ALFRED 2017 Edition 6. Vol. 2

ALFRED EDITION 6 | VOLUME 2 | WINTER 2017

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Welcome from the Editors Dr Stuart Sims, Cassie Shaw & Matthew Palmer

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Based on the relevant literature, discuss the factors that influence the relationship between parental styles, discipline and their relation with children’s outcomes Emma Carroll BSc Psychology and Child Development

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The Complex Nature of Imprinting Laura Harrington-Sage MSc Animal Welfare Science, Ethics & Law

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Dear Mum Bethany Goulter BA Creative and Professional Writing

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Trace continuity and change in the representation of Eva Perón (1919-52). To what extent is her representation shaped by the author’s individual perspective,

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societal concerns and expectations of gender roles during the period in which these sources were written?

Gemma Ireland MA History Page 50

The Virtual Sphere Tabitha Baker BA Journalism Studies and Creative Writing

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The light of resurrection hope, in the darkness of traumatic memory Matthew Grove BA Theology, Religion and Ethics

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How might notions of the ‘porosity’ of the body of the actor (and by implication, the body of the spectator) inform and/or challenge an understanding of Conroy’s claim that ‘[A]ll bodies threaten to distract the spectator from the art of performing’. (2010: 38)?

Rachael Rulton BA Drama

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Landscapes of early Buddhist and Christian Monasteries in Relation to Laity and Wealth Roisin Downing BA Archaeology

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How accurate is Prensky’s prophecy that members of the generation born in the 1990s would be ‘digital natives’?

Anthony O’Connell BA English Literature

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The value of age in the leadership role of female African elephant (Loxodonta Africana) groups Emily Davies MSc Animal Welfare Science, Ethics and Law

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The Significance of Eddie the Eagle in the Modern Olympic Games – A Case Study Meike Leitsche BA Sports Studies and BA Education Studies

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Cultural ‘ Degradation’: Representations of TwentiethCentury Sexuality in A Brave New World and The Waste Land Oliver Kemp BA English Literature

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Thank you for picking up the second Volume of the sixth Edition of Alfred, our journal of student work! Alfred exists to showcase the great work of our students from all disciplines and levels across the university.

Reflecting on the previous year, 2015/16, we had a record number of submissions of student work from both staff and students.

All of this was very high quality which made it challenging to narrow down what to include. As such, we were very excited to announce that we have published two volumes this year to accommodate all of the work that has been successfully reviewed. The summer edition represented only half of the pieces accepted. The winter edition covers a diverse range of topics and submissions from across the academic spectrum.

student editorial panel. We would like to thank Brenda Sharp, James Vaughan, Charlotte Purkis, Danni Pratt, Emily Millis, Jade Tullett, Samuel Chivers, Savannah King and Stephanie Buchler for all their hard work in reviewing this bumper year and for their guidance in shaping the journal.

Finally, we want to thank all the students who submitted a piece for consideration and those who have been published. Every year we are bowled over by the originality and creativity of our students but this year out-stripped all expectations.

We hope you enjoy reading this; Volume 2 will be released in the winter. If you are interested in publishing your work or seeing your students’ work published in the 2018 edition, then please get in touch alfred@winchester.ac.uk Dr Stuart Sims, Cassie Shaw & Matthew Palmer Co-editors of Alfred

For the second year in a row, Alfred has been co-edited by a staff member and a student and the direction and reviewing for the journal has been overseen by a staff4

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Based on the relevant literature, discuss the factors that influence the relationship between parental styles, discipline and their relation with children’s outcomes Emma Carroll BSc Psychology and Child Development

such as high self-esteem (Yeung,

Raising a well-adjusted, happy and high

adolescence (Hinnant, Erath, Tu & El-

achieving child is a complex job that is

Sheikh, 2016). Maccoby and Martin,

affected by many different factors. The

(1983) included an additional parental

parenting style, or relationship quality,

style of the neglectful parent, who is

that a child receives has been linked to

neither demanding or loving towards

later child outcomes (O’Connor, 2002).

their child. This has been linked to the

Baumrind, (1966) defined 3 parental

worst outcomes, such as low

styles; authoritarian, authoritative and

psychosocial competence and

permissive. An authoritarian parent

psychological and behavioural

demands total compliance and shows

dysfunction (Lamborn, Mounts,

little warmth to their child, which has

Steinberg & Dornsbusch, 1991). Deater-

been linked to later low self-esteem and

Deckard and Dodge, (1997) concluded

poor social skills (Egeland & Sroufe,

that the style in which a parent raises

1981). Authoritative parents expect

their child is also linked to the type of

compliance but also show lots of love

discipline used. They state that inductive

and warmth, which has been found to

discipline techniques teach a child how

lead to the most positive outcomes,

to correctly behave through explanation,

Cheung, Kwok & Leung., 2015).

Permissive parents do not expect compliance and are high in warmth, leading to children who are more likely to show delinquent behaviours in

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and are closely related to authoritative

traditional gender roles, as boys are

parenting, and positive outcomes. Harsh

typically more physically aggressive

discipline, such as corporal punishment,

than girls (Siegler, DeLoache &

is associated with authoritarian

Eisenberg, 2014), so mothers may feel

parenting, and more negative outcomes.

the need to be tougher when

However, there is no definitive link

disciplining them to show their control.

between parenting style, discipline and

However, as an increased use of

child outcomes (Kerr, Stattin & Azdemir,

physical discipline is linked to negative

2012). There are many confounding

outcomes, this may mean that boys are

factors that can affect the outcomes of

more at risk of later issues.

parenting, many of which fit into three main categories; child factors, parental

Discipline use is also dependent on the

factors and societal factors.

age of the child. Nixon et al., (2010) found that parents are more inclined to

Child Factors

slap younger children, and to remove privileges in ways such as ‘grounding’

As each child is unique, their personal

older children. This raises interesting

characteristics can affect the parenting

questions with regards to what is the

and discipline that they receive. For

most appropriate form of discipline for

example, it has been suggested that

the age of the child, and whether

boys are disciplined more, and in more

existing research that inductive

physical ways than girls are, particularly

discipline leads to the most positive

by their mothers (Hallers-Haalboom, 2015). This could be explained using 7

outcomes is valid across the child age

It is not just child characteristics that

span.

affect the relationship between parental styles, discipline and child outcomes.

The parenting style and discipline used

Characteristics such as, gender, age,

can also be affected by the child’s

marital status, socioeconomic status

temperament. If a child is naturally less

(SES) and stress levels of the parent are

aggressive and well-behaved, then it is

also influential.

unlikely extreme forms of discipline such as corporal punishment will be

Hallers-Haalboom et al., (2015) found

used. Rubin & Mills, (1992) found this, as

that mothers used more discipline than

mothers were more likely to advocate

fathers, even when they were not the

high and moderate power assertion

primary care giver. This means that even

discipline when a child was described as

when mothers were working and fathers

aggressive, than a child described as

stayed at home with the children, the

withdrawn. However, the direction of

mother was the main disciplinarian. An

this relationship is unclear. It may be that

explanation for this could be drawn from

more aggressive parents lead to more

historical parental roles where the

aggressive children. Therefore, while

mother was responsible for raising the

child temperament affects the

children, so even if these roles are

relationship between child discipline,

reversed some of the time, they may still

parenting styles and children’s

persist in disciplinary actions. It has also

outcomes, it is also affected by them.

been found that fathers are more likely to condone the use of physical

Parental factors 8

discipline than mothers, (Nixon et al.,

levels of support and sensitivity given by

2010).

adolescent mothers.

The age when a woman becomes a

If a parent has gone through an unstable

mother can also affect the way she

divorce and the new parent set-up is not

parents her child. Lewin et al., (2013)

in harmony, this can lead to laxer

found that adolescent mothers were

parenting (Stallman & Jeneva, 2016). If

less supportive, less sensitive and

the parents are preoccupied over the

showed less positive regard to their

divorce or unsettled themselves, it is

children. Both adolescent and emerging

harder for them to make the time to

adolescent mothers were also more

focus on the child too, so behaviours

likely to spank than an adult mother,

that may once have been punished

even when SES was controlled for. This

could be ignored. This has been found

suggests that the younger a mother is,

to increase child externalizing

the more likely they are to use punitive

behaviours, (Stallman & Jeneva, 2016),

discipline techniques and be less

and could be a way for the child to try

authoritative, possibly because they feel

and divert attention back to them.

unprepared for motherhood at a young

However, Stallman and Jeneva, (2016)

age. Unfortunately, this increases the

also found that if parenting remains

likelihood that their child will show

stable throughout and following a

adverse developmental outcomes, such

divorce, then prosocial behaviour can

as poor attachment due to the lower

actually increase. If the parents in a household are constantly arguing but

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then separate and begin to re-establish

lower SES show lower achievement

positive parenting behaviours, the child

(Lee & Burkam, 2002). Nevertheless, it

may recognise that the new

cannot be concluded that the change in

arrangement is preferable for everyone,

parenting techniques due to SES causes

so act accordingly.

these negative outcomes. Poor academic achievement for example,

Parental income and corresponding SES

would also be heavily affected by the

have been found to be a bigger

schooling a child receives, not just the

influence than ethnicity on type of

socialisation they internalise from their

discipline used (Pinderhughes, Dodge,

parents.

Bates, Pettit & Zelli, 2000). Families from a lower SES are more likely to use

The effects of stress on parenting are

corporal punishment, which

not unique to low SES families. It was

Pinderhughes et al., (2000) link to the

suggested by Deater-Deckard, (1998)

possibility of higher stress levels when

that higher levels of parenting stress are

income is low. If parents have to worry

linked to more authoritarian, harsh

about money and providing the basic

parenting that does not provide

necessities for their child they may not

adequate stimulation in social

have the patience, or free time, to spend

interactions, regardless of SES. This

explaining their discipline techniques or

harsher parenting is likely to include

showing lots of affection, so could be

more punitive forms of discipline, such

more of an authoritarian parent. This

as spanking. Specific parenting stress

could partially explain why children of

can also vary within parenting dyads,

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and between children (Deater-Deckard,

negative consequences of authoritarian

1998). Therefore, it may be the case that

parenting and harsh discipline that is

one child receives different parenting

found in European culture (Chao, 2001;

behaviour from each parent, and that

Rohner & Pettengill, 1985; Kagitcibasi,

siblings receive different parenting

2005). This effect can also be seen

behaviour from the same parent,

between different ethnicities within one

dependent on stress levels. The child

culture. African American parents use

that receives the harshest and most

more corporal punishment that

punitive parenting will likely have the

European Americans, but their children

worst adult adjustment.

do not suffer from negative outcomes due to this (Deater-Deckard, Dodge,

Societal Factors

Bates & Pettit, 1996). A possible

As well as the personal characteristics of

explanation could be due to differing

both the child and the parent, wider

beliefs about the correct way to parent,

societal factors can influence the

(Rothbaum et al., 2000), and cultural

relationship between parenting style,

normativeness (Lansford et al., 2005). If

discipline and children’s outcomes.

children see peers being spanked too,

These include: the culture and ethnic

then they will consider spanking a

background of the family, the schooling

regular form of discipline, so will not be

a child receives, neighbourhood factors,

as shocked or hurt if they receive it

and religious beliefs.

themselves. By contrast, if a child never

In terms of culture, children in China, Korea and Turkey do not experience the 11

sees other children being spanked, they may feel that they are being unfairly

treated, and negative outcomes could

High educational achievement as a

occur. It has also been suggested that

positive outcome of parenting is also

Baumrind’s, (1966) parenting styles

dependent on the schooling a child

cannot be extrapolated for use across

receives. Behavioural outcomes at

ethnicities and cultures (Dornbusch,

school have been linked to the teacher’s

Ritter, Leiderman, Roberts & Fraleigh,

relationship with parents, (Alsubaie,

1987). Asian American’s, for example

2015). Positive parenting styles are

may receive extreme authoritarian

conducive towards an interest in the

parenting but still grow up to achieve at

child’s education and engagement with

school and be successful, as was the

school activities in the parent, which

result of Amy Chua’s “tiger parenting”

may increase educational achievement.

(Chua, 2011). This could be explained by

The relationship between home and

the fact that while pressure and

school is important for positive

interdependence is higher for Asian

educational outcomes.

Americans, these children do not experience increased strain (Fu &

Also, the neighbourhood in which a child

Markus, 2014). Linking back to cultural

is raised affects the link with positive

normativeness, if harsh discipline is

outcomes. Neighbourhood factors have

considered normal and educational

been found to be a stronger predictor

achievement is expected for all, then

than maternal well-being, cognitive

negative outcomes can be reduced.

factors and personality on the use of affective parenting and homework support (Hartas, 2014). If parenting style

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is dependent on the area a child is

fellow Christians who do not (Firmin &

raised, child outcomes are likely to be

Castle, 2008). From this, it can be

affected also. For example,

assumed that children from highly literal

neighbourhood economic disadvantage

Christian families will be more likely to

has been linked to more externalizing

receive physical punishment compared

problems in children, and less

to their peers, who may be given a time

authoritative parenting (Lee et al., 2014).

out or other non-corporal discipline form

Therefore, it is not just parental SES that

for the same behaviour. This harsh

affects parenting and child outcomes,

punishment may thus link to negative

but also the SES of those living close to

later functioning in literal Christian

the family.

children.

The religion and religious teachings that

Overall, it can be concluded that the link

a family ascribe to have also been linked

between parenting styles, discipline and

to discipline techniques. Grogan-Kaylor

child outcomes is very complex, and has

and Otis, (2007) found that Protestantism

no definitive causal relationships. There

has a large relationship with corporal

are many possible confounding factors

punishment. It has also been suggested

that are outside both the families and

that that this link depends on whether

researchers control, so conducting

the Bible is taken in its literal form

thorough experiments in this area

(Firmin & Castle, 2008). Families who see

requires careful consideration. However,

the Bible as literal teachings are more

in European children it may be assumed

likely to use corporal punishment than

that the most positive outcomes arise

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when the child receives authoritative parenting and inductive discipline, but this cannot be generalised across cultures and ethnicities.

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Parenting style, parental adjustment, and Co-Parental conflict: Differential predictors of child psychosocial adjustment following divorce. Behaviour Change, 33(02), 112–126. doi:10.1017/bec.2016.7 Tucker, C. J., McHale, S. M., & Crouter, A. C. (2003). Dimensions of mothers“ and fathers” differential treatment of siblings: Links with adolescents’ sex-typed personal Qualities*. Family Relations, 52(1), 82–89. doi:10.1111/j.17413729.2003.00082.x Yeung, J. W. K., Cheung, C.-K., Kwok, S. Y. C. L., & Leung, J. T. Y. (2015).

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The Complex Nature of Imprinting Laura Harrington-Sage MSc Animal Welfare Science, Ethics & Law The Complex Nature of Imprinting In animal behaviour, imprinting can be defined as when ‘a young animal becomes attached to a ‘mother figure’ and/or a future mating partner’ (Manning & Stamp Dawkins, 2012: 84).

This phenomenon has been observed in a variety of bird species (Manning & Stamp Dawkins, 2012). The nature of imprinting has remained the subject of extensive debate for several decades (Cate et al, 2006; Slagsvold et al, 2002). It has intrigued academics since the influential publications of ethologist Konrad Lorenz (1903-1989), who studied animal behaviour in the twentieth century (Lorenz, 1935). This essay aims to reflect upon imprinting in four ways. It will highlight the implications of Lorenz’ work, address modern modifications, consider imprinting in numerous bird species as an evolutionary advantage, and determine the severity of its negative effects.

The Significance of Lorenz The innovative observational studies conducted by Lorenz in the twentieth century were crucial to the development of the field of ethology (Hess, 1964; PBS, 2012). He has consequently been dubbed ‘The Father of Ethology’ by Tinbergen (1963).

Working with greylag geese, Lorenz presented evidence for both filial and sexual imprinting (Manning & Stamp Dawkins, 2012). The flock, having being exposed to Lorenz at birth, behaved as if he was their parental figure.

Subsequently, they became sexually attracted to him upon reaching adulthood (Immelmann 1972; Irwin et al, 1999).

Lorenz identified key aspects that were supposedly unique to imprinting. Firstly, he argued that imprinting was a Fixed Action Pattern (FAP); an innate, rigid sequence of behaviour (Cardoso & Sabbatini, 2001). Secondly, he claimed that there is an irreversible ‘critical period’ in which a species can imprint, for example 24-48 hours after hatching for ducks and geese (Furnham, 2015).

Lorenz further highlighted the tendency of chicks to imprint on inanimate objects 20

in the absence of their mother (Manning & Stamp Dawkins, 2012).

His work, therefore, is of great significance. It provided novel reliable evidence, advanced scientific understanding of imprinting, and prompted further research that has since increased our knowledge of ethology. Additionally, Lorenz’ indicated that both instinct and experience can influence behaviour, thus making a valuable contribution to the ‘nature vs. nurture’ debate (Cardoso & Sabbatini, 2001).

Modern Modifications Lorenz’ theory of imprinting in birds remains highly respected in the field of animal behaviour; however controlled laboratory experiments have indicated that certain aspects are disputable (Cardoso & Sabbatini, 2001). Most importantly, the observation of mammal behaviour has indicated that imprinting is not limited to birds (Cardoso & Sabbatini, 2001). Additionally, the perception of imprinting as an FAP has been questioned. Ethologists have argued that the process is more flexible than originally thought (Furnham, 2015; 21

Manning & Stamp Dawkins, 2012). The behaviour sequence may be more susceptible to change than Lorenz proposed (Furnham, 2015).

The irreversibility of imprinting has also been challenged, as has the concept of a ‘critical period’ (Hoffman, 1996). Later research suggests that a degree of reversal in preferences is indeed possible (Manning & Stamp Dawkins, 2012), and that imprinting is not necessarily restricted to a key period of a species’ life. Sexual imprinting in particular, which has been observed in pigeons, ducks, geese and gulls, is seemingly a more gradual process (Manning & Stamp Dawkins, 2012).

Ultimately, the modifications made to Lorenz’ theory highlights the progress made by ethologists in comprehending the complexity of imprinting.

An Evolutionary Advantage?

Recent research inspired by Lorenz’ theory has allowed ethologists to gain a valuable insight into the advantages of imprinting in several wild bird species.

Filial imprinting is particularly vital for precocial individuals such as geese, fowl and turkeys, who are able to move

around and feed themselves upon hatching (Manning & Stamp-Dawkins, 2012). This process predominantly aids survival by ensuring recognition of kin and the identification of one’s own species, therefore providing safety and decreasing danger from predators (Mackintosh, 2007; PBS, 2012; PBS, 2008). New-born wood ducks, for example, will respond to the auditory stimuli of their mother calling by approaching her. Instinctively remaining in close proximity to the mother increases the chances of survival (Manning & Stamp-Dawkins, 2012).

Furthermore, filial imprinting allows chicks to learn the appropriate behaviours for their species, such as vocalisations for communication with conspecifics (Wildlife Center of Virginia, 2014).

Additionally, sexual imprinting can increase the chances of reproductive success, as individuals are more likely to choose an appropriate sexual partner in the future (Manning & Stamp-Dawkins, 2012). It is evident, therefore, that imprinting can aid the survival of birds in numerous ways; research strongly

suggests that it is a result of natural selection (Cardoso & Sabbatini, 2001).

The Negative Effects Whilst imprinting can aid survival in the wild, studies have indicated the existence of negative effects. Perhaps the most serious is the tendency of newborn chicks to imprint on whatever they are first exposed to, which can be detrimental to the chick’s survival (Manning & Stamp-Dawkins, 2012).

Furthermore, excessive exposure to humans has shown that several species are capable of imprinting on humans.

Consequently, these birds are unable to communicate efficiently with conspecifics (Wildlife Center of Virginia, 2014). Aggression towards humans often occurs as a result of a lack of fear towards them (Wildlife Center of Virginia, 2014). As a result, such individuals are trapped in a ‘gray area’ where they cannot effectively socialise with humans or conspecifics (Wildlife Center of Virginia, 2014). Sand hill cranes who have imprinted on humans, for example, fail to migrate or interact with sexual partners (PBS, 2008). Sexual imprinting on humans diminishes the 22

likelihood of reproductive success (Manning & Stamp-Dawkins, 2012).

Human imprinting, therefore, denies these birds the right to express their ‘Telos’ (Rollin 2007), and they are effectively deprived of their natural habitat. Arguably, this hints at the predominant issue of human encroachment on nature; bird species under human care are frequently unable to imprint naturally (PBS, 2012).

Conclusion Ultimately, the nature of imprinting is a complex aspect of ethology that will continue to be debated for the foreseeable future. Lorenz undoubtedly provided a solid framework that prompted the publications of an array of impressive studies on imprinting.

However, research on a wider range of species is required if we are to further advance our understanding. It is evident that imprinting in birds is advantageous for survival in the wild (Manning & Stamp Dawkins, 2012) and serves as a fascinating example of natural selection (Cardoso & Sabbatini, 2001). The benefits arguably exceed the negative effects in an individual’s natural habitat. Under 23

human care, however, the risk increases.

Extreme preventive measures, including the use of puppets for feeding to decrease human exposure (PBS, 2012), should be compulsory.

References Cate, C.T; Verzijden, M.N; Etman, E. (2006) Sexual imprinting can induce sexual preferences for exaggerated parental traits. Current Biology. 16: 11281132. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science /article/pii/S0960982206014011 (accessed 01/12/16) Cardoso, S.H. & Sabbatini, R.M.E. (2001) Learning who is your mother: behaviour of imprinting. Brain and Mind Magazine.

Available at: http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n14/e xperimento/lorenz/index-lorenz.html (accessed 01/12/16) Furnham, A. (2015) The Psychology of Imprinting. Psychology Today. Available at: https://www.psychologytoday.com/blo g/sideways-view/201504/the-

psychology-imprinting (accessed 01/12/16)

82/n4/full/6885270a.html (accessed 01/12/16)

Hess, E.H. (1964) Imprinting in birds.

Science. 3848: 1128-1139. Available at: http://science.sciencemag.org/content /146/3648/1128?hwoasp=authn%3A148 0530813%3A256%3A1444624904%3A0%3 A0%3AdkDzeTWb7zyKRVvIl9ATPg%3D% 3D (accessed 01/12/16)

Lorenz, K. (1935) Der kumpan in der umwelt des vogels. Journal of Ornithology. 83: 289-413. Available at: https://scholar.google.com/citations?vi ew_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=3kyPIs gAAAAJ&citation_for_view=3kyPIsgAAA AJ:u-x6o8ySG0sC (accessed 01/12/16) Mackintosh, N.J. (2007) Animal learning.

Encyclopaedia Britannica. Available at: https://www.britannica.com/topic/ani mal-learning/Imprinting#ref320639 (accessed 01/12/16)

Immelmann, K. (1972) Sexual and other long-term aspects of imprinting in birds and other species. Advances in the Study of Behaviour. 4: 147-174. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science /article/pii/S0065345408600091 (accessed 01/12/16) Hoffman, H.S. (1996) Amorous turkeys and addicted ducklings: search for the causes of social attachment. Boston: Authors Cooperative Inc Publishers. 1196 (accessed 01/12/16) Irwin, D.E. & Price, T. (1999) Sexual imprinting, learning and speciation.

Heredity. 82: 347-354. Available at: http://www.nature.com/hdy/journal/v

Manning, A. & Stamp Dawkins, M. (2012) An introduction to animal behaviour. Sixth Edn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 84-91 (accessed 01/12/16) PBS (2008) Flight School: The Man Who Walked with Geese. Nature. Available at: http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/flight -school-the-man-who-walked-withgeese/2656/ (accessed 01/12/16) PBS (2012) Who’s your Mamma? The Science of Imprinting. Nature. Available at: http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/mylife-as-a-turkey-whos-your-mama-the24

science-of-imprinting/7367/ (accessed 01/12/16) Slagsvold, T; Hansen, B.T; Johannessen, L.E; Lifjeld, J.T. (2002) Mate choice and imprinting in birds studied by crossfostering in the wild. The Royal Society.

269: 1449-1455. Available at: https://mdanderson.influuent.utsystem. edu/en/publications/mate-choiceand-imprinting-in-birds-studied-bycross-fostering-in (accessed 01/12/16) Rollin, B.E. (2007) Cultural variation, animal welfare & telos. Universities Federation for Animal Welfare. 16: 129133 (accessed 01/12/16) Tinbergen, N. (1963) On aims and methods of ethology. International Journal of Behavioural Biology. 4: 410– 433. (accessed 01/12/016) Wildlife Center of Virginia (2014) Human Imprinting in Birds and the Importance of Surrogacy. Available at: http://wildlifecenter.org/news_events/ news/human-imprinting-birds-andimportance-surrogacy (accessed 01/12/16) 25

26

Dear Mum Bethany Goulter BA Creative and Professional Writing A few months ago, my life was normal.

You were telling me to hurry up or I’ll be late for school, before frantically dragging Anne and Tristan out the house. Tristan often took his toy bunny to school with him. There have been so many times you have run back in the house because he had left it somewhere and was having a tantrum in the street.

Dad had left at 6:30 that morning to go to work, and was not expected home until at least 8pm. Nan also lived close by so I didn’t have to go far if I needed a break, and she was great at supplying snacks. Her brownies are to die for! Plus, I had these awesome friends at school that stood by me through thick and thin.

Well…almost. But I was most excited about my up and coming birthday- my sweet sixteen.

It was going to be huge! All my friends were to come round, there would be balloons, and music and LOTS of food! I was so excited! And so were you, planning every little detail to make 27

sure the day would be perfect. You bought white and blue balloons to decorate the house, and matching banners. I didn’t know what you were doing for a cake, but I knew it would be amazing.

But, not long before, things were tight.

Money started to become an issue, and caring for Anne was hard because of her Down’s Syndrome. You started to get very stressed, and were doing all in your power to help us get by, whilst Dad was working overtime. I decided to get an afterschool job to try and help gain some extra income. Sometimes I had to take Tristan to school, so you could take Anne to her specialist centre, before going to my own, often arriving late.

After a couple of days of consecutive lateness, I started receiving detentions, to begin with during lunch, and then afterschool, meaning I missed work.

We never really saw Dad anymore. But sometimes when me, Anne and Tristan were in bed, I could hear him. And things smashing. This happened for a few weeks. But one day, I heard an extra noise. SMACK. Followed by a small cry

of pain. He was starting to hurt you Mum. And you never said anything.

Instead, you covered up the bruises with makeup, and made sure Anne and Tristan didn’t see. But I knew.

Another night, things escalated even more. I could hear crashing, thumping and shouting. “It’s your fault we’re in debt!” dad was screaming. Tristan and Anne came into my room, asking what was going on. They were scared. They were clutching their teddies as if their life depended on it. So, I told them everything was going to be ok, and tucked them into my bed. I told them to stay there whilst I went downstairs.

I walked into the kitchen to find you on the floor, with a cut on your lip. Dad was at the breakfast bar, glass of whiskey in hand. After being seven years sober he had started drinking again. You don’t know this, but I remember what he was like the last time he was drinking. He was extremely violent. You sent me and Anne to go and live with Nan for a few weeks. She was only one at the time so she never understood. You finally convinced him to go to rehab. And it

worked. We were happy. I got a little brother. But now he is cowering in my bed, scared and confused.

Dad got up from the bar, and walked over to you. I was hiding around the corner, watching. I could not let him hurt you again, so when he bent down over you, I lunged.

“Get away from her!” I yelled, whilst grabbing his back. It took him by surprise and he stumbled to the left, hitting his head on the counter.

“You little bitch” he spat, flinging me to the ground. I landed awkwardly, and screamed in pain, my arm at a funny angle. He got to his feet and leaned over me, hand raised. Meanwhile, you had been quietly standing up and reaching for the rolling pin. You struck him on the head and he crumbled to the floor.

Whilst he was unconscious, we ran upstairs, grabbed Anne and Tristan, and sprinted out of the house to Nans.

We must have looked in a right state because when she opened the door, she gasped. Turning to you, I could see 28

the extent of what he had done. Your eye was black, and there was blood running down your face. Nan put Anne and Tristan to bed, whilst we sat down in the living room. That’s when the pain came. My arm was on fire, and my vision started to cloud.

The next thing I remember was waking up in a hospital bed, my arm in a cast and sling. You were by my side. Like you always have been. Nan was caring for Anne and Tristan, and you had been cleaned up, presumably by a doctor.

You squeezed my hand and told me everything was going to be alright. You told me that I had broken my arm, and dislocated my elbow, which is why I blacked out. It was just my body trying to help. You told me that when I could be discharged, we would head home before Dad came back from work and pack as much as we could. We would live with nan until we could find another place. I smiled. It would be over soon.

I was kept in overnight on observation, only because I had blacked out and the doctors want to make sure there were no additional problems. When we had 29

gotten into the car, you turned to me and smiled.

“Happy birthday sweetheart.” You said softly. I had totally forgotten that it was my birthday. You leant across me and reached for the glove box. Opening it, you pulled out a small box and handed it to me. I opened it, and inside was the most beautiful necklace I have ever seen. I could feel tears brimming in my eyes. Considering the circumstances, I felt like the luckiest person alive. I had the most amazing Mum anyone could ask for. That’s when it hit me. I realised that this could be one factor to our money problems; it had been spent on getting me the perfect present.

I got the gold necklace out of the box, and put it on, the small gold star sat comfortably against my skin. I turned and gave you a hug and whispered “thank you” into your ear. You smiled and started the engine, and we drove towards a new beginning.

When we arrived at the building we used to call home, we hurriedly went inside and grabbed as much as we

could. I went upstairs and packed clothes for Anne and Tristan, not forgetting their favourite toys, especially Tristan’s bunny. He would never forgive me if I left it. Once I had as much as I could carry, I ran down the stairs and shoved it into the car. The bunny got caught on the side of the door, pulling one of its eyes off. Don’t worry Tristan, I will fix it. I went back up to get some of my items, including my phone and laptop. I had just finished selecting which clothes to take when I heard a loud crash. Still holding everything, I raced downstairs and stopped at the living room door.

Time froze. I dropped everything, my laptop smashing when it hit the ground. I stumbled over to you, laying on the floor, unconscious. Blood was dripping from your head, forming a small pool on our carpet. My knees buckled as I knelt beside you, as tears started to escape over my eyelids. A sudden glint of light caught my eye. I looked up and saw Dad standing in the corner, holding the same rolling pin you had used on him. But this time it was covered in blood. I looked at him in horror as a scream escaped my

lips.

What happened next is just a blur.

The police turned up after receiving calls of concern from our neighbours.

Dad was arrested as soon as they walked in. Shortly after, an ambulance arrived. I had to be prised from your side so the paramedics could examine you.

One of the police officers had to restrain me whilst the paramedics shook their heads and covered you in a blanket.

Tears were cascading down my cheeks, as I shrieked in sorrow. I felt as if my entire world had crumbled around me. I felt as if I was being crushed from the inside out; as if someone was ripping my heart out. Nan came in after dropping Anne and Tristan off at a friend’s, and walked over to me, tears in her eyes embracing me in a hug, whilst I sobbed onto her shoulder.

I didn’t even notice the next few weeks passing. Anne and Tristan were asking questions. “Where is Mummy?” “Will she be coming back?” “What about Daddy?”

As gently as she could, Nan had to tell them you had gone to live with the 30

angels, and that Dad had been put in prison. His charges got degraded to a 25-year sentence for manslaughter and domestic abuse. We all know he won’t be there for that long, and we also know he should have been charged for murder. Living with Nan helped a lot, but she isn’t as fit as she once was. I know she is struggling with us, but she doesn’t mind. We have a specialist that comes around regularly to help with Anne, and her school has been amazing. Plus, Nan still makes her brownies, and they really cheer us up.

After your funeral, it hit me that you were never coming back. It was like I was being suffocated by a tsunami of fear, grief and misery. I tried my utmost to make things better, especially for Anne and Tristan. But I am struggling. I have lost all my motivation, my friends, and the one person who understood me, my best friend; you. I just shut everyone out, including Nan. Today there was a knock on my door, and Nan entered with a man I had never seen.

31

“This is Cain. He’s a therapist.” Nan looked at me, expectantly.

“I don’t want to speak to a therapist.” I say, and flung myself onto my bed.

I saw Cain turn, smile and nod at my Nan, and she left, closing the door behind her. Cain came and sat next to me on my bed.

“Your Nan is worried about you” he said.

“I know you encountered a great ordeal, and talking about it is the best way to start recovery. It will take a while, but you will be ok.”

“I don’t want to talk.” I muttered.

“Then write.” He pulled out a pen and paper from his brown satchel and gave it to me. “Write to your mum.”

I stared at him for a minute and clasped the necklace you gave me, that has hung around my neck since you gave it to me. Hands shaking, I picked up the pen and began to write you this letter.

As I reach the end of revisiting, and writing the events that have happened, things have become clearer.

I wish dearly that you were still here, Mum. You have always been my rock.

But now I have realised that my siblings

need me even more than before. So, please excuse me Mum but I need to go and mend Tristan’s bunny now.

I will always love you.

I miss you.

April

32

33

Trace continuity and change in the representation of Eva Perón (1919-52).

To what extent is her representation shaped by the author’s individual perspective, societal concerns and expectations of gender roles during the period in which these sources were written?

Gemma Ireland MA History ‘Women worthies’ have been studied and written about for hundreds of years, covering a wide range of females from Queens to pioneers to mistresses. The term has been used to describe the groups of exemplar women whose life stories were documented in collective biographies, usually to highlight them as women worthy of emanating for some or all of their qualities. Phillip Hicks explains how these women were ‘celebrated as objects of curiosity, exemplars of behavior, agents of human history, and credits to their sex.’1 Although there has been criticism of this

approach to women’s history by historians such as Natalie Zemon Davis, who called for the study of ‘women worthies’ to give way to ‘a worthier craft’2, there is certainly merit to studying ‘worthies.’ The existence of such numerous works on ‘women worthies’ means that it is possible to trace the changing representations of such figures over time. In particular, collective biographies are a vital source for the historian to gauge how society and gender role expectations, as well as the personal perspective of the author, mould the way in which ‘women worthies’ are represented. It is also imperative to consider what makes a woman ‘worthy’ in each representation of her. The reasons why Eva ‘Evita’ Perón can be considered a ‘woman worthy’ are numerous, and conflicting. Perón, born Maria Eva Duarte in a village outside of Buenos Aires on 7 May 1919, was an actress turned political reformer and First Lady of Argentina. Eva Perón was loved and hated in equal measure within

1

2

P. Hicks, ‘Women Worthies and Feminist Argument in Eighteenth-Century Britain’, Women’s History Review, 24 (2015), p. 175.

N. Zemon Davis, ‘”Women’s History” in Transition: The European Case’, Feminist Studies, 3 (1976), p. 93.

34

Argentina. She supported higher wages and welfare reform, and prided herself (and her husband) on being representatives of the poor. She set up the Maria Eva Duarte De Perón Welfare Foundation and also successfully campaigned for female suffrage, whilst also unofficially holding the position of Secretary of Labour in her husband’s government. Eva was always immaculately dressed in fine clothes and expensive jewellery, and openly admitted to failing to keep official records of moneys collected and paid out in welfare payments, leading to rumours of corruption. Eva Perón was seen as a beauty, a reformer, a politician and an ‘anti-worthy.’ She has been immortalised in both theatre and film, as well as in literature, because of her extraordinary life.3 Three main sources will be used to demonstrate continuity and change in the representations of Eva Perón, dating from 1978 to 2001. The

oldest source, a collective biography about Latin American women, is Ten Notable Women of Latin America written in 1978 by American academics James D. Henderson and Linda Roddy Henderson. It is the longest biography of Eva Perón out of the three, with a noticeable focus on Eva’s place in Latin American history. Chronologically, the second source is Herstory: Women Who Changed the World edited by American literary scholars Ruth Ashby & Deborah Gore Ohm in 1995. With an introduction by noted feminist Gloria Steinem, the purpose of the book is to introduce readers to ‘unforgettable women.’4 The final biography, Encyclopedia of Women Social Reformers, was written by British historian Helen Rappaport in 2001. The collective biography, featuring nearly five hundred women, is aimed at the general reader in an attempt to ‘restore some of the many neglected and forgotten lives of women activists…’5 In

3

4

D. Larson, ‘To Be Evita’, Evita Perón Biography, The Official Evita Perón Website, 10 March 2016, www.evitaperon.org; River, C., Evita: The Legacy and Mythology of Eva Perón (London, 2012), pp. 3-4.

35

R. Ashby & D. Gore Ohrn (eds.), Herstory: Women Who Changed the World (London, 1995), p. xv.

5 H. Rappaport, Encyclopedia of Women Social Reformers (London, 2001), p. xix

order to assess the changing representations of Eva Perón in these collective biographies, it is necessary to divide her life into three separate chronological periods. Firstly, representations of Perón’s early life will be compared and contrasted in order to show how external concerns have shaped perceptions of her childhood, acting career, and relationships. Next, her political career will be considered, with comparisons of how each biography represents Eva the First Lady and political activist. Finally, the authors’ discussions of the legacy of Eva Perón will be examined and compared.

Eva Perón’s childhood is referenced in all three biographies, though it is noticeably covered in more narrative detail in the Henderson & Henderson work. There is a distinct focus on Eva’s mother’s struggle following the death of Eva’s father, Juan Duarte. This was due to her position as an uneducated

woman in an agricultural region where the lower classes were ‘trapped on the lowest rung of Argentina’s social ladder.’6 This emphasis on class is perhaps reflective of the societal focus on minority groups and the working class in 1970s America. An overspill from the late 1960s, left wing activism was popular in the United States throughout the decade.7 Suzan Jane’s representation of Eva’s childhood struggles, though far less detailed, is similar insofar that she emphasises class difference. She notes that Eva’s mother was forced to ‘hire out her children as cooks to wealthy families’8 – highlighting the have/have-not nature of Argentinian society in the 1920s. Suzan Jane’s less explicit description of Eva’s background as ‘lower class’ is reflective of a more feminist, rather than class-based, focus on Perón’s life. It is noteworthy that the two American sources emphasise class more explicitly than the British

6

7

J.D. Henderson & L. R. Henderson, Ten Notable Women of Latin America (Chicago, 1978), p. 196.

B. Epstein, Political Protest and Social Revolution: Nonviolent Direct Action in the 1970s and 1980s (London, 1991), p. 22.

8 S. Suzan Jane, ‘Eva Peron’ in Ashby & Gore Ohrm (eds.), op. cit., p. 248.

36

biography (Social Reformers), which barely mentions Eva’s childhood at all, stating that ‘details of Eva Perón’s early life are scant.’9 By the time Rappaport’s book was published in 2001, Britain was in the grip of New Labour, who sought to find middle ground between the traditional left-wing approach of extreme collectivism, and the Conservative stance of individualism.10 Though Rappaport does briefly acknowledge Perón’s working-class roots, her decision not to dwell on Eva’s economic and social background is perhaps reflective of the move away from class politics in the UK.11 Although it must be remembered that the entry for Eva Perón is significantly lengthier in Ten Notable Women than the other two biographies, there is a clear correlation between the societal concerns of 1970s America and the amount of detail afforded to Eva’s childhood. Whilst discussing Eva Perón’s social

background, all three biographies also mention that she was an illegitimate child, further highlighting her struggle from social obscurity. Nevertheless, no piece discusses Eva’s illegitimacy at significant length, suggesting that illegitimacy was not a major social concern in the late 1970s or later. There is more focus on Eva’s later acting career than her younger childhood or family background in all of the representations.

All three collective biographies discuss Eva Perón’s move from the countryside to the Argentine capital at the age of fifteen, and her subsequent acting career. Herstory and Social Reformers cover this period of Eva’s life in the least detail, concentrating far more on her later political career. Rappaport merely states that Perón ‘began her professional life working in the dance halls of Buenos Aires’12 before ‘achieving a degree of celebrity’ as a radio and film

9

11

Rappaport, op. cit., p. 544.

S. Bashevkin, ‘From Tough Times to Better Times: Feminism, Public Policy, and New Labour Politics in Britain’, International Political Science Review, 21 (2000), p. 413.

10

37

T. Blair, New Britain (London, 1996), pp. 1617.

12 Rappaport, op. cit., p. 544.

actress.13 Similarly, Suzan Jane outlines how Eva struggled for seven years before succeeding in her acting career.14 The similar lengths and approach to Perón’s acting career by Suzan Jane and Rappaport are perhaps to be expected as there is only a six year gap between their publications. Both biographies downplay Perón’s career as an actress, instead emphasising her political career in more detail. It is likely that this is due to the similar aims of both Herstory and Social Reformers. They seek to demonstrate how particular women have altered history, or initiated reform.

Although this is clearly a part of the reason for writing Ten Notable Women, Henderson & Henderson’s work is less prescriptive insofar that it explores ‘women who played significant roles in Latin American history.’15 The subtle difference in wording suggests that Ten Notable Women is more likely to include all aspects of Eva’s life, rather than focus

on her political achievements. It is noteworthy that there is a more ‘feminist’ character to the Herstory biography than the Ten Notable Women one, despite the fact that the latter was written in 1978 following the peak of second wave feminism in America.

Suzan Jane places little emphasis on Eva the actress, discussing it only in order to give background to her political career. This could perhaps be explained as the mid-1990s saw the very beginnings of a third wave of feminism, in the wake of post-modernism and post-structuralism.16 Though Henderson & Henderson do discuss Eva Perón’s political career in far more depth than her acting career, they still describe Eva’s move to Buenos Aires in a significant amount of detail in comparison to the other two biographies. Furthermore, they also go into more detail on Eva’s love interests during this time in her life.

13

see P. Joyce and C. Kelly, ‘History and PostModernism’, Past and Present, 133 (1991), pp. 204-13.

Ibid., p. 544.

Suzan Jane, op. cit., p. 248.

15 Henderson & Henderson, op. cit., p. xxii.

16 For an in-depth discussion of postmodernism and its effect on women’s history 14

38

Another part of Eva Perón’s earlier life that must be considered is her relationships and marriage. The way in which women’s relationships with men are portrayed can reveal a significant amount about individual and societal perceptions at a particular time, as well as highlight gender role expectations in particular periods. Perhaps most notably, Ten Notable Women considers Eva’s outward beauty and suggests that she ‘cultivated the friendship of powerful men’ in order to benefit her career.17 Out of the three biographies, it is the only one to hint that Eva Perón used her sexuality in order to advance her career, though the wording is subtle.

Nonetheless, this further counters what may be expected of an American academic work written in the shadow of the second wave feminist movement.

Details such as this demonstrate that Ten Notable Women was likely not written in response to second wave

feminist ideals, but rather it seeks to draw attention to notable women who have been obscured because of their nationality.18 On the other hand, Rappaport and Suzan Jane’s stance on Eva’s relationship(s) comply with more traditional feminist notions, though their slight differences reflect the societal concerns of the time and place they were published. The more overtly feminist of the two, Herstory, barely discusses Eva’s romantic relationships only referring to her marriage with Juan Perón. Eva’s physical appearance is not acknowledged and it is stated that she was attracted to Juan because of his ‘intelligence and charm.’19 Though published twenty years after the height of second wave feminist thinking, this approach epitomises how feminist theory of the 1960s and 1970s advocated the separation of women as individuals and their physical relationships.20 The second wave

17

Body in Revolt: The Impact and Legacy of Second Wave Corporeal Embodiment’, Journal of Social Issues, 71 (2015), pp. 386401.

Henderson & Henderson, op. cit., p. 197.

Ibid., p. xviii; Epstein, op. cit., pp. 21-22.

19 Suzan Jane, op. cit., p. 248.

20 Fahs discusses the link between secondwave feminism and the body in B. Fahs, ‘The 18

39

feminist characteristics of Herstory support the observation made by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, who was writing in early 2000, and stated that there had been a revival of feminism in the 1990s.21 It also seems likely that Herstory was published too early to be significantly influenced by third wave feminist thinking, which arguably still enjoys popularity to the present day.

Unlike their predecessors, third wave feminist thinkers do not focus purely on male oppression,22 suggesting that femininity and sexuality are no longer symbolic of inequality. Though published only six years later than Herstory, Rappaport’s representation of Eva Perón does demonstrate a slight degree of third wave feminist influence.

In contrast to Suzan Jane, Rappaport describes Eva as beautiful, and refers to her as Perón’s mistress when they

began their relationship.23 Nonetheless, her comments on the subject are still limited and certainly do not detract from her main discourse on Eva Perón the social reformer. Though the three biographies discuss Eva Perón’s beauty and relationships to varying degrees, none of them deliberate it at any considerable length as is the case in some of the more popular perceptions of Perón. In some cases, Eva Perón has been appropriated as an exemplar of beauty, sexuality and power; the most overt example of this is the 2007 book, Simply Irresistible, written as a self-help guide for women on how to channel their inner ‘siren.’24 White uses Perón as a case study to demonstrate the qualities, traits and tendencies of the successful ‘goddess siren’ who has the ability to control men with her air of unattainability.’25 Though a rather

21

24

Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, ‘Feminism 2000: One Step beyond?’, Feminist Review, 64 (2000), p. 113 [pp. 113-6] 22 S. Archer Mann & D.J. Huffman, ‘The Decentering of Second Wave Feminism and the Rise of the Third Wave’, Science & Society, 69 (2005), p. 60.

23 Rappaport, op. cit., pp. 544-5.

E.T. White, Simply Irresistible (New York, 2007), pp. 13.

25 White claims that there are five primal male desires (to dream; to connect; to create; to conquer; to be nurtured), and therefore five siren archetypes (the goddess; the companion; the sex kitten; the competitor; the mother). Eva Peron is the historical figure 40

extreme example, Simply Irresistible demonstrates that in some cases Eva Perón is presented almost purely in terms of her beauty and sexuality. It is perhaps possible to deduce then, that it is mostly because of the aforementioned aims of each of the three collective biographies that none of them extensively discuss Eva’s image or sexuality, choosing instead to focus on her life as a politician.

The most extensively discussed aspect of Eva Perón’s life in all three biographies is her political career. The majority of the entry on Eva in Social Reformers is unsurprisingly spent discussing her social welfare reforms and women’s rights campaigns. She presents Eva as a shrewd politician, but also as a genuinely caring figure who enforced real social change in Argentina.26 The most notable part of Rappaport’s depiction of Eva Perón as a social reformer is the striking analogy

she draws with Diana, Princess of Wales - another iconic twentieth-century reformer.27 Although Princess Diana was a world-wide celebrity, the comparison drawn between the two is perhaps indicative of the fact that Rappaport is a British historian, but more so of the time in which she was writing. Princess Diana had only died four years before the publication of Social Reformers, an event which prompted an enormous emotional response from the British public, many of whom adored the empathetic Princess.28 Rappaport’s comparison is not inaccurate, but seems to be the product of the time in which she was writing. In a slight contrast, Ten Notable Women places more emphasis on the unusualness of Eva Perón’s political career. Though it generally discusses the same points as Social Reformers, Henderson & Henderson draw attention to the fact that Eva chose ‘a path of action no Argentine woman

she uses as a case study to demonstrate how to be a goddess siren. White openly states that Eva had ‘slept her way to the top’ and that her sexuality eclipsed her actual talents.

Ibid., pp. 26-34.

26 Rappaport, op. cit., pp. 545-6.

27

41

Diana, Princess of Wales also has an entry in Rappaport’s collective biography. Ibid., pp.

192-3.

28 A. Rosen. The Transformation of British Life 1950-2000: A Social History (Manchester, 2003), p. 43.

had followed before.’29 It is likely that the constant reinforcement of the idea that Eva Perón was different and unique was partially in order to demonstrate Perón’s ‘worthiness’, though it is also probable that expectations of gender roles in the 1970s would have influenced the authors’ representation of Eva’s exploits as First Lady of Argentina. Despite the success of the feminist movement of the 1960s and 1970s in the US, attitudes towards women in power were not changed overnight. With the exception of Eleanor Roosevelt, who was herself an independent and somewhat controversial First Lady,30 there had been few women comparable to Eva Perón in the US by 1978. Despite the success of the US women’s rights movement in instigating change in divorce, rape and education laws, there still existed a ‘glass ceiling’ and few women were in positions of power, certainly none like Eva Perón in 1930s

Argentina. Though Henderson & Henderson present Eva’s activism in a positive light, and cite her welfare reforms and campaigns for women’s rights as the key reasons for her celebrity, they do place more emphasis on her as a mould-breaker than the other two representations. However, there are similarities between the Ten Notable Women and Herstory representations, as both suggest that it was Eva’s popularity as First Lady and her political skills that enabled Juan to stay in power.31 Again, Suzan Jane discusses how Eva Perón instituted ‘reforms that improved the lives of women and the working classes,’32 but places more emphasis on how much power she held. This is indicative of how expectations of gender roles changed between 1978 and 1995, when it seems that, though her reforms were impressive, the amount of influence and power Eva Perón yielded was more

29

31

Henderson & Henderson, op. cit., p. 205.

B. Houchin Winfield, ‘Anna Eleanor Roosevelt's White House Legacy: The Public First Lady’, Presidential Studies Quarterly, 18 (1988), p. 343.

30

Henderson & Henderson, op. cit., p. 202; S. Suzan Jane, op. cit., p. 249.

32 Suzan Jane, op. cit., p. 250

42

extraordinary. Though all three depictions of Eva Perón present her as an important social reformer it seems that Henderson & Henderson and Suzan Jane also highlight Eva’s more controversial leadership techniques.

One of the reasons why Eva Perón is an interesting ‘worthy’ is because she was loved and hated by so many at the same time, and still evokes these feelings in many in the present day. Though she instigated important social reforms she was also controversial in the way the brought about those reforms. The inclusion of details about Eva Perón’s corruption seems to depend on the purpose of the biography, as Herstory and Ten Notable Women discuss it more than Social Reformers. This is to be expected, as to include extensive details about Eva’s corruption would undermine her definition as a social reformer.

Rappaport acknowledges that Eva was criticised for driving reform just to keep her husband, and therefore herself, in power33 - but she does not dwell on it.

Similarly, Henderson & Henderson note

that many believed her welfare work was ‘largely mythical’ for propaganda purposes.34 Their representation of Eva Perón’s positive and negative aspects as an active politician seem to be far more balanced than in both of the other biographies, if not skewed slightly towards the negative. This reflects the overall tone of the book, which attempts to present all of the women included fairly, without being selective on the information that is included. Herstory also acknowledges that Eva Perón personally gained from her position, before commenting that she instituted reforms that improved the lives of women and the working classes. The wording of this concluding remark almost excuses Eva’s corruption, making sure that the final word was positive.

Although it does not explore her corruption in as much depth as Ten Notable Women, Herstory does acknowledge that the Peróns ruled with ‘fear and repression.’35 Despite the fact that Suzan Jane does discuss these negative aspects of Eva’s unofficial

33

35

34

Rappaport, op. cit., p. 544.

Henderson & Henderson, op. cit., p. 206

43

Suzan Jane, op. cit., p. 249.

leadership, there is still a feminist tone to her representation. Each point is countered by a positive comment on her reforms and popularity, which reiterates the idea that Herstory, was written with a feminist agenda in mind. The endorsement of the book by Gloria Steinem - a self-professed feminist and political activist - supports this observation, which explains the tactic that has been used to present Eva Perón’s corruption.36 Overall, all three biographies acknowledge Eva’s lessdesirable qualities but there is more attempt to outweigh them with her reforms in both Herstory and Social Reformers. This correlates with the aims and purposes of these two biographies, which both seek to present the women they include in a particular way. Ten Notable Women is less nuanced, as it makes more overt judgements than the later representations, perhaps due to expected gender roles at the time, though it is difficult to speculate on their agenda. The parallels between Herstory

and Social Reformers in comparison to Ten Notable Women are further evident in their discussion of the legacy of Perón.

The way in which each biography tackles the legacy of Eva Perón differs, with Ten Notable Women focusing most heavily on Eva’s legacy as part of wider social, political and economic change in Argentina, naming her as a symbol of ‘irresistible human and technological change.’37 The placement of Eva Perón in the historical context of social and political upheaval certainly seems reflective of the societal concerns of late 1970s America, where significant sociopolitical activists were ever present.38 One of the key differences between the representations of Eva’s legacy in Ten Notable Women compared with the other two biographies is the lack of discussion on popular memory of Eva Perón. This could be explained by the timing of the release of the musical Evita, by Tim Rice and Andrew LloydWebber in 1979,39 telling the story of Eva

36

38

‘Gloria Steinem’, About, Gloria Steinem, 22 March 2016, www.gloriasteinem.com.

37 Henderson & Henderson, op. cit., p. 193

Ibid., p. 196.

Epstein, op. cit., p. 21-3.

39 Evita, H. Prince, Broadway Theatre, (1979).

38

44

Perón’s life. Suzan Jane concludes her representation of Eva stating that ‘her colorful and controversial life has inspired the writing of many books as well as the musical Evita.’40 It is therefore possible to assume that the popularisation of Eva’s life in musical form has significantly influenced perceptions of Eva Perón, whilst also further enhancing her legacy.41 Furthermore, the legacy of Eva Perón was thrust even more into public view in 1996 with the release of the film version of the musical Evita, starring Madonna and Antonio Banderas.42 The popularity of the film is certainly reflected in Rappaport’s discussion of Eva’s legacy, as she suggests that it ‘reignite[d] the Evita cult in Argentina.’43 Notably, Rappaport seems to blame the musical and the film for suggesting that Eva was involved in prostitution during her early career, though she does not explore this in great detail.44 Both Rappaport and

Suzan Jane’s observations of Eva’s legacy are based far more on popular perceptions of her than Henderson & Henderson’s representation, demonstrating the effect of the musical and film on representations of Eva Perón.

40

42

41

43

Suzan Jane, op. cit., p. 250.

The musical Evita has been performed over 1,900 times on Broadway to date: ‘Evita’, Musicals, Broadway Musical Home, 22 March 2016, www.broadwaymusicalhome.com.

45

To conclude, the varied representations of Eva Perón in Ten Notable Women, Herstory and Social Reformers demonstrate the similarities and differences in individual perspectives, societal concerns and gender role expectations at the time each of the books were written. The similarities in the way Herstory and Social Reformers present Eva’s early life, acting career and political career correlates with the fact that they were written only six years apart. Both present Eva Perón as a ‘woman worthy’ because of her social reforms and for being such a powerful and influential First Lady, and pay less

Evita, A. Parker, Hollywood Pictures, (1996).

Rappaport, op. cit., p. 546.

44 Ibid., p. 546.

attention to her background and acting career. This is very much reflective of a move away from class politics compared with the 1970s, when political activism was at its height. To some degree, this explains why Eva Perón’s background and class are discussed in greater detail in Ten Notable Women. It is notable, however, that the biographies do not always reflect the feminist ideals of their times, particularly in the case of Ten Notable Women. Out of the three biographies, Henderson & Henderson are the most critical of Eva Perón’s (rumoured) relationships, corruption and hunger for power, despite being written just after the peak of second-wave feminism. Though written in 1995, Herstory has much stronger undertones of second-wave feminist ideals than the 1978 representation of Eva, proving that it is not always correct to assume that works from particular periods in time will reflect the societal concerns of their day, and that individual authors’ perspectives and aims will always influence representations. Not only is it possible to trace how time has changed the representations of Eva, the comparison of these three biographies

also shows how national societal issues differ. This is evident from the Princess Diana parallels drawn in Rappaport’s representation. The vast amount that can be gained from studying ‘women worthies’ in collective biographies is evident in the case of Eva Perón, with clear links between the representations and second and third wave feminism, New Labour, social activism, and gender role expectations in the 1970s, 1990s and 2000s.

References Books and journal articles: Archer Mann, S. & Huffman, D.J., ‘The Decentering of Second Wave Feminism and the Rise of the Third Wave’, Science & Society, 69 (2005), pp. 56-91.

Ashby, R. & Gore Ohrn, D., (eds.), Herstory: Women Who Changed the World (London, 1995).

Bashevkin, S., ‘From Tough Times to Better Times: Feminism, Public Policy, and New Labour Politics in Britain’, International Political Science Review, 21 (2000).

46

Blair, T., New Britain (London, 1996).

Epstein, B., Political Protest and Social Revolution: Nonviolent Direct Action in the 1970s and 1980s (London, 1991).

Fahs, B., ‘The Body in Revolt: The Impact and Legacy of Second Wave Corporeal Embodiment’, Journal of Social Issues, 71 (2015), pp. 386-401.

Henderson, J.D., & Henderson, L.R., Ten Notable Women of Latin America (Chicago, 1978).

Hicks, P., ‘Women Worthies and Feminist Argument in EighteenthCentury Britain’, Women’s History Review, 24 (2015), pp. 174-90.

Hollows, J., Feminism, Femininity and Popular Culture (Manchester, 2000).

Houchin Winfield, B., ‘Anna Eleanor Roosevelt's White House Legacy: The Public First Lady’, Presidential Studies Quarterly, 18 (1988), pp.331-45.

Joyce, P. & Kelly, C., ‘History and PostModernism’, Past and Present, 133 (1991), pp. 204-13.

Krull, K., Lives of Extraordinary Women (New York ,2000).

Rappaport, H., Encyclopedia of Women Social Reformers (London, 2001).

Rappaport, H., Four Sisters: The Lost Lives of the Romanov Grand Duchesses (London, 2014).

Rappaport, H., Queen Victoria: A Biographical Companion (London, 2003).

River, C., Evita: The Legacy and Mythology of Eva Perón (London, 2012).

Rosen, A.. The Transformation of British Life 1950-2000: A Social History (Manchester, 2003).

Spivak, G.T., ‘Feminism 2000: One Step beyond?’, Feminist Review, 64 (2000), pp. 113-6.

Waddan, Clinton’s Legacy?

(Basingstoke, 2002).

47

White, E.T., Simply Irresistible (New York, 2007).

Zeitz, J., ‘Rejecting the Center: Radical Grassroots Politics in the 1970s — Second-Wave Feminism as a Case Study’, Journal of Contemporary History, 43 (2008), pp. 673-88.

Film & Theatre: Evita, Parker, A., Hollywood Pictures, (1996).

Evita, Prince, H., Broadway Theatre, (1979).

Zemon Davis, N., ‘”Women’s History” in Transition: The European Case’, Feminist Studies, 3 (1976), pp. 83-103.

Websites: ‘Gloria Steinem’, About, Gloria Steinem, 22 March 2016, www.gloriasteinem.com.

‘Evita’, Musicals, Broadway Musical Home, 22 March 2016, www.broadwaymusicalhome.com.

Larson, D., ‘To Be Evita’, Evita Perón Biography, The Official Evita Perón Website, 10 March 2016, www.evitaperon.org.

Radio Programmes: The Art of Monarchy, Gompertz,W., BBC Radio Four, 2012.

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49

The Virtual Sphere Tabitha Baker BA Journalism Studies and Creative Writing

countries to oppression, manage to find ways of using the Internet to their own agenda, for heightened censorship, surveillance and media manipulation.

In the recent years since the rise of the digital age there has been an increased amount of academic discussion regarding the platform of the Internet and its many uses for democratized social and political action and participation. To begin with in the early 1990’s, there was a utopian sense that the Internet would instigate democracy and enhance it with its new means of powerful communication systems, capacities for political discussion and opportunities to challenge government and corporation’s economic and political power. But in the last decade there has been a rise in public manifestations of dissent to which have ignited global socio-political action, examples being the Arab Spring, the Occupy movement, the birth of Julian Assange’s WikiLeaks and many more. The Internet has made these movements possible, and it has managed to enhance activism techniques and mobilization. But as always the same Governments that lead

Higgins (2010) describes media convergence as “the merging of mass communication outlets; print, television, radio, the Internet, along with portable and interactive technologies through various digital media platforms.” She explains that media convergence allows mass media professionals to represent stories and present information by using a variety of media platforms. In effect, it delivers numerous tools for users such as storytelling, effectively enough to allow consumers to select a “level of interactivity while self-directing content delivery” (Higgins 2010). Digital media such as the internet, social networking sites and online news outlets prove that technology is now providing outlets for social communication, allowing a space for people to share and discuss information freely. This is similar to Habermas’s idea of a space in social life named the public sphere (Habermas 1962).

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The term ‘public sphere’ comes from the German sociologist Habermas in his early study first published in 1962, of the relationship between patterns of communication and social change (Manning 2001:4). The concept of this idea began developing during the Renaissance in Western Europe. The public sphere offers a space, which was initially for the public exchange of ideas that was in-between the feudal church and state (Manning 2001:4), for people to come together and have critical debates to discuss ideas about public matters, away from any government or corporation influence and surveillance.

This was important in the eighteenth century due to the significant amount of control and oppression over the circulation of ideas and information to which the church and state controlled at this time. Within the public sphere, civilians can discuss matters of social interest and form a mutual political opinion; Habermas saw this as a positive force (Fraser 1990). Manning (2001) agrees it was positive stating that it “brought many important benefits in terms of the democratization of communication” (Manning 2001:5). The 51

very concept of this social space being public, meant that people of lower classes were not turned away from participating, unlike in private organizations where money is crucial in participating (Randall 2008). According to Randall he states, “in Habermasian theory, the bourgeois public sphere was preceded by a literary public sphere, whose favoured genres revealed the interiority of the self and emphasized an audience-oriented subjectivity" (Randall 2008). Habermas linked together social, political, cultural and philosophical developments and studied their significance on the public sphere. This meant that Habermas study was crucial in the birth of the phenomenon of public opinion, the “aggregate of public attitudes or beliefs about government or politics” (Bianco 2013).

Habermas argues that the public sphere requires "specific means for transmitting information and influencing those who receive it” (Habermas 1989:136). The first institute to act as a public sphere was the coffee house in mid Europe in the 17th century and was an effective social space, open to men of different social

status, and as a result, was associated with equality and republicanism (Speier 1950). King Charles II even tried to suppress these coffee houses at the time stating that they were "places where the disaffected met, and spread scandalous reports concerning the conduct of His Majesty and his Ministers" (Brooke 2011:23). Gentleman’s clubs then took over coffee houses until the 19th century; Capedeville (2015) states that they answered both a “need for social intercourse and an aspiration towards political freedom or defiance” (Capedeville 2015). But these Gentlemen’s clubs represented the gender inequality of that time, as women could not participate. Late 19th century saw the rise in mass media with outlets such as telecommunication, radio, television and the Internet, which now acts as a modern day public sphere on a global scale. Digital media has provided new spaces for the public sphere to thrive in because of the easy accessibility and the ability for audiences to become producers of their own outlets for the widespread of ideas, concepts and political ideas. Social networking sites ie, blogs, Twitter and

Facebook provide a new public sphere, as opposed to coffee shops, gentlemen clubs, journals and debating societies that were used up until the rise of digital media. Now, audiences of any age, class or gender can participate in these discussions, thanks to the Internet.

The use of the Internet as a ‘virtual sphere’ has opened many doors in terms of positive change for democracy.

In Network democracy, a study in social media innovations and participatory politics, sociologists Loader and Mercea argue that social media offers increasing opportunities for political communication and enables democratic and political discussion between citizens within the virtual public sphere. The effect being, that said citizens could challenge government’s and corporation’s political and economic power. (Loader and Mercea 2011:757) Shirky states “the world’s population has grown from the low millions to the low billions, over the same period, social media has become a fact of life for civil society worldwide, involving celebrities, citizens, activists, non-government organizations, companies and 52

governments� (Shirky 2011:28). Here, Shirky is stating that communications have now become more participatory, giving more opportunities to undertake collective action, increase freedom and help public demand (Shirky 2011:19). A good example of this collective communication for political change would be the 2011 Arab Spring movement.

The Arab Springs movements in the Middle East and North Africa were a grouping of diverse anti-government movements in late 2010 and early 2011, these movements received vast amounts of academic attention because of the use of Facebook and Twitter, which was used to communicate with activists to organize protests and to spread the word globally of what was happening at that time. Modern technologies helped facilitate the interaction and communication between participants of political protests, social media played a central role in shaping political debates within Arab Spring (Eltantawy and Weist 2011). This largely helped spread awareness about ongoing events all over the world 53

(Howard et al 2011). Black (2011) stated that “Facebook and Twitter turned out to be far more effective agents of change than any martyrdom attacks on apostates, crusaders and Zionists, which were the most familiar objects of hatred in the jihadi lexicon� (Black cited in Murphy 2011:93). What social media did for Arab Spring was initiate sociopolitical activism, the unrest in Tunisia hit Twitter before mainstream international media, making it a valuable news source for international journalists around the world (Moore et al 2011:93). Researcher Navid Hassanpour states that in the absence of mass media, information is communicated locally (Hassanpour cited in Murphy 2012:97). Although the uses of Facebook and Twitter were revolutionary in creating the widespread of live news coming straight from the source, it did create problems concerning the censoring of news, this is where the powerful elite will use the Internet for control and censorship. @PJCrowley: We are concerned that communication services including the internet, social

media and even this #tweet, are being blocked in #Egypt. @PJCrowley: Events unfolding in #Egypt are of deep concern.

Fundamental rights must be respected, violence avoided and open communications allowed.

(Crowley 2011) Authorities shut down the Internet in Egypt in early 2011, making it harder for protestors to find ways to get information out and organize mass rallies. While Egypt's government shut down Internet services, the U.S. State department used Twitter and other social media services for “statecraft and diplomacy” (Farber 2011). Phillip J. Crowley, the U.S. Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs, was regularly tweeting updates as the situation in the Middle East and North Africa escalated.

Farber (2011) states, “For Crowley, Twitter is the new kind of ‘unclassified' diplomatic cable service, in which the entire world gets to be in the audience and even participate in the conduct of statecraft” (Farber 2011). This is important as this means digital media can benefit

democratic processes and engage in audiences across the world.

In terms of the blocking of Internet services, Murphy states that because government loyalists were using Twitter to “launch smear campaigns against oppressive forces’ (Tomlinson cited in Murphy 2011) the blocking of Twitter “simultaneously and serendipitously diminished the mediums use as a tool of repression” (Murphy 2012:97). In relation to this event, the question needs to be whether social media acts more as a tool for oppression or a tool for positive sociopolitical activism. In terms of Arab Spring, digital media managed to open up pro-democracy movements, and according to Howard and Muzammi (2011) “overall helped turn community specific dissent into structured movements with a collective consciousness about both shared grievances and opportunities for action” (Howard and Muzami 2011). These seem to be positive attributes of digital media in terms of developing democracy, but Natalie Fenton questions whether technology has revitalized the public sphere, or whether it has just become a tool of commerce for an increasingly 54

un-public, un-democratic process for control, surveillance and oppression (Fenton 2010:4).

An extreme example of control, surveillance and oppression is the press and Internet censorship in North Korea, where all media outlets are owned and controlled by the North Korean government. All media in North Korea gets its news from the Korean Central News Agency (Pares 2005). The media devotes the majority of its resources toward political propaganda to the government of Kim Jong-Un, meaning that his government has complete control and authority over the press and information (Chogabje 2015). In terms of the rise of new digital media, Julien Pain (head of the Internet desk at Reporters Without Borders) described North Korea as the “world's worst Internet black hole�

(Pain 2006). Though, there is a belief that the state control on the internet is beginning to weaken. Scott Bruce, an expert on North Korea who has written extensively about the country, states "the government can no longer monitor all communications in the country, which it could do before" (Bruce cited in Lee 2012). This means that the people of 55

North Korea could potentially be gaining more power over their communications; this is due to North Koreans getting hold of Chinese mobile phones that have been smuggled across the border (Lee 2012). This supports the theory that digital media is revolutionizing communication on a global scale even for the most oppressed countries, and helps promote freedom of information.

A powerful technique of social media is the fast-spread of information on global levels; the Internet can be of great use for grassroots campaigns because of the common marketing tool, virality.

Virality is the act of an image, video, or piece of information being circulated rapidly and widely from one Internet user to another on a global scale (Feroz and Vong 2014). An example of this is the Invisible Children’s Kony 2012 video which was initially released on March 5th 2012, instigating an online campaign for the search and arrest of Joseph Kony. At the time the 30-minute long video received over 80 million views and was shared mainly via Facebook and Twitter. The campaign was introduced by the non-profit organization Invisible Children which

was founded on the mission to bring awareness to the actions of Kony, leader of the LRA (Lord’s Resistance Army) in central Africa, whose criminalities consist of war crimes, crimes against humanity committed against the civilian population, including mass murder, sexual slavery and child abductions.

Jason Russell, one of the founders of IC, stated that the problem was that “99% of the planet didn’t know who Kony was and that the only way to stop him was by having enough support from people to convince the government to continue the hunt for him” (Russell 2012). The purpose of the video was to raise awareness through “the ever expanding market of social media and use the technology we have today to bring his crimes to light” (Shaw 2012). The video managed to generate so much attention that it captured the attention of American Congress. According to Hirsh and Cruse (2012) more than a third of 100 senators introduced a bipartisan resolution at the time, which condemned Kony and his Army for their crimes against humanity. House members were also giving floor speeches in Congress about Kony, some

senators were openly discussing how to create a bounty for Kony’s capture or death (Hirsh and Cruse 2012). Senator Lindsay Graham stated that “this is about someone who, without the Internet and YouTube, their dastardly deeds would not resonate with politicians, when you get 100 million Americans looking at something, you will get our attention” (Graham 2012). She also stated that “this YouTube sensation is going to help the Congress be more aggressive and will do more to lead to his demise than all other action combined” (Graham cited in Hirsh and Cruse 2012).

The Kony campaign and the Arab Spring like many other digital social movements, proves that virality on the Internet can mean that grassroots campaigns can achieve their agenda, whether it’s to gain political attention or the informing of the masses, it is evident that without digital media, these movements would not have had the same effect. But the same platform that liberates the most oppressed of people can also have excessive control over the public and can lead to extreme censorship and control. Either way, this is only the beginning. As technology 56

develops, the power struggle between the public and the elite will continue, and it is up to us to take advantage of the powerful platform that the Internet provides, and unite.

References Bianco W, Bianco D and Canon T (2013) "Public Opinion." In American Politics Today. 3rd edition. New York: W.W. Norton Brooke, H. (2011) The revolution will be digitised: Dispatches from the information war. London: William Heinemann.

Calabrese, A., and Fenton N. (2015) A symposium on media, communication and the limits of liberalism, European Journal of Communication, 30(4): 1-4 Capdeville, V. (2015) The Ambivalent Identity of Eighteenth-Century London Clubs as a Prelude to Victorian Clublife , Cahiers victoriens et édouardiens [Online], 81 Printemps | Online since 01 June 2015,Available at: http://cve.revues.org/1976 , DOI :

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10.4000/cve.1976 (Accessed: 14 November) Chogabje (2015) ‘Global press freedom North Korea worst level ' Reporters without borders , Available at: http://www.chogabje.com/board/view. asp?C_IDX=59852&C_CC=AZ (Accessed: 4 November 2016).

Crowley, P.J. (2011) ‘Events unfolding in #Egypt are of deep concern.

Fundamental rights must be respected, violence avoided and open communications allowed’, Twitter, 28 January. Available at: https://twitter.com/PJCrowley/status/ 31015494429446144 (Accessed: 3 November 2016).

David Randall (2008). "Ethos, Poetics, and the Literary Public Sphere". Modern Language Quarterly. Duke University Press. pp. 221–243.

Farber, D. (2011) P.J. Crowley’s Twitter diplomacy. Available at: http://www.cbsnews.com/news/pj-

crowleys-twitter-diplomacy/ (Accessed: 3 November 2016).

Between Control and Emancipation.

London: Rowman & Littlefield.

Fenton, N. (ed.) (2009) New media, old news: Journalism and democracy in the digital age. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

Hirsh, M. and Kruse, M. (2012) Kony captures congress’ attention. Available at: http://www.politico.com/story/2012/0 3/kony-captures-congress-attention074355 (Accessed: 10 November 2016).

Feroz Khan, G. and Vong, S (2014) Virality over YouTube: an empirical analysis.

Internet Research, 24(5), p.629-647.

Fraser, Nancy (1990), "Rethinking the Public Sphere: A Contribution to the Critique of Actually Existing Democracy", Social Text, Duke University Press, 25 (26): p56–80 Habermas, Jürgen (1989), The Public Sphere: An Encyclopedia Article. In Critical theory and Society. A Reader, ed.

Stephen E. Bronner and Douglas Kellner, 136-142., New York: Routledge, p. 136 Hintz, A. (2015) Social media censorship, privatized regulation and new restrictions to protest and dissent, in L. Dencik and O. Leistert (eds), Critical Perspective on Social Media Protest:

Howard P N, Muzammil H M (2011) "The Role of Digital Media", Journal of Democracy, Volume 22, Number 3, p3548 Howard, Philip N.; Duffy, Aiden; Freelon, Deen; Hussain, Muzammil; Mari, Wil; Mazaid, Marwa (2011). "Opening Closed Regimes: What Was the Role of Social Media During the Arab Spring?" (PDF). http://pitpi.org/. (Accessed: 3 November 2016)

Hujjatullah Zia (2015) Public and Private Spheres, Daily Outlook Afghanistan [ONLINE], Available at: http://www.outlookafghanistan.net/topi cs.php?post_id=11538. [Accessed 26 August 2016] 58

Jürgen Habermas (1991). The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a category of Bourgeois Society. Cambridge, Mass. MIT Press, 1991. p. 175-177.

Kony 2012 (2012) Directed by Jason Russell [Vimeo]. USA Lee, D. (2012) North Korea: On the net in world’s most secretive nation. Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technolog y-20445632 (Accessed: 4 November 2016).

Loader, Brian D.; Mercea, Dan (2011), "Networking Democracy? Social media innovations and participatory politics", Information, Communication & Society, London: Routledge, 14 (6): 757–769 Manning, P. (2001) News and news sources: A critical introduction. London: Sage Publications.

Mary Welch Higgins. (2010) What is media convergence? [ONLINE] Available at: 59

http://blog.distinctstudios.com/?p=429.

[Accessed 2 August 2016].

Moore, A. (2011) Imperial hubris of the war on terror. Available at: http://www.abc.net.au/lateline/content /2011/s3314761.htm (Accessed: 3 November 2016) Murthy, D. (2012) Twitter: Social communication in the Twitter age.

Cambridge, UK: Polity Press Pain J (2006) ‘List of the 13 Internet enemies’, Reporters Without Borders, Available at : https://rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=19 603 (Accessed 4 November 2016) Pares, S. (2005). A Political and Economic Dictionary of East Asia: An essential Guide To The Politics and Economics of East Asia, London, Routledge Shaw H (2012). "Kony 2012: History in the making?". The University Times.

Available at: http://www.universitytimes.ie/2012/03 /kony-2012-history-in-the-making (Accessed 10 November 2016)

Shirky, C. (2011). The Political Power of Social Media: Technology, the Public Sphere, and Political Change. Foreign Affairs, 90 (1), 28-41. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/25800379 (Accessed 14 November) Speier, H., 1950. Historical development of public opinion. American Journal of Sociology, pp.376-388.

Vickery, A. (1993), "Golden age to separate spheres? A review of the categories and chronology of English women's history", The Historical Journal, Cambridge University Press, 36 (2): 383– 414 Wells, C. (2009), "Separate Spheres", in Kowaleski-Wallace, Elizabeth, Encyclopedia of feminist literary theory, London, New York: Routledge, p. 519

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The light of resurrection hope, in the darkness of traumatic memory Matthew Grove BA Theology, Religion and Ethics

biblical witness and promise that is the grounds for resurrection hope.

Throughout the History of the Christian tradition worshiping communities have been bound together with a common hope, founded on the gospel message of the resurrection of Christ and the promise of resurrection for all that follow him. This essay will first argue that the retention of memory is, or should be, intrinsic to any understanding of bodily resurrection. However, this raises the issue of how a postresurrection retention of traumatic memory can be reconciled with the glorious hope that resurrection offers? In order to answer this question, this essay will look at some psychological models for understanding the function of traumatic memory and to bring these into dialogue with theological sources, to see if they are reconcilable to the

The ‘principle hope of Christians from the earliest times has been in the resurrection of the body’1, it is this hope that has set Christianity apart from that of other religious traditions and has thus shaped the world view that Christianity holds and proclaims. Augustine for example, in book 22 of The City of God, writing of the resurrection and ascension of Christ says, ‘Already both the learned and unlearned have believed in the resurrection of the flesh and its ascension to the heavenly places’2. The essence of Christian life is to live in the hope that Christ has defeated death and shown a glimpse of what is to come to those that follow and believe in him.

These views are shaped predominantly by the Gospel accounts of the resurrected Christ, as well as a wealth of theological reflection on what this might

1

2

Hugo Meynell, ‘People and life after death’ in Philosophy of Religion; A guide to the subject, ed. Brian Davies (London: Continuum, 1998) 286

Augustine, TheCity of God (New York: Beloved Publishing, 2014) 577

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mean for the community of saints. It is to these therefore, that we will initially turn to establish some theological grounds for believing in a post resurrection retention of memory.

resurrected Jesus are therefore, the clearest indication of what resurrection promises for those that follow Christ.

The very nature of the Christian life, lived in the promise of resurrection, is rooted in the hope of being ‘like him’ (1 Jn 3:2)3, when he returns. Therefore, the Gospel accounts of the risen Jesus are of primary importance when considering what ‘like him’, post-resurrection, might actually look like. The apostle Paul, in writing to the church in Philippi wrote,’ I want to know Christ and the power of his resurrection and the sharing of his sufferings by becoming like him in his death, if somehow I may attain the resurrection from the dead’ (Phil 3:10). In reference to this very passage, Tom Wright explains how ‘the risen Jesus is both the model for the Christian’s future body and the means by which it comes about’4. The Gospel accounts of the

In the post-resurrection gospel stories, Jesus certainly seems to have a continuation of memory. He remembers his disciples, the times they spent together and the words that they exchanged, importantly recalling the things that he had said regarding his mission and fulfilment of prophecy (Lk 24:25). Furthermore, there is a suggestion of comfort in Heaven for those that endure an Earthly suffering (Lk 16:25), ‘the comfort implies memory of what happened. If we had no memory of the bad things, why would we need comfort?’5. If Christ is, as Tom Wright suggests, the model of our future reality and the basis of our hope in the resurrection, then it would seem that a retention of memory is intrinsically evident in these Gospel accounts. This position is further enforced in other New

3

4

All biblical quotations are from the New Revised Standard Version

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Tom Wright, Surprised by Hope (London: SPCK, 2011) 161 5 Randy Alcorn, Heaven, (Illinois: Tyndale House Publishers, 2004) 344

Testament writings, the Epistles of the Apostle Paul are one example. Michael Perry argues that the reality of the resurrection in the Christian life is a key theme in Pauline theology, which ‘insists that, even if our heavenly body is not this body, it is nonetheless connected with it. We could express this in our contemporary language by saying that both this present body and the body to come are attachable to the same mind’6.

Although I would want to reject the dualist terminology that Perry uses here, he does make the very important point that identity and memory are intrinsically linked in Paul’s theology and that his expectation therefore, was that memory was to continue post-resurrection.

that ‘memory is logically dependent on personal identity, and personal identity in its turn on bodily continuity’7. Gregory of Nyssa writing in On the soul and the Resurrection, makes this same connection between identity and bodily continuity, he writes ‘The soul is an essence which has a beginning; it is a living and intellectual essence which by itself gives to the organic and sensory body the power of life and reception of sense impressions as long as the nature which can receive these maintains its existence’8. For Gregory then, the soul is an intellectual essence, incorporating memory and giving life to the body, essential therefore in the resurrection.

Furthermore, if we are to reject a Platonist or Gnostic duality that Perry alludes to and instead to focus purely on a Biblical understanding, then we find

The retention of memory is further evident in other New Testament writings. The book of Revelation explains how, ’they sing the song of Moses, the servant of God, and the song of the

6

8

Michael Perry, The Resurrection of Man (Oxford: A.R Mowbray, 1975) 121 7 J. J. MacIntosh, ‘The impossibility of miraculous reincarnation’ in Faith, Scepticism and Personal Identity, ed. J. J. MacIntosh & H. A. Meynell (Calgary: University of Calgary Press, 1994)

Gregory of Nyssa. On the Soul and the Resurrection (trans. Catharine P. Roth; Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 1993) 37-38

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Lamb’ (Rev 15:3). This would again suggest the presence of a retained memory. This issue is further explored by early Christian theologians such as Ignatius and Augustine and latterly by Thomas Aquinas. Augustine for example, when writing about memory in The Confessions, writes ‘and yet it is a faculty of my soul. Although it is part of my nature, I cannot understand all that I am’9. It seems that Augustine then, understood his memory to be inseparable from his soul and thus something that would remain with him in the resurrection. This understanding can be further evidenced in The City of God, where he writes of the nature of the New Jerusalem, describing how we shall be ‘oblivious to sins, oblivious to sufferings, and yet not so oblivious of its deliverance as to be ungrateful to its Deliverer’10. However, ‘the first to state this unequivocally was Ignatius, who spoke of Jesus’ being ‘in the flesh’, even after the Resurrection’ and believed that our resurrection would be in like

fashion’’11, so as to retain a memory of past experience. This has also been argued and developed by more contemporary theologians. The Swiss Theologian, Hans Kung for example claims that resurrection is understood in the New Testament, as ‘the identical personal reality, the same self with its entire history’12. It could be assumed therefore, that ‘entire history’ must necessarily mean a memory of that history.

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11

Augustine, The Confessions (London: Penguin, 1961) 216 10 Augustine, The City of God, 612 65

It seems evident that memory does continue post-resurrection and that this continuation is necessarily linked to the promise of resurrection for the Christian believer. However, this presents us with a problem when we consider negative, painful and disabling traumatic memories, memories that one would not wish to keep but rather to escape, or to be healed, from. These memories therefore, if eternally retained, would significantly detract from any idea of a glorious eternity and that would seem

Perry, The Resurrection of Man, 116 Hans Kung, Eternal Life? (London: Collins, 1984) 143 12

irreconcilable to the hope of a resurrection that promises that ‘mourning and crying and pain will be no more’ (Rev 21:4). So how can we reconcile this retention of memory with an understanding and pastorally sensitive awareness of traumatic memory? How can resurrection hope, be hope, in any meaningful way, to those that carry the weight of traumatic experience? Although any attempt to answer these, and similar, questions, could be deemed speculative, they also seem far too important to ignore.

In The City of God, Augustine seems to suggest a difference between the

experiential memory of evil and of the feelings that an experience of evil evokes, he argues how ‘there are two ways of knowing evil things, one by mental insight, the other by sensible experience’13. He draws a distinction here between experience and knowledge and so suggests two different ways of forgetting, one ‘by neglecting what he has learned’14 and one ‘by escaping what he has suffered’15.

The distinction that Augustine makes is also found within psychological studies.

Clearly this view, that ‘memory can be fragmented into subcomponents is not a new one’16 but it is one that is also generally held in contemporary psychology. Initially studies led to an understanding that memory worked in three modes, these being sensory, short term and long term. However, ‘experimental evidence for the fractionation of human memory has developed’17 and multiple modes of memory both explicit and implicit are now generally recognised, however a

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16

Current research methodology into memory, is broad and complex. For the sake of brevity, this essay will take a broad-brush and cursory look at some psychological understandings and models of memory and explore them further in dialogue with theological writers.

Augustine, The City of God, 612 Augustine, The City of God, 612 15 Augustine, The City of God, 613 14

Alan Baddeley, Your Memory, A Users guide (New York: Firefly, 2002) 14 17 Baddeley, Your Memory, 14 66

vast variation in distinction and understanding persists.

leave the way for implicit memory to be forgotten.

Each fragmentation in memory, in a sense, filter out the huge amount of information that is processed by the human mind. It has been widely agreed that the differing fragmentations of memory are ‘widely distributed throughout the cortex’18 as groups of neurons that are ‘primed together in the same pattern that created the original experience’19. It is also understood that these are duplicated, or alternative pathways are created, leading to the retrieval of the same memory.

Forgetting then, can be understood as a mis-encoded memory or as a decayed or faded trace. Therefore ‘forgetting, then, is perhaps better thought of as the temporary or permanent inability to retrieve a piece of information or a memory that had previously been stored in the brain’20. This would seem to

However, an increase in variation has made it increasingly difficult to reconcile each fractionation to a theological understanding. This is made more problematic as there is no consensus of agreement. Furthermore, developments in the understanding of the fractionation of human memory, not only raise further questions but could be said to question the explanations offered by Augustine and therefore the possibility of implicit memories being forgotten. Colleen M. Kelley and D. Stephen Lindsay for example argue that ‘past experiences can have pervasive effects on an individual’s current behaviour without that individual necessarily having a conscious recollection of those experiences’21. They further argue that, ‘perception, problem solving, thinking, and judgement can all be altered by the

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21

“Memory Storage - Memory Processes - The Human Memory". 2016. Human-Memory.Net. http://www.humanmemory.net/processes_storage.html.

19 Memory Storage, www.human-memory.net 20 Memory Storage, www.human-memory.net 67

Colleen M. Kelly & D. Stephen Lindsay, ‘Conscious and Unconscious Forms of Memory’ in Memory, Handbook of Perception and Cognition (San Diego: Academic Press, 2006) 31

effects of specific past experiences in the absence of conscious remembering’22. Therefore, we must conclude that any healing of memory must necessarily go deeper than a forgetting of the explicit. A healing also of the implicit is essential, as clearly the effects of implicit memory are far reaching and could be seen as being incompatible with the promise of the resurrection. It would be problematic therefore to claim that healing of memory had taken place unless it included both implicit and explicit memories. A greater understanding of forgetting is required, if we are to claim that this can indeed be achieved on both the implicit and explicit levels.

The problem of diversity and lack of consensus of agreement in understanding, is less problematic in the study of forgetting, as ‘there are two traditional theories of forgetting. One argues that the memory trace simply

fades or decays…The second suggests that forgetting occurs because memory traces are disrupted or obscured by subsequent learning, in other words that forgetting occurs because of interference’23. So could either, or both of these theories together, offer a reasonable and coherent understanding to the issues raised? Something that would seem to be evidentially accurate to all of us, is that we do not always remember our experiences and there are often inaccuracies in those memories that we do have, ‘they may be vague, incomplete or distorted. Any theoretical approach to everyday memory must try to explain this hit-andmiss fashion’24. The most influential model for explaining this problem is known as schema theory, it ‘emphasises the fact that what we remember is influenced by what we already know’25.

Schema theory suggests that concepts of knowledge can become grouped together into schemas. This

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24

Kelly & Lindsay, Memory, 31 23 Baddeley, Your Memory, 107

Gillian Cohen, Michael W. Eysenck & Martin E. LeVoi, Memory, A cognitive approach (Milton Keynes: OUP, 1986) 25 25 Cohen, Eysenck & LeVoi, Memory, 25 68

development makes it problematic to consider memories as either worthy of retention or not, or indeed that some memories are forgotten whilst associated memories are retained.

Although I would not want to suggest that this would be beyond the capabilities of God, it clearly highlights difficulties for memories that are both linked to positive and traumatic experience, to a point that identification can become unclear. Moreover, it would seem to be in tension with the redemptive nature of God, or as Paul has it, in God’s choosing ‘what is foolish in the world to shame the wise’ and ‘what is weak in the world to shame the strong’ (1 Cor 1:27). It would be difficult to understand the redemptive work of God in the life of Joseph for example, if we were to forget the actions of his eleven brothers. It would seem problematic therefore, to say that traumatic memory is in any sense filtered out from those of

a more pleasant nature, or indeed that these memories fade or decay without a loss or distortion to others. So what about the second point, that memories are disrupted by subsequent learning?

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Jana Pressley & Joseph Spinazzola, ‘Beyond Survival: Application of a Complex Trauma Treatment Model in the Christian Context’, Journal of Psychology & Theology Vol.43.Issue No 1(2015) 8 69

In a recent study of complex trauma, Jana Pressley & Joseph Spinazzola argue that ‘disrupted systems of meaning are a core domain in which adults with complex trauma history are impacted’26. The study identified that ‘a central struggle for complex trauma survivors is negative self-perception, including the experience of chronic guilt, intense shame, and feelings of being evil or unworthy’27. Rowan Williams makes the important point that we ‘ have a public rhetoric in which repentance, provisionality, openness to judgement, the acknowledgement of failure, are all apparently unthinkable’28. It is here that the life, death and resurrection of Christ

Pressley & Spinazzola, ‘Beyond Survival’ 10 Rowan Williams, On Christian Theology (Oxford: Blackwell, 2000) 271 28

presents a compelling alternative and a differing account of identity. Guilt and shame are dealt with, as ‘Christ suffered for sins once for all’(1 Pet 3:18), that was the achievement of the cross, ‘the accumulated sins of the whole of human history were laid upon him’29. The hope of the resurrection therefore, promises a fuller awareness of this redemption as we ‘will know fully’ (1 Cor 13:12) the extent and fullness of our salvation. The ‘forgetting’ of traumatic memory by subsequent learning would seem to support this view, as traumatic memory is seen in its fullness and we have ‘the old discords replaced by a harmony of love’30. It would seem inconceivable to suggest that guilt and shame could coalesce with this increased awareness of our ‘redemption through his blood’ (Eph 1:7). This cleansing, this healing of memory and disrupted systems of meaning sits far more comfortably alongside the great promise that ‘he will wipe every tear from their eyes. Death will be no more, mourning and crying

and pain will be no more’ (Rev 21:4) than any suggestion of erased or filtered memory affords.

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John Stott, Basic Christianity (Nottingham: Inter Varsity Press, 2008) 120 30 Stott, Basic Christianity, 108

The issue of unworthiness, seen in light of this salvation, is an issue that has long occupied the thoughts of Christians. The paradox however being that ‘the essential point is that resurrection is the transaction in human beings that brings about the sense of a selfhood given not achieved’31 and thus the issue of unworthiness is here dealt with. It is what Gregory of Nyssa referred to as the second level of restoration, the restoration of the mental faculties, not being erased but put right. Gregory writes, ‘once such souls have been purified by fire and sanctified, the other qualities will enter into them in place of the evil ones, namely, incorruptibility, life, honour, grace, glory, power, and whatever else we conjecture to be discerned in God and that image of Him which is human nature’32. This will in effect open the dark parts of our

Williams, On Christian Theology, 271 Gregory of Nyssa, On the Soul and the Resurrection, 272 32

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memories that harbour trauma, ‘the resurrection itself will reveal the inner condition of beings, as bodies will allow the secrets of the soul to shine through’33 and for a fuller restoration to take place.

This restoration would offer a far more reasonable account of the questions raised in this essay. The deletion of some, or all, memories is troublesome as this would presumably exclude a memory of the very event that shaped and allowed the very formation of eschatological hope, namely the life, death and resurrection of Christ. Are we to believe that the passion and crucifixion narratives could be understood as pleasant memories?

Actually, this would be problematic to reconcile with the gospel accounts of Christ still bearing the wounds of crucifixion. Miroslav Volf however, argues that the death and resurrection

of Christ will not be remembered in the resurrection but that in some way the memory will be ‘swallowed in his own divine life’34. He writes, ‘the cross of Christ is, rather, a stage in the road to resurrection and exaltation’35 and that it ‘can be left in the past, even if its effects last for eternity’36. Volf takes this argument further to include traumatic memories, rather than claiming that ‘certain memories will be erased from each person’s cerebral ‘hard drive’ so as to make retrievable impossible’37 he proposes instead ‘that memories of wrongs, rather than being deleted, will simply fail to surface in one’s consciousness – they will not come to mind’38. However hopeful this explanation may sound, the difficulty this raises is that this ‘would seem to be much closer to “uncrucifying Christ” than would healing those memories fully – eschatologically – through the healing wounds of the crucified and risen

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Vladimir Lossky, The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church (Cambridge: James Clarke & Co, 2005) 234 34 Miroslav Volf, The End of Memory, Remembering Rightly in a Violent World (Cambridge: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2006) 191 71

Volf, The End of Memory, 191 Volf, The End of Memory, 191 37 Volf, The End of Memory, 145 38 Volf, The End of Memory, 145 36

Christ’39. An erasing or filtering of memory therefore would underestimate the sufficiency and completeness of God’s redemptive plan for the entire cosmos. Rowan Williams likewise asserts the importance of that memory, he argues that ‘to know the full scope and the full cost of our untruthfulness and not to be crippled, paralysed, by it, what is given by the risen Christ: memory restored in hope’40. It would seem more allowable, taking the point made by Rowan Williams, to say that it is the resurrection that shows the passion and death of Jesus in its correct context, that in some way seeing the bigger picture makes sense of the trauma. It could be argued therefore that seeing and understanding things more fully, will allow us to more ‘easily comprehend divine mysteries’41 in the resurrection.

Indeed, this would seem to be in line

with 1 Corinthians 13:12. Therefore, the joy of a resurrected life, lived in the light of God’s presence, is not to be found in a dependence on an ignorance of our present life, rather ‘it is quite intelligible that the resurrection state can make possible instant sanctification by the Holy Spirit when we see God as he is, and appreciate the interconnectedness of all things’42. It will therefore be enforced by a greater understanding and appreciation of God’s justice and grace.

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L. Gregory Jones, ‘Healing the Wounds of Memory: The Dynamics of Remembering and Forgetting,’ Journal of Theology 103 (1999) 43 40 Rowan Williams, Resurrection, Interpreting the Easter Gospel (London: Darton, Longman & Todd, 2002) 42

The healing of memory that I suggest, is not without challenge. Miroslav Volf for example, argues that ‘it is in forgetting that the matters of truth and justice have been taken care of, that perpetrators have been named, judged, and hopefully transformed, that victims are safe and their wounds healed, a

Walton J. Brown, Home at Last (Washington, D.C.: Review and Herald, 1983) 73 42 Anthony C, Thiselton, Life after Death, A new approach to the last things (Cambridge: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2012) 208 72

forgetting that can therefore ultimately take place only together with the creation of “all things new” ‘43. Simply put, the suggestion is that we will ‘be capable of choosing not to recall or dwell on anything that would diminish Heaven’s joy’44. Volf certainly finds some support for this in areas of cognitive psychology that would recommend the suppression of traumatic memory.

However, Volf’s views need to be read and understood in context, Exclusion & Embrace was ‘Born out of the suffering of his people in the Balkans’45 conflict.

Therefore, I would argue that this choosing to forget is applicable, or even appropriate, only to the idea of a communal shared memory. There are many examples of how humanity attempts to preserve the memory of traumatic events, if only to act as a reminder of, and a deterrent to, the horror of such events such as wars and genocide. Holocaust survivor’s day and Remembrance Sunday are but two examples of how traumatic events are

held and maintained in the collective memory. In these and similar examples, it would be appropriate to suggest that forgetting is not only desirable but realistic, only if the possibility of repetition was removed. Although it could be argued that a sense of redemption and restoration is still desirable and more effective, the truth and reconciliation councils of postapartheid South Africa being an obvious example. However, this seems to be significantly different from an individual trauma, or indeed the trauma of those directly affected, where trauma persists by continued and unwanted recollection. I would argue that it is not even appropriate to suggest that these personal and direct memories be simply forgotten, even if this were possible.

Rather, that a healing of this trauma would remain more appropriate, desirable and in keeping with both the biblical meta narrative and character of God.

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Miroslav Volf, Excusion & Embrace (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1996) 131 44 Alcorn, Heaven , 344 73

Jurgen Moltman in, Miroslav Volf, Excusion & Embrace, back cover

In writing about the resurrection in relation to psychological issues, Fraser Watts expresses his view that these ‘are questions that most contemporary theologians do not choose to pursue’46 and clearly further work is required to deal with the issues raised more fully.

However, I would conclude by saying that any notion of traumatic memory being forgotten or suppressed would seem to sit uncomfortably alongside the Biblical meta-narrative of reconciliation, salvation and resurrection. It would seem to go against the very nature of God that is to ‘reconcile’ all things, a memory could not be said to be reconciled if merely suppressed. Escape is not evident in God’s eschatological plan for humanity, that idea would seem to take us back down a Platonist path of reality. Rather, God’s promise is a far bigger and grander plan altogether, it is to make all things new, it is for us to be transformed by the renewing of our mind (Rom 12:2), so to reconcile, rather than to remove or suppress. This, I would conclude, includes the

reconciliation and healing of traumatic memory.

References Alcorn, Randy, Heaven (Illinois: Tyndale House Publishers, 2004) Augustine, The City of God (New York: Beloved Publishing, 2014) Augustine, The Confessions (London: Penguin, 1961) Baddeley, Alan, Your Memory, A users guide (New York: Firefly, 2002) Benvenga, Nancy, Healing the wounds of Emotional Abuse (New York: Resurrection press, 1996) Brown, Walton J., Home at Last (Washington, D.C.: Review and Herald, 1983) Buenting, Joel, The Problem of Hell (Farnham: Ashgate, 2009)

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Fraser Watts, Theology and Psychology (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2002) 142 74

Caruth, Cathy, Trauma, explorations in Memory (Baltimore: The John Hopkins University Press, 1995) Cohen, Gillian, Eysenck, Michael W & LeVoi, Martin E, Memory, A cognitive approach (Milton Keynes: OUP, 1986)

Jones, L Gregory. ‘Healing the Wounds of Memory: The Dynamics of Remembering and Forgetting,’ Journal of Theology 103 (1999) 35-51.

Cooper, Terry D., Sin, Pride & Self Acceptance, The problem of Identity in Theology and Psychology (Illinois: Inter Varsity Press, 2003)

Kelly, Colleen M. & Lindsay, D. Stephen, ‘Conscious and Unconscious Forms of Memory’ in Memory, Handbook of Perception and Cognition, ed. Elizabeth Ligon Bjork & Robert A. Bjork (San Diego: Academic Press, 2006)

Harries, Richard, The Beauty and the Horror (London: SPCK, 2016)

Kung, Hans, Eternal Life? (London: Collins, 1984)

Gasser, Georg, Personal Identity and Resurrection, How do we survive our death? (Farnham: Ashgate, 2010)

Lossky, Vladimir, The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church (Cambridge: James Clarke & Co, 2005)

Gregory of Nyssa. On the Soul and the Resurrection (trans. Catharine P. Roth; Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 1993)

MacIntosh, J. J., ‘The impossibility of miraculous reincarnation’ in Faith, Scepticism and Personal Identity, ed. J. J. MacIntosh & H. A. Meynell (Calgary: University of Calgary Press, 1994)

House of Bishops of the General Synod of the Church of England, Responding well to those who have been sexually abused (London: Church House Publishing, 2011) 75

McMinn, Mark R, Phillips, Timothy R., Care For The Soul (Illinois: Inter Varsity Press, 2001)

McNally, Rishard J., Remembering Trauma (Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2003) “Memory Storage - Memory Processes The Human Memory". 2016. HumanMemory.Net. http://www.humanmemory.net/processes_storage.html.

(Accessed 8th November 2016) Meynell, Hugo, ‘People and life after death’ in Philosophy of Religion; A guide to the subject, ed. Brian Davies (London: Continuum, 1998) Moltman, Jurgen, The Crucified God (London: SCM Press, 1974)

Perry, Michael, The Resurrection of Man (Oxford: A.R Mowbray, 1975) Pressley, Jana & Spinazzola, Joseph, ‘Beyond Survival: Application of a Complex Trauma Treatment Model in the Christian Context’, Journal of Psychology & Theology Vol.43.Issue No 1(2015) 8-22.

Rambo, Shelly, Spirit and Trauma, A Theology of Remaining (Louisville: Westminster Jonh Knox Press, 2010) Schmutzer, Andrew J, The Long journey Home, Understanding and Ministering to the Sexually Abused (Oregon: Wipf & Stock Publishers, 2011)

Moltman, Jurgen, The Living God, And the Fullness of Life (Geneva: World Council of Churches, 2016)

Stott, John, Basic Christianity (Nottingham: Inter Varsity Press, 2008)

Nagel, Thomas, Mortal Questions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979)

The Faith And Order Commision, Gospel, Sexual Abuse and the Church (London: Church house Publishing, 2016)

Pattison, Stephen, Shame, Theory, Therapy, Theology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000)

Thiselton, Anthony C, Life after Death, A new approach to the last things (Cambridge: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2012)

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Volf, Miroslav, Exclusion & Embrace (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1996) Volf, Miroslav, The End of Memory, Remembering Rightly in a Violent World (Cambridge: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2006) Watts, Fraser, Theology and Psychology (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2002) Williams, Rowan, On Christian Theology (Oxford: Blackwell, 2000) Williams, Rowan, Resurrection, Interpreting the Easter Gospel (London: Darton, Longman & Todd, 2002) Wright, Tom, Surprised by Hope (London: SPCK, 2011)

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How might notions of the ‘porosity’ of the body of the actor (and by implication, the body of the spectator) inform and/or challenge an understanding of Conroy’s claim that ‘[A]ll bodies threaten to distract the spectator from the art of performing’.

(2010:38)?

Rachael Rulton BA Drama ‘Immersive’ as a term has become somewhat confused, I fear, in the world of contemporary theatre. It seems to me that every theatre company claiming to make ‘immersive’ work has a different definition of the concept. For my work, I consider the concept of ‘immersive theatre’ to be a theatre style which manages to make the audience believe in the world and the characters of the play- make them forget that they are sitting in a theatre, with a programme in their hands, and complying to the ‘rules of traditional theatre’ (which will be explored later). For this reason, I consider the idea of companies such as Punchdrunk being leaders in an ‘immersive’ style of theatre to be a false statement, as all theatre to me has the 79

possibility to be immersive. I do, however, think that for this potential to be unlocked- the actors must first undergo psychophysical training to break down their cultural bodies, and understand what it is for a performer to be ‘porose’- for without this I agree with Conroy, in that the body of the actor distracts from the art of performing- as the audience will be watching the actor, and not the character. As Conroy explains later on in ‘Theatre and The Body’ ‘Theatre is founded upon a tension between being engrossed in the physical world of the play and being engrossed in the fictional world of the play.

The physical conditions are so important that if we start to doubt that a specific act is intentional, the coherence of the artistic structure is threatened.’ (Conroy, 2010: 28) And so performers undergo training to be in touch with their bodies in a way which will improve their own physical conditions- and therefore keep the artistic structure from being threatened.

An important thing to note here is the importance of understanding the terms used in this exploration. Porosity of the body is often seen as confusing, so to begin I will define it as a performance value where the boundaries between the performer’s inner feelings and outer actions become weaker- and so the audience cannot tell them apart. In his book ‘Psychophysical Acting’, Zarrilli describes the need for this porosity of the performer’s body by saying that ‘All of our acts, even the simplest, which are so familiar to us in everyday life, become strained when we appear…before a public…That is why it is necessary to correct ourselves and learn again how to walk, move about, sit, or lie down. It is essential to re-educate ourselves to look and see on the stage, to listen, and to hear.’ [Zarrilli, 2009: 1] And this is what Conroy was referring to.

If an actor does not undergo the correct training then the needed porosity will not be there, and their actions will

become strained and obvious- as they are not in touch with their body. This will therefore lead the audience to be watching the actor’s body on stage, which will distract from the world of the play and stop the performance from being immersive. To help us understand why this happens and how to overcome this, Zarrilli has suggested a new mode of thinking about the body. He rejects the idea that the body is simply an object and suggests that there are four different bodies, and that the successful performer will be in touch with all four.

He begins with the two physical bodiesthe ‘ecstatic’ surface body and the ‘recessive’ visceral body. These are the two bodies which people already acknowledge. The surface body is made up of our senses- it is the body which interacts with the outside world and brings us information about our surroundings. The visceral body goes hand in hand with this, as it is the body containing our inside organs- and reacts to the information that our surface body gives us. These two bodies are very important as they are the basis for everything, but they are the bodies which often disappear. Zarrilli suggests 80

that this is due to a mode of perception called ‘proprioception’. This is what some people know as ‘muscle memory’.

It allows us to interact with our environment without thinking about what our body is doing, so for example we do not have to think about what we are doing when climbing the stairs. This dissociation between mind and body has become valued by the west, as science and linguistics have become favoured over sensory awareness. This, however, is the root of the modern performer’s problems and what keeps performances from being immersive.

These everyday actions which we know so well become strained and therefore not believable, and so the performer needs to break down this cultural body and reunite the body and mind. The key to doing this is to channel the other two bodies which Zarrilli speaks of- the ‘Aesthetic’ inner body and the ‘Aesthetic’ outer body. This inner body is our ‘bodymind’ and the outer body is the character- so made up of a performance score. They need to be unlocked through the psychophysical training (or extra daily activity as Zarrilli calls it) which was mentioned before. This is 81

long term training in a form of exercises such as yoga or Kalarippayattu (a south Indian martial art). From my acting experience the psychophysical training which I feel helps unlock this potential is continuum movement. I have only trained in the basics- but from this a lot was learnt. It began by scanning through one’s body to focus on any tightness or discomfort. One then lays on the floor and focuses in on the pattern of inhaling and exhaling. After a few moments of following the breath in and out of my body, one begins humming the vowels ‘O’ and ‘E’ both for one minute. Following on from this is a ‘clock hum’, which involves imagining your mouth to be a clock face, then pointing your tongue to each point on the clock and humming until out of breath. After this comes an exercise called ‘blurs’. These are a guttural sound which come from the base of your neck- somewhat like an animalistic growl. All of these exercises are done in a round three times, and then finished by doing another scan of the body. What I noticed during this exercise was that I was much more in touch with my breath- and therefore my body. I was aware of every movement

and sound that I made. Focusing on my breath and the vibrations from my lips also centred me in the moment. As this shows, training like this encourages the performer to focus on their breath- the journey it takes and the effect it has on the body. This allows the inner mind to travel with the breath and become one with the body. This training will ultimately lead to a ‘heightened awareness’ (Zarrilli, 2004: 664) of a performers actions on stage- and with continuous training the performer will be able to experience a performance where ‘the boundaries of inner and outer become more porous’ (Zarrilli, 2004: 666). This will, therefore, create a more immersive performance for the audience because the performers will be more aware, and present in the moment- and be at one with their character. The audience will be watching the character- not the actor.

Looking again at Conroy’s claim used earlier, the physical conditions will be good so that the audience do not doubt the characters- and so the coherence of the artistic structure is not at threat. The audience will be fully immersed in the world of the play.

A good example of how psychophysical training can improve a performance is ‘The Beckett Project’ in 1995. This was set up by Phillip Zarrilli and actress Patricia Boyette in response to the

Figure 1: Billie Whitelaw in ‘Not I’ (Beckett: 2007) demands of Beckett’s works upon his performers. He demands that his performers are always attentive and are wholly in the moment for both rehearsals and the performance. Blau once referred to working with him as a process ‘where you could virtually bite your tongue over the painful intermediary.’(Zarrilli, 2009:115), and so Zarrilli set up this project to improve the performers stamina and awareness- and therefore make Beckett’s demands 82

more achievable. He set out by putting all of the performers involved in this work through psychophysical training to improve their body mind connection.

Beckett’s plays often centre around a constraint enforced upon the main performer- for example in ‘Not I’ the performer was in a full body restraint, in complete darkness apart from one small point of light focused on her mouth (As seen in fig 1). These restraints made it hard for her to perform- as she was unable to move or show emotion from anything apart from her voice. It also caused her serious back injuries. Zarrilli, however, took these restraints as problems to solve. These principles of psychophysical awareness were applied to Beckett’s plays in three main ways: Having a constant awareness of the sensory environment of the performance, directing energy to different parts of the body for engagement in a performance score, and finally applying the energy into active images for the performance score. These three factors worked on during the rehearsal period then work together during the performance to create a sense of awareness and 83

attentiveness. Looking at reviews and reactions of this project show just how important this mind-body connection is to performance quality. One of the most interesting is from Spangler who said ‘Every night of Eh Joe when the lights and monitors went off and the voice stopped for the last time, the silence continued for what seemed to be a long time, then was broken by one person, then another, and then everyone, letting out the breath they’d been holding for who knows how long.

None of them I talked to later could say, as none of them could remember, when they stopped breathing.’ (Zarrilli, 2009: 143) This shows that the audience were so immersed in the world of the play that it took them longer than normal to react to that world coming to an end. Instead of the normal sudden applause at the drop of a curtain, there was silence- and in some ways I think that this is the best response to get. Overall, the performers felt that this training allowed for them to be more prepared for the strains and demands put upon them in Beckett’s

work, but not only did it improve the actors experience- it also improved the plays for the audience. Instead of focusing on how the actors were overcoming the restraints, they were immersed in the world of the play and watching the characters within that world.

As you can see, I am strongly of the belief that immersion is possible in all theatre styles- as long as the performers have gone through the appropriate training beforehand. There are some, however, that would disagree with this point. This brings me back to the complications of defining the term ‘immersive’. Punchdrunk refer to immersive theatre as ‘a unique theatrical experience where the lines between space, performer and spectator are constantly shifting.’ (Punchdrunk: 2016).

By this definition traditional theatre cannot be immersive- no matter how much training the performers have been through. Felix Barret, the artistic director of Punchdrunk, rejects the traditional rules of the theatre- these being simple things, like not talking during the performance and clapping at the end

(even if you did not enjoy the performance). He suggests that audiences who walk into a theatre still concerned and talking about their lives outside until the curtain rises, stay in their seat for the whole performance, and who instantly clap when the curtain drop, are passive spectators who need to be ‘set free’. He suggests that a theatre type like his is the way forwards for theatre. In their pieces of work the audience are left alone to explore the world of the play. The actors walk within them and the action will happen within the crowds. Apart from a few rules given

Figure 2: Mask from ‘The Drowned Man’ (Watt: 2013)

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at the start (along the lines of do not talk to our touch the performers) the audiences are left completely alone to make what they will of the performance.

Barret says that this is the most immersive type of theatre as the audiences are fully surrounded by the world- they can touch/smell/look at whatever they want, and wander wherever they please. It has been said that ‘Any good performance establishes its own world’ (Machon, 2013: 57) and Punchdrunk do this to the extreme. They have their participants wear masks (shown in fig. 2) so that the guilt of watching is taken away, and for some performances they even have instalments such as bars and cabaret

‘The Drowned Man’ (Punchdrunk: 2013) 85

music for audiences to stop and listen to (shown in fig. 3). These performances are very much personal experiences- as the spectator chooses what they see, and which performers they follow. However, I strongly disagree with Barrett’s claim that audiences need to be ‘switched-on’ and ‘activated’ (Burn the Seats: Felix Barrett 2013) I feel that traditional theatre can awaken audience’s minds just as much as one of these immersive pieces claims to be able to. Sophie Nield had the same view, and so had spectators go to some of Punchdrunk’s pieces are report back to her on their experience.

What they felt was very interesting.

Most of them simply felt embarrassed at the actors interacting with them- they commented on how they did not know if they were meant to respond of simply let them be. An interesting comment was that these performances ‘feel more superficial, as you as so preoccupied with staying safe/invisible/out of the way/on top of the story, and you are using headspace you would normally be using to analyse and engage with the signs on stage to work out the logistics of just spectating.’. (Nield, 2008: 533). Looking back at the question then, in the case of

these performances it is the spectators own body which is distracting the spectator from the art of performing.

This is interesting as it suggests that a poorly executed piece of supposedly ‘Immersive Theatre’ can actually be less immersive than a piece of traditional theatre.

As much as I do not agree with Punchdrunk’s definition of the term ‘Immersive’, I will concede that there pieces do go some way to immersing their audiences through the porosity of the performers bodies. There performers do undergo physical training, and so they are in touch with their body-minds. This is not the case, however, for all immersive companies.

To illustrate this further I have decided to look at Badac Theatre Companies piece ‘The Factory’. This was designed to show audiences what life was like for Jews in their last few days at concentration camps during the Second World War. The audiences were lead through a series of rooms, where the performers (who were standing within the audience) were stripped and abused. This sounds like it has the

potential to be a very enlightening piece of theatre, but Brian Logan described it as ‘A Theatrical Atrocity’ (Logan:2008), and so I decided to look into what made it so bad. First of all, it seems that the role of the audience was never thought through- at some points the performers would be shouting at them but at others the performers would be encouraging them and looking to them for sympathy.

This made the audience confused as to how they were meant to feel and react to the piece. Secondly, many audience members felt that they were being abused by the performers. They feel that the acting went too far in this respect and made them feel as if they wanted to leave- one reporter remarked that it was as if the performers forgot that the audience could just walk out.

And finally, perhaps one of the most disappointing and distracting features of this play was the performers’ bodies.

They were made to strip in front of the audience towards the end. They were meant to be playing Jews who had been in Auschwitz for months and were finally being sent to their death- but for people who were meant to be starving they had surprisingly well fed bodies- even from 86

Figure Four where the performers are still clothed you can see that they are well fed and looked after. All of these factors should have been taken into consideration when planning this piece, as this ended up being an insensitive piece about a very sensitive topic. If the performer’s bodies were more porose then their characters would have shown through more- and especially for the guards this would stop the audience feeling abused because they would have believed in the character more.

This example does, however, help to illustrate my point that with the correct training traditional theatre forms can be more immersive than new styles.

After all of this research into both immersive theatre and porosity of the body, I feel that the porosity of a performer’s body is very important to the immersive elements of performance.

In order for the audience to be fully immersed in any performance they need to believe in what the character is doing. This is encouraged by psychophysical training, which allows the actor’s body to become one with their mind, and as this relationship 87

develops then the lines between the performers inner and outer bodies will become more porous- and their bodies will become less distracting for the spectators.

References Zarrilli, P. (2004) ‘Toward a Phenomenological Model of the Actor’s Embodied Modes of Experience’, Theatre Journal, 56, pg 653-666.

Machon, J. (2013) ‘Immersive Theatres: Intimacy and immediacy in contemporary performance’ London: Palgrave Macmillan.

Zarrilli, P. (2009) ‘Psychophysical Acting: An Intercultural Approach after Stanislavski’ New York: Routledge.

Conroy, C. (2010) ‘Theatre and the Body’ Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.

Punchdrunk. Available at: http://punchdrunk.com/company/artic le/about (Accessed 9 August 2016) Burn the Seats: Felix Barrett, 2013, Video, Future of StoryTelling, viewed 9 August 2016. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6kt pes0qMZ0

Nield, S. (2008) ‘The Rise of the Character Named Spectator’ Contemporary Theatre Review, 18, pg.

531-535.

Logan, B. (2008) ‘Edinburgh Festival: The Factory’ The Guardian, 20 August [online] available at: http://www.theguardian.com/culture/2 008/aug/20/theatre.edinburghfestival

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A Comparison of the Landscapes of Early Buddhist and Christian Monasteries in Relation to Laity and Wealth Roisin Downing BA Archeology The beginning of monastic behaviour in Buddhism and Christianity, as this essay will show, is generally represented in sparse landscapes away from towns, approximately 200 years after the namesake’s death. Along with this came ritualised withdrawal of the luxuries and comforts that secular life could provide, as was believed to be important to monastic life (Chryssavgis, 2008). Another effect of this was withdrawal of the cultural and visual business of secular life. This created a sense of power and awe about the monasteries that was, of course, for the benefit of the monastics but could also have been intended to provoke an emotional response in passers by. This may have been an early indicator of the movement towards laity focus that was about to shape early Buddhist and Christian monasticism. There was an apparent trend towards a more urban

landscape and placement that can be seen as an attempt to gain an audience, such as Buddhist monasteries along the Silk Road in Asia.

It is arguable that the changes to the type of landscape used throughout the development of Buddhist and Christian monasticism appear to be due to laity involvement. This also includes events out of the monastic community’s control such as the need to develop a form of income rather than relying on self-sufficiency or more people wanting to get involved with the religions (Morrison, 1995; Dunn, 2000). In attempts to better understand this transition, this essay will consider the variety of ways in which early monastics utilised the landscape and what this means to the development of both Christian and Buddhist monastic life.

The earliest form of Buddhist monasticism are cave monasteries, such as the cave systems at Ajanta and Bhaja which date back to the second century BCE (Behl and Beach, 2005; Singh, 2008). This is because the Buddha, who was born as SiddhÄ rtha Gautama and 90

lived at some point between the sixth and fourth centuries BCE, led a somewhat nomadic lifestyle and gave teachings in caves that were designed to protect people from the monsoon rains (Kohn, 2009). Buddha teaching in these caves led to the tradition of early Buddhist monasteries being in natural and carved caves on large rock faces

(Deshpande, 2013).

Figure 1: Ajanta caves from the direction of the river (Dalrymple, 2014) Despite the dramatic effect these cave systems have as can be seen in figure one, they seem to have been born out of practicality over anything else.

The importance of the landscape here seems to be that it connected the early Buddhists with Siddhārtha Gautama, although, as is noted above Gautama’s reason for using caves to teach was not 91

wholly spiritual. From this it can be understood that early Buddhists were selecting their landscape purposefully, and were using their reading of Buddhist history to further develop traditions.

This contrasts heavily with the early Christian monastics, who sought out an ascetic lifestyle in the bare deserts of Egypt, particularly the Scetes desert, in the third century CE (Görg, 2011). The purpose of this was not only to alienate themselves from society and all of its luxuries but also to use the blank landscape to train in selfunderstanding and aid in isolated prayer (Dunn, 2000). This desert monasticism was also used to emulate Jesus’ 40 days and nights in the Judean desert ignoring Satan’s attempts to try and tempt him towards sin, as is noted in the Gospels of Matthew, Mark and Luke (The Bible, Matthew. 4:1-11; The Bible, Mark. 1:12-13; The Bible, Luke. 4:1-13). This is told to be the story that inspired Saint Anthony the Great, who lived from the third century CE to the fourth century. He is considered to be the first of the Desert Fathers, the group of men who originally

practiced Christian monasticism in the desert (Morgan, 2016).

landscapes that surrounded the cave monasteries.

This attempt at following in the footsteps of the religion’s figurehead in order to gain a higher level of spirituality was also part of the development of early Buddhist monasticism, as has already been shown. This is not the only connection that it is possible to draw between the earliest examples of Christian and Buddhist monasticism, despite their appearances occurring five centuries apart. The Christian monasteries were purposefully placed in an inhospitable, hard to reach, bare landscape. This may have been something they had seen in early Buddhist monasticism and so it is arguable that the early Christian monks may have been trying to recreate the

Figure 2: Cave 10 at Ajanta, showing the early detail in architecture and art (rocksea, 2011).

The first archaeological example of laity involvement in Buddhist monasticism is the development of intricacies in the architectural detail of the monasteries as well as the artwork that they contain, as can be seen in figure two. Developments like this is clear evidence of laity involvement, as skilled workers would have been hired to carry out this labour and extra money in the monastery would have been necessary to pay for the work (somathilake, 2002). This suggests that patronage was starting to become a regular enough occurrence that monasteries were developing an unprecedented level of wealth. This can be seen at Ajanta, a group of cave systems that was built and developed from the second century BCE to the first century CE and then underwent a second phase of development that began in the fifth century (Spink, 2007).

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Focussing on the first phase, cave ten has wall paintings and carved pillars, both of which would have required expertise and money.

There are two reasons for Ajanta’s apparent laity patronage. The first is concerning the Emperor Ashoka who ruled over the Maurya Dynasty in India during the middle of the third century BCE. He converted to Buddhism and thus created a lot of attention for the religion, adding to laity interest and patronage (Akira, 1993). The other cause is Ajanta’s placement: the Ajanta caves are placed along a meander of the Waghur river, which places the monastery in a position that would have allowed for a good trade system (Jeong, 2016). From this it is apparent that there was intent to be in a position that was easily available for the laity, whilst in keeping with the tradition of cutting caves into the rock face. This shows that although the placement in the landscape is still based on the previously noted reasons the laity was becoming an important factor in this decision.

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In Christian monasticism there was a similar movement away from isolated living, although this was still within the confines of monastic living.

There was an introduction of a cenobitic lifestyle that “grew in size and number” (Goehring, 1999, p. 47) and eventually overtook the practice of eremitic living whilst still attempting to maintain the spirituality of it. This practice draws attention to the fact that Christian monasticism was gaining recognition and therefore wealth, leading to the possibility of sustaining more monks and developing larger monastic sites. One notable site that represents this well is Kellia in the Nitrian desert of Egypt. This site dates back to the fourth century CE and was founded by Saint Amun. Kellia was a colony consisting of hundreds of monasteries specifically designed for anchorites. The aim was to provide a mostly reclusive life that involved communal activity, such as eating and attending church together (Harmless, 2004).

shown, as it would be easier to expand and develop more monastic sites without these two influences.

Figure 3: the monastic houses of Kellia (Roffey, 2016) What makes the site of Kellia so interesting in regards to its landscape is that it maintains the barren desert as its setting, however the communal living is a juxtaposition to this. Because of this it is arguable that the landscape was chosen more for its symbolic relation to the Temptation of Jesus, rather than an attempt to replicate this event. This is comparable to Ajanta where the main intention is no longer to imitate their religion’s namesake but to create some form of a less introverted lifestyle. It is possible to attribute this to the rise in wealth and popularity in both Christian and Buddhist monasticism as has been

Figure 4: a map of the town of Miran and its situation on the Silk Road (Victoria and Albert Museum, n.d.)

During Buddhist monasticism’s movement into the Common Era, practices appear to become very heavily focussed on laity involvement including placement and choice of landscape. One example of this is the monastery and Buddhist iconography at the Silk Road town of Miran. This town was near the point of intersect between three roads, two of which border the Taklamakan desert in China as can be seen in figure four. There is evidence for Buddhist activity from the first century BCE in this area, however monasticism didn’t appear to take hold until the second century CE (Hansen, 2012).

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Interestingly the artwork of the Buddhist structures appear to have influence from as far as the Mediterranean, suggesting that not only was patronage high but that the monastery’s placement along the Silk Road had an effect on its success (Hansen, 2004).

The interest in the choice of landscape here is twofold. The first is that despite a vast amount of open desert that seems apt for meditative study the monastery is placed at the crossroads of one of the biggest trading routes of its time. This leads to the next point that not only was the monastery built in an environment that would have been extremely busy, but where the volume of traffic would logically be much higher than on other parts of the road. This decisively different choice in landscape illustrates just how necessary the laity were becoming to Buddhism’s progression and how other factors that could have otherwise influenced the monastery’s setting were not being deemed as important.

In its next phase of expansion, Christianity took a similar approach to 95

Buddhism and developed monasteries in environments that were accessible to the laity. Part of what made this possible was Constantine the Great, ruler of the Roman Empire in the fourth century CE, making Christianity the state religion (Neusner, 1987). This led to the spread of Christian monasticism across the Roman World, and with it the development of monastic Rule (Agamben, 2013). One site that can provide insight into all of these elements is Monte Cassino, a monastery established in the sixth century by Saint Benedict of Nursia in an Italian town not far from Rome (Bloch, 1986).

Figure 5: the monastery of Monte Cassino after rebuilding damage from World War Two (BBC, 2016) This monastery is on a hill overlooking the town of Cassino as can

be seen in figure five, and so it is in an interesting landscape. It is on an outcrop high above the town, which would have created an introverted and fairly isolated environment for the monastic community. However, for the people living in the town below, the monastery would have been a permanent visual reminder of religion and the church’s power whilst creating a sense of awe and intrigue that could only add to Christianity’s developing popularity. The trade and patronage that this would have developed for the monastery would have been vast, and of course, expected.

At this point in their respective lifetimes both religions were using the backing of religious sovereigns to gain traction. From this both Christianity and Buddhism were able to spread and convert, placing their monasteries in a number of places easily accessible and in view of the laity. At this point it is arguable that the choice of landscape in some cases was carefully planned based on how much movement of people there was in a certain area, as is shown in the above examples. This is a

far cry from the original attempt at spiritual segregation from society where the choice of landscape was based primarily on stories from Buddhism and Christianity.

It is clear that laity involvement was an important factor in the landscape changes in both early Buddhist and Christian monastic life. Early monastics built temples in order to seclude themselves from secular life, however this idea did not fit with the way the world was developing in regards to trade and population movement.

Acknowledging the importance of these social developments aids in understanding why monastic groups were moving further into the view of the laity. Although it is arguable that this was a cynical strategy in attempts to gain wealth and followers of the respective religions it appears that it’s more likely an attempt to keep up with the momentum that their religions were accumulating and how the religion fit into the contemporaneous society. Both arguments use the same evidence as proof of their points, proving that despite the change in the significance of the 96

landscape it is still an important aspect of understanding monastic life.

In modern monastic life it is evident that a secluded landscape is still an important factor as is the case for Buddhist forest monasteries in Thailand and rural Christian monasteries in the United Kingdom. Despite politics, populations and the economy influencing monastic lifestyles it is still important for the monastery to be in an environment that is suitable to its needs.

From this it can be concluded that the meaning of landscape in regards to monastic life is subjective and perhaps best described as fluid. This is apparent in the fact that, although originally the sparseness of the landscape was one of the defining features of a monastery, the later lifestyles were still monastic in that they were still separate communities, despite the wider context of the landscape being amongst society.

References Agamben, G. (2013). The Highest Poverty: Monastic Rules and Form-of-Life.

Translated by: Kotsko, A. California: Stanford University Press.

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Akira, H. (1993) A History of Indian Buddhism: From Śākyamuni to Early Mahāyāna. Translated by: Groner, P. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited.

BBC (2016). Monte Cassino. [online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b0 1708s7 [accessed: 20th November 2016].

Behl, B., Beach, M. C. (2005). The Ajanta Caves: Ancient Paintings of Buddhist India. London: Thames & Hudson.

The Bible: Contemporary English Version (2000). London: Harper Collins.

Bloch, H. (1986). Monte Casino In the Middle Ages. Volume One. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.

Chryssavgis, J. (2008). In the Heart of the Desert, Revised: The Spirituality of the Desert Fathers and Mothers.

Bloomington, Indiana: World Wisdom.

Dalrymple, W. (2014). The Ajanta Cave Murals: 'nothing less than the birth of Indian art'. [online] The Guardian.

Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/artandd esign/2014/aug/15/mural-ajantacaves-india-birth-indian-art [Accessed: 17th November 2016].

(ed.). Religion and Chinese Society.

Volume One – Ancient and Medieval China. Shatin, Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press.

Deshpande, A. (2013). Buddhist India Rediscovered. Mumbai: Jaico Publishing House.

Harmless, W. (2004). Desert Christians: An Introduction to the Literature of Early Monasticism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Dunn, M. (2000). The Emergence of Monasticism: From the Desert Fathers to the Early Middle Ages. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.

Goehring, J. (1999). Ascetics, Society, and the Desert. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Trinity Press International.

Görg, P. (2011). The Desert Fathers: Saint Anthony and the Beginnings of Monasticism. San Francisco: Ignatius Press.

Hansen, V. (2004). Religious Life in a Silk Road Community: Niya During the Third and Fourth Centuries. In: Lagerwey, J.

Hansen, V. (2012). The Silk Road: A New History. New York: Oxford University Press.

Jeong, S. (2016). The Silk Road Encyclopedia. Seoul: Seoul Selection.

Kohn, S. C. (2009). A Life of the Buddha.

Massachusetts: Shambhala Publications Incorporated.

Morgan, R. (2016). History of the Coptic Orthodox People and the Church of Egypt.

Victoria, Canada: FriesenPress.

Morrison, K. D. (1995). Trade, urbanism, and agricultural expansion: Buddhist monastic institutions and the state in the Early Historic western Deccan. World Archaeology. 27 (2). pp. 203 – 221.

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Neusner, J. (1987). Judaism and Christianity in the Age of Constantine: History, Messiah, Israel, and the Initial Confrontation. London: The University of Chicago Press.

Rocksea (2011). Chaityas of Ajanta Caves. [online] Rock Sea and Sarah. Available at: http://www.rocksea.org/chaityabuddhist-caves-ajanta/ [Accessed: 19th November 2016].

Roffey, S. (2016) ‘The Desert Fathers: Early Christian Monasticism’. AC3916 The Archaeology of Monasticism. [online] Available at: https://winchester.instructure.com/cou rses/2492/files/220797?module_item_i d=120054 [Accessed: 19th November 2016].

Singh, U. (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India. New Delhi: Pearson Education.

Somathilake, M. (2002). ‘Patrons of Ajanta: An Analysis of the Inscriptional Evidence’ in Proceedings of the Annual Research Sessions, University of 99

Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. Volume 7.

University of Predeniya: Predeniya. p. 50.

Spink, W. (2007). Ajanta: History and Development. Volume Five, Cave by Cave. 1st ed. Leiden: Brill.

Victoria and Albert Museum (n.d.) Sir Aurel Stein & the Silk Road Finds Akterek, Balawaste, Chalma-Kazan, Darabzandong, Farhad-Beg-yailaki, Kara-Yantak, Karadong, Khadalik, Khotan, Mazartagh, Mazartoghrak, Niya, Siyelik and Yotkan. [online] Available at: http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles /t/the-silk-road-finds-maps-3/ [accessed: 19th November 2016].

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How accurate is Prensky’s prophecy that members of the generation born in the 1990s would be ‘digital natives’?

Anthony O’Connell BA English Literature Marc Prensky is an American citizen and self-stated speaker, writer, visionary, educator and world influencer who focuses his attention on public education.1 He is best known for the popularisation of the terms ‘Digital Native’ and ‘Digital Immigrant’ which he featured in his 2001 article titled Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants.2 In his article, Prensky remarks that ‘debate[s]…about the decline of education in the US…ignore the most fundamental of its causes. Our students have changed radically. Today’s students are no longer the people our educational system was designed to teach’ (p. 1). He argues that instead a ‘singularity’ has occurred; ‘an event which changes things so

1

Marc Prensky, http://marcprensky.com/, [accessed 9th May 2017].

2 Marc Prensky, ‘Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants’, On the Horizon, Vol. 9 No. 5, October 2001101

fundamentally that there is absolutely no going back. This so - called “singularity” is the arrival and rapid dissemination of digital technology in the last decades of the 20th century’ (p.

1). This drastic change that allows instant access to information and different forms of instant gratification such as ‘videogames, digital music players…cell phones, and all the other toys and tools of the digital age’ (p. 1) has created a new type of person, one that Prensky believes must be afforded a new name to fit their changed interpretations of the world.

The most useful designation I have found for them is Digital Natives. Our students today are all “native speakers” of the digital language of computers, video games and the Internet. So what does that make the rest of us? Those of us who were not born into the digital world but have, at some later point in

http://www.nnstoy.org/download/technolog y/Digital+Natives+-+Digital+Immigrants.pdf, [accessed 30th of January 2016]. All other references to this text will be given parenthetically.

our lives, become fascinated by and adopted many or most aspects of the new technology are, and always will be compared to them, Digital Immigrants.

The importance of the distinction is this: As Digital Immigrants learn - like all immigrants, some better than others – to adapt to their environment, they always retain, to some degree, their "accent," that is, their foot in the past. The “digital immigrant accent” can be seen in such things as turning to the Internet for information second rather than first, or in reading the manual for a program rather than assuming that the program itself will teach us to use it. Today’s older folk were "socialized" differently from their kids, and are now in the process of learning a new language’ (pp. 1-2).

Prensky goes so far as to suggest that ‘it is very likely that our students’ brains have physically changed’ (p. 1). However, like much of Prensky’s argument his evidence to support such statements is often lacking; this lack of concern for

accuracy in his work can be seen as he informs the reader: ‘But whether or not this is literally true, we can say with certainty that their thinking patterns have changed’, thus pre-empting and dismissing the concerns of readers that statements should have a grounding in citable and credible fact (p. 1).

3

ss/a-new-gulf-in-american-education-thedigital-divide.html, [accessed 6th January 2016].

Gary Poole, ‘A New Gulf in American Education, the Digital Divide’, (New York times, 29th January 1996), http://www.nytimes.com/1996/01/29/busine

An Argument Against Digital Nativity Prensky’s argument that all children born in the nineties onwards would be digital natives is flawed; the terminology used by Prensky suggests a complete integration of technology into all facets of society. This notion ignores multiple well documented issues surrounding connectivity for many such as the digital divide, which was first highlighted five years prior to Prensky’s work.3 The accuracy of the overall argument is also called into question when the references used are examined, as Prensky uses sources that are taken from non-academic contacts and then

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altered further with no valid justification, thus increasing the inaccuracy of his argument. Fifteen years on from Prensky’s original work, an Ofcom report published in 2015 shows that although digital technology is reaching more of society, 12% of children in the United Kingdom still have no access to digital technology.4 Digital Natives vs. the Digital Divide Prensky’s argument that all children born in the nineties onwards would be digital natives initially seems sound; digital technology has permeated almost every facet of society. However, when examined this idea fails to take into account many of the issues affecting a child’s ability to interface with digital technology and become a true 4

Ofcom, ‘Children and Parents: Media Use and Attitudes Report 2014’, (9th October 2014), http://media.ofcom.org.uk/news/2014/media -lit-audit-oct2014/ [accessed 13th of January 2016].

5 Gary Poole, ‘A New Gulf in American Education, the Digital Divide’, (New York times, 29th January 1996), http://www.nytimes.com/1996/01/29/busine 103

‘Digital Native’. The biggest obstacle overlooked in Prensky’s article is that of the ‘Digital Divide’: an economic and social inequality relating to the access to, or use of, digital technologies that was first popularized by Gary Poole in 1996.5 The American National Telecommunications & Information Administration found in a study of phone and PC uptake in the population that, ‘On the basis of age, the single most seriously disadvantaged group consists of the youngest house-holders (under 25 years), particularly in rural areas.

Overall, they rank lowest in telephone penetration and near the bottom relating to computers on-premises’, and that ‘among households with PCs, the youngest in rural areas also fare worst in modem penetration’.6 This information ss/a-new-gulf-in-american-education-thedigital-divide.html, [accessed 6th January 2016].

6 American National Telecommunications & Information Administration, ‘FALLING THROUGH THE NET: A Survey of the "Have Nots" in Rural and Urban America’ (July 1995), https://www.ntia.doc.gov/ntiahome/fallingth ru.html, [accessed 5th of January 2016].

when coupled with the Centres for Disease Control and Prevention’s findings in 2000 – that the mean age for first time mothers was 24.9 years of age, and as of 2014 was 26.3 years of age – shows how those children, born in the nineties, who have grown into adults actually have the least connectivity of all generations surveyed.7 Obstructions to Digital Nativity Furthermore, these findings also suggest that the children of these groups will continue to struggle with connectivity. This issue of connectivity is more than a local issue however, classifying people as natives is shortsighted as the adoption of digital technology has not been a unified phenomenon worldwide. In the Asian continent, the pronunciation of the 7

T.J. Mathews and Brady E. Hamilton, Centres for Disease Control and Prevention, ‘Mean Age of Mothers is on the Rise: United States, 2000–2014’ (January 2016), http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db 232.htm, [accessed the 6th of January 2016].

8 Simon Kemp, ‘Digital, Social and Mobile in Southeast Asia 2015’, (We Are Social, 24th November 2015),

divide is amplified and we see those countries that are developed having substantially above average connectivity while those that are poorer having as little as 1 percent connectivity, falling even below the global average (appendix one).8 Another issue affecting access to digital technology which was over looked by Prensky is that access for minors is dependent on their parents or guardians, who may look to impose sanctions on access. An Ofcom report in 2014 found that ‘Nine in ten parents are doing something to help children manage online risks’.9 This risk management for many will be accomplished by limiting certain websites or apps, or by setting access times or passwords. Prensky’s argument is undermined when we consider these continuing reports that show persistent http://wearesocial.com/specialreports/digital-southeast-asia-2015, [accessed 27th of April 2016].

9 Ofcom, ‘Children and Parents: Media Use and Attitudes Report 2014’, (9th October 2014), http://media.ofcom.org.uk/news/2014/media -lit-audit-oct2014/ [accessed 13th of January 2016].

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connectivity issues throughout all levels of society limiting access for children.

An Examination of Prensky’s Sources The idea of a digital native conjures the imagery of a have or have not society: either a person is completely fluent in all digital technology or they are not.

Indeed, this is what Prensky himself looks to suggest with the creation of the two groups – there are the natives, and then there is everyone else, the digital immigrants. However, when the sources used to support Prensky’s argument are examined they do not meet a respectable level of academic authority.

For instance, when examining his claim that children spend ‘over 10,000 hours playing videogames’ we see his source to be Mediascope, an Australian online marketing and data collection company operated by a single individual.10 Similarly, the source for Prensky’s statement ‘And, maybe, at the very 10

Mediascope, http://www.mediascope.com.au/about-us, [accessed the 13th of January 2016] 11 Marc Prensky, ‘Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants, Part II: Do They Really Think Differently?’ (On the Horizon, Vol. 9 No. 6, 105

most, 5,000 hours of book reading…before leaving college’, is a single individual’s online blog that has no independent accreditation.11 In both of these instances the data given has been altered by Prensky from the original data –Mediascope advised that the average time spent playing computer games to be 1.5 hours/day, however Prensky changes this number to 1.8 hours/day with no documentation of an increase in time spent gaming.

Furthering this inaccuracy, Eric Leuliette is quoted as reading roughly 1300 books through college, however Prensky chooses arbitrary numbers for all sections of the equation that gave him the final quoted quantity. The equation states that, ‘If we take 1300 books x 200 pages per book x 400 words per page, we get 10,400,000 words. Read at 400 words/that gives 260,000 minutes, or 4,333 hours’. However, Forbes lists the average ability of words read per minute December 2001), http://www.marcprensky.com/writing/Prensk y%20%20Digital%20Natives,%20Digital%20Immigra nts%20-%20Part2.pdf, [accessed 30th of January 2016].

at 300, so using the above equation we actually find the minutes to be 346,666, or 5,777 hours.12 These inaccuracies have led some, such as Susan J. Bennett and Karl A. Maton, to call into question the accuracy and the argument put forward for digital natives, ‘The lack of evidence for the existence of an entire generation of digital natives seriously undermines arguments made for radical change to education’.13 Notably Prensky has since abandoned his digital native metaphor in favor of digital wisdom.14 This change in terminology suggests that a digital understanding can in fact be incremental and requires a level of exposure and development to gain wisdom and fluency, while also showing

his lack of academic accuracy in his writing and work.

12

icle=2330&context=edupapers, [accessed 13th of January 2016].

14 Marc Prensky, ‘From Digital Natives to Digital Wisdom: Hopeful Essays for 21st Century Education’ ‘http://marcprensky.com/writing/PrenskyIntro_to_From_DN_to_DW.pdf, [accessed 13th of February 2016].

15 Ofcom, ‘Children and Parents: Media Use and Attitudes Report 2014’, (9th October 2014),

Brett Nelson, ‘Do You Read Fast Enough To Be Successful’ http://www.forbes.com/sites/brettnelson/20 12/06/04/do-you-read-fast-enough-to-besuccessful/#6d07436a58f7 [accessed 6th April 20116].

13 Susan J. Bennett and Karl A. Maton,‘Beyond the 'digital natives' debate: towards a more nuanced understanding of students' technology experiences’ http://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?art

The Price of Digital Nativity and the Need to Educate However, to conclude all of the points raised by Prensky are incorrect would be to ignore that technology has become a social force, both driving and defining youth and their interactions.

Ofcom noted that ‘One in three children in the UK now has their own tablet computer, which has nearly doubled in a year’. Furthermore, it was also noted ‘a sharp increase in tablet ownership among very young children means that some are using one to surf the web, play games and watch video clips before they join school’.15 As noted by Danah

106

Boyd although many of today’s teens are immersed in social media, that does not mean that they inherently have the knowledge or skills to make the most of their online experiences.16 Supporting this idea is a recent study of ‘Digital Natives’ by Changetheequation.org which found that ‘Millennials spend on average 35 hours per week on digital media, yet CTEq’s analysis finds that 58 percent have low skills in solving problems with technology. In fact, an international comparison of millennials’ performance on PIAAC’s technology test ranked the United States dead last out of 19 participating countries’. The findings suggest that a familiarity with technology is being wrongly attributed by people such as Prensky as innate expertise. The report concludes, ‘Continued blindness to this problem could exact a steep toll on the nation as

a whole. If we simply leave young people to their own devices—quite literally—their low skills will become a dead weight on individual opportunity and American productivity’.17 Similarly, David Lowery argues in his PBS show that ‘No one is born a native speaker of digital in the same way that no one is a native speaker of any language, only through context, emergence and practice can one become a speaker’, therefore it becomes clear the need to educate even those considered to be digital natives.18 This need to educate children on the dangers and uses of IT has caused the requirement that schools in the United Kingdom teach coding and IT from the age of five as

http://media.ofcom.org.uk/news/2014/media -lit-audit-oct2014/ [accessed 13th of January 2016].

16 Danah Boyd, It’s Complicated: The Secret Lives of Networked Teens (Yale: Yale University Press, 2014), p. 176.

17 Change the Equation, Does not compute, (June 2015),

http://changetheequation.org/sites/default/fi les/CTE_VitalSigns_TechBrief.pdf [access 5th of April 2016].

18 Lowery, David, ‘Do Digital Natives Exist’, (December 2013) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9WVKBA qjHiE [accessed 8th of April 2016].

107

part of the national curriculum.19,20 The concept of a true digital native is closer than ever with the continued spread of digital technology, however there are still many whose only access to digital technology may come from schools. As Ofcom reported 88% of children have access to the Internet, however 15 years on from Prensky’s original work there is still 12% of children who have no access.

Conclusion In conclusion, the accuracy of Prensky’s ‘Digital Native’ argument is fundamentally flawed. In the publication of the ‘Digital Natives’ argument Prensky ignored multiple well documented issues surrounding connectivity for many, such as the digital divide. The accuracy of the overall argument is also called into question when the references used are examined; Prensky looks to support his argument with data taken from non-academic sources that 19

UK Government, ‘The National Curriculum’, https://www.gov.uk/nationalcurriculum/overview, [accessed 31st of January 2016].

20 UK Government, ‘National Curriculum in England: Computing Programs of Study’,

he then alters further without justification or citation of documented evidence of changes to the figures provided by his sources. These criticisms leveraged against the ‘Digital Native’ argument have since caused Prensky to change his terminology from ‘Digital Native’ to ‘Digital Wisdom’.

References Primary Sources Prensky, Marc. ‘Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants’, On the Horizon, Vol. 9 No. 5, October 2001http://www.nnstoy.org/download/tech nology/Digital+Natives++Digital+Immigrants.pdf, [accessed 30th of January 2016].

Prensky, Marc. ‘Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants, Part II: Do They Really Think Differently?’, On the Horizon, Vol. 9 No. 6, December 2001 http://www.marcprensky.com/writing/ https://www.gov.uk/government/publication s/national-curriculum-in-england-computingprogrammes-of-study, [accessed 31st of January 2016].

108

Prensky%20-%20Digital%20Natives,%20D igital%20Immigrants%20-%20Part2.pdf, [accessed 30th of January 2016].

Secondary Sources ‘Infographic’ Image, http://www.geeklawblog.com/2015/10 /the-myths-of-digital-native-part1.html, [accessed 5th of April 2016].

‘The Digital Native Myth’ Image, http://peacechild.org/the-digitalnative-myth/, [accessed 5th of April 2016].

American National Telecommunications & Information Administration, ‘FALLING THROUGH THE NET: A Survey of the "Have Nots" in Rural and Urban America’ (July 1995), https://www.ntia.doc.gov/ntiahome/fal lingthru.html, [accessed 5th of January 2016].

Change the Equation, ‘Does Not Compute’, (June 2015), http://changetheequation.org/sites/de fault/files/CTE_VitalSigns_TechBrief.pd f, [access 5th of April 2016].

109

Gary Poole, ‘A New Gulf in American Education, the Digital Divide’ (New York times, 29th January 1996) http://www.nytimes.com/1996/01/29/ business/a-new-gulf-in-americaneducation-the-digital-divide.html, [accessed 6th January 2016].

Kemp, Simon, ‘Digital, Social and Mobile in Southeast Asia 2015’, (We Are Social, 24th November 2015), http://wearesocial.com/specialreports/digital-southeast-asia-2015, [accessed 27th of April 2016].

Lowery, David, ‘Do Digital Natives Exist’, (December 2013) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9 WVKBAqjHiE, [accessed 8th of April 2016].

Mediascope, ‘About us’, http://www.mediascope.com.au/about -us, [accessed the 13th of January 2016].

Nelson, Brett, ‘Do You Read Fast Enough To Be Successful’, http://www.forbes.com/sites/brettnels on/2012/06/04/do-you-read-fastenough-to-be-

successful/#6d07436a58f7, [accessed 6th April 2016].

Ofcom, ‘Children and Parents: Media Use and Attitudes Report 2014’, (9th October 2014), http://media.ofcom.org.uk/news/2014/ media-lit-audit-oct2014/, [accessed 13th of January 2016].

Susan J. Bennett and Karl A. Maton, ‘Beyond the 'digital natives' debate: towards a more nuanced understanding of students' technology experiences’ http://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.c gi?article=2330&context=edupapers, [accessed 13th of January 2016].

T.J. Mathews and Brady E. Hamilton, Centres for Disease Control and Prevention, ‘Mean Age of Mothers is on the Rise: United States, 2000–2014’ (January 2016), http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databri efs/db232.htm, [accessed the 6th of January 2016].

UK Government, ‘National Curriculum in England: Computing Programs of Study’, https://www.gov.uk/government/publi

cations/national-curriculum-inengland-computing-programmes-ofstudy, [accessed 31st of January 2016].

UK Government, ‘The National Curriculum’, https://www.gov.uk/nationalcurriculum/overview, [accessed 31st of January 2016].

Appendix

Image one: Simon Kemp, ‘Digital, Social and Mobile in Southeast Asia 2015’, (We Are Social, 24th November 2015), http://wearesocial.com/special-reports/digitalsoutheast-asia-2015, [accessed 27th of April 2016].

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111

The value of age in the leadership role of female African elephants (Loxodonta Africana) groups Emily Davies MSc Animal Welfare Science, Ethics and Law Introduction Living in groups has evolved convergently in many species and is one of the most studied phenomena in biology (Olson et al., 2015). Group living is likely to be driven by multiple factors such as social transmission of information, predator avoidance and increasing foraging efficiency. These benefits result in a higher individual breeding success of non-related animals or a higher indirect breeding success of kin, which drives its evolution.

Theoretical predictions hypothesise that democratic decision making should be widespread amongst

(Conradt and Roper, 2003). Nonetheless, it is apparent that despotism is common across many animal species, where a leader emerges to coordinate group movements. Leadership can result from motivation, temperament, dominance or knowledge (King et al., 2009). Conradt and Roper (2003) argue that despotism only benefits the group if it is small enough that the average error of the leader is less than the median error of all other group members. This may be the case if specific knowledge is required. In humans, the value of age is acknowledged in leadership tasks where specialist knowledge is essential.

In this essay, I will look at whether this is true for other species, focussing on the adaptive value of age in the leadership role of female African elephants (Loxodonta africana).

animal societies due to the decreased likelihood of extreme decision making 112

The adaptive value of age

an older leader can vertically transmit

The interest in the parallels of leadership

important information to younger

between humans and other animal

individuals. This infers that social groups

societies is increasing (McComb et al.,

with older leaders will be more

2011). Previous studies on African

successful as the leader possesses the

elephants have suggested that older

specialist knowledge required. However,

leaders possess greater ecological

it also suggests that upon the death of

knowledge for migration routes or

the leader, younger individuals could

resource availability for example.

obtain sufficient information through

However, assessing and quantifying the

vertical transmission to allow the group

existence of these skills presents

to continue to survive and thrive.

difficulties in the field. McComb et al.

The value of age in

(2001) hypothesise that the possession

matriarchs, the oldest member and

of enhanced discriminatory abilities of

leader of the group, mimics the role of

the oldest individual in a group can

grandmothers in human societies,

influence social knowledge of the group

assisting in rearing grandchildren

as a whole. This indicates the presence

following menopause. A population

of social transmission between

dynamics study in the Amboseli

individuals. The large hippocampus of

ecosystem estimated the mean age at

African elephants is susceptible to

first birth to be 14.1 years (Moss, 2001). It

neurological development impacts

is at this age that male calves leave their

during growth (McComb et al., 2011).

natal group (Esposito, 2008). This study

Therefore, it can be hypothesised that

showed that ninety per cent of

113

individuals between fourteen and fifty

core family groups made up of mother

years of age were reproducing (Moss,

and calf units, tier three as bond groups

2001). There was a notable decline in

encompassing multiple core family

reproductive activity following fifty years

groups and tier four as the overall larger

of age. We would therefore expect the

clan, networks of bond groups

most successful matriarchs to be older

(Goldenberg et al., 2016). The core family

than fifty, as these non-reproducing

groups, tier two, are of an optimal size,

individuals can instead focus their

small enough not to be influenced by

attention on group survival, as opposed

ecological factors such as resource

to rearing young, and be more vigilant to

competition, and are composed of

environmental stimuli.

closely related females and their calves.

These matrilineal family units are led by

Social structure of the African

the oldest female, named the matriarch,

elephant

who coordinates the group movements

The female African elephant exhibits

(McComb et al., 2011).

complex social hierarchies with a

Many studies have identified that

fission-fusion dynamic (Esposito, 2008;

adult females have large social

Goldenberg et al., 2016). This is a fluid

networks, with playback experiments of

group that can split or join with other

elephant calls indicating that adult

groups based on ecological

females are familiar with an average of

circumstances. Wittemyer et al. (2005)

one hundred associates in the

identify four tiers of social levels: tier one

population (McComb et al., 2001). These

as a mother and calf unit, tier two as

elephants were successful in 114

discriminating between the calls in

chemosensory complexity of elephants

relation to the frequency with which the

increases with age and could therefore

individuals associate. A significant

explain the lack of olfactory exploration

positive correlation was identified

in younger matriarchs. The larger social

between the number of contacts per

network of older matriarchs confers a

individual and age (Goldenberg et al.,

selective advantage and reproductive

2016). This indicates that the older

success for their groups, through

individuals act as social ‘connection

exhibiting exploratory and defensive

hubs’ within the wider clan tier.

behaviour when necessary.

Older matriarchs have shown greater success in discriminating

Mitigating threats

between unfamiliar and familiar core

Across the animal kingdom, species

groups (McComb et al. 2001). Upon

ability to discriminate between

receiving a call from an unfamiliar group

predators and tailor their response

the matriarch will initiate bunching, a

according to the nature of the risk has

defensive behaviour, and gather

provided a survival benefit (Bates et al.,

olfactory information on the caller’s

2007). Shultz and Dunbar (2006) propose

identity. This same response was not

that the ability to alter behavioural

seen in younger matriarchs. Matriarchs

responses, dependant on the stimuli

are responsible for inter and intra group

presented, specifically exists in prey

communication and commonly

species with larger brains. The large size

communicate through auditory and

of the elephant brain therefore leads us

olfactory cues (Esposito, 2008). The

to consider whether elephants can

115

discriminate between predation threats

predatory threat to thirty-nine elephant

and behave accordingly. Mitigating the

family groups. Playbacks of lion roars

risk of predation exhibits ecological

consisted of alternating the number of

knowledge of the leader and is more

lions and the sex of lions. Occurrence of

amenable to experimental investigation

lion predation however is rare,

than the possession of knowledge

especially by males as the sex-ratio of

regarding scarce resources (McComb et

lion populations is skewed heavily

al., 2011).

towards females, yet has increased in frequency over the past two decades.

Lions The largest natural threat to elephants is predation by lions (McComb et al., 2011).

Despite popular belief that hunting is performed predominantly by lionesses, male lions pose a far greater threat to elephants due to their strength and power. With an average body mass of 187.5kg in comparison to 124.2kg of a female, almost a fifty per cent larger body mass, male lions have the capability to overpower a young elephant alone (Smuts et al., 1980). A study by McComb et al. (2011) used lion playback calls to infer different levels of

Male lion predation is therefore becoming a greater threat to elephant populations (McComb et al., 2011; Power and Compion, 2009). McComb et al.

(2011) hypothesised that older matriarchs, with a longer lifespan and therefore more experience, would be able to discriminate between the acoustics of male and female lions more readily. Despite being the oldest individuals within the group, matriarchs show no increase in vulnerability to predators. Instead their ecological knowledge can be used to confer 116

survival to the rest of the group.

greatest threats to the species are those

McComb et al. (2011) predict that this

caused by human impact (IUCN, 2016).

could be a direct result of no longer

Traditionally, poaching for ivory and

having young offspring and therefore

meat was a major source of the species

utilising the ability to be more assertive

decline, however the greatest concern

to ecological stimuli, taking an active

at present is habitat fragmentation and

role in group antipredator response.

loss, driving increased human-elephant

Results identified that the matriarch determined the movement

conflicts (IUCN, 2016).

Bates et al. (2007) demonstrated

and level of antipredator response of

the ability of African elephants to

the group. The age of the matriarch

differentiate and categorise two human

provoked a change in the behavioural

Kenyan ethnic groups; the Maasai and

response to male and female lion

the Kamba. Elephants are exposed to

differentiation, exhibiting the defensive

differing threats from these two ethnic

response of bunching more frequently.

groups. The Kamba pose little threat to

McComb et al (2011) identify that, with

elephants, yet in contrast Maasai men

increasing age, matriarchs can exhibit

prove their strength through spearing

enhanced discriminatory abilities,

elephants. This study identified that

detecting the greater threat of a male

elephants can detect threat through

lion roar.

both visual and olfactory cues

Human conflict The latest assessment on the African elephant in 2008 identified that the 117

independently. The elephant groups displayed elevated antipredator response to cloths worn by Maasai in

contrast to those worn by the Kamba

2007). This suggests horizontal

people. Additionally, elephants showed

transmission of social information

greater vigilance and aggressive

between elephant groups. Whilst this

displays upon encountering unworn red

study failed to identify the age of

Maasai cloths in contrast to unworn

matriarchs in different test groups, we

white cloths. This infers that, in the

can hypothesise that, given our

absence of olfaction, the threat is

knowledge that older matriarchs

unlikely to persist nearby and therefore

possess larger social network

the risk to the group is smaller. The

connections and so greater information

matriarch initiates threatening behaviour

transfer across the population, those

towards the source of lesser danger. In

groups with elevated responses had an

contrast in the presence of olfaction,

older matriarch, able to determine the

elephant flight away from the source

increased threat associated with the

indicates a larger perceived threat and

Maasai cloths.

therefore a greater antipredator response. This shows that elephants can identify perceptual cues relative to the

Poaching The ability of elephants to discriminate

presence of predators.

severity of threats can lead us to

The study also indicated that

question whether older individuals

responses were elevated towards

would therefore have greater success in

Maasai cloths in all test groups, despite

mitigating the threat of poaching. If

some groups having no known

elephants can discriminate between

experience of spearing (Bates et al.,

Maasai and Kamba people based on 118

visual cues (Bates et al., 2007), they may

transmission of social information with

also be able to detect the threat of

other bulls. However, as male elephants

hunting or poaching through similar

are largely solitary, perhaps poachers

means. Poaching and hunting are

have been successful in killing all

considered a source of the sex-ratio bias

targeted males and therefore this

towards females in the elephant

information regarding the threat, has not

population. Mortality rates are recorded

been able to be distributed across social

to be far greater in males as opposed to

networks. What we do know is that the

females (Moss, 2001) as traditionally

removal of these older individuals from

larger, older male elephants are

the social networks negatively affects

targeted due to their larger trunks and

social cohesion (Chiyo et al., 2011).

associated higher ivory value (McComb

Similarly, the removal of older

et al., 2001). However, it could be that

females would have serious

females are better able to mitigate the

consequences on the female elephant

risk of poaching and predation due to

structure. As many of the older males

their larger social networks. A study by

have already been killed due to

Chiyo et al. (2011) suggests that this

poaching activity, older females are now

would not be the case, as male social

being more frequently targeted as tusk

networks are also extremely complex.

size is related to age (McComb et al.,

Older males, much like older females,

2001). A study by Wittemyer et al. (2014)

have a greater centrality within the

using data on carcasses collected in the

social networks and so probably a high

field, identified that illegal elephant kills

rate of associated horizontal

increased in 2008 in correlation with the

119

increased price of ivory within the local

an older matriarch have a lower calf

black market. The occurrence of

mortality rate as they are better able to

poaching continues to grow. A 3%

assess and respond to threats

decline in the African elephant

accordingly or communicate with a

population in 2011 alone is predicted to

larger social network regarding

be directly related to illegal kills

ecological concerns (McComb et al.,

(Wittemyer et al., 2014). The increased

2011). Studies on captive populations of

threat of habitat fragmentation (IUCN,

primates, exhibiting a fission-fusion

2016) could be driving this increase in

structure, predict a structural collapse

poaching due to the ease of access for

upon the removal of individuals that

poachers and a lack of denser, taller

possess a ‘connectivity node’ status

habitat to retreat to when presented

(Flack et al., 2006). Therefore, this

with the threat (Bates et al., 2007). It is

indicates that poaching is a growing

evident that group success is related to

concern that could have serious long

matriarch age and knowledge, whereby

term effects on the population trend of

older matriarchs present greater

African elephants, as removal of key

ecological knowledge, evidenced

individuals could influence the whole

through their status as a ‘connectivity

population (McComb et al., 2001).

hub’ in social networks and enhanced

Nevertheless, Goldenberg et al.

discriminatory abilities. As the leader,

(2016) have identified that when the

matriarchs can influence the social

matriarch is removed from the

knowledge of the group which infers

population, through natural and

reproductive success. Bond groups with

unnatural causes, the daughter can 120

redefine social structures by utilising the

severe outcomes to the population

existent structural ties. In these

(McComb et al., 2001).

circumstances, core groups will fuse together to create larger bond groups where an older matriarch may still be present. The structural resilience of elephant networks is clear.

However, increasing the size of the group can have detrimental effects.

Wittemyer et al. (2005) propose that if the group becomes too big, a trade-off ensues between ecological costs, such as resource competition and the socioecological benefits. Groups of this size will not remain stable in a fission-fusion environment. The study also shows the loss of clan networks, indicating that clans are a result of older age cohort links. As these wider networks have proven to confer benefits in horizontal transmission of social knowledge, the loss of matriarchs could indeed present

Conclusion Superior knowledge enables better decision making in higher cognitive animal groups, drawing a parallel to human societies. As leaders, matriarchs can influence the social knowledge of the group which infers increased reproductive success. Age enhances this success further; older matriarchs have greater social network connections and so augmented horizontal transfer of ecological and social knowledge. They can exhibit enhanced discriminatory abilities through auditory, olfactory and visual cues to rare, yet dangerous, stimuli presenting greater ecological knowledge. Exposure to older individuals can facilitate the development of functionally important skills that lead to behavioural changes and increased fitness. Due to this, the

121

effect of poaching and hunting on older

of African elephants in all-male groups:

individuals may have serious

the role of age and genetic relatedness.

consequences on a group’s overall

Animal Behaviour. 81 (6). 1093-1099.

fitness. The loss of these matriarchs will be likely to drive a population decline as

Conradt, L. and Roper, T.J. (2003). Group

transmission regarding ecological

decision-making in animals. Nature. 421.

knowledge is limited and younger

155-158.

matriarchs are unable to effectively decipher between levels of threat. This

Esposito, R.M. (2008). Effect of Matriarchs

demonstrates the crucial importance of

on Group Interactions, Kinship Fitness and

addressing the ivory trade imminently to

Differences in Chemosensory Behaviour

reduce the risk of losing these older

of African Elephants (Loxodonta

individuals.

africana), unpublished PhD thesis.

Georgia Southern University.

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The Significance of Eddie the Eagle in the Modern Olympic Games – A Case Study Meike Leitsch BA Sports Studies and BA Education Studies

that the Olympic Games are just about taking part. It will show Edwards’ struggle to reach the Games, talk about his performance, and discuss the relevance of his participation in the Games.

'The most important thing in the Olympic Games is not winning but taking part; the essential thing in life is not conquering but fighting well.’

Pierre de Coubertin (quoted in Eddie the Eagle, 2016)

To look at an Olympic moment is to look at Olympic history. But there are three main approaches to working with historic material, as introduced by Munslow (1997): Reconstruction, Construction and Deconstruction. This essay will attempt to analyse Edwards’ story under the deconstructionist approach to history. Deconstructionists do not believe in the existence of one given history, but rather try to present several viewpoints within a certain historical event (Booth, 2006). They do not presuppose that historical understanding can be objective and accept that the same topic can create more than one different historical narrative, as shown in Phillips’ comparison of Douglas Booth’s and Ed Jaggard’s works on the Australian surf lifesaving movement (2002). Using a wide range of evidence the two of them try to show multiple perspectives to one

This quote is one of the most famous and widespread of the founder of the modern Olympic Games, Baron Pierre de Coubertin. The 2016 Olympic Charter emphasizes the importance of the joy of effort, the equality of all athletes and the harmonious development of mankind, thereby supporting de Coubertin’s statement that the Olympics are for everyone, not only the winners (Olympic Charter, 2016). Does this philosophy hold true? Are the Olympic Games truly supportive of those who aim only to participate, not to win? Focusing on the case of Michael “Eddie the Eagle” Edwards this essay will contest the idea

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event or topic (Booth, 2006); unlike reconstructionists and constructionists, they accept non-literary sources such as films and photographs as evidence and try to deconstruct and interpret these (Berkhofer, 1995).

When it comes to the Olympic Games, a deconstructionist approach becomes significant insofar as there are often many neglected voices; the official reports of the International Olympic Committee might tell one story, someone else might tell another. Such is the case with “Eddie the Eagle”: many loved him and he became a crowd favourite in Calgary (International Olympic Committee, 1988b), but his consequential fame despite his lack of success (Edwards came in last in both the 70m and 90m jump) remains contested. Frank King, the chief executive of the 1988 Calgary Winter Games talked about the athletes during the closing ceremony: ‘You have captured our hearts (…) and some of you have even soared like an eagle’ (YouTube, 2013b), making Edwards the first athlete ever to be mentioned in a closing speech of the modern Winter 127

Olympics. Despite all this, his profile, though accessible on the official Olympic website, shows nothing more than his name, date of birth, country, the sport he competed in, and the year he competed in the Olympics (International Olympic Committee, n.d.c). His fellow competitor, Matti Nykaenen, who was the first ever ski jumper to collect three Olympic gold medals, in Calgary, is presented much more favorable, with an article attached to his page, making him out to be ‘one of the greatest ski jumpers of all time’ (International Olympic Committee, n.d.b). This conveys how little value Edwards appeared to have to the International Olympic Committee (IOC), and that the focus of the committee tends to rest on the champions, rather than the normal contenders.

The 1988 Olympic Winter Games took place from the 13th to the 28th February in Calgary, Canada and hosted 46 events where 1423 athletes (301 women, 1,122 men) from 57 countries attended (International Olympic Committee, n.d.a).

It was the first time the Olympic Winter Games had run for 16 days. At the time,

Britain had entered the Olympics with several other athletes but, by the end of the Games, team GB flew home without a single Olympic medal (Teamgb.com., n.d.). They did, however, take home a national hero: “Eddie the Eagle”. Even upon his arrival at the Calgary airport, a fanclub was awaiting him with a banner that said "Welcome to Calgary, Eddie The Eagle" (Pye, 2014), which then turned into his nickname. Why did Edwards come to such fame? To understand the admiration he received, one must start at the beginning of the story, which starts with Edwards’ ambition to become an Olympic athlete.

In an interview with The Guardian (Hattenstone, 2016) Edwards explained that he had been an able sportsman, but was injured while playing football at the age of 12 and had to regularly visit the hospital for the two following years. As a young teenager he picked up downhill skiing at the slope in Gloucester and, over time, became the ninth fastest amateur downhill skier in the world. He narrowly missed the qualification for the GB downhill team for the 1984 Sarajevo Winter Olympics (Oldmeadow, 2012), though in his interview with Hattenstone

(2016) he suggests that this might have been due to the animosity of one of the selectors towards him: ‘“One selector said I shouldn’t be there because I’d been abusing the friendship and privileges at Gloucester ski club”’ (Edwards in Hattenstone, 2016). When Edwards used to ski at Gloucester, other skiers would ask for his advice, which he’d readily give; this had angered the official. ‘“He said, you should be sending them to the ski school and then they can make money through giving them lessons”’ (Edwards in Hattenstone, 2016).

This suggests that the process of becoming an Olympian athlete might not be entirely dependent on one’s sporting abilities.

Through continuing his skiing career he found himself in Lake Placid in 1986, where he realised he was out of money to continue his ambitions (YouTube, 2013a), an example that illustrates that some people may not have equal chances at participating in sports due to lacking economic strength rather than athletic ability. However, Edwards was unwilling to give up. The ski jumps on the training site caught his attention and 128

he came to the realisation that Britain had not had an Olympic ski jumper before. Determined to realise his dream, Edwards decided to change from Alpine skiing to ski jumping. After five months of training he was jumping off the 70m jump and now certain he could make the Calgary Olympics (Pye, 2014). To qualify, the British Ski Federation (BSF) wanted Edwards to jump at least 70m in a World Cup competition and in St. Moritz, Switzerland, in 1987, he landed 69,5m, which the BSF considered as sufficient; they conferred with the British Olympic Association (BOA) which then let him participate in Calgary (Needham, 2016). He very quickly became popular in Calgary, as he was an underdog from a country with no Olympic ski jumping record (Hattenstone, 2016). On February 14th, 1988, Edwards jumped the 70m, finishing 58th out of 58 with 55 metres on both jumps (Moore, 1988a). Rather than being dejected to be last, Edwards was elated to even be at the Olympics: ‘I made my dream come true by getting there’ (YouTube, 2013a). His popularity only increased after his first jump. Owen (1988) even went so far as to suggest that “Eddie The Eagle” would remain the 129

most memorable figure of the Calgary Olympics, overshadowing every other athlete. Not everyone looked at Edwards’ popularity with such a favourable eye, though. The BOA was unhappy that Edwards received more attention than the more successful athletes of Team GB and faced him with hostility, which he believed to be partly class-based haughtiness on their side (Hattenstone, 2016). In the same interview Edwards confirms that some of his teammates were unhappy with him as well, though most of his competitors were happy about the attention he brought to the sport of ski jumping overall (Oldmeadow, 2012).

One of his main critics was Torbjørn Yggeseth, the technical director of the FIS, the world governing body of skiing, who even went as far as trying to prevent Edwards from competing in the 90m event (Ingle, 2016). Despite all odds Edwards still took part in the 90m and jumped 71m on the 24th February 1988, coming last of 55 contenders, but establishing a new British record (Moore, 1988c). His fame continued even after the Games had finished and he was very

grateful for the support, hoping he could earn enough money to return to the 1992 Olympics (Jauch, 2014). Soon after, it was speculated that the rules to qualify for the Olympics would be strengthened (The Times, 1988). In fact, in 1990, the FIS officially changed its qualification rules for international ski jumping, allowing only the top 50 jumpers to compete – a rule that still stands today (The International Ski Competition Rules (ICR), 2016: §451.4).

Michael “Eddie The Eagle” Edwards continued Ski jumping, but never qualified for the Olympic Winter Games again. He retired in 1998, at the age of 34 (Hattenstone, 2016).

In 2016, 28 years after Calgary, a biopic about Edwards was released, promoting the relevance of his story even today (Eddie the Eagle, 2016). But why has Edwards been so popular and what makes his story relevant in the historical context of the Olympic Games?

Edwards’ story shows not only that the Olympic ethos lives within many amateur sportsmen and –women, but also that participation might not be more important than winning after all –

especially in the eyes of the IOC. The story opens questions such as: Are there equal opportunities for all who desire to take part in the Olympics? And: Should the Olympics promote excellence or amateurism? Critical voices concerning Edwards’ case should not be ignored either. They pose different questions: Should someone so far off the field be allowed to participate? Should the loser get more publicity than the winner? How important is Olympic representation for the participating countries politically?

The question of his right of participation is easily answered. The BSF had set the qualifications – 70m in competition – and Edwards (though only just barely) fulfilled them (Ingle, 2016). He was a jumper from a country with no ski jumping opportunities whatsoever, so poor he had to wear several pairs of socks in his boots to make them fit, with a helmet he’d fixed to his head with only a piece of string and a pair of glasses that fogged up as soon as he added his goggles at the top of the jump (Pye, 2014). Moreover he had jumped for less than two years when he qualified (Needham, 2016) and even his co130

competitor and Olympic gold medallist Matti Nykannen admitted that athletes like Edwards might be necessary for the sport (Moore, 1988b).

There remains the question whether the amount of attention rewarded to him was justifies. Miller (1988) says: ‘In my opinion, they have a place in the Games but not in the newspapers. The philosophy of taking part is important, but the emphasis ought to be on excellence.’ Pye (2014) agrees that his publicity was over-the-top, but he recognises the sacrifices Edwards made to be able to take part in the games and adds that ‘it is easy to moan about Eddie and laugh at him, but from purely a sporting point of view, he deserves a lot of praise for making his Calgary dream a reality.’

Lastly, the international representation of the country the athletes participate with has been an issue in the eyes of Edwards’ critics. In some countries Edwards was a hero – others mocked him mercilessly. Hattenstone (2016) mentions the East German newspaper “Junge Welt” which criticised him for 131

lowering the overall quality of the games. In an interview with the German reporter Günther Jauch in 1988, though congratulating Edwards on his performance, Jauch asks ridiculing questions that contain the mocking nicknames he received from the media as well as an uncalled for question about Edwards’ popularity with women (Jauch, 2014). The audience is shown amused and bewildered by the British athlete. The USA loved Edwards; in fact, he was so popular that two of the most famous talk shows of the time were competing for Edwards to first appear at their format (Ingle, 2016). This proves how different the perception of excellence and the Olympic spirit can be, depending on culture. Stephen Pile goes so far as to test Britain’s cultural heritage of rooting for the underdog against Margaret Thatcher’s philosophy of excellence (Pile, 1988).

Edwards’ case displays that not every sport is equally available for every athlete, depending on country, economy and support of the country’s Olympic committee. Due to financial situation and the animosity of some of the officials

(Hattenstone, 2014), he had to give up on his original sport and even when pursuing jumping (which was much cheaper than Alpine skiing) there were times when Edwards had to scrape food out of bins and sleep in a mental hospital in Finland because it was the only way he could get by (Lanz, 2014).

Edwards is not the only example of struggle against adversity; in Calgary 1988 there was another team of athletes who made it to fame by getting there against all odds – the Jamaican bobsleigh team (International Olympic Committee, 1988a). Without snow and little monetary resources they still managed to compete in the 1988 Winter Olympics. In 2000, at the Olympic Games in Sydney a certain Eric Moussambani form Equatorial Guinea had earned himself the nickname “Eric the Eel” in the 100m freestyle swimming event. He finished first in his heat, after the other two competitors were disqualified for a false start. He was being selected through a programme to popularise swimming in countries where the sport was not on competition standards (Nauright and Magdalinski, 2003). Moussambani, like Edwards and

the Jamaican bobsleigh team, became a media favourite. Edwards assumes that this is due to the approachability of a ‘normal athlete’ among unreachable legends (YouTube, 2013a). All these examples show that different disciplines can only be developed into excellence in certain countries but that this should not deny athletes from less successful countries to compete in the Olympic Games.

Should the Olympic Games only be for the winners? No, Edwards says. ‘That’s what sets the Olympics apart from all other sporting competitions (…) every sport has its world championship, we don’t need another’ (YouTube, 2013a).

Lanz (2014) claims that people like Edwards are the reason we all enjoy watching the Olympics that much. Some of the reporters present in Calgary in 1988 even declared Edwards as the epitome of the Olympic spirit (Davis, 1988), demonstrating that in the public eye, it is not excellence that has the upper hand, but participation and effort.

However, the IOC seems to value excellence much more. This shows when looking at the Olympic profile of 132

the Finnish gold medallist Matti Nykannen, who is celebrated by the IOC as a sporting hero (International Olympic Committee, n.d.b, YouTube 2014), but should possibly be looked at more critically considering his downfall soon after Calgary.

Michael Edwards’ case is an example of elitism within the Olympic movement.

The introduction of the top 50 rule of the FIS only two years after Edwards’ participation in Calgary suggests that this was a direct consequence of his relatively poor performance, often referred to as the “Eddie the Eagle rule” (Pye, 2014). It prevents hopeful underdogs such as Edwards to participate in ski jumping in future Winter Olympics and disabled “The Eagle” himself from ever qualifying for the Olympic Games again. Though a crowd favourite and representative of the Olympic spirit (Needham, 2016), he is barely mentioned on the official Olympic website and there is no mention of him whatsoever in the official Calgary 1988 Olympics film (YouTube 2014). It illustrates that a lack of resources or contacts makes it infinitely harder for 133

some athletes to compete than others (Hattenstone, 2018). This goes directly against the 6th Fundamental Principle of Olympism, which states: ‘The enjoyment of the rights and freedoms set forth in this Olympic Charter shall be secured without discrimination of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, sexual orientation, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.’ (Olympic Charter, 2016: 12).

The Jamaican bobsleigh team and Eric “The Eel” Moussambani are further examples of the exclusivity of certain events depending on the participating countries, namely bobsleighing in Jamaica or swimming in Equatorial Guinea. This does not promote the idea of inclusivity of all that the Olympic charter sets forth.

The given evidence suggests that the IOC does not follow after Baron de Coubertin’s famous words, but rather amplifies elitism over amateurism,

winning over participation, conquering over fighting well. Though the Olympic Games pride themselves with values such as the joy of effort, equality and the educational value of good example, cases like Edwards’ cast a shadow over these highly promoted ideals and must lead to a reappraisal of the official values of Olympism in the modern Olympic Games.

References Berkhofer, R. (1995). Beyond the great story. 1st ed. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.

Booth, D. (2006). In: M. Phillips, ed., Deconstructing Sport History, 1st ed.

Albany: State University of New York Press, pp.27-54.

Davis, I. (1988). 'Eagle' lands in US clover.

The Times.

[online] the Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/film/201 6/mar/28/eddie-the-eagle-filmolympic-ski-jumper-interview-michaeledwards [Accessed 20 Nov. 2016].

Ingle, S. (2016). The Eagle who Dared: The Real Story Behind the Eddie The Eagle Movie. [online] Coach. Available at: http://www.coachmag.co.uk/adventure -travel/5215/the-eagle-who-dared-thereal-story-behind-the-eddie-the-eaglemovie [Accessed 30 Nov. 2016].

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(1988a) Bobsleigh - Cool runnings in Calgary. [online] Available at: https://www.olympic.org/news/bobsle igh-cool-runnings-in-calgary [Accessed 29 Nov. 2016].

Eddie the Eagle. (2016). [DVD] Pinewood Studios, Iver Heath, Buckinghamshire, England, UK: Dexter Fletcher.

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(1988b). Ski Jumping - The Eagle has landed!. [online] Available at: https://www.olympic.org/news/skijumping-the-eagle-has-landed [Accessed 27 Nov. 2016].

Hattenstone, S. (2016). Eddie the Eagle: ‘I was probably closer to an ostrich’.

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Calgary 1988 Winter Olympics - results & 134

video highlights. [online] Available at: https://www.olympic.org/calgary-1988 [Accessed 28 Nov. 2016].

Miller, D. (1988). Sporting Commentary: Eagle's shadow over others - Winter Olympics. The Times.

International Olympic Committee. (n.d.b).

Matti NYKÄNEN - Olympic Ski Jumping | Finland. [online] Available at: https://www.olympic.org/mattinykanen [Accessed 27 Nov. 2016].

Moore, C. (1988a). Winter Olympic Games: Nykaenen half-way to historic double. The Times.

International Olympic Committee. (n.d.c).

Michael EDWARDS - Olympic Ski Jumping | Great Britain. [online] Available at: https://www.olympic.org/michaeledwards [Accessed 27 Nov. 2016].

Jauch, G. (2014). Günther Jauch im Gespräch mit Michael Edwards alias Eddie the Eagle 1988. [online] YouTube.

Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yo wWqJVk8Z4 [Accessed 29 Nov. 2016].

Lanz, M. (2014). Markus Lanz | 13.02.2014 | u.a. mit Michael Edwards, Dieter Kürten, Wolfgang Kubicki [HD]. [online] YouTube.

Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iXp g41sl630 [Accessed 29 Nov. 2016].

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Moore, C. (1988b). Winter Olympics: Eagle 'falls out of the sky. The Times.

Moore, C. (1988c). Winter Olympics: Flying Finn captures gold - The eagle lands in a new British record. The Times.

Munslow, A. (1997). Deconstructing history. 1st ed. London: Routledge.

Nauright, J. and Magdalinski, T. (2003). ‘A hapless attempt at swimming’: Representations of Eric Moussambani.

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Needham, E. (2016). Eddie “the Eagle” Edwards: “I was Exemplifying that Whole Olympic Spirit”. [online] Coach. Available at: http://www.coachmag.co.uk/people/5 214/eddie-the-eagle-edwards-i-was-

exemplifying-that-whole-olympic-spirit [Accessed 28 Nov. 2016].

Oldmeadow, S. (2012). Eddie 'The Eagle' Edwards Interview. [online] YouTube.

Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yP RZgLP_lEs [Accessed 28 Nov. 2016].

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Owen, D. (1988). Eddie The Eagle Takes Flight Towards A Lucrative Future: An Olympian leap from last place onto the world's screens. The Times, p.2.

Pye, S. (2014). Reappraising Eddie 'the Eagle' Edwards: a dedicated athlete who made the best of his talent. [online] the Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2 014/feb/04/reappraising-eddie-eaglewinter-olympics-ski-jumping [Accessed 16 Nov. 2016].

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138

Cultural ‘Degradation’: Representations of Twentieth-Century Sexuality in A Brave New World and The Waste Land Oliver Kemp BA English Literature ‘A strong and swiftly rising tide, that of the mind and matter of London in the 1920s. And borne up with it, of course, was the swelling spring of Sex. Everywhere sex problems, sex doctrines, sex plays and sex books. The Sex Age was becoming well established.’

(Leonard Rossiter - The Sex Age1, 1928) 1

A satirical novel - Leonard Rossiter, The Sex Age (London: 1928) p.17 2

‘Stiff upper lip’ is a phrase used as a cultural metaphor for repressing emotion, hailing from the experiences men had to endure during WWI - Andrea Captstick, David Clegg, ‘Behind the Stiff Upper Lip: War Narratives Of Older Men With Dementia’, Journal of War and Culture Studies, 6, (2013), 239-254 3

The etymology of ‘prude’ was positive in its original French context, meaning fastidious or 139

Since the early twentieth-century, Britain has developed a unique cultural distinction that is recognized not just within its own geographical confines, but all over the world; a ‘stiff upper lip’2 attitude and a ‘prudishness’3 defined by the collective mindset of the British people. As Britain approached the 1920s however, a dichotomy began to develop between this cultural perception and the changing attitudes and modes of sexuality at the time, and goes some way to develop a clear portrait ‘…of the larger crisis of gender and sexual definition in the early twentiethcentury.’4

cautious. Only in English was the word used as a pejorative, eventually becoming to mean a person easily shocked by sex or nudity James Fowler, ‘On prude and related terms in the Roman Du Libertinage’, Nottingham French Studies, 8, (2009) 74-84, p.74 4

Colleen Lamos, Deviant Modernism: Sexual and Textual Errancy in T.S. Eliot, James Joyce, and Marcel Proust, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998) p.3

The state of sexuality in early twentiethcentury Britain can be uncovered through a number of cultural artefacts from the period. The introduction of psychoanalytical theorists such as Sigmund Freud to the wider societal conscience saw a backlash from the British press, who harboured a hostility specifically towards Freud’s sexual theories and preferred English psychologists; these experts made similar points to Freud on the dynamic unconscious whilst placing less importance on sexuality.5 Furthermore, despite birth control becoming increasingly popular from the early 1920s onwards, men generally had a greater understanding of contraception and sexual practices than women,

creating a gendered sexual culture that encouraged the naivety of women rather than open sexual knowledge and understanding.6 This cultural framework can be seen as residual of the Victorian British separate spheres ideology, a framework relying on masculine dominance and feminine servitude.7

5

Satisfied With The Arrangements I Made: Gender and Birth Control in Britain 19201950’, Past and Present, 169, (2000), 161-193, p.168

Dean Rapp, ‘The Reception of Freud by the British Press: General Interest and Literary magazines, 1920-1925’, Journal of the History of Behavioural Sciences, 24, 1988, 191-201, p.191 6

A collection of interviews with women conducted in the 1920s reveal a determination to play the innocent role with regards to their understanding of sex and contraception - Kate Fisher, ‘She Was Quite

Despite the separate spheres ideology still existing in Britain during the early twentieth century, there is also evidence to support a relaxing of attitudes and a liberation of sexuality between men and women; for one an increase in sexually liberated females in novels, characterized by Katherine Drowne as the ‘rebellious flapper’8, and female writers using these racy characters to

7

Marcus Collins, Modern Love: Personal Relationships in Twentieth-century Britain, (Delaware: University of Delaware Press, 2006) pp.16-17 8

This characterization primarily belongs to the ‘Roaring Twenties’ of the USA, however 140

delight a large and loyal womandominated readership.9 Mirroring the escalating public acceptance of sexuality is the developing discourse around the legalization of abortion in the 1920s, preceding the 1936 creation of the Abortion Law Reform Association.10 The ability to plan for a family encouraged a more sexually liberated culture, and although the 1920s was only the start of discourse around the legalization of abortion, its genesis during this time period implies a relaxing of values and greater importance being placed on sex for pleasure. The perceived British ‘prudishness’ juxtaposed with cultural sexual liberation created the crises of gender and sex in the 1920s that literary figures of the time made a key thematic point of

in their writing, developing the cultural conversation around sexuality and gender. Both T.S. Eliot and Aldous Huxley contributed to this debate with The Waste Land11 (1922) and Brave New World12 (1932) respectively, challenging and critiquing the changing societal attitudes of sexual behaviour, and in turn offering their own views on a British way of life in flux.

these novels also gained a large readership from the women of Britain - Katherine Morgan Downe, The 1920s, (California,USA: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004), pp.170171

11

9

ibid.

10

Vern L. Bullough, Encyclopedia of Birth Control, (California, USA: ABC-CLIO, 2001) p.7 141

Sexuality pervades The Waste Land, a statement illuminated by the fact that Eliot himself supposedly had a ‘persistent concern with sex’ during his life, more specifically; ‘…the impossibility of a complementary or consummated

T.S. Eliot, ‘The Waste Land’, Selected Poems, (London: Faber and Faber, 1972) - all other references to this text will be given parenthetically 12

Aldous Huxley, Brave New World, (New York: Harper Collins, 1998) - all other references to this text will be given parenthetically

sexual relation.’13 Eliot’s perception of an ‘impossibility’ is illustrated by encounters between characters within the text, most notably the young man and the typist;

The inclusion of the typist within literature and academia was unusual for 1922, as she was typically regarded as

an ‘object of misogynistic scorn’.14 Eliot himself had contact with typists during his employment at Lloyds Bank, where he commented on the fact they ‘…didn’t have to do work’, they just ‘…want something to do’.15 Eliot builds on his generalization by using the typist and her ‘something-to-do sexuality’16 within the poem, emblematic of his opinions towards modern sexual relations; in the above excerpt the typist is ‘bored and tired’, ambivalent towards the encounter with the young man, yet still consenting.

The use of the word ‘assaults’ however is suggestive more of rape than a consensual sexual encounter. The modernity of the woman - connoted by her employment - coupled with the mode of sexual encounter could be suggestive of Eliot commenting on the rape of modernity, the impossibility of disconnecting the new modern society

13

Andrew Ross, ‘The Waste Land and the Fantasy of Interpretation’, Representations, 8, (1984), 134-158, pp.148-149

15

14

16

The time is now propitious, as he guesses, The meal is ended, she is bored and tired, Endeavours to engage her in caresses Which are still unreproved, if undesired.

Flushed and decided, he assaults at once; Exploring hands encounter no defence; His vanity requires no response, And makes a welcome of indifference.

(WL, p.60, 235-242)

Andrew Rainey, Revisiting The Waste Land, (Connecticut, USA: Yale University Press, 2008) p.53

T. S. Eliot, The Letters of T.S. Eliot, ed.

Valerie Eliot (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1988), p.204 Michael Levenson, ‘Does The Waste Land Have Politics?’, Modernism/modernity, 6, (1999) 1-13, p.7 142

from its transgressive sexual activities.

This idea of a meaningless and emotionally void sexual practice renders positive sexual communion ‘impossible’ as Eliot believed.

Harriet Davidson reinforces the idea of an improper sexual desire being displayed throughout The Waste Land, commenting on how ‘the overriding tone of the poem seems to yearn to be rid of improper desires…’17 an analysis pertinent to Brave New World. In the novel, the utopian society engages in sexual activity from an early age, with the children encouraged to get involved in ‘ordinary erotic play’ (BNW, p.32).

When the Director suggests to his students that sexual activity between children used to be considered ‘abnormal’, (BNW, p.32) they are astonished. By creating a satirical portrait of the future, Huxley draws attention to the sexual desires of the present and their increasing place of 17

Harriet Davidson, ‘Improper Desire: Reading The Waste Land’, The Cambridge Companion to T.S. Eliot, ed. David Moody, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), p.122 143

importance within society; perhaps even suggesting that the further degradation of society through sexuality could effectively normalize sexual activity between children. This satirical mirroring of society is repeated when John falls to the floor and claims the Director is his father, a word that is so ‘comically smutty’ (BNW, p.151) that everyone watching breaks into ‘hysterical’ laughter. In this scene, Huxley is turning the traditional family-based values on their head, suggesting that even the framework of the family is in danger from increasing sexual degradation.18 The idea of improper sexual desire is emphasized explicitly through Huxley’s satirizing of the Fordian society’s crusade against monogamy, enforcing an indoctrinated polyamorous ideology; ’But every one belongs to every one

18

Brad Buchanan, ‘Oedipus in Dystopia: Freud and Lawrence in Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World’, Journal Of Modern Literature, 25, 2002, 75-89

else’19, (BNW, p.40). The polyamorous society is exemplified when Benito Hoover comments on the attractiveness of Lenina to Bernard, despite previously engaging in a sexual relationship with her; ‘The chubby red face of Benito Hoover was beaming down at him beaming with manifest cordiality. Benito was notoriously good natured.’ (BNW, p.60) The good spirit of Benito lacks any jealousy, accentuating the disposability between sexual partners within the novel. This could be seen as a comment not only on societies’ ready acceptance of more relaxed sexual attitudes, but also the increase of contraception

enabling a lack of consequences around sex, particularly pregnancy.20

19

cinema would stifle creativity, stating that the form ‘…can say everything before it has anything to say.’ - Virginia Woolf, ‘The Cinema’, Collected Essays, http://www.woolfonline.com/timepasses/?q= essays/cinema/full [accessed 9th November 2016]

Huxley cements the idea of the indoctrinated principle by writing, ‘The students nodded, emphatically agreeing with a statement that upwards of sixy-two thousand repetitions in the dark had made them accept, not merely as true, but as axiomatic, self-evident, utterly undisputable’ Aldous Huxley, Brave New World, p.40) 20

Kathryn Ratcliff, Healing Technology: Feminist Perspectives, (Michigan, USA: University of Michigan Press, 1989) p.32

Huxley made no secret of his opinion of the ‘new’21 development of cinema in the twenties. He saw the introduction of sound into film (identified as ‘the talkies’22), as a crass parody of real life, representing a degradation of cultural values; How was it possible that human emotions intrinsically decent could be so ignobly parodied? I felt like a man, who, having asked for wine, is offered a brimming

22

Donald Crafton, The Talkies: American Cinema’s Transition to Sound , 1926-1931, (California, USA: University of California Press, 1999)

21

Woolf wrote an essay in 1926, suggesting that the technological advances of sound in 144

bowl of hogwash. And not even fresh hogwash. Rancid hogwash.23 Harnessing his disgust, Huxley used cinema as a method of symbolizing the ‘corrosive forms of social influence’24 within the utopian society of BNW, expressing his problem with British culture’s developing fascination with sex. The ‘feelies’, (BNW, p.35) are highly sexualized forms of entertainment for the inhabitants of the novel, focusing on sexual pleasure in a way that alludes more to pornography than to the typical cinematic entertainment of the twenties.

The plot, like the pornographic films it resembles, is "extremely simple". The characters sing a duet and make "a little love…on that famous bearskin, every hair of which...could be separately 23

Aldous Huxley, ‘Silence is Golden’, (1929), Authors on Film, ed. Harry M.Geduld, (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1972), pp.68-74

145

and distinctly felt." The "negro" develops "an exclusive and maniacal passion" for "the Beta blonde" and "ravished [her] away into the sky and kept [her] there, hovering, for three weeks in a wildly anti-social tete-a-tete.”25 Frost draws attention to Huxley’s use of shallow and evocative language to affirm his attribution of fictional ‘feelies’ with pornography; ‘magical passion,’ ‘ravished’ and ‘beta blonde’ is language that suggests a facile form of entertainment, exhibited to a naive audience. Needless to say the cinema of the 1920s did not incite anywhere near the level of sexual focus as the feelies in Brave New World - to illustrate, the British Board of Film Censors’ 1916 policy included forty three grounds for censorship of films, including ‘nude figures’, ‘women and men in bed 24

Laura Frost, ‘Huxley’s Feelies: The Cinema of Sensation in Brave New World’, Twentieth Century Literature, 52, (2006), 443-473, p.459 25

Laura Frost, ‘Huxley’s Feelies: The Cinema of Sensation in Brave New World’, p.453

together’ and even ‘indecorous dancing.’26 Huxley utilizes pornographic imagery to affirm his staunch dislike towards cinema, in turn deploying a pejorative view of the visual art form.

The feelies in Brave New World become emblematic of a new mode of culture in society, through Huxley’s identification of ‘new pleasure’, and ‘old pleasure’.27 The theory of new and old pleasures illuminates Huxley’s theme of meaning being replaced by sensation, portrayed in the novel through the juxtaposition of the feelies and the classic work of Shakespeare. In Brave New World, John the Savage is the outsider, horrified at this new society and its modern forms of entertainment. John’s own deep knowledge of Shakespearian literature enhances his outsider status, and upon arriving in London is horrified by the society he witnesses. The character attempts to understand the world 26

BBFC, ‘the early years at the bbfc’, http://www.bbfc.co.uk/educationresources/student-guide/bbfc-history/19121949 [accessed 15th November 2016]

through the prose of Shakespeare, exhibiting the beauty of the prose but also highlighting its anachronisms - this brave new world is far removed from the 17th Century tragedy narratives John has become so adjusted to. John cannot hope to fully understand civilization through Shakespeare because society has moved away from the old pleasures, to something altogether new. When John meets Mustapha Mond, the only way he can convey his disgust for the passing of ‘old things’ (BNW, p.219) is by quoting Othello;28 "The new ones are so stupid and horrible. Those plays, where there's nothing but helicopters flying about and you feel the people kissing.” He made a grimace."Goats and monkeys!"

Only in Othello's words could he find an adequate vehicle for his

27

Laura Frost, ‘Huxley’s Feelies: The Cinema of Sensation in Brave New World’, p.455 28

Laura Frost, ‘Huxley’s Feelies: The Cinema of Sensation in Brave New World’, pp.456-457 146

contempt and hatred. (BNW, p.219) Huxley makes use of Othello by subtextually placing it in the depiction of the feely itself; John is horrified by the feely he sees, and he asks Mond, ‘Why don’t you let them see Othello instead?’

(BNW, p.220) to which Mond replies, ‘…you can’t make tragedies without social instability,’ (BNW, p.221). Huxley establishes irony by mirroring the narrative of the feely to Othello itself; the outsider of Othello carries off a girl against the wishes of her father, and in the feely, the outsider (the Negro) carries off a girl against the wishes of society.29 The difference is that although the outsider of Othello is poisoned to believe his wife is unfaithful, the Negro in BNW is poisoned by society itself - a society accepting of all promiscuity and as such negating jealousy as a concept.

In this example, Huxley is 29

William Jones, ‘The Iago of Brave New World’, Western Humanities Review, 15, (1961), 275-278, pp.276-277 30

Philip Sicker, ‘The Belladonna: Eliot’s Female Archetype in ‘“The Waste Land”’, 147

microcosmically using Shakespeare to further contrast the new and the old, suggesting a loss of innocence and values in place of this new focus of sensation, through the distortion of the Othello narrative.

Similarly, Eliot exploits classic literature through juxtaposition in order to highlight the degradation of society.

Phillip Sicker discusses the way Eliot uses classical botanical reference to create a dichotomy of female characterizations within The Waste Land.30 Sicker posits Eliot’s use of two archetypes; the first being Marie, ‘…the primal prelapsarian ancestor of that modern female’31 and then every other female character in the poem, composited as the ‘irreducible woman…the seductress who is

Twentieth Century Literature, 30, (1984), 420431 31

Sicker, ‘The Belladonna: Eliot’s Female Archetype in “The Waste Land”’, p.421

repeatedly raped and abandoned.’32 Eliot identifies this archetype in the name ‘Belladonna’ from Madam Sosotris’s Tarot cards (WL, p.52 I. 49), which Sicker suggests Eliot uses to connote the poisonous plant of the same name (otherwise known as deadly nightshade33). This brings to light a further juxtaposition; the belladonna as a modern substitute for the hyacinth flower. Sicker suggests that Marie’s personality is mirrored by the ‘hyacinth girl’, (WL, p.52 I. 36) in the following stanza, and submits that; Just as the sunlit Hofgarten suddenly expands into the anthropological hyacinth garden, so too the male speaker's personal recollection of Marie and her story becomes that faint memory of lost sexual health which resides in mankind's

collective or cultural consciousness.34 This suggests the character of Marie represents the sexual mode of the past, within a framework where sex was primarily thought of as having great social and religious importance.

Conversely, the archetypal ‘Belladonna’ figure represents a new mode of sexuality, and a form of thinking whereby the only view of women possible is sexually charged, either as an alluring sexual being or as raped and damaged. The juxtaposition of hyacinth and belladonna flowers is used as a microcosmic representation of the destruction of morality through sexual promiscuity, akin to the way Huxley uses cinema and Shakespeare in Brave New World to the same effect. There are however a number of contrasting viewpoints that obscure the juxtaposition in The Waste Land. For one,

32

Sicker, ‘The Belladonna: Eliot’s Female Archetype in “The Waste Land”’, p.424

http://www.medilexicon.com/dictionary/990 6 [accessed 15th Nov]

33

34

The plant’s original Latin name is Atropa Belladonna, now more generally recognised as deadly nightshade -

Sicker, ‘The Belladonna: Eliot’s Female Archetype in “The Waste Land”’, p.421 148

the hyacinth flower is a dull red, perhaps suggesting heavy blood loss and a death by violence35, opposite to the view of a positive rekindling of the past.

Additionally, though the belladonna flower is poisonous and effects can include hallucinations, the flower is also used as a sedative and as an ointment for joint pains, potentially improving the the health of a person.36 Eliot’s allusion to the Greek Hyacinthus is another fact that arguably confuses the juxtaposition. As opposed to connecting the hyacinth to the embodiment of a feminine ‘primal prelapsarian ancestor’ as Frost does, hyacinth is also classically connected to Hyacinthus, a homoerotic figure in the Greek legend.37 This fragments the

35

Constance Garlick, ‘What was the Greek Hyacinth?’, The Classical Review, 35, (1921), 146-147, p.146 36

Wayne Jonas M.D., Jennifer Jacobs, M.D., Healing with Homeopathy, (New York: Warner Books, 1996) 37

Cyrene N. Pondrom, ’T.S. Eliot: The Performativity of Gender in The Waste Land’, 149

gender boundaries of the hyacinth and belladonna, offering up alternative studies of Eliot’s juxtaposition. Eliot’s use of temporal and narrative fragmentation encourages development of more than a single reading of the text, purposefully creating something that is ‘…selfconsciously and ironically allusive…’38 whereas Huxley’s narrative and symbolic juxtaposition of ‘new’ and ‘old’ appears clearer to decipher.

The archetypal female of Eliot’s poem can also be seen through a vision of misogyny. Many critics have considered Eliot’s use of female sexual physicality to be emblematic of threatening social forces, fundamentally blaming feminine sexuality for the degradation of society.39 Pinkney even suggests an

Modernism/modernity, 12, (2005), 425-441, pp.429-430 38

Michael North, Reading 1922: A Return to the Scene of the Modern, (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1999) p.26 39

Rachael Potter, ‘Gender and Obscenity in The Waste Land’, The Cambridge Companion to The Waste Land, ed. David Moody,

overarching misogyny across Eliot’s entire canon; …for it will emerge that any Eliotic text has to, needs to, wants to, in one way or another, do a girl in; and if it fails to achieve that goal, it is itself murderously threatened by the girl.40 If a reading of misogyny can be textually revealed in the poem, it is most apparent in the subtler lines: in Lil’s decaying mouth (WL, p.56 l. 142-144), where even a set of false teeth fail to hide her degraded physicality to her husband.41 Potter notes that an earlier drafted version of the poem had a line describing the ‘hearty female stench’, a line implying a disgust towards the sexual female body.42 Although this was omitted the final published version, the residual effects of the line can be felt in its final published form; for instance, the

visualisation of Tiresias focuses on the ‘wrinkled female breasts’ (WL, p.59, l.

219) another signifier of feminine physical degradation and physical disgust. It could be suggested that Eliot’s distaste towards the new mode of confident feminine sexuality can also be identified in the typist’s ‘drying combinations’ (WL, p.59 l. 225); by paying attention to her underwear, it highlights clothing as a way to hide her own degrading physicality, and her apparent indifference to all the neighbours seeing her underwear hanging out the window suggests a lack of interest for discretion or morality. Even Madam Sosostris ‘the famous clairvoyante’ has a ‘bad cold’, (WL, p.52, l. 43-44), symbolizing illness or a degradation of physical health. Whilst the ‘female stench’ line was omitted, it would appear a mode of disgust towards women, particularly sexually active women, can still be found in these lines.

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994)

41

40

42

Tony Pinkney, Women in the Poetry of T.S. Eliot, (New York, USA: Springer, 1984, p.18

Rachael Potter, ‘Gender and Obscenity in The Waste Land’, p.139 ibid

150

Critical opinions of misogyny are also found in Huxley’s feminine characterization in Brave New World; Deanna Madden suggests the male characters ‘have a spiritual dimension that the women lack ... mired in the physical, the women interfere with or prevent the men from achieving spiritually.’43 Accompanying this critical view is textual evidence suggesting the character of Lenina as the archetypal figure of eroticism and sexual promiscuity within this utopian society, and John the disgusted onlooker; “Things like what, John?”

“Like this horrible film.”

“Horrible?” Lenina was genuinely astonished. “But I thought it was lovely.”

43

Deana Madden, ‘Women in Dystopia: Misogyny in Brave New World, 1984, and A Clockwork Orange’, Misogyny in Literature: An Essay Collection, ed. Katherine Anne Ackley (New York: Garland, 1992) pp.292 - 296.

151

“It was base”, he said indignantly, “it was ignoble.” (BNW, pp.169170) Lenina is the personification of sexuality in the novel, clearest in a scene whereby she attempts to seduce John. John however retreats in terror and brands her an ‘impudent strumpet’ (BNW, p.194).

Again Huxley pits John the outsider against sexualized society, symbolised in the scene by Lenina’s sexual desires.

However, whilst Lenina acts as almost solely emblematic of the display of feminine sexual desire, arguably this reading fails to consider the rebellious streak of the character against the utopian society she inhabits. David Higdon illuminates the facets of Lenina’s character that actually rub up against the Fordian societal values44; Lenina is warned by her friend Fanny against her monogamous relationship with Henry 44

David Higdon, ‘The Provocations of Lenina in Huxley’s Brave New World’, The International Fiction Review, 29, (2002) https://journals.lib.unb.ca/index.php/IFR/arti cle/view/7719/8776 [accessed 5th November 2016]

Foster, at odds with the encouraged cultural promiscuity; “And you know how strongly the D.H.C. objects to anything intense or long-drawn. Four months of Henry Foster, without having another man - why, he’d be furious if he knew…” (BNW, p.41) She also displays a curiosity in visiting the Savage Reservation, and with this action demonstrates her spirit of enquiry of a world outside her own inhabited one. Her curiosity about something outside of the established values of the Fordian society places her in contrast with almost every character other than John and Helmholtz, who’s ‘moral objections to the amorous goings-on around them have long been assumed to be an expression of Huxley’s own disapproval of promiscuity…’45 Higdon’s accusation towards Huxley is that he has allowed misogynistic belief to make him 45

Brad Buchanan, ‘Oedipus in Dystopia: Freud and Lawrence in Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World’, Journal Of Modern Literature, 25, (2002) 75-89, p.80

sideline the character and underdevelop her, accounting for the reason she stands at odds with society yet manages to escape punishment.46 In this analysis, Hidgon suggests Huxley’s misogyny undermines his vision of the future with no sign of escape - if you are able to act out against the rules of Ford, how powerful can the governing powers and conditioning techniques really be? A contrasting critical view by Peter Firchow suggests Lenina’s portrayal subtly alludes to a completely different mental state towards love from Lenina, and that this in fact subtlety argues a more positive viewpoint of the core female character in the novel; The great irony of Lenina's falling in love is that she does not realize what it is that has happened to her…She can only think of love in the physiological ways in which she has been

46

David Higdon, ‘The Provocations of Lenina in Huxley’s Brave New World’, p.3

152

conditioned to think of it; but her feeling is different.47

To conclude, it is clear through both textual and contextual representation of the texts that both authors found the mode of society in the early twentieth century problematic, specifically newfound open sexuality seeping into culture and the collective conscious. So much so that neither Brave New World

nor The Waste Land offer a resolution to their scathing societal critique; Davidson submits that ‘while the poem (Waste Land) provides an emotional and often visceral critique of the state of human life…it offers no alternatives beyond that life…’49 Similarly, Brave New World offers only two options for John; accept the utopian society or live alone in the primitive outskirts. These facts appear to present two authors with such a level of vitriol for their contemporary society that they felt unable to offer an alternative to this future, only being able to fiercely attack and comment on the degradation.

Huxley critiqued his own vision of the future twenty six years later, claiming that if he had the opportunity to write the novel again he would offer a ‘third way’; ‘…the prevailing philosophy of life would be a kind of Higher Utilitarianism, in which the Greatest Happiness Principle would be secondary to the Final End Principle.’ (BNW, p.ix) Perhaps

47

48

Lenina is the only character that feels a deep connection with another, but her cultural conditioning from birth means she cannot fathom her own feelings.

Whilst Huxley admits his omission of including a third possibility to this pejorative future vision of society in his Brave New World Revisited48, arguably there is textual evidence here to support Lenina is that third way - a feminine beacon of hope and a return from the brink of sexual degradation.

Peter Firchow, ‘The End of Utopia: A Study Of Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World’, Contemporary Literary Criticism, 79, (1994) 152-156

153

Aldous Huxley, Brave New World Revisited, (London: Random House, 2008) 49

Harriet Davidson, ‘Improper Desire: Reading The Waste Land’, p.123

Huxley’s self-criticism reveals a poignant fact about the development of societal and cultural boundaries; as we discover more about ourselves, our society changes in ways we cannot initially begin to fathom. Trends and modes considered taboo in the 1920s are entrenched in our contemporary society, so much so that many would fail to see Eliot and Huxley’s fierce opinion on sexuality as anything more than overreacting. It is critical, however, to recognise the importance of works like this that are bold enough to challenge society; without the capacity to critique ourselves, our society perpetually risks becoming Eliot’s horrific Waste Land, or Huxley’s meaningless utopia.

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Buchanan, Brad, ‘Oedipus in Dystopia: Freud and Lawrence in Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World’, Journal Of Modern Literature, 25, (2002), 75-89 Captstick, Andrea, David Clegg, ‘Behind the Stiff Upper Lip: War Narratives Of Older Men With Dementia’, Journal of War and Culture Studies, 6, (2013), 239254 Collins, Marcus, Modern Love: Personal Relationships in Twentieth-century Britain, (Delaware: University of Delaware Press, 2006) Crafton, Donald, The Talkies: American Cinema’s Transition to Sound, 1926-1931, (California, USA: University of California Press, 1999) Davidson, Harriet, ‘Improper Desire: Reading The Waste Land’, The Cambridge Companion to T.S. Eliot, ed.

David Moody, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994) Downe, Katherine M., The 1920s, (California,USA: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004)

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Fisher, Kate, ‘She Was Quite Satisfied With The Arrangements I Made: Gender and Birth Control in Britain 1920-1950’, Past and Present, 169, (2000), 161-193 Fowler, James, ‘On prude and related terms in the Roman Du Libertinage’, Nottingham French Studies, 8, (2009) 7484 Frost, Laura, ‘Huxley’s Feelies: The Cinema of Sensation in Brave New World’, Twentieth Century Literature, 52, (2006), 443-473 Garlick, Constance, ‘What was the Greek Hyacinth?’, The Classical Review, 35, (1921), 146-147 Higdon, David, ‘The Provocations of Lenina in Huxley’s Brave New World’, The International Fiction Review, 29, (2002) 155

Huxley, Aldous, ‘Silence is Golden’, (1929), Authors on Film, ed. Harry M.Geduld, (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1972), 68-74 Jonas, Wayne, Jennifer Jacobs, M.D., Healing with Homeopathy, (New York: Warner Books, 1996) Jones, William, ‘The Iago of Brave New World’, Western Humanities Review, 15, (1961), 275-278 Lamos, Colleen, Deviant Modernism: Sexual and Textual Errancy in T.S. Eliot, James Joyce, and Marcel Proust, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998) Levenson, Michael, ‘Does The Waste Land Have Politics?’, Modernism/modernity, 6, (1999) 1-13

North, Michael, Reading 1922: A Return to the Scene of the Modern, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999) Madden, Deana, ‘Women in Dystopia: Misogyny in Brave New World, 1984, and A Clockwork Orange’, Misogyny in Literature: An Essay Collection, ed.

Katherine Anne Ackley, (New York: Garland, 1992)

of the History of Behavioural Sciences, 24, (1988), 191-201 Ratcliff, Kathryn, Healing Technology: Feminist Perspectives, (Michigan, USA: University of Michigan Press, 1989) p.32 Ross, Andrew, ‘The Waste Land and the Fantasy of Interpretation’, Representations, 8, (1984), 134-158

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