), 267 and 422.

4 Roderick Dale, The Myths and Realities of the Viking berserkr (Routledge, 2022).

5 See also Jane Haug Skjoldli’s definition of a “Viking package”; Jane Haug Skjoldli, “Skål! Skål! Skål!»: Assassin’s Creed Valhalla som spillramme for ludisk vikingidentitet,” DIN - Tidsskrift for religion og kultur 1 (2023), 41-75.

6 Roger E. Moore, “Character Conjuring: Berserker,” White Dwarf 19 (June/July 1980), 16-17.

7 Ralph O’Connor, “Monsters of the Tribe: Berserk fury, Shapeshifting and Social Dysfunction in Táin Bó Cúailnge, Egils saga and Hrólfs saga kraka,” in Kings and Warriors in Early North-West Europe, ed. Jan Erik Rekdal and Charles Doherty (Four Courts, 2016), 108-236.

8 Hermann Güntert, Über altisländische Berserker-Geschichten (Hörning, 1912).

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Religious Tensions: The Itatehyōzu Shrine in Assassin’s Creed Shadows Hirohito Tsuji (University of East Anglia)

Assassin’s Creed is a popular action game series starring assassins released by Ubisoft in France. The latest title, Assassin’s Creed Shadows, released in 2024, is the first in the series to be set in medieval Japan and features a real-life Black man, Yasuke 彌助 and a fictional kunoichi くノ一 Naoe 奈緖江 as the protagonists.1 The series touts the high quality of its recreations of the regions and periods in which they take place. However, in this work, the period research is noticeably crude, with landscapes, some architectures and tools that are not from medieval Japan, as well as some objects that are upside down and left to right, so it can be frowned upon by Japanese history fans.2 The game has also been criticised for reflecting excessive political correctness, or for being read as racist against the yellow race, including the Japanese.3 For example, the video intended for the Japanese market featuring English audio with Chinese subtitles, it has succeeded in sparking criticism from not just Japan, but also China and South Korea.4 Worst of all, it is possible in the game to destroy Itatehyōzu Shrine 射楯兵主神社, which is still an object of worship today. The Shrine and Hyōgo Prefectural Association of Shinto Shrines complained about it, and there has been widespread protest in Japan, including a signature campaign calling for the game’s release to be stopped.5 As seen in the case of Yasukuni Shrine 靖國神 社 in Tōkyō, it is common for conservative groups and local residents to protest against activities they deem disruptive or disrespectful to Shinto shrines or Buddhist temples. 6 The creator, Ubisoft, distributed a correction patch; however, in practice, destruction remains possible. The series has included depictions of the destruction of pharaohs’ tombs and Christian churches in the past, but rarely has it attracted such criticism.

This could be due to multiple factors.

One reason is that some Japanese consider Ubisoft racist. As mentioned above, this work is notable for its lax representation of historical facts. Some of the landscapes are clearly not Japanese, and there is criticism that there is contempt for the yellow

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race in the creators’ attitude of equating East Asian countries. The fact that in the game, it is possible to attack Shinto priests who are Japanese, but not to kill Christian priests who are white, could also be perceived as racist.

Another reason is Japanese religious views. Shinto kami 神 are fundamentally different from the monotheistic religions.7 There are so many kami in existence, and each shrine has its own beliefs. Shinto shrines are the centre of the local community in the same way as in monotheism, but also the local guardians. In other words, an insult to the faith at a Shinto shrine means an insult to the whole area. The destruction of the most sacred object of a Shinto shrine, the go-shintai 御神体, is unacceptable to the Shinto followers, even if it is fiction.8 From a Shinto standpoint, this game is very punitive. While overtourism has occurred in Japan in recent years, with many foreign visitors, there have been cases of some insane visitors uploading on social media images of disrespectful behaviour at Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples, causing headaches for Shinto priests and Buddhist monks. Indeed, Itatehyōzu Shrine has cited concerns about the emergence of copycats as a reason for protesting to Ubisoft.

According to Itatehyōzu Shrine, they have sent a letter of protest to Ubisoft, in English and Japanese, against the unauthorised use of the shrine’s image, but Ubisoft did not answer it and released the game.9 All in all, Ubisoft’s attitude is provocative towards Japanese religious belief.

The use of a Black man – Yasuke – as one of the two protagonists is a frequent source of criticism in some areas.

Yasuke was originally from Mozambique and was brought as a slave from India by the Jesuit Italian patrolman Alessandro Valignano when he arrived in Japan. Varignano and his others including Yasuke arrived in Japan in 1579 and had an audience with Oda Nobunaga 織田信長, the most powerful samurai of the time, in 1581. Nobunaga, who had never seen Black people before, ordered his officers to wash Yasuke's body when he saw him. However, instead of becoming whiter, Yasuke's body became even darker. Nobunaga, who was known for his love of rare things, took a liking to Yasuke when he saw this and promoted Yasuke as his retainer, sometimes giving Yasuke his tools to carry. In 1582, Nobunaga was assassinated by his vassal Akechi Mitsuhide

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明智光秀 in a rebellion. Mitsuhide captured Yasuke on this occasion, but released Yasuke.10 Yasuke's whereabouts afterwards are unknown.

Whether Yasuke was actually a samurai remains a matter of debate among historians due to a lack of primary sources.11 However, the prevailing view is that his role was more akin to that of an attendant and entertainer for Nobunaga.12 It is highly improbable that he ever commanded troops on the battlefield, rendering the notion of him as a legendary samurai utterly preposterous. Moreover, the very definition of samurai was only clearly established during the early modern period with the separation of military and agricultural classes.

Moreover, this choice of protagonist creates a set of unfortunate implications. Despite the setting in medieval Japan, Japanese men only appear as enemies to be slaughtered. This shocked some players and has led to accusations of bias against East Asian people.13 Recently, this work has attracted a great deal of attention in Japan, with a petition drive calling for its release to be stopped and the Diet taking up the issue, out of concern that false historical culture could be spread around the world through the game. Prime Minister Ishiba Shigeru 石破茂 stated, “Defacing the Shinto shrine is out of the question, and it is an insult to the nation itself”.14 While history games have immense learning benefits, there is a risk of spreading prejudices and stereotypes that differ from historical facts if the fictional nature of the games is not recognised. What an irony that the game featuring Yasuke as a protagonist for the sake of racial diversity has resulted in racial division.

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Ubisoft, Assassin’s Creed Shadows: Character Reference Guide. Montreuil: Ubisoft, 2024. https://staticctf.ubisoft.com//J3yJr34U2pZ2Ieem48Dwy9uqj5PNUQTn/3bGKVyFkHiabZ5a2SjO7pi/83b f1e6260dcaac48d453399bd573306/ACRED_CharacterReference_Full_FINAL.pdf 2 Kanji Takahashi, “Assassin’s Creed Shadows Slammed for Historical Errors and Unauthorized Material”, Japan Forward, 27 February, 2025. Available at: https://japan-forward.com/assassinscreed-shadows-slammed-for-historical-errors-and-unauthorized-material/ 3 Rina Suzuki, “Assassin’s Creed Shadows Controversy (The Yasuke Controversy): What Becomes Visible and What Remains Hidden from the Perspective of CLIL and DEI”, Comparative Japanese Studies Annual Bulletin, 21 (2025): 113-123.

4 Shin’ichirō Kageyama, “New Ubisoft Game ‘Assassin’s Creed Shadows:’ Why the Criticism?”, Japan Forward, 22 July, 2024. Available at: https://japan-forward.com/new-ubisoft-game-assassinscreed-shadows-why-the-criticism/

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5 Tōru Shimizu, “Asashin Kurīdo Shadōzu no hatsubai chūshi o motomemasu”, change.org, 19 June,

2024. Available at: https://c.org/jSWknpHnSD 6 Sukehiro Hirakawa, “At Yasukuni Shrine, People Pray for the Dead; Leave Politics Out of It”, Japan Forward, 4 July, 2017. Available at: https://japan-forward.com/at-yasukuni-shrine-people-pray-for-thedead-leave-politics-out-of-it/ 7 In Kojikiden, Shinto scholar Motoori Norinaga 本居宣長 defined kami in the following way: “Kami are the deities in heaven and earth in mythology, or spirits enshrined in Shinto shrines. Not to mention human beings, birds, animals, plants, oceans, mountains, and whatever else is uncommonly great and rare are called kami. The meaning of great is not necessarily limited to what is precious, excellent, good or meritorious. Even the wicked and the suspicious are kami, if they are powerful or rare.” See Hirohito Tsuji, “Mediators between Kami and the People: What is the position of the Shinto priests?”, Practical Theology Hub, 1608 (2024). Available at: https://practicaltheologyhub.com/?p=1608 8 Even Shinto priests are not allowed to touch go-shintai.

9 Kanji Takahashi, “’Fukei kiwamarinai kōdō settei’ jinja gawa ga ‘Yasuke’ gēmu eizō de kōgibun: Fussh awa kaitō sezu hatsubai”, The Sankei Shimbun, 4 March, 2025. Available at: https://www.sankei.com/article/20250403-M6VFFHLXORF3HDQJCOGKEMMBN4/ 10 Ietada nikki. Tenshō 10. 4. 10.

11 Alaric Naude, The Real Yasuke: History Beyond the Samurai Myth. Swon: United Scholars Academic Press, 2024.

12 Kanji Takahashi, “Yasuke and Assassin's Creed Shadows: A Japanese Historian's Perspective”, Japan Forward, 22 August, 2024. Available at: https://japan-forward.com/interview-yasuke-andassassins-creed-shadows-a-japanese-historians-perspective/ 13 Chantelle Lee, “Assassin’s Creed Fans Slam Decision to Include Black Samurai in Feudal Japan Story”, Time, 16 May, 2024. Available at: https://time.com/6978997/assassins-creed-shadow-yasukecontroversy/ 14 Jake Brigstock, “Assassin’s Creed Shadows updated after Japan’s prime minister addressed concerns in parliament: The video game has been criticised for its depictions of Japan”, Independent, 20 March, 2025. Available at: https://www.independent.co.uk/extras/indybest/gadgets-tech/videogames-consoles/assassins-creed-shadows-update-japan-prime-minister-b2718744.html

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“Denn häufig haben sich auf seinem Wink und Befehl viele von ihnen von einer hohen Mauer hinunter gestürzt […]“: Die Tradierung des mittelalterlichen Mythos der Nizari Ismailis in Narration und Gameplay in Assassin’s Creed / "For often, at his signal and command, many of them have thrown themselves from a high wall [...]": The transmission of the medieval myth of the Nizari Ismailis in narrative and gameplay in Assassin's Creed Ron Heckler (Deutschen Gesellschaft e. V.) English translation below

Beitrag Seit 2007 inszeniert Assassin’s Creed einen mittelalterlichen Mythos neu: jenen der Nizari Ismailis, auch bekannt als „Assassinen“. Dieser Mythos entstand während des Dritten Kreuzzugs, wurde besonders durch den Tod Konrad von Montferrats gefördert und durch spätere Werke, wie Vladimir Bartols „Alamut“ (1938), konserviert. Der Beitrag zeigt anhand eines Vergleiches mittelalterlicher Quellen und Spielinhalte, wie der Mythos des Todessprungs im Spiel narrativ und spielmechanisch tradiert und weiterentwickelt wurde, um Spieler*innen ein hohes Maß an geschichtskultureller Immersion zu ermöglichen.

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Abbildung 1: Altair (links im Bild) und sein Meister Al Mualim planen die nächsten Attentatsziele in der Burg Masyaf.

Die beiden zentralen Narrative mittelalterlicher Chroniken bezüglich der Nizari Isamilis waren Tod und Treue. Die Assassinen hatten durch ihre Attentate das soziale Gefüge der westeuropäischen Mittelaltergesellschaft erschüttert. Der Mythos, dass sich die Assassinen ganz und gar ihrer Sache verschrieben hatten und ihrem Anführer, laut Marco Polo, ewige Treue bis in den Tod schworen, inspirierte die Fantasien und die Troubadoure des westlichen Mittealters. Dieser Treubegriff war positiv konnotiert und wurde von zahlreichen Fürsten als Vorbild für die Treue der eigenen Soldaten gegenüber ihnen selbst gesehen.

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Abbildung 2: Treue bis in den Tod – auch im Spiel: Al Mualim tötet (scheinbar) Altair für die Missachtung des Kredos der Assassinen.

Die wohl prominenteste Verknüpfung von Treue und Tod ist der „Todessprung“, der sich vor allem auf den Chronisten Arnold von Lübeck zurückführen lässt: „Denn häufig haben sich auf seinem Wink und Befehl viele von ihnen von einer hohen Mauer hinunter gestürzt, so daß [sic!] sie mit zerbrochenem Genicke eines elenden Todes starben.“ Dass Arnold von Lübecks Beschreibung nachhaltig das Bild der Assassinen geprägt hat, zeigt folgendes Zitat von Patrice Désilets‘, Creative Director von Assassin’s Creed: „I read about a scene where the old man of the mountain would ask people to just jump off a hill on his command to scare people. I thought, „That’s great.““

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Abbildung 3: Die Einführung des Todessprungs im Spiel. Die Szenerie ähnelt stark den Vorbildern auch realen Quellen und fiktiver Literatur.

Désilets Gedanken spiegeln nahezu bis ins Detail den Inhalt der Chronik Arnolds von Lübeck – und wurden ins Spiel übersetzt. Der Todessprung wird zu Beginn der SpielHandlung eingeführt, als die Assassinen-Festung Masyaf belagert wird. Der AssassinenAnführer Al Mualim will demonstrieren, dass seine Anhänger keine Furcht kennen und befiehlt drei von ihnen von einem Festungsturm zu springen: „Meine Männer fürchten den Tod nicht, Robert [de Sablé]. Sie heißen ihn willkommen und die Erlösung, die er bringt.“

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Abbildung 4: Zur Demonstration der fehlenden Todesfurcht der Assassinen lässt Al Mualim Altair und zwei weitere Assassinen von dem Festungsturm Masyafs springen.

Ungleich der Darstellung Arnolds von Lübeck ist die Tatsache, dass die Assassinen im Spiel dieses Kunststück vollführen, ohne sich dabei zu verletzen. Einzig in der erwähnten Szene bricht sich einer der drei Assassinen ein Bein.

Abbildung 5: Das erste – und das einzige Mal – dass sich ein Assassine im ersten Spiel beim Todessprung verletzt.

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Der Todessprung ist dabei primär ein spielmechanisches Gimmick: Die Entwickler*innen führten mit den Aussichtstürmen eine Spielmechanik ein, mit deren Hilfe die Spielkarte aufgedeckt werden kann. Der Todessprung bot dabei die Möglichkeit, mit geringem Zeitaufwand von den Aussichtsplattformen wieder zurück auf den Boden zu gelangen.

Abbildung 6: Der Todessprung als Gameplayelement: Hier wird er wird eingesetzt, um auf dem schnellsten Weg von einem Aussichtspunkt herunter zu gelangen.

Die Implementierung des Todessprungs in Assassin’s Creed ist somit ein Beispiel dafür, Geschichte und mythische Erzählungen nicht nur als Inspiration für das Narrativ zu nutzen, sondern auch um Design-Probleme zu lösen. Bewusst entschieden sich die Entwickler*innen dafür, weder den Todessprung nur als Teil der Narration noch lediglich als reine Spielmechanik zu implementieren. Die geschichtskulturelle Bedeutung des ersten Assassin’s-Creed-Titels speist sich aus eben jener historisch-fundierten Verbindung von Gameplay und Handlung, die Spieler*innen zu Nachforschungen anregt und gleichzeitig ein immersives Spielerlebnis ermöglicht.

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Quellenverzeichnis Marco Polo: „Die Wunder der Welt. Die Reise nach China an den Hof des Kublai Khan“, dt. Übersetzung von Elise Guignard, Frankfurt am Main, Leipzig 2003.

Ron Heckler: „Assassin’s Creed Folge 1“, digital aufgerufen am 29.5.2025 unter https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WYpydzdCqFU. Ron Heckler: „Assassin’s Creed Folge 2“, digital aufgerufen am 29.5.2025 unter https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L-AUPFz0CKU. Wattenbach, Wilhelm (Hg.): Die Chronik Arnolds von Lübeck, nach der Ausg. der Monumenta Germaniae übers. von J. C. M. Laurent, Leipzig 1940.

Bibliographie und Literaturempfehlungen Brenner, William J.: Confounding Powers. Anarchy and International Society from Assassins to Al Qaeda, Cambridge 2016.

Daftary, Farhad: The Assassin Legends. Myths of the Isma’ilis, London, New York 1995.

Groebner, Valentin: Willkommen in der Zeitmaschine, S. 19, in: Literaturen. Das Journal für Bücher und Themen, 11 (2008).

Halm, Heinz: Die Assassinen. Geschichte eines islamischen Geheimbundes, München 2017.

Halm, Heinz: Kalifen und Assassinen. Ägypten und der vordere Orient zur Zeit der ersten Kreuzzüge, München 2014.

Heinze, Carl: Mittelalter. Computer. Spiele. Zur Darstellung und Modellierung von Geschichte im populären Computerspiel, Bielefeld 2012.

Hodgson, David; Knight, David: Assassin's Creed. Limited Edition Art Book. Prima Official Game Guide, o.O. 2007.

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Lewis, Bernard: The Assassins. A Radical Sect in Islam, London 1967.

Lohmüller, Torben: „Nichts ist wahr, alles ist erlaubt“ – die Assassinen und der Terror, in: Horsch, Silvia; Treml, Martin (Hrsg.): Grenzgänger der Religionskulturen.

Kulturwissenschaftliche Beiträge zu Gegenwart und Geschichte der Märtyrer, S. 243257, München 2011.

English Translation by Robert Houghton:

"For often, at his signal and command, many of them have thrown themselves from a high wall [...]": The transmission of the medieval myth of the Nizari Ismailis in narrative and gameplay in Assassin's Creed

Since 2007, the Assassin's Creed series has been reimagining a medieval myth: that of the Nizari Ismailis, also known as the “Assassins.” This myth emerged during the Third Crusade, was particularly fuelled by the death of Conrad of Montferrat, and has been preserved by later works such as Vladimir Bartol's Alamut (1938). By comparing medieval sources and game content, this paper demonstrates how the myth of the Leap of Faith was transmitted and further developed in the game, both narratively and mechanically, to provide players with a high degree of historical and cultural immersion.

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Figure 1. Altair (left in the picture) and his master Al Mualim plan the next assassination targets in the castle at Masyaf.

The two central narratives of the medieval chronicles regarding the Nizari Isamilis were death and loyalty. The Assassins had shaken the social fabric of Western European medieval society through their assassinations. The myth that the Assassins were completely dedicated to their cause and, according to Marco Polo, swore eternal loyalty to their leader until death, inspired the fantasies and troubadours of the Western Middle Ages. This concept of loyalty had positive connotations and was seen by numerous princes as a model for the loyalty of their own soldiers to themselves.

Figure 2. Loyalty unto death – also in the game: Al Mualim (seemingly) kills Altair for violating the Assassins' Creed.

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Perhaps the most prominent connection between loyalty and death is the "leap of faith," which can be traced primarily to the chronicler Arnold von Lübeck: “For often, at his signal and command, many of them threw themselves from a high wall, so that they died a miserable death with broken necks.”

The fact that Arnold von Lübeck's description had a lasting impact on the image of the Assassins is demonstrated by the following quote from Patrice Désilets, Creative Director of Assassin's Creed: “I read about a scene where the old man of the mountain would ask people to just jump off a hill on his command to scare people. I thought, “That's great.””

Figure 3. The introduction of the Leap of Faith in the game. The scenery closely resembles the models in real-life sources and fictional literature.

Désilet's thoughts reflect the content of Arnold von Lübeck's Chronicle almost down to the last detail – and have been translated into the game. The Leap of Faith is introduced at the beginning of the game's story, when the Assassin fortress of Masyaf is under siege.

The Assassin leader, Al Mualim, wants to demonstrate that his followers know no fear and orders three of them to leap from a fortress tower:

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Figure 4. To demonstrate the Assassins' lack of fear of death, Al Mualim has Altair and two other Assassins leap from the fortress tower of Masyaf.

Contrary to Arnold von Lübeck's portrayal, the assassins in the game perform this feat without injury. Only in the aforementioned scene does one of the three assassins break a leg.

Figure 5. The first – and only – time an assassin is injured during the Leap of Faith in the first game.

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The Leap of Faith is primarily a game mechanic: The developers introduced a game mechanic with the observation points that allows the game map to be revealed. The Leap of Faith offered the opportunity to return to the ground from the observation platforms in a short amount of time.

Figure 6. The Leap of Faith as a gameplay element: Here it is used to get down from a vantage point as quickly as possible.

The implementation of the Leap of Faith in Assassin's Creed is thus an example of using history and mythical tales not only as inspiration for the narrative, but also to solve design problems. The developers consciously decided not to implement the Leap of Faith solely as part of the narrative, nor merely as a game mechanic. The historical and cultural significance of the first Assassin's Creed title stems from precisely this historically grounded connection between gameplay and storyline, which encourages players to investigate while simultaneously enabling an immersive gaming experience.

List of sources Marco Polo: „Die Wunder der Welt. Die Reise nach China an den Hof des Kublai Khan“, dt. Übersetzung von Elise Guignard, Frankfurt am Main, Leipzig 2003.

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Ron Heckler: „Assassin’s Creed Folge 1“, digital aufgerufen am 29.5.2025 unter https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WYpydzdCqFU. Ron Heckler: „Assassin’s Creed Folge 2“, digital aufgerufen am 29.5.2025 unter https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L-AUPFz0CKU. Wattenbach, Wilhelm (Hg.): Die Chronik Arnolds von Lübeck, nach der Ausg. der Monumenta Germaniae übers. von J. C. M. Laurent, Leipzig 1940.

Bibliography and recommended reading Brenner, William J.: Confounding Powers. Anarchy and International Society from Assassins to Al Qaeda, Cambridge 2016.

Daftary, Farhad: The Assassin Legends. Myths of the Isma’ilis, London, New York 1995.

Groebner, Valentin: Willkommen in der Zeitmaschine, S. 19, in: Literaturen. Das Journal für Bücher und Themen, 11 (2008).

Halm, Heinz: Die Assassinen. Geschichte eines islamischen Geheimbundes, München 2017.

Halm, Heinz: Kalifen und Assassinen. Ägypten und der vordere Orient zur Zeit der ersten Kreuzzüge, München 2014.

Heinze, Carl: Mittelalter. Computer. Spiele. Zur Darstellung und Modellierung von Geschichte im populären Computerspiel, Bielefeld 2012.

Hodgson, David; Knight, David: Assassin's Creed. Limited Edition Art Book. Prima Official Game Guide, o.O. 2007.

Lewis, Bernard: The Assassins. A Radical Sect in Islam, London 1967. Lohmüller, Torben: „Nichts ist wahr, alles ist erlaubt“ – die Assassinen und der Terror, in: Horsch, Silvia; Treml, Martin (Hrsg.): Grenzgänger der Religionskulturen. Kulturwissenschaftliche Beiträge zu Gegenwart und Geschichte der Märtyrer, S. 243-257, München 2011.

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The Eternal Presence of Holy War: The Procedural Rhetoric of Jihad and Crusade in Total War: Medieval 2 Juan Manuel Rubio Arévalo (Central European University)

The Crusades are often seen as defining the Middle Ages, for good or ill. For Reformation writers, the Crusades exemplified Catholic greed and worldly corruption, even while praising the piety of individual crusaders. For Enlightenment authors like Voltaire and Gibbon, the crusades embodied the medieval “ills” like fanaticism, intolerance, ignorance, and violence. However, nineteenth century scholars used the Middle Ages and the Crusades (led by “national” leaders like Richard I of England or Godfrey of Bouillon in Belgium) as foundational nationalist moments, demonstrating European cultural superiority and justifying global imperial ambitions. Even today the Crusades are used to portray political projects as “medieval” in their ignorance and violence (Kingdom of Heaven’s criticism of the War on Terror), or as “medieval” in their “chivalry” and necessity, (right-wing attacks on Islam and immigration). However, while influential, the Crusades were not all pervasive to medieval life: most people never took the Cross.

Video games are part of this phenomenon. Some, like Assassin’s Creed (2006) or Dante’s Inferno (2010), make direct use of the Crusades to demonstrate “medieval attitudes”, others, such as Total War: Medieval 2 (2006), are subtler in their representation. At first glance, the Crusades are simply part of TWM2’s mechanics. However, upon closer examination, the shadow of holy war looms over most of the gameplay. In the default campaign, all factions must conquer at least one holy city (like Jerusalem, Constantinople, or Rome), even where this makes little sense: Russia (Novgorod) and the Moors (Córdoba) must both control Jerusalem for its own sake (Figures 1 & 2).

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Figure 1. ‘Campaign Goals’ for Rus

Figure 2. ‘Campaign Goals’ for The Moors

The game’s imagery further reinforces the presence of holy war. Regardless of whom the player faces in the battlefield, when an enemy general is killed or army routs, the imagery depicts the opposing religion. For example, when playing the Turks and killing an Egyptian general, the image still shows a fallen Western knight. In the game, the Crusades and Jihad are key to the interpretation of the medieval world (Figures 3 & 4).

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Figure 3. ‘Enemy General Fallen’ notification

Figure 4. ‘Enemy Army Routs’ notification

The game’s target Western market partly explains this focus. Being a British developer, Creative Assembly set TWM2 within a Western framework: Western factions mostly resemble modern nation states; Catholicism and Orthodoxy are differentiated while Islam is monolithic; there is no Caliph, but the Pope plays a key role; and the campaign starts at the dawn of the Crusades (1080) signalling their centrality (I would argue that for the Muslim world the eight and ninth centuries are more relevant of their understanding of the Middle Ages than the expeditions to the Holy Land from 1095). Even the religious mechanics are Eurocentric: Muslim players must deal with heretics by burning them in

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an inquisition-like trial (Figure 5), and the Jihad mechanic is simply a Muslim “Crusade” even if it had its own peculiarities in terms of participation, targets, and justification. For example, Jihad was considered a consistent obligation in frontier regions where Islam faced powerful enemies, like the Syrian frontier between the Caliphate and the Romans.

Likewise, for Shi’a Muslims Jihad was valid against apostate Sunnis, a nuance TWM2 can’t explore due to its simplification of the Muslim world.

Figure 5. ‘Blasphemer Executed’ screen

I want to finish by highlighting how the War on Terror impacted the preponderance of Jihad and Crusade in TWM2. Here, both forms of Holy War follow the civilizational rhetoric that permeated U.S. interventions in the Middle East in the early 2000s. For example, while crusading Catholic players may hire professional crusader knights and sergeants, a Muslim player during Jihad can access Ghazis and Mutatawwi’a; units of comparatively poor quality and which are described as religious fanatics, language that is absent in the description of crusader units (Figures 6 & 7). Likewise, while the trait “Crusader” gives a bonus to a Catholic general fighting Muslims, the trait “Holy Warrior” which a Muslim general gains after a successful Jihad only gives a command bonus

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against Catholics, even if in Muslim tradition the war with the (Orthodox) Eastern Romans was more prestigious (Figure 8).

Figure 6. Ghazis description

Figure 7. Mutatawwi’a description

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TWM2 is a very good example how non-narrative videogames can use multiple tools – such as gameplay, objectives, illustrations – to convey concrete ideas about the past.

Although this title tends to flatten historical nuance regarding the Middle Ages and the Crusades, it can still be an inspiration to use video games in more meaningful ways to illustrate complex ideas about the past.

Figure 8. Sultan Mustafa the Holy Warrior1

PD: I want to thank Rob Houghton for his invaluable help in the editing of this paper.

Juan Francisco Jiménez Alcázar, “Cruzadas, Cruzados y Videojuegos,” Anales de La Universidad de Alicante, Historia Medieval, no. 17 (2011): 363–407.

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Further Reading Bonner, Michael. Jihad in Islamic History: Doctrines and Practice. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006.

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Jiménez Alcázar, Juan Francisco Jiménez. “Cruzadas, Cruzados y Videojuegos.” Anales de La Universidad de Alicante, Historia Medieval, no. 17 (2011): 363–407.

MacEvitt, Christopher. The Crusades and the Christian World of the East: Rough Tolerance. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008.

Mukherjee, Souvik. Videogames and Postcolonialism: Empire Plays Back. Kolkata: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017.

Oldani, Andrea. “Medievalismi Videoludici: Come i Videogame Ricreano Le Guerre Medievali.” Diacrone: Studi Di Storia Contemporanea, no. 56 (2023): 73–93.

Tor, Deborah. “Privatized Jihad and Public Order in the Pre-Seljuq Period: The Role of the Mutatawwi’a.” Iranian Studies 38, no. 4 (2005): 555–73.

Tyerman, Christopher. Fighting for Christendom: Holy War and the Crusades. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.

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Closing Keynote Making Rajas of Asia: Modding Cultural Representation and Stateless Government in an Imperialist Game William Chen (University of Massachusetts, Amherst)

The philosopher Bernard Suits once described a phenomenon called the “Alexandrian condition of man.” When scholars finish sprawling, years-long studies, their first instinct is to begin the next. When Alexander saw that there were no more worlds to conquer, he was filled not with satisfaction, but with despair. Suits was talking about why we play games.

Video game modding is a very Alexandrian pursuit. It’s a common joke that modders do not actually play the games they mod. The punchline goes that when asked why, they respond, “well, I have to make it fun first!” Nobody ever seems to accomplish that, but they do make very good mods.

Really, there’s also something of an Alexandrian paradox about the relationship between our mod, Rajas of Asia, and its parent game, Crusader Kings 3. Let me explain.

On the one hand, Crusader Kings is a game about imperial conquest. It’s often compared to Game of Thrones. The comparison isn’t a bad one: there’s all sorts of salacious soap opera plots to engage in, from seducing your enemies’ wives to planning multigenerational eugenics campaigns. But like Game of Thrones, ultimately, CK3 is about war. It’s a wargame. Fans often complain that the most fleshed out playstyle is “blobbing” — spreading your country’s name and borders to cover greater chunks of the map. Even playstyles that don’t technically involve blobbing, like “playing tall,”

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developing the economy small piece of land, still heavily involves raiding and launching coups against neighbouring kingdoms.

On other hand, Rajas of Asia is a mod with, as our lead dev put it, “a strong attachment to underdogs, minorities and the otherwise unseen.” Much of our team comes from people traditionally underrepresented in video games: we are Filipino, Indonesian, Circassian, Taiwanese, Bihari, and Comanche. Our mod aims at greater representation, whether literally adding regions onto the map or radically reshaping pre-existing areas.

In our eyes, this is crucial work: on the last anniversary of the Circassian genocide, a Circassian dev remarked to me that most people had only ever heard of Circassians from CK3’s sister game, Europa Universalis 4. In the official version of CK3, they simply don’t exist.

Figure 1: Rajas of Asia map changes. Blue areas received large overhauls: the Caucasus, India, the steppe and the Finno-Uralic world. Red areas are brand new additions: East Asia, Southeast Asia, Papua, and some of Polynesia.

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There’s a kind of contradiction between the nature of our mod and its parent game: Our mod aims to take the side of the historically downtrodden. Those are the cultures we add content for. At the same time, just about the only fun way to play CK3 is rapacious military expansionism. By adding new countries to CK3, what we’re also doing is creating new worlds for Alexander to conquer. There’s something strange, even potentially perverse, about adding the historically oppressed just for them to be conquered in-game as in real life.

Figure 2: In the Crusader Kings community, there’s a traditional challenge where players, as the Norse Jarl Haesteinn, resettle and conquer the easternmost region of the map (India). This post appeared soon after Southeast Asia was announced; the decolonial critiques practically write themselves.

So far I’ve described above how a system’s fundamental gameplay loop — conquest — can conflict with goals of representation. But for that matter, there’s something more

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broadly problematic about grand strategy games like Crusader Kings, and that lies in the perspective they give the player.

See, one of the long-running struggles of our mod has been the simulation of “Stateless” government forms. Inspired by the work of political scientist James Scott, and admittedly the political sympathies of many of our developers, we’ve represented many of the societies of upland Southeast Asia and the Caucasus as not independent democracies which not only lie outside the state, but resist the state. This is an extraordinarily difficult task in the CK3 engine. There’s a certain amount of existing representation for republics and popular revolts, but a truly directly democratic society? Zilch. CK3 is, first and foremost, a rulership simulator: trying to represent societies without rulers, we’re left with contrived solutions like using individual elders as stand-ins for larger decisionmaking bodies.

Figure 3: Changes made to the Caucasus. Left: Rajas of Asia culture map. Right: official CK3 culture map.

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And while CK3 is unusually personality-focused for a game of its genre, nearly all grand strategy games are equally centered around the perspectives of rulers. After all, the core conceit of the grand strategy game is playing at war, diplomacy, trade, investment, construction, administration and espionage. It would not be a grand strategy game without owning provinces, leading armies or allying with other nations. But this way of representing the world also resists the sort of bottom-up perspective that’s often necessary to respectfully represent cultures historically victimized by those forces of war and governance. (For a sister game, Victoria 3, I once led a mod adding numerous realworld indigenous societies to the Americas. The project imploded once we realized there was no way to actually play natives in Victoria 3, and we were just diversifying the terra nullius available to colonizers.)

To be clear, all this isn’t a critique of modders working on greater cultural representation in grand strategy games. After all, we’re still working on Rajas of Asia, to tremendously positive public support from non-Western gamers, many of whom are just excited to be represented at all. And I also don’t think we should abandon grand strategy games as potential spaces for representation. It’s only because of the truly international scope of CK3 that our mod can bring together developers and researchers from places as distant as Turkey, the Virgin Islands, Poland, and Shandong.

But I encourage readers to think more carefully about what it is we’re talking about when we discuss cultural representation in games. What kind of games are we representing history in, and what are they saying about that history? Whose perspective are we playing from?