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Your Future in Energy Efficiency and Conservation Career and technology education activities that provide hands-on experience and career preparedness content for a future in the energy efficiency and conservation industry.

Grade Level:

Sec Secondary Subject Areas: Science

Math

Careers

Engineering

Technology

NEED Mission Statement The mission of The NEED Project is to promote an energy-conscious and educated society by creating effective networks of students, educators, business, government, and community leaders to design and deliver objective, multi-sided energy education programs.

Permission to Copy NEED curriculum is available for reproduction by classroom teachers only. NEED curriculum may only be reproduced for use outside the classroom setting when express written permission is obtained in advance from The NEED Project. Permission for use can be obtained by contacting info@need.org.

Energy Data Used in NEED Materials NEED believes in providing teachers and students with the most recently reported, available, and accurate energy data. Most statistics and data contained within this guide are derived from the U.S. Energy Information Administration. Data is compiled and updated annually where available. Where annual updates are not available, the most current, complete data year available at the time of updates is accessed and printed in NEED materials. To further research energy data, visit the EIA website at www.eia.gov.

Teacher Advisory Board

Teacher Advisory Board Constance Beatty Kankakee, IL

Robert Lazar Albuquerque, NM

La’Shree Branch Highland, IN

Melissa McDonald Gaithersburg, MD

Jim M. Brown Saratoga Springs, NY

Paula Miller Philadelphia, PA

Mark Case Randleman, NC

Hallie Mills St. Peters, MO

Lisa Cephas Philadelphia, PA Nina Corley Galveston, TX Samantha Danielli Vienna, VA

Monette Mottenon Montgomery, AL

Mollie Mukhamedov Port St. Lucie, FL In support of NEED, the national Teacher Advisory Board (TAB) is dedicated to developing, Shannon Donovanimproving, and promoting standards-based, effective energy curriculum, training, and outreach. NEED thanks these individuals forRItheir support and collaboration. Greene, Cori Nelson Winfield, IL Greg Schanne Paula Miller, M.Ed Samantha Danielli, M.Ed Adebisi Babayemi, M.Ed, NBCT Michelle Garlick Philadelphia, PAJr. Philadelphia, PALong Grove, IL Vienna, VA Bowie, MD Don Pruett Amy Schott, M.Ed, Hallie Mills, Ed.D Jennifer Davis, M.Ed La’Shree Branch Puyallup, WA NBCT Raleigh, NC Sammamish, WA Cincinnati, OH Highland, IN Michelle Gay Kristin M.Ed Jennifer Mitchell-Winterbottom, M.Ed, WT Michelle Garlick, M.Ed James M. Brown, NBCT, CEM, BOC Daphne, AL JudySlota, Reeves Yardley, PA Pottstown, PA Saratoga Springs, NY Cary, IL Lake Charles, LA Brandon Staton Nancy Gifford, M.S. Mollie Mukhamedov Karely Carlos, M.S. Nancy Gifford Port St. Lucie, FL Thomasville, NC Harwich, MA Lodi, CA Harwich, MA Libby Robertson Matthew Reis, Ph.D Jennifer Trochez Mark Case, M.S. Erin Gockel, M.Ed Chicago, IL MacLean, M.Ed, NBCT Farmington, NM Chía, ColombiaErin Gockel Los Angeles, CA Randleman, NC Scott Valenta Greg Holman Craig Richard, M.Ed Lisa Cephas, M.Ed Farmington, NM Amy Schott Winfi eld, IL NC Philadelphia, PA Paradise, CA Atkinson, NH Raleigh, Libby Robertson Nina Corley Melissa King, MLIS Robert Griegoliet Chicago, IL Galveston, TX Gaithersburg, MD Naperville, IL Tom Spencer Chesapeake, VA Eric Havel Oakland, CA Jennifer Trochez MacLean NEED teachers eventually must retire from the classroom, but many remain engaged in their communities and with NEED curriculum, training, and DaNel Hogan Los Angeles, CA outreach activities. NEED thanks these individuals for their continued support and collaboration. Tucson, AZ Constance Beatty Barbara Lazar, M.Ed Cori Nelson Judy Reeves Wayne Yonkelowitz Kankakee, IL Albuquerque, NM Hinckley, IL Holman Lake Charles, LA Greg Fayetteville, WV Paradise, CA Melinda Forist Robert Lazar Don Pruett, Jr., M.Ed Wayne Yonkelowitz, M.Ed, NBCT,

NEED TAB Emeriti

Wellfleet, MA

Albuquerque, NM

Puyallup, WA

Barbara Lazar Albuquerque, NM

Milken Educator Fayetteville, WV

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Your Future in Energy Efficiency and Conservation Acknowledgement Your Future in Energy Efficiency and Conservation was originally developed by The NEED Project with special thanks to the sponsors of Mass Save: Cape Light Compact, Eversource, and National Grid for their support of this new curriculum. NEED would also like to acknowledge Charles Hendricks, Principal Architect of the Gaines Group Architects in Virginia, and Meghan Wakefield, Architect for their guidance on the content within this curriculum.

Table of Contents

Standards Correlation Information

Interpreting Infrared Images

Materials

Wall Construction Analysis

Lesson 4 Student Informational Text

Teacher Guide Lesson 1: Energy, Safety, and Why They Matter

Keeping Cool

Forms and Sources of Energy Master

Calculating Ventilation

Efficiency vs. Conservation Master

Lesson 5 Student Informational Text

Lesson 2: Electricity and Power for Buildings

Light Bulb Investigations

Voltage, Current, Resistance, and Power Master

Lighting by Design

Series and Parallel Circuits Master

Lesson 6 Student Informational Text

Lesson 3: Building Envelope and Moisture

Smart Thermostat

InsulBox Diagram Master

Motion-Activated Smart Lighting

101

Lesson 4: Conditioning the Air

Hydraulic Gripper

104

Lesson 5: Lighting

Pneumatic Gripper

111

Lesson 6: Controls for Energy-Using Systems

Lesson 7 Student Informational Text

112

Lesson 7: Renewables, Energy Storage, and Electric Vehicles

Storing Sunlight

116

Investigating Thermal Mass

121

Lesson 8: Benchmarking, Codes, and Certifications

Understanding Microgrids Activities

125

Lesson 9: Careers in Energy Efficiency and Conservation

Lesson 8 Student Informational Text

131

Exploring Building Codes

133

Energy Audits

134

Lesson 9 Student Informational Text

140

Practical Math Applications

147

Résumé Template

149

Career Networking Template

150

Soft Skills Checklist

151

Personality Party Cards

152

Student Text and Activities Lesson 1 Student Informational Text

Lesson 2 Student Informational Text

Building Simple Electric Circuits

Understanding Utility Pricing Mechanisms

Lesson 3 Student Informational Text

Building Envelope Visual Inspection

InsulBox Build Instructions

What’s in Your Wall?

Inspecting Using Infrared

Glossary

154

Evaluation Form

159

Standards Correlation Information www.NEED.org/educators/curriculum-correlations

Next Generation Science Standards This guide effectively supports many Next Generation Science Standards. This material can satisfy performance expectations, science and engineering practices, disciplinary core ideas, and crosscutting concepts within your required curriculum. For more details on these correlations, please visit NEED’s curriculum correlations website.

Common Core State Standards This guide has been correlated to the Common Core State Standards in both language arts and mathematics. These correlations are broken down by grade level and guide title, and can be downloaded as a spreadsheet from the NEED curriculum correlations website.

Individual State Science Standards This guide has been correlated to each state’s individual science standards. These correlations are broken down by grade level and guide title, and can be downloaded as a spreadsheet from the NEED website.

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Materials LESSON

ACTIVITY

MATERIALS NEEDED

Lesson 2: Electricity and Power for Buildings

Building Simple Electric Circuits

D-cell batteries D-cell battery holders Switches Light bulbs Light bulb sockets

Insulated wires or alligator clips Colored pencils Compasses

Lesson 3: Building Envelope and Moisture

InsulBox Build Instructions

1” x 1” Wood pieces 1/8” Chipboard, ¼” plywood, or equivalent in 12” x 12” squares 1 ½” long ¼” Bolts with wing nuts Measuring tapes

Saws Drills ¼” wood bits Wood glue Clamps

What’s in Your Wall?

Assembled insulBox Infrared thermometers Insulating materials

Heating pads Timers

Inspecting Using Infrared

Infrared camera

Calculating Ventilation

Anemometers Measuring tapes Calculators

Keeping Cool

Beakers Binder clips Buckets Copper tubing Graduated cylinders Hot water Ice

Shallow plastic containers Straws Thermal protective gloves Thermometers Funnels 1/4” Silicone tubing

Light Bulb Investigations

Thermometers LED bulb w/ packaging Kill A Watt® meter Light meter 1-2 Lamps

Incandescent bulb w/ packaging Tape Ruler or meter stick Calculators

Lighting by Design

Light meters Meter sticks or measuring tapes

Lesson 4: Conditioning the Air

Lesson 5: Lighting

CONTINUED ON NEXT PAGE

LESSON

MATERIALS NEEDED

Smart Thermostat

9V Batteries 9V Battery connectors AA Batteries AA Battery connectors Arduino Uno boards Breadboards Multimeters

Digital temperature and humidity sensor modules Jumper wires Transistors Blower motors Cardboard (optional) Glue guns (optional)

Motion-Activated Smart Lighting

Arduino Uno boards Breadboards Digital multimeters Jumper wires LEDs Motion sensors

Resistors 9V Batteries 9V Battery connectors Cardboard (optional) Glue guns (optional)

Hydraulic Gripper

1.5 cm Wooden cubes 1/8” Inner diameter tubing 10 mL Syringes Alligator clips Box cutters Copper tape Craft sticks Cutting mats Drill with 1/8 bit

Glue guns Index cards Jumper wires Rulers Scissors Velostat Beakers of water Wire stripper/cutters Elastic band

Pneumatic Gripper

Materials from Hydraulics Gripper 3 mL Syringes

20 mL Syringes Multimeter

Storing Sunlight

9V Batteries 9V Battery clips with wires Breadboards Capacitors Multimeters Alligator clips Jumper wires

LEDs Rectifier diodes Resistors Momentary switches Solar Panels Timers

Investigating Passive Solar Design and Thermal Mass

Balances Beakers Box cutters or scissors Transparency sheets Clear tape Graduated cylinders

Heat lamps Meter sticks Protractors Small boxes Thermal mass options Thermometers

Understanding Microgrids

3V Button batteries Copper tape LEDs Envelopes (optional)

Scissors (optional) Tape or glue (optional) Blank paper

Lesson 8: Benchmarking, Codes, and Certifications

Energy Audits

Digital thermometer Hygrometer Light meter

Kill A Watt® meter Clipboards or folders

Lesson 9: Careers in Energy Efficiency and Conservation

Soft Skills Soiree

Timer

Personality Party

Cardstock Plastic cups Rubber bands

Lesson 6: Controls for Energy-using Systems

Lesson 7: Renewables, Energy Storage, and Electric Vehicles

ACTIVITY

String Scissors

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Teacher Guide  Introduction The purpose of a CTE classroom is to extend beyond content knowledge alone. Unlike traditional high school courses, CTE programs are structured to prepare students for employment in a specific field or for continued education that directly supports a career pathway. All of NEED’s Your Future In… guides are written with this unique perspective in mind. Your Future in Energy Efficiency and Conservation provides detailed information and supporting activities related to building science, HVAC systems, lighting, renewable energy, controls, energy storage, and relevant certifications and codes. The final lesson introduces careers available within the energy efficiency and conservation industry, along with common training pathways and foundational employment skills students will find beneficial throughout their careers. This curriculum guide is broader in scope and requires more instructional time than most NEED curriculum units. It is not expected that all lessons will be completed. Lessons 1, 2, and 9, however, are fundamental to careers across the energy industry and should not be omitted. Select from Lessons 3-8 based on your program goals, student interests, and available time.

2 Unit Preparation Familiarize yourself with the Teacher Guide, Student Informational Text, and activities for each activity. Make sure that you have a working knowledge of the information, definitions, and conversions within the curriculum. Preview each lesson and decide which sections in addition to Lessons 1, 2, and 9 you will teach. Then procure the materials you need for the activities that accompany each lesson. A list of the suggested materials for each activity is located on pages 5-6. Well before teaching Lesson 8, communicate with your building principal and the other faculty and staff about allowing students to conduct a basic energy audit during the day. Secure permission from staff members before sending students into their offices, classrooms, and other work spaces to collect data. It helps if you explain what the purpose of the audit is, and what the expected outcomes are. Prepare digital or paper copies of any student activity pages, masters, or other materials you will need.

Grade Levels Secondary, grades 9-12

 Time 20-40 class periods, depending on the activities selected and length of class periods.

 Additional Resources The data in this curriculum comes mostly from the U.S. Department of Energy’s Energy Information Administration (www.eia.gov) and Energy Saver website (www. energy.gov/energysaver/ energy-saver). These sites are excellent resources for answering additional questions.

 Corresponding NEED Curriculum Within the Teacher Guide pages for each lesson, you will see a gray inset listing NEED curriculum units containing information and activities that expand upon concepts in a given lesson. All NEED curriculum guides are available as a free PDF download at www.NEED.org/shop.

CONTINUED ON NEXT PAGE

Lesson 1: Energy, Safety, and Why They Matter  Time

 Background

2-3 class periods

This lesson introduces students to forms and sources of energy, as well as the use of energy in various economic sectors. It expands on those concepts by introducing efficiency and conservation, management of energy resources, the distinction among laws, regulations, and codes, and safety in the workplace or on the jobsite. The emphasis of this lesson is on providing an overview of the energy industry and setting the stage for the more detailed lessons to come. There are no hands-on materials required for this lesson.

 Corresponding Curriculum Secondary Science of Energy provides six independent stations for students to explore. Each station contains simple activities using common materials to illustrate energy transformations.

 Objectives Students will be able to identify the forms of energy and provide an example of each. Students will be able to identify the sources of energy we use and describe the energy transformations to harness the energy from each source. Students will be able to explain how the various sectors of the economy use energy and the main energy sources used by each sector. Students will be able to differentiate between energy efficiency and conservation, provide examples of each, and give the rationale as to why they are important. Students will be able to differentiate among laws, regulations, and codes. Students will be able to explain the importance of PPE and provide examples of safety in the workplace.

 Concepts Energy exists in many forms. Those forms of energy can be changed from one to another (transformed). The amount of energy in the universe is a constant amount, but the useable energy available to us in energy resources is not. We use ten sources of energy. Five of these sources are renewable, and five are nonrenewable. Fossil fuels are nonrenewable energy sources that are formed from the remains of plant and animal organisms. They can be burned to release energy. The five sectors of the economy use energy in different ways. The electric power generation sector consumes the most energy. The residential/commercial sectors combined use the most energy when electricity is factored in. Energy efficiency refers to the technology or equipment we use when doing an energy-using task. Efficient machines use less energy to do the same work as inefficient machines. Energy conservation refers to the behavior we exhibit when using energy. Good conservation describes behaviors that minimize energy use. Human activity and burning fossil fuels for energy are driving forces of climate change. Different branches of government oversee different levels of rules that govern energy efficiency and conservation practices. Safety is everyone’s responsibility. Personal protective equipment (PPE) is required on the job.

 Materials Forms and Sources of Energy master, page 10 Efficiency vs. Conservation master, page 11 Lesson 1 Student Informational Text, pages 35-41

www.NEED.org

2 Preparation Make digital copies of the masters to project or share as needed. Prepare physical or digital copies of the Student Informational Text as needed.

 Procedure 1.

Instruct students to read the Student Informational Text for Lesson 1. This can also be assigned as homework prior to the lesson. Explain the forms and sources of energy and discuss how we as a country use energy. Explain or review that as we use energy, we transform it from one form to another. Explain that at every transformation step, some energy is transformed into thermal energy, which we cannot use. Project the Forms and Sources of Energy master and guide students through identifying the form of energy in each source. For more information, refer students to NEED’s Secondary Energy Infobook, which can be downloaded from www.NEED.org/energyinfobooks.

Explain energy efficiency and conservation, providing examples or referring to pages 38 and 39 in the student text. Project the Efficiency vs. Conservation master. Guide students through developing their own definitions of each, and identifying their own examples of each.

Go through the distinctions separating laws, regulations, and codes on pages 40 and 41 of the student text. Explain the different levels of government briefly, and differentiate between government and governing bodies that write codes.

Ask students for some safety principles that apply in school and list them where all students can see them. Ask students what happens if they are ignored by students and teachers. Then ask students to identify PPE used in school. These answers may vary widely but they should all identify safety glasses in a shop class or science lab as well as any aprons, gloves, etc. that might be used. Discuss the consequences of not wearing PPE.

 Extensions Invite a local building inspector to talk to your students about building code enforcement and how the process works. Invite your state or local legislator to discuss legislation and municipal ordinances related to buildings and how those laws are written or changed. Engage students with a safety scavenger hunt by providing a list of items to identify and photograph throughout the school. Provide a small prize for the first group to gather photos of all items on the list.

MASTER

Forms and Sources of Energy In the United States we use a variety of resources to meet our energy needs. Use the information below to analyze how each energy source is stored and delivered.

Using the information from the Forms of Energy chart and the graphic below, determine how energy is stored or delivered in each of the sources of energy. Remember, if the source of energy must be burned, the energy is stored as chemical energy.

NONRENEWABLE

RENEWABLE

Petroleum

_______________________

Biomass

_______________________

Natural Gas

_______________________

Wind

_______________________

Coal

_______________________

Solar

_______________________

Uranium

_______________________

Hydropower _______________________

Propane

_______________________

Geothermal

_______________________

Look at the U.S. Energy Consumption by Source graphic below and calculate the percentage of the nation’s energy use that each form of energy provides.

What percentage of the nation’s energy is provided by each form of energy? Chemical _____

U.S. Energy Consumption by Source, 2025 NONRENEWABLE

RENEWABLE

PETROLEUM 37.31%

BIOMASS

5.04%

Motion _____

Uses: transportation, manufacturing - includes propane

Radiant _____

NATURAL GAS 35.99%

WIND

1.65%

COAL

9.05%

SOLAR

1.44%

URANIUM

8.52%

HYDROPOWER 0.88%

Nuclear _____

Thermal _____

What percentage of the nation’s energy is provided by nonrenewables? ______ by renewables? ______

Uses: heating, manufacturing, electricity - includes propane Uses: electricity, manufacturing

Uses: electricity

PROPANE

Uses: heating, manufacturing

*Propane consumption is included in petroleum and natural gas totals.

Uses: heating, electricity, transportation Uses: electricity

Uses: heating, electricity

Uses: electricity

GEOTHERMAL 0.12% Uses: heating, electricity

**Total does not add up to 100% due to independent rounding. Data: Energy Information Administration

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Definition

Efficiency

Explain how energy efficiency and conservation work together:

Examples

Efficiency vs. Conservation Conservation

MASTER

Lesson 2: Electricity and Power for Buildings  Time

 Background

3-4 class periods

Lesson 2 focuses on electricity. The concepts of voltage, current, power, circuits, DC, and AC power and the electric grid system are introduced and defined at a basic level. Also included are discussions of the grid system. Students will be building electric circuits in the hands-on activities.

 Corresponding Curriculum Baseload Balance provides an avenue to understand how power providers must balance generation with electric power demand. Download the activity as a free PDF at www.NEED.org/shop. Baseload Balance can be done quickly as a demonstration using the elementary setup, or as a simulation for older students using the full version.

 Objectives Students will be able to explain the different measurements and calculations associated with electricity. Students will be able to identify simple, series, and parallel circuits and identify benefits and limitations of each. Students will be able to describe the pathway electricity takes from power plant to point of use. Students will be able to identify major sources of energy used to generate electricity.

 Concepts Electricity is a secondary source of energy, meaning it must be generated using other energy sources. Electricity involves adding energy to electrons. The degree to which they are energized is voltage; the number of electrons being energized is related to current. Power and resistance are related to voltage and current. Series and parallel circuits have their own advantages and limitations. Electricity is generated by moving a magnetic field near coils of wire, inducing electric current in the wire. The electric grid is a network of power plants, transmission lines, substations, transformers, and distribution lines. It is interconnected across most of North America and keeps electricity moving to people and businesses. Microgrids are a self-sustaining group of homes, or buildings and infrastructure that generate some or all of their own electricity and help store and deliver it as needed.

 Materials

 Materials FOR THE CLASS

3 Switches 3 D-cell batteries 3 Light bulbs in light bulb sockets 12 Pieces of insulated wire or alligator clips 1 Student compass

Voltage, Current, Resistance, and Power master, page 14 Series and Parallel Circuits master, page 15 Lesson 2 Student Informational Text, pages 42-46 Building Simple Electric Circuits worksheets, pages 47-55

2 Preparation Gather materials for student activities. Prepare masters to project or share as needed. Prepare physical or digital copies of the Student Informational Text. Make copies of the Building Simple Electric Circuits worksheets.

www.NEED.org

 Procedure 1.

Instruct students to read the Student Informational Text for Lesson 2.

Project the Voltage, Current, Resistance, and Power master. Ensure that students understand each measurement and how they are related. Explain that power on its own can describe several different voltage and current combinations, as shown in the lower right of the master.

Introduce circuits. Explain that a circuit is a conducting pathway for electrons to travel.

Project the Series and Parallel Circuits master. Show how a series circuit provides only one pathway for electrons, while a parallel circuit provides at least two pathways. Point out the schematic symbols for a DC power source and a load (resistor) on the master. Explain their use in schematic drawings.

Explain that in a series circuit, voltage is additive while current remains constant. Explain that in a parallel circuit, voltage remains constant while current is additive. Show some examples.

Transition into the student circuit activities. Demonstrate the proper way to connect components with the wires provided.

When students have completed the circuit activities, regroup and discuss the results.

Introduce the utility pricing activity. Lead students through interpreting the graphs and answering the questions as needed.

 Extensions Send students on a grid infrastructure scavenger hunt through your community. Remind them to view all infrastructure from a safe distance. Invite local utility workers to talk about grid safety and reliability and what they do on the job to keep power moving. Invite an electrician to talk about career preparation and a typical work day. The IBEW local for your area can be a good resource where available.

MASTER

Voltage, Current, Resistance, and Power

Voltage, current, and resistance are related by Ohm’s Law. When the voltage is constant, the resistance goes up and the current goes down. V = IR.

Resistance

What About

Voltage

Current

P=VxI Power

Voltage

Current

Voltage and current, when combined, tell us the power being used to run the devices. The same size power can be high voltage and low current, or low voltage and high current. When both voltage and current are large, power is extra-large.

What About

Power

Voltage

Current

SIZE POWER

When combined, voltage and current tell us the power being used to run devices. The same size power can be high voltage and low current, or low voltage and high current. When both voltage and current are large, power is extra large.

Power

SAME SIZE POWER

P=VxI

Power

Big Voltage

Small Current

Power

Small Voltage

Big Current

MASTER

Series and Parallel Circuits Series Circuits

Parallel Circuits

Lesson 3: Building Envelope and Moisture  Time

 Background

3-10 class periods

This lesson aims to help students explore the building envelope and learn about its function—keeping the inside air in while outside air stays out. Content and activities will introduce the materials science of insulation, tools for conducting building envelope inspections, and how to control moisture in a building.

 Corresponding Curriculum NEED's activity, Energy House, fits in with building envelope and insulation principles perfectly. There are several versions, each with its own focus. The three most relevant to this lesson are: Energy House – focuses on insulation and temperature difference. High Performance Energy House Design Project – focuses on air infiltration and uses a blower door test as part of the diagnostic. This version is embedded in the Building Science curriculum guide. Energy House Design Challenge takes the Energy House project and challenges students to construct a building envelope that is modeled after actual building materials. This challenge is found within a collection of Energy House projects titled Energy House Village. These titles be downloaded at www.NEED.org/shop.

To complete this lesson in full, you may have students opt to create their own models (InsulBoxes) to test insulation and conduct their own tests and inspections. This will require much more time, supplies, and careful construction. For a quicker version of the lesson, you may also build your own InsulBox to use as an instructor demonstration model for conducting the insulation investigations as a class. Once constructed, the InsulBox can be utilized many times. In addition, the visual inspection activities revolve around using an infrared (IR) camera or image set. If it is functional and technology is available, have your students take their own images with IR cameras. However, you may also use a provided sample set of images for students to analyze as a simpler, cheaper alternative. The lesson closes with a hypothetical scenario activity where students are asked to review different wall construction proposal options for a project. Students will work in small groups to analyze and present the various options and then as a large group to determine a consensus recommendation for their “client.” This activity aims to help synthesize the content from text and activity in a more realistic project-management approach.

 Objectives Students will be able to explain the components of a building envelope. Students will be able to use tools to identify failures and savings opportunities in a building envelope. Students will be able to read a simple construction drawing and use it to build a model. Students will be able to describe advantages and disadvantages of several common insulation types, and their relative R-values. Students will be able to evaluate advantages and disadvantages of different modes of wall construction and make recommendations.

 Concepts A well-sealed building envelope is vital to good energy management. Air infiltration robs a building of conditioned air, leading to energy waste. Insulation is vital to maintaining a comfortable environment inside buildings. Insulation materials vary in composition and structure. The insulation chosen for a building depends on the size of the building, the regional availability, the cost of the insulation and its installation, and the R-value required by local regulations. When managed incorrectly, moisture can lead to mold and mildew growth in walls and on building envelope interior surfaces. Thermal imaging and visual inspection of a building envelope can reveal areas where energy use improvements can be made, saving energy and money in the long run.

www.NEED.org

 Materials

 Materials FOR EACH INSULBOX BUILD

Camera (smart phone, tablet, etc.) Measuring tape Assembled InsulBox (see below) Infrared (IR) thermometers Timers Infrared (IR) image set Infrared (IR) camera (optional) InsulBox Diagram master, page 19 Lesson 3 Student Informational Text, pages 58-63 Building Envelope Visual Inspection, page 64 InsulBox Build Instructions, pages 65-66 (optional) What’s in Your Wall?, pages 67-68 Inspecting Using Infrared, pages 69-70 (optional) Interpreting Infrared Images, pages 71-72 (optional) Wall Construction Analysis, pages 73-75

6 Linear feet of 1” x1” wood 2 12”x12” Pieces of 1/8” chipboard, ¼” plywood or similar 4 Bolts with wingnuts (1.5” long x ¼” diameter) Saw Drill with ¼” wood bit Clamps Safety Glasses Heating pad Insulation materials (at least 3 types)

2 Preparation Prepare physical or digital copies of the Lesson 3 Student Informational Text and activities as needed. Decide if you will ask students to build their own InsulBoxes in small groups or if you will create one sample model to use for a class demonstration-style activity. Gather supplies in the number needed for the construction method you desire and construct your own box before sharing with the class or instructing students to build their own. You will need three different insulation materials to insert into three of the four cavities in the box. Number the cavities so you remember which type is in which box. Make a copy of the InsulBox Diagram master to project and explain the box or introduce the construction project. If camera technology is available, decide if you will have students take their own IR and building envelope imagery. Determine the clear parameters you will share with students about spaces they may access and safety/permissions protocols for photographing spaces that belong to others. Gather supplies for the other activities. If using the NEED sample IR photographs, download and make sure students have access to view them as needed. Images may be downloaded by visiting www.NEED.org/wp-content/uploads/2026/07/IR-images-for-Interpreting-IR-Images-lesson.zip. Decide if you will pre-select and assign student groups or allow them to choose their own groups for activities.

 Procedure 1.

Instruct students to read the Student Informational Text for Lesson 3.

Start the lesson by explaining the components, function, and importance of the building envelope. Describe common residential and commercial construction methods and materials, and address insulation and moisture management for your area; these items vary widely by geographic region.

Explain air infiltration and have students conduct a brief investigation of air infiltration around doors and windows by holding the backs of their hands or strips of tissue paper taped to a pencil around windows and door edges. Minor air movement should be easily detected. Explain to students that when windows and doors are closed, no daylight should be seen, and no air should be moving in or out. Air infiltration is one of the most common areas of energy loss and is one of the easiest to fix with new weatherstripping.

Introduce Building Envelope Visual Inspection by describing the locations and types of photographs you want students to collect. Emphasize that before they take a photo, they need to seek permission from residents or homeowners.

Instruct students to access the images they have collected, or project them one-by-one for the class to analyze collectively. Have students complete the data table for each image. When students have finished analyzing images, have them answer the conclusion questions, or discuss them as a class.

CONTINUED ON NEXT PAGE

Project the InsulBox Diagram master. Preview for students what they will need to do. If applicable, demonstrate safe handling of power tools. Allow students time to build their InsulBoxes, if applicable. Introduce the What’s In Your Wall? activity. Explain that you have placed insulation in three compartments, leaving a fourth empty or prompt students to do this with their own boxes. While students conduct the activity they can work on other things, taking temperature readings of each chamber every 5 minutes for half an hour. When students have finished, allow them time to analyze the data and predict which insulation material is in each chamber, either individually or as a group.

Reveal the contents of each chamber and discuss the students’ findings and predictions.

Introduce the infrared image activity that works best for your class. If students are collecting images, provide specific instructions about where and how to do so. Show a sample infrared image and explain the meanings of the color gradients.

If students will be analyzing NEED’s image set or images you gathered, have students open the image set, or project the images one pair at a time for the entire class. Allow students time to analyze the images and fill in the data table.

10. Introduce the Wall Construction Analysis activity to students. Explain the scenario, divide students into groups, and assign the construction method each group should review. Allow groups at least 10 minutes to discuss their construction method and complete the graphic organizer. Reconvene as a class and allow students to come to a consensus on the best option. Note that there is no single right recommendation for this activity. Their choice should be based on what students find most important. They might choose a less expensive, but adequate, option so the client saves money on the build. They might also choose a more expensive, but more energy efficient, option to save the client money in the long-run and reduce the overall energy consumption of the home.

 Extensions If you know a custom builder or carpenter, invite them to talk to your students about home construction, materials, and a well-constructed building envelope. Have them discuss their career paths and what led them to their current position. Have students inspect their own homes in the attic or other places where they can see the construction and insulation of the walls and attic. Discuss their findings as a class.

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MASTER

InsulBox Diagram

10 1/2”

12”

/4”

4 7/8”

/4”

4 /8” 7

10 1/2” 12”

Lesson 4: Conditioning the Air  Time

 Background

3-4 class periods

This lesson explores some of the HVAC system types commonly used in residential buildings and looks closely at heat pumps and their design to increase efficiency. Students will explore how a heat exchanger functions by assembling a model coil system using water as the fluid instead of air. The activity is designed to have students work in groups, but if supplies are limited, the coil system can be assembled as a demonstration. Students will also learn about the role of ventilation and indoor air quality and air pollutants in HVAC function and explore ventilation further through an activity that models air changes in commercial ventilation systems. This activity is not intended to be used as a test to ensure compliance with local building codes for fresh air, but to illustrate your classroom's air circulating capacity.

 Corresponding Curriculum To build upon the investigations in Lesson 3 and 4 and allow students to explore more about ventilation, convection, and the stack effect that impacts ventilation and HVAC function, check out “Home Airflow Simulation” from NEED’s Building Science curriculum guide. The activity uses a device called a “stackolator,” which is a clear tube with spaced openings, a cap, and a heat source at the base (an incandescent bulb). The activity has them use incense or a smoke generator to observe how convection works and learn how sealing a home is beneficial in the right locations. It can also be used to discuss the challenges of the stack effect in larger, commercial buildings. Building Science can be downloaded at www.NEED.org/shop.

 Objectives Students will be able to explain how thermal energy is transferred via conduction, convection, and radiation. Students will be able to explain how common residential heating and cooling systems work. Students will be able to explain the need for ventilation and identify common indoor air pollutants. Students will be able to explain how a heat exchanger operates. Students will be able to explain how well their classroom’s ventilation system circulates air.

 Concepts Thermal energy is transferred three ways: conduction, convection, and radiation. Household heating systems primarily use convection to heat interior spaces. Heat pumps use the refrigeration cycle to heat or cool interior spaces. Filtration maintains good indoor air quality by removing particulates and allergens from air. It also keeps HVAC equipment clean and functioning as intended. Ventilation is important to maintain good indoor air quality.

 Materials FOR EACH STUDENT OR GROUP 1 Funnel 1 Piece of ¼” silicone tubing 6’ Copper capillary tubing (1/4”), coiled (see preparation) 2 400 mL beakers 1 Shallow plastic container (approximately 7 cm x 18 cm x 12 cm) 2 Thermometers Pitcher or small bucket 1 250 mL Graduated cylinder 1 Pair thermal protective gloves 1 Large binder clip 1 Straw Digital Anemometer Measuring tape Calculator Keeping Cool activity, pages 81-82 Calculating Ventilation, pages 83-84

Materials FOR THE CLASS Lesson 4 Student Informational Text, pages 76-80 Hot water Ice or very cold water

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2 Preparation Gather materials for students. Make physical or digital copies of the Lesson 4 Student Informational Text. Make copies of the student activities as needed. Prepare copper tubing coils by wrapping tubing around a firm object with parallel (not tapered) sides and an appropriate diameter. Attach a plastic funnel to one end with the silicone tubing. Refer to the model image below.

 Procedure 1.

Instruct students to read the Student Informational Text for Lesson 4.

Provide an overview of HVAC systems and indoor air quality, answering student questions as needed.

Introduce the Keeping Cool activity by explaining the function of a heat exchanger. Note that heat exchangers are found in natural gas and propane furnaces, heat pumps, and mini-splits, when considering HVAC systems.

Show students a copper coil you have prepared. Explain that they will be running hot water through it to heat surrounding cold water in a container. Discuss that this is how a heat exchanger works. In home heating systems, however, air is pushed over the exchanger rather than water flowing around it.

Allow students time to conduct the activity. Discuss findings and conclusions as a class.

Preview Calculating Ventilation by reviewing the formulas for calculating the area of regular shapes. Demonstrate how an irregular shape can be broken into smaller, regular shapes. Review how the area of those shapes can be calculated.

Show students the anemometer and how it is used, highlighting the modes and units of measurement, and explain that they will need to measure airflow in cubic feet per minute (CFM).

Allow students enough time to conduct the activity. They can measure air speed through the vents in small groups, or you can measure it and provide the data to them. Discuss findings and conclusions as a class.

 Extensions Invite the building maintenance supervisor or engineer into your classroom to discuss airflow, air changes, and ventilation vs. heating or cooling with your class. Ask the building maintenance supervisor, custodian, or engineer to take you into the mechanical room(s) to see the heating, cooling, and ventilation systems in your school.

Lesson 5: Lighting  Time

 Background

2-3 class periods

At the beginning of this century (year 2000), lighting accounted for about 20% of the energy used in commercial buildings. In 2018, the most recent year for which lighting energy data is available, lighting accounted for about 10%. This reduction is due to vast improvements in the efficiency of lighting. Fluorescent lighting is still the preferred lighting type in most schools and some commercial buildings. Incandescent lighting, however, has largely been replaced with LED lighting in homes, and LED lighting is readily being installed in place of metal halide and fluorescent fixtures in large spaces like gymnasiums and stadiums. This lesson is designed to give your students an understanding of the major lighting types and the economics of operating them.

 Objectives Students will be able to explain the relative efficiencies of incandescent, halogen, fluorescent, and light-emitting diode (LED) lighting. Students will be able to evaluate the light fixture arrangement of a classroom and propose a better design. Students will be able to explain daylighting and daylight harvesting and provide examples of each. Students will be able to explain color temperature with respect to lighting and provide examples of which temperatures are more appropriate for specific tasks.

 Concepts Incandescent lighting is an old technology, relying on extremely high thermal energy to produce light. The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 mandated higher efficiency standards for light bulbs sold in the United States, and traditional incandescent bulbs are no longer available. Light bulbs should be compared based on the lumens of light emitted, not their energy consumption. LED lighting uses the least amount of energy to produce light. It has the lowest watt-to-lumen ratio. Modern controls make controlling for light levels and color temperature easier and can improve energy conservation with respect to lighting.

 Materials 2 Lamps 1 LED light bulb and its packaging 1 Incandescent light bulb and its packaging (if available) 2 Thermometers Tape Kill A Watt ® meter Light meter Ruler, meter stick, or measuring tape Calculators Lesson 5 Student Informational Text, pages 85-88 Light Bulb Investigations, pages 89-90 Lighting by Design, pages 91-93

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2 Preparation Make physical or digital copies of the Lesson 5 Student Informational Text and activity pages as needed. Familiarize yourself with the operation of the light meter. Gather materials for student activities. Decide if you will pre-select work surface areas in the room for Lighting by Design.

@Notes for Success The Light Bulb Investigations activity is meant to showcase why incandescent bulbs were phased out. Most importantly, incandescent bulbs produce more heat than they do light. More efficient bulbs can produce the same amount of light with little to no waste heat. This activity focuses more on the types of bulbs used at home rather than in school or commercial spaces. Due to lighting efficiency regulations in the U.S., the bulbs needed for this activity are no longer sold on shelves and therefore can be difficult to find. However, you may have some of these bulbs in fixtures around your classroom or home for use in completing this activity. Incandescent light bulbs are also available in specialty designs, such as work lights or appliance bulbs. When selecting light bulbs for this activity, make sure they emit roughly the same number of lumens of light. Do not use the “watt equivalent” number on the front of the package; consult the Lighting Facts label on the package instead. When conducting Lighting by Design, ensure the blinds are closed and block as much light as possible. If necessary, cover the windows with paper to block light so students can evaluate the light fixtures without any natural light. If you have a prep room or another space away from your main classroom, both activities can be conducted concurrently. Set up Light Bulb Investigations in a separate space in order to not affect light meter readings in Lighting by Design. If you wish, you can also set up multiple stations of the investigations, but it will require more supplies. As written, it is suggested to have students complete the activity and data collection as a class.

 Procedure 1.

Instruct students to read the Student Informational Text for Lesson 5.

Provide an overview of lighting, explaining fluorescent, LED, and high-intensity discharge lighting if students need more explanation. Explain color temperature and how it affects mood and energy. Ask students which color temperatures are more appropriate for doing homework, reading, or watching TV.

Show students the light meter and demonstrate its operation. Emphasize the need to not crowd the sensor and block some of the light. Complete the Light Bulb Investigations as a class. Discuss the results.

Introduce Lighting by Design. Allow students to choose the areas in which they will measure light levels or designate the areas you would like assessed.

Allow students time to complete the activity. As a class, discuss the results.

Ask students how too much or too little light can affect student performance on assignments, energy or attention levels, and overall health.

 Extensions Have students re-run Lighting by Design with the blinds open. Encourage them to use light switches and adjustable light settings to find the recommended light level that incorporates natural light. Provide students time to use the Internet to find more efficient light fixtures for your classroom and design light fixture placement for optimal lighting.

Lesson 6: Controls for Energy-Using Systems  Time

 Background

4-6 class periods

Controls were once a discussion restricted to commercial and industrial buildings. However, modern homes can include many controls of many different types. Students learning about careers in energy efficiency need to have at least a basic understanding of the various controls. This lesson discusses hydraulic and pneumatic signaling, sensors, controls and control systems, and building automated systems (BAS). The activities associated with this lesson incorporate electronics, hydraulics, and pneumatics.

 Corresponding Curriculum Combine Energy House with the Smart Thermostat and Motion Sensor activities in this lesson to make a model smart home. Building Science is a curriculum unit focusing exclusively on buildings and their energy use. All NEED curriculum guides are available as a free pdf download. Navigate to www.NEED.org/ shop.

This lesson involves a set of Arduino and sensor-based activities, as well as an activity where a hydraulic grip and pneumatic grip are built and tested. It is suggested that you read through, test the activities on your own (if desired), and decide how you will incorporate them. You may opt to have students split up and take various parts of the activities depending on their skills and interests and allow them to assemble their various parts together or jigsaw out their finished models and results. This may also allow you to use less class time and supplies, while fostering their leadership and workplace skills.

 Objectives Students will be able to explain how sensors, controls, and control systems work together to manage energy consumption. Students will be able to explain how data sets and trends inform scheduling and control set points. Students will be able to identify ways artificial intelligence (AI) can be a useful tool when managing energy use.

 Concepts Controls can be manual or analog, or digital. Analog controls involve a physical input or action, while digital controls use digital signaling. Sensors gather data that inform and activate controls and control systems. Building automated systems (BAS) allow individuals to monitor energy use and sensor data from one central location. BAS can also be accessed remotely through a smart phone or tablet. Smart controls are becoming increasingly common in homes and are often integrated into virtual assistant devices and home hubs. Artificial intelligence is a tool that can analyze data and make recommendations to manage energy consumption.

 Materials PER STUDENT OR GROUP 1 Breadboard 1 Arduino Uno board Digital temperature and humidity sensor models (compatible with DHT11, 3.3V-5V sensors for Arduino) 5 Jumper wires (male/male) 3 Jumper wires (male/female) 1 Mosfet IRF520 transistor 1 9V Battery 1 9V Battery connector 1 Blower motor (WINSINN 50mm 5015 blower fan 24V, hydraulic bearing, brushless cooling) 4 AA Batteries 1 4AA Battery holder 3V LED bulb 220 Ohm resistor AM312 Mini pyroelectric PIR sensor module Multimeter Glue guns with glue sticks 9 Jumbo craft sticks

4 1.5 cm Wooden cubes 1 1.5 cm Wooden cube with hole 1 Wooden skewer 10 inches of 1/8” tubing (inner diameter) 2 10 mL syringes 1 3 mL syringe 1 20 mL syringe 2 Alligator clips 1 6” jumper wire Wire cutters/strippers 4” copper tape (1” wide) 4” of Velostat (1” wide) 1 Index card 1 Rubber band Smart Thermostat, pages 97-100 Motion-Activated Smart Lighting, pages 101-103 Hydraulic Gripper, pages 104-109 Pneumatic Gripper, pages 110-111

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 Materials FOR THE CLASS Scissors Rulers Cutting mats Box cutters Drill with 1/8 bit Cardboard (rigid, to transport and adhere components), optional Water Lesson 6 Student Informational Text, pages 94-96

2 Preparation Make physical or digital copies of the Lesson 6 Student Informational Text and the student activity pages as needed. Familiarize yourself with the operation of the Arduino (see Information for Using Arduino IDE, below). Decide if you wish for students to glue their breadboards and associated materials to a piece of cardboard. Make sure all code files and operational software have been downloaded and tested before students begin building their smart thermostat or motion sensor devices with the Arduino. Decide if you will split up the gripper activities/steps among the students to work concurrently. Gather materials for student activities.

 Information for Using Arduino IDE NOTE: It is not necessary to be an Arduino, programming, or electronics expert to successfully incorporate this activity. In this lesson, the Arduino functions as a pre-programmed control device, similar to controllers used in thermostats, HVAC equipment, and building automation systems. Students are not expected to write code or understand microcontroller architecture. Instructional focus should be on how sensors collect data, how control systems make decisions based on that data, and how those decisions affect energy use. If the system does not behave as expected, the troubleshooting process is itself an authentic learning experience that models how technicians diagnose real-world systems. WINDOWS DEVICE NOTES If each team has access to a Windows device, they can load the software onto their Arduinos without visiting the teacher. In this case, provide the cable that connects the Arduino to the computer and eliminate the 9V battery and holder. Also, in this case, students can use the “Serial Monitor” feature of the Arduino IDE to help troubleshoot. To access this, instruct students to go to Tools  Serial Monitor. This can be a situation where use of AI can be very helpful in troubleshooting. If students get error messages, they can copy the message into tools like Chat GPT or Copilot to ask for guidance on resolving issues that may arise. If each team does not have access to a Windows device, one will need to be shared among teams and requires the 9V battery and holder. ARDUINO IDE SETUP Ensure that the Arduino IDE is loaded onto the Windows device (https://www.arduino.cc/en/software). You may need assistance from your IT department if you are prevented from downloading new programs on school devices. You may wish to have student teams perform loading the software with your guidance via full class instruction, if each team has their own device. If running one Windows device, you can complete these steps prior to class use. Once the software is loaded and open, go to Tools  Manage Libraries In the Library Manager, search for DHT sensor library by Adafruit and click “Install.” If asked about library dependencies, click “Install All.” Go to Tools Port. Look at the list of available ports, then plug in your USB and connect to the Arduino. Now look at the list of ports. Select the one that appeared after you connected the board. Once the cable is connected to the board, from the pulldown menu at the top where it says “Select Board,” choose Arduino Uno. Share the code with students if they have a Windows device for their team, or if you are running on Windows device for the whole class load this into your Arduino IDE. Link to smart thermostat code: https://bit.ly/42Kk7rZ Link to motion sensor code: https://bit.ly/4nK5oqr

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 Procedure 1.

Instruct students to read the Student Informational Text for Lesson 6.

Review all vocabulary and concepts with students, answering questions as necessary.

When conducting the Smart Thermostat and Motion-Activated Smart Light activities, keep the following things in mind: a. Before students connect their Arduino devices to any power supply or batteries, they should carefully inspect them to ensure everything is connected correctly. b. Students should complete the build before testing with the software. c. Students can use the “Serial Monitor” feature of the Arduino IDE to help troubleshoot. To access this, instruct students to go to Tools  Serial Monitor. d. The use of AI can be very helpful when troubleshooting. Students can copy error messages and paste into the artificial intelligence interface of your choice and ask for guidance.

When conducting the Hydraulic Gripper activity, keep the following things in mind: a. Advise teams to divide the tasks. Two team members could work on the gripper build while the other team members build and test the sensor. b. Students will likely need more than a one-hour class period to complete the build. Provide a place for students to store their materials until next class day. c. If you are conducting the Pneumatic Gripper activity, ensure students do not disassemble their hydraulic gripper. They will need it for the Pneumatic Gripper activity.

 Extensions Combine the Smart Thermostat and Motion Sensor activities with NEED’s Energy House activity to build a model smart home.

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Lesson 7: Renewables, Energy Storage, and Electric Vehicles  Background The volatility of energy prices, particularly petroleum and natural gas, as well as the concern about carbon emissions and their relationship to climate change, have encouraged people to become more interested in incorporating renewable energy into their energy portfolio. Solar and wind are often cited as particularly appealing because of the prevalence of sunlight and wind. The intermittent nature of these energy sources has brought energy storage to the forefront of energy research, and with the increased emphasis on electrifying passenger vehicles, using an EV as energy storage has become a popular topic. None of these topics is covered in extensive detail, but their importance in energy efficiency and conservation is highlighted. Consult the “Corresponding Curriculum,” at right, for information about NEED curriculum guides that go into detail about each of these topics. This lesson includes activities to test both active and passive solar technologies. The first activity has students explore how solar storage works while building a PV-powered circuit with a breadboard and a capacitor. It may be important to discuss the differences between capacitors and batteries for storing energy. The next activity explores thermal mass, asking students to construct and test passive solar homes with various materials for thermal mass. The final activity in the lesson ties it all together and asks students to explore microgrids, to use renewables more thoughtfully in a less “distributed grid” design. It may be helpful to preview the activities and decide if you will conduct them all sequentially, or ask students to split up, each completing different activities in small groups to share their findings.

 Objectives Students will be able to describe how solar and wind energy can contribute to reduced electricity demand and increased energy efficiency. Students will be able to explain the importance of energy storage in conjunction with renewable energy systems. Students will be able to provide a rationale for using electric vehicles as energy storage. Students will be able to explain the difference between the electric grid and a microgrid.

 Time 3-4 class periods

 Corresponding Curriculum Exploring Photovoltaics is a unit for high school classrooms focusing exclusively on photovoltaics, how they operate, and the variables that affect their output. Exploring Wind Energy is designed for the content-area classroom and focuses on wind energy. Your Future in Wind Energy is geared toward CTE classrooms and goes into wind function, materials, siting and careerfocused activities. Energy on the Move features information and activities about all modes of transportation, including electric vehicles. All NEED curriculum guides are available as free PDF downloads at www.NEED.org/shop.

 Concepts Solar energy is abundant, free, and able to heat homes, heat water, and generate electricity. Wind energy is abundant, free, and able to generate electricity. Small turbines can even be installed next to homes in rural areas and with proper siting and permitting from authorities. Energy storage bridges the gap between peak production of renewable energy and peak demand for electricity. Electric vehicles are a viable option for energy storage. Microgrids provide a more reliable energy system for residents and can ease demand on the grid during peak demand periods.

 Materials PER STUDENT OR GROUP 9V Battery 9V Battery clip with wires 3 3V LEDs 1 Rectifier diode 1 Solar panel 2 Alligator clip jumper wires 1 1000 Ohm resistor 1 470 Ohm resistor 3 Male/male jumper wires 2 Momentary switches 1 Breadboard

1 1000 µF Capacitor Multimeter Timer Large beaker Graduated cylinder Transparency sheet Packing tape Small box Thermometer 3V Button battery Copper conductive tape Storing Sunlight, pages 116-120

Investigating Thermal Mass, pages 121-124 Understanding Microgrids, pages 125-130

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 Materials FOR THE CLASS Scissors or box cutters Digital balances Marker Meter sticks or rulers Protractors

Heat lamps Thermal mass supplies (see preparation) Envelopes (optional) Lesson 7 Student Informational Text, pages 112-115

2 Preparation Make physical or digital copies of the Lesson 7 Student Informational Text and the student activity pages as needed. Gather materials for student activities. Have several different kinds of thermal mass available for students. Suggested materials are dark and light ceramic tiles, dark and light stones, etc. Provide some that are not good thermal masses, like plywood or thick fabric, as distractors. Consider visiting a local building supply store to ask if they can provide some samples for students to use in their designs. Preview the Passive Solar Design construction video using the QR code on page 120 to anticipate areas where students will need additional guidance. Know the electrical output of your solar panels. Make sure they fall within safe limits for the electronic components in the build. Construct the circuit described in Storing Sunlight to make sure you understand its layout and to anticipate student struggles. For the microgrid activity, decide if you will use the pre-printed microgrid with buildings in layout to match the parallel circuit on the back or if you will have them construct their own circuit pathway and layout of infrastructure on the front. If choosing the pre-printed version, make copies of the instructions on pages 125-126, and provide copies of the template and microgrid infrastructure on pages 129-130, back-to-back. Cardstock can be useful for copying the template. If having students construct their own microgrid pathway and layout, provide copies of the instructions on pages 127-128. If desired, print the infrastructure on page 130 and have students cut apart and use the buildings/pieces as desired. You may also pre-cut and place the pieces into envelopes for less of a hint.

 Procedure 1.

Instruct students to read the Student Informational Text for Lesson 7.

Discuss solar and wind energy. Ask students for examples of places they have seen either. Talk about the need for energy storage with renewables, and how EVs can be a storage option with the right charger connection.

Introduce Storing Sunlight to students. Identify each of the components if students are unfamiliar with them. Allow students sufficient time to build their circuits and test, then swap the battery for a solar panel and test again. For students or classes who require additional support with breadboards, solar panels, and circuits, download NEED's Exploring Photovoltaics Student Guide, pages 25-31.

Explain the difference between passive and active solar technologies and how efficient home design will often utilize both. Lead students through the construction of their passive solar “homes.” Students will bring designs to you to approve before they begin to build.

When students are ready to test, direct them to the testing location, or assist them in setting up a heat lamp. Monitor all heat lamps to ensure students do not get too close or place the lamp near materials that could burn.

Define microgrids and introduce the microgrid activity. Discuss the three case studies in the inset text on page 115. Ask students what the advantages would be of having a microgrid in their community.

Demonstrate the proper method for using the copper tape. It is often easier to peel the backing as the tape is applied to the paper rather than peeling the entire length of paper from the tape all at once. When the backing is fully removed, the copper tape has the tendency to curl.

Allow students time to complete their circuits.

 Extensions Allow students some time to explore REDi Island—a virtual tool for exploring other innovative renewable energy technologies. Navigate to https://redi.openei.org/#/large-island

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Lesson 8: Benchmarking, Codes, and Certifications  Background

 Time

Benchmarking and certifications are the groundwork that prove efforts in energy reductions are effective. Students are introduced to some software programs and certifications for buildings and energy professionals. They explore energy codes for their area and learn to use their school building as a learning laboratory for auditing and benchmarking. A student energy audit does not substitute for a professional audit conducted by a trained professional but will often uncover simple things that school personnel can address right away to immediately save energy in the school.

2-3 class periods

 Objectives Students will be able to explain why benchmarking is important in energy management. Students will be able to conduct a simple energy audit of a room and make recommendations for energy savings. Students will be able to analyze energy-related data and prepare an energy saving plan for their school.

 Concepts Collecting energy-related data is just the first step in reducing energy consumption. Simple observations can lead to significant energy savings when acted upon. Local building codes include energy codes by which all commercial and residential buildings must comply. Buildings can be constructed or managed to meet requirements for different energy-related certifications, such as ENERGY STAR® and LEED.

 Materials Digital thermometer Digital hygrometer Kill A Watt® meter Light meter Clipboards or folders Lesson 8 Student Informational Text, pages 131-132 Exploring Building Codes, page 133 Energy Audits, page 134 School Building Survey, page 135-136 Student Audit Recording Form, pages 137-138 Findings and Recommendations, page 139

 Corresponding Curriculum School Energy Managers is a curriculum guide designed for content-area high school classrooms. It is designed in a lesson format, though the lesson content differs from the content in this guide. Student energy audits are an integral part of the School Energy Managers objectives, and a classroom kit that includes audit tools is available. The Teacher’s Guide includes masters that can be used to explain the proper way to use the tools. A corresponding home guide, Managing Home Energy Use, encourages students to work with their families to evaluate their energy use. Blueprint for School Energy Teams provides a framework for students to build a team to monitor energy use and conduct a campaign to reduce energy consumption at school. All NEED curriculum guides are available as a free PDF download at www.NEED.org/shop.

NEED's Youth Awards Program Student energy audit projects and the creation of a school energy team make excellent Youth Award projects. These projects are student-led and require only some simple documentation submitted online in the spring. State- and nationallevel recognition is awarded to the best projects annually. Visit https://youthawards.need.org/ for more information.

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2 Preparation Make physical or digital copies of the Lesson 8 Student Informational Text and the student activity pages as needed. Familiarize yourself with the operation of the thermometer, hygrometer, and Kill A Watt® meters. Gather materials for student activities. Consider purposely leaving some devices "on" that are not being used or setting up some other energy-wasting devices for students to find when they audit your classroom. Make some obvious and some more difficult to find. Assign students to work in small groups of 2-4 students, and use a map of the school to assign work groups to areas of the building to audit. Do not send students to a classroom where permission has not been previously obtained. Include hallways, stairwells, offices, and other areas of the building. Set firm boundaries for auditing lavatories, locker rooms, and private spaces. Test the audit tools before sending any student group out to collect data. You may want to have extra batteries on hand for each device.

 Procedure 1.

Instruct students to read the Student Informational Text for Lesson 8.

Describe the different types and levels of benchmarking. Explain how benchmarking works in education, and relate that to energy use benchmarking in buildings.

Lead students through Exploring Building Codes. Be prepared to provide websites for local government offices that conduct building inspections and issue building permits.

Introduce students to energy audits by projecting or sharing the Energy Audits page. Discuss and provide an overview of what will happen. If you wish, complete the School Building Survey together, or let them know they will fill it in as they audit their respective spaces around the building. You may opt to do a mix of both, as some will be easier to complete while auditing. Explain that the survey information is an important part of the audit, and that while this survey does not include gathering information from occupants, occupant/building user questions may be part of an auditor's duties.

Demonstrate the proper use of the thermometer, hygrometer, and Kill A Watt® meter. Provide a refresher of the other tools as needed.

Lead students as a whole class in auditing your classroom. This is where they will practice their observation skills. Make sure they find all of the “energy wasters” you set up.

Inform students of their working groups and working areas. Students will need a fresh Student Energy Audit page for each area they assess.

Bring students back together to discuss and share their findings to the group. Either individually or as whole group, complete the findings and recommendations form. Discuss how reports like this might look in the field.

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Lesson 9: Careers in Energy Efficiency and Conservation  Background

 Time

The final lesson in this unit provides an opportunity for students to explore some of the careers in energy efficiency and conservation. It also includes an overview of career-related training types, from in-house training and certifications all the way through university-level education. It also provides a list of soft-skills and job skills relevant to every career.

3-4 class periods

 Objectives Students will be able to describe several careers in the energy efficiency industry that they find interesting or that are good fits for their aptitudes and personalities. Students will be able to explain the various levels of career training and what entry to each requires. Students will be able to identify job soft skills and what makes a good employee.

 Concepts Energy efficiency careers are varied and range from entry-level jobs requiring no outside training to careers requiring a four-year degree or more. A good job does not require a college degree. Being a good employee involves more than just knowledge about the work being done. It includes being punctual, reliable, and professional.

 Materials Calculators Cardstock Plastic cups (6 per group) Rubber bands String Scissors

Practical Math Applications, pages 147-148 Résumé Template, page 149 Career Networking Template, page 150 Soft Skills Checklist, page 151 Personality Party Cards, page 152-153

2 Preparation Make physical or digital copies of the Lesson 9 Student Informational Text and activity pages. Decide if you want to lead students through the math problems focusing on shop math and building trades skills. If you decide to have students work through them, preview the problems to be familiar with the methods for solving them. Prepare for Soft Skills Soiree and Personality Party by reading through the separate teacher guide instructions for those activities.

 Corresponding Curriculum Energy Career Enigma is a fun class activity where students use clues to disguise their group’s energy industry career while trying to guess the identity of the others. Energy Careers Excursion contains some of the activities in this lesson, and more team-building activities for your students. NEED’s Your Future In… series of curriculum guides are geared toward the CTE classroom and explore in detail an energy source. Each guide has a focus on careers and includes career profiles of people working in the energy industry. Solar Careers Pathways was designed for young adults looking for a career pathway into solar installation. It includes detailed lessons in solar systems and job skills that workers in entry-level solar installation jobs need. All NEED curriculum guides are available as a free PDF download at www.NEED.org/shop.

 Procedure 1.

Instruct students to read the Student Informational Text for Lesson 9.

Distribute the Résumé Template and Career Networking Template to students. Have them select a career from the list on pages 140-142 and fill in the missing information. Explain that résumés and LinkedIn are both useful for different reasons. Alternatively, you can assign careers to students you think would be a good match for their skills and interests. Allow them to use the internet to find names of potential employers and trade schools, colleges, and universities that provide training for the job. If there is time, have students explore a second career.

Distribute the math problems and lead students through them, if applicable.

Lead students through Soft Skills Soiree and Personality Party.

At the close of the activities, ask students to reflect upon all they have learned and what they might need to prepare personally for a career in this field. Give them an opportunity to begin creating their own résumés or LinkedIn pages to prepare. Discuss next steps and advice for job placement, apprenticeships and internships, or further schooling.

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SOFT SKILLS SOIREE &Background We’ve all had that one co-worker—the one who doesn’t listen, or the one that has terrible communication skills, or the one who never pitches in on team projects. Well, maybe we’ve got a few of THOSE co-workers. This activity hopes to introduce students to the skills and traits that make a good worker—no matter what industry or job type a student may enter. In fact, these skills, often called soft skills, are important skills for everyone—garbage collectors, CEOs, food servers, accountants, radio hosts, and even e-sports! Folks with little job experience can win over a future employer by having the right attitude and strong soft skills. Students will be grouped in small groups to try to solve a challenge. They will identify skills and traits that were helpful in solving the challenge, and brainstorm things about themselves that might be helpful in working with a team. They will then use these skills and ideas to create a 30-second elevator pitch about themselves.

Materials Timer

2Preparation Project or share copies of the Soft Skills Checklist. Search and preview example videos of student–friendly elevator pitches and how-to clips. Prepare an open space for completing the human knot activity or determine a similar icebreaker to utilize in place of the knot activity.

Procedure 1. Ask students to brainstorm a list of qualities they might want in a partner for a group project. Go over the list as a class. Ask them how they might adjust their answers if they were thinking about a principal and teachers in a school. What might make them good co-workers? A good boss? 2. Put students into small groups of 5 to 10 students. You may opt to do this as an entire class if you wish. Have the groups stand in a circle facing each other. Explain that they will reach out to shake hands with other players, and each hand should hold the hand of a different person in the group. They are making a human knot! NOTE: Alternative examples of team building–style challenges could be used in place of the human knot if students are not able to appropriately complete the human knot. 3. Explain to the groups that they now have to figure out how to untangle their bodies without letting go of each other’s hands. Give a time limit but avoid giving prizes or excessive praise for groups who finish first. The point is to work together; for some groups, success will be measured differently than others. 4. After the time has expired, ask students to return to their seats and jot down a list of observations. Have them try to make a list of two helpful things that their group or group members did to solve the challenge. Have them make a list of two unhelpful things that their group or group members engaged in that made the task more challenging or frustrating. Ask the class to share examples if you feel comfortable doing so without alienating students. 5. Display and discuss the Soft Skills Checklist. Discuss the list items and give examples where necessary. Ask students to identify some of the items on the list that might have been involved in untying their knots. Have students make a list of their top 3 soft skills. 6. Explain to the class that we often find new opportunities based on chance or brief interactions with others. In most situations, a person may not have a ton of time to talk with you, and they may often suffer from a short attention span. For this reason, showing good soft skills and being able to engage in a quick discussion, share short stories, or describe personal attributes can be as important as having background knowledge and expertise or set you apart from others with similar expertise. A future employer will more than likely wish to see evidence of a few of these skills. Showing command of these can translate into a future opportunity that might not have existed before. 7. Show the class examples of an elevator pitch. Explain that students are each in the running for a student of the year award at school! Each student will need to create a 30-second (maximum) pitch or speech that they could give if they saw the voting committee in the hallway, at recess, in the elevator, or in the lunch line. 8. Give students time to work on their pitches and practice for each other. Ask for volunteers to share theirs with the class. Discuss as a class how this might come in handy for snagging a future job, scholarship, position on the team, etc.

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 Extensions Assign a pair of students to each soft skill on the list. Ask the pair to act out the soft skill the wrong way and a better way, as if they are in a working environment. Invite other adults to the classroom to hear student pitches and give feedback. Have students video their elevator pitch to practice and self-edit. Have students load their pitches to a social media platform and have classmates “like” or vote for their favorites.

PERSONALITY PARTY & Background This fun activity incorporates team building and role play to help students reflect on what it might be like to work with one another. In this activity, students will be assigned to small groups. Each group member will pick a Personality Party card, for which they must assume the personality trait. They will work together to complete a team building task but may only act in a manner that represents their selected personality trait. By the end, students will hopefully understand that in every group, folks assume different roles. Sometimes, those roles and their associated personalities can make things tricky. By exploring these types of traits in a safe way, students may see how they might be the best team member for school group work and eventually in their future careers.

 Materials Cardstock 6 Cups per group (paper or plastic, all the same size) Rubber bands String Scissors

2 Preparation Print the Personality Party Cards on cardstock. Make enough copies so each group has a set. If you wish to expand the group size to six or more, there is a blank card to create extra personalities. Choose to discard or incorporate this as needed. Fold the cards on the dotted line so that one side reads “Personality Party” and the other lists the personality and its description. Cut the cards apart and clip sets together or place each set into an envelope or bag. Preview the procedure below. Test out the cup stacking challenge or watch a video by searching “cup stacking rubber band.” If you prefer, substitute this challenge with an energy-focused activity or different icebreaker your students may enjoy. Assemble the string tools students will use in the cup stacking team building activity. Cut one 18” string per student. Tie strings onto the rubber band so that they are equally spaced and are still as close to 18” as possible, while tightly knotted. You will need the same number of strings per rubber band as there are students in your group. If a group has four people, tie four strings. (You could also have students assemble the strings.) Gather the materials and set up stations for each group.

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Procedure 1. Split students into groups and give each group a set of cards, cups, and a string tool (strings tied to a rubber band). 2. Ask each student to draw a card from the stack, read it, but keep it secret. Explain that in their group, this card now describes their personality. As a group, they will solve a challenge, but with each individual role-playing their personality card. 3. Explain the challenge. Tell students they must work together as a team to take all of their cups out of the stack and restack them into a pyramid of 3 - 2 - 1 using ONLY the tool provided. They may NOT use their hands to pick up, shift, or move the cups. NOTE: For younger or less adroit students, it may be helpful to conduct the activity on the floor rather than the table. Additionally, frustration can also be reduced by starting with the cups placed out, but not in a stack. 4. Give students one minute to consider how their new role might approach this group challenge. 5. Ask the groups to begin role playing, but first, they should strategize as a group. Tell the class you will give them the signal to begin. 6. Give students a few minutes to tackle the challenge while assuming the roles on their cards. Remind students they should be acting out the personality on their cards. 7. As students complete the challenge, ask them as a group to see if they can identify their fellow group members’ personalities. 8. Have a class discussion and itemize the possible negative and positive aspects of each personality in a group work setting. Ask students how you might combat the negatives to make the group more in sync. Discuss how in some working environments or groups, individuals might alter their personalities. What might be some reasons for this alteration? Why might it be a struggle to have a group of 5 strong leaders? Why might it be a struggle to have 5 cheerleaders or 5 procrastinators?

 Extensions Adapt the string stacking challenge to make different stacking shapes, adding more cups, or incorporating a timer. Ask groups to redistribute their personality cards to attempt a different personality. Ask students to create their own appropriate personality cards based on observations working with groups in school, sports, or otherwise.

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Lesson 1: Energy, Safety, and Why They Matter Energy has been a driving factor behind the advancement of our society. Until coal replaced wood as an energy source, technological developments occurred somewhat slowly. When energy sources with a higher energy density were discovered, the Industrial Revolution was launched. Since then, we have been using more and more energy as our population has grown and our technology has evolved. Today, people think a lot about energy – where to get it, how much of it they use, and what sources they are using for that energy. Because most of the resources we use presently for energy are limited, using them wisely has become imperative. The text and activities in this guide are designed to help you think about the energy you use and learn to use less of it.

Forms of Energy

There are many forms of energy, but they all fall into two categories– potential or kinetic.

POTENTIAL ENERGY Potential energy is stored energy and the energy of position, or gravitational potential energy. There are several forms of potential energy, including: Chemical energy is energy stored in the bonds of atoms and molecules. It is the energy that holds these particles together. Foods we eat, biomass, petroleum, natural gas, and propane are examples of stored chemical energy. During photosynthesis, sunlight gives plants the energy they need to build complex chemical compounds. When these compounds are later broken down, the stored chemical energy is released as heat, light, motion, and sound. Elastic energy is energy stored in objects by the application of a force. Compressed springs and stretched rubber bands are examples of elastic energy. Nuclear energy is energy stored in the nucleus of an atom— the energy that binds the nucleus together. The energy can be released when the nuclei are combined or split apart. Nuclear power plants split the nuclei of uranium atoms in a process called fission. The sun combines the nuclei of hydrogen atoms into helium atoms in a process called fusion. In both fission and fusion, mass is converted into energy, according to Einstein’s equation, E = mc2.

KINETIC

POTENTIAL Chemical Energy Elastic Energy

Nuclear Energy

Electrical Energy Radiant Energy Thermal Energy Motion Energy

Gravitational Potential Energy

Sound Energy

Radiant energy is electromagnetic energy that travels in transverse waves. Radiant energy includes visible light, x-rays, gamma rays, and radio waves. Solar energy is an example of radiant energy.

Gravitational potential energy is the energy of position or place. A rock resting at the top of a hill contains gravitational potential energy because of its position. Hydropower, such as water in a reservoir behind a dam, is an example of gravitational potential energy.

Thermal energy, which is often described as heat, is the internal energy in substances—the vibration and movement of atoms and molecules within substances. The faster molecules and atoms vibrate and move within a substance, the more energy they possess and the hotter they become. Geothermal energy is an example of thermal energy.

KINETIC ENERGY

Motion energy or mechanical energy is the movement of objects and substances from one place to another. According to Newton’s Laws of Motion, objects and substances move when an unbalanced force is applied. Wind is an example of motion energy.

Kinetic energy is motion—the motion of waves, electrons, atoms, molecules, substances, and objects. Electrical energy is the movement of electrons. Everything is made of tiny particles called atoms. Atoms are made of even smaller particles called electrons, protons, and neutrons. Applying a force can make some of the electrons move. Electrons moving through a wire are called electricity. Lightning is another example of electrical energy.

Sound energy is the movement of energy through substances in longitudinal (compression/rarefaction) waves. Sound is produced when a force causes an object or substance to vibrate. The energy is transferred through the substance in a wave.

Energy Transformations

U.S. Energy Consumption by Source, 2025

Chemical

Motion

Chemical

Motion

Radiant

Chemical

Electrical

Thermal

NONRENEWABLE, 90.87%

RENEWABLE, 9.13%

Petroleum

37.31%

Biomass

5.04%

Natural Gas

35.99%

Wind

Uses: electricity

1.65%

Uses: electricity, heating, manufacturing - Includes Propane

Coal

9.05%

Solar

1.44%

Uses: transportation, manufacturing - Includes Propane

Uses: electricity, heating, transportation

Sources of Energy People have always used energy to do work for them. Thousands of years ago, early humans burned wood to provide light, heat their living spaces, and cook their food. Later, people used the wind to move their boats from place to place. A hundred years ago, people began using falling water to make electricity. Today, people use more energy than ever from a variety of sources for a multitude of tasks, and our lives are undoubtedly better for it. Our homes are comfortable and full of useful and entertaining electrical devices. We communicate instantaneously in many ways. We live longer, healthier lives. We travel the world, or at least see it on television and the internet. The ten major energy sources we use today are classified into two broad groups—nonrenewable and renewable. Nonrenewable energy sources include coal, petroleum, natural gas, propane, and uranium. They are used to generate electricity, to heat our homes, to move our cars, and to manufacture products from candy bars to cell phones. These energy sources are called nonrenewable because they cannot be replenished in a short period of time. Petroleum, a fossil fuel, for example, was formed hundreds of millions of years ago, before dinosaurs existed. It was formed from the remains of ancient sea life, so it cannot be made quickly. We could run out of economically recoverable nonrenewable resources some day. Renewable energy sources include biomass, geothermal, hydropower, solar, and wind. They are called renewable energy sources because their supplies are replenished in a short time. Day after day, the sun shines, the wind blows, and the rivers flow. We use renewable energy sources mainly to make electricity. Is electricity a renewable or nonrenewable source of energy? The answer is neither. Electricity is different from the other energy sources because it is a secondary source of energy. That means we have to use another energy source to make it. In the United States, natural gas is the number one fuel for generating electricity.

Uses: electricity, manufacturing

Uranium

Uses: electricity

8.52%

Uses: electricity, heating

Hydropower 0.88% Uses: electricity

*Propane consumption figures are reported as part of petroleum and natural gas totals.

Geothermal 0.12%

Propane

Uses: heating, manufacturing

Uses: electricity, heating

Data: Energy Information Administration **Total may not equal 100% due to independent rounding.

U.S. School Energy Consumption Cooling 10.77% Ventilation 7.61%

Space Heating 42.39%

Water Heating 5.62% Lighting 8.78% Cooking 3.63% Refrigeration 2.58% Office Equipment 0.70%

Other 14.05% Computing 3.86%

Data: EIA Commercial Building Energy Summary, 2018

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ELECTRIC POWER

U.S. Energy Consumption by Sector, 2025 TRANSPORTATION

RESIDENTIAL 6.92%

29.25%

Top Residential Sources:

Top Transportation Sources:

Petroleum  Biomass  Natural Gas

Natural Gas Biomass  Petroleum 



ELECTRIC POWER 34.84%

INDUSTRIAL 23.94% Top Electric Power Sources: Top Industrial Sources: COMMERCIAL 5.02% Coal Natural Gas 

Petroleum  Propane 

The electric power sector includes electricity generation facilities and power plants. All of the other sectors consume electricity generated by the electric power sector. The electric power sector consumed 34.84 percent of the total energy supply in 2025, more than any of the other sectors, with a total of 33.53 quads.



Top Commercial Sources:



Natural Gas  Petroleum  Propane

Natural Gas Uranium

Data: Energy Information Administration *Total may not equal 100% due to independent rounding.

Energy Use Imagine how much energy you use every day. You wake up to an electric alarm clock and charge your cell phone. You take a shower with water warmed by a hot water heater using electricity or natural gas. You listen to music on your smart phone as you catch the bus to school. And that’s just some of the energy you use to get you through the first part of your day! Every day, the average American uses about as much energy as is stored in more than 6.5 gallons of gasoline. That’s every person, every day. Over a course of one year, the sum of this energy is equal to a little more than 2,300 gallons of gasoline per person. This use of energy is called energy consumption.

Energy Users The U.S. Department of Energy uses categories to classify energy users—residential, commercial, industrial, electric power, and transportation. These categories are called the sectors of the economy.

RESIDENTIAL/COMMERCIAL Residences are people’s homes. Commercial buildings include office buildings, hospitals, stores, restaurants, and schools. Residential and commercial energy use are often lumped together because homes and businesses use energy in the same ways—for heating, air conditioning, water heating, lighting, and operating appliances. The residential and commercial sectors of the economy consumed 11.95 percent of the primary energy supply in 2025, with a total of 11.50 quads of energy. The residential sector consumed 6.63 quads and the commercial sector consumed 4.83 quads.

INDUSTRIAL The industrial sector includes manufacturing, construction, mining, farming, fishing, and forestry. This sector consumed 23.04 quads of energy in 2025, which accounted for 23.94 percent of total consumption.

TRANSPORTATION The transportation sector refers to energy consumption by cars, buses, trucks, trains, ships, and airplanes. In 2025, the U.S. consumed 28.15 quads of energy for transportation, which accounted for 29.25 percent of total consumption. 89 percent of this energy was from petroleum products such as gasoline, diesel, and jet fuel.

Energy Use & Prices Several decades ago, in 1973, Americans faced a major oil price shock due to an oil embargo. People didn’t know how the country would react. How would Americans adjust to skyrocketing energy prices? How would manufacturers and industries respond? We didn’t know the answers. Now we know that Americans tend to use less energy when energy prices are high. We have the statistics to prove it. When energy prices increased sharply in the early 1970s, energy use dropped, creating a gap between actual energy use and how much the experts had thought Americans would be using. The same thing happened when energy prices shot up again in 1979, 1980, and more recently in 2008 and 2020—people used less energy. When prices started to drop, energy use began to increase. We don’t want to simplify energy demand too much. The price of energy is not the only factor in the equation. Other factors that affect how much energy we use include the public’s concern for the environment and new technologies that can improve the efficiency and performance of automobiles and appliances. Most reductions in energy consumption in recent years are the result of improved technologies in industry, vehicles, and appliances. Without these energy conservation and efficiency technologies, we would be using much more energy today. In 2025, the United States used 27 percent more energy than it did in 1973. That might sound like a lot, but the population has increased by over 61 percent and the nation’s gross domestic product was 4.85 times that of 1973. You may wonder why the 1970s are important—it was so long ago. However, the energy crisis during this decade taught us a valuable lesson. If every person in the United States today consumed energy at the rate we did in the 1970s, we would be using much more energy than we are—perhaps as much as double the amount. Energy efficiency technologies have made a huge impact on overall consumption since the energy crisis of 1973.

Water Consumption and Energy Use Speaking of energy consumption, did you know that the fresh water we use every day carries with it a high energy price tag? It’s true—extracting and purifying water for daily use requires a significant amount of energy. Leaving the faucet running is also a large energy liability.

Energy Is Not Infinite

Water Use in Schools

You’ve probably heard of the Law of Conservation of Energy, which states that energy is never created or destroyed, it just changes form. This is true, but in practice we “lose” energy every day, usually as thermal energy that cannot be recovered or put to work. Whenever energy changes form, there is at least a small amount that is transformed into thermal energy. Unless you were wanting to get warm or cook food, that energy dissipates into the environment around you and is not recovered. This is why there is so much emphasis on energy management. Energy is a finite resource—it is not available in unlimited amounts. About 90 percent of the energy we use in the United States is from nonrenewable sources. And just as you manage your money and your time well, we all need to manage the amount of energy we use. By doing so, we conserve nonrenewable resources, keep expenses under control, and prevent climate change from getting worse. Energy management has two sides, and both of them work toward keeping energy use under control. Energy efficiency refers to how much energy a device or machine uses to do its job. Energy conservation encompasses our behaviors when we use energy.

Energy Efficiency In physics, energy efficiency is the proportion of usable energy that comes out of a system as a percentage of the energy that went in. In short, it is the energy out divided by the energy in, multiplied by 100. No device is 100 percent energy efficient. When we discuss energy efficiency in the context of energy management, we are still talking about the amount of energy output compared to the amount of energy consumed, but we are also comparing similar devices to each other. For example, an energy‑efficient refrigerator keeps food cold while using less energy than most refrigerators. Likewise, an efficient TV uses less energy than most other TVs. However, a television that is not at all efficient might still use less total energy than an energy‑efficient refrigerator. This is why we must make sure our comparisons are on equal footing. Otherwise, it would be like judging an elephant on how well it climbs a tree just because squirrels climb trees. Not all four‑footed animals climb trees; all electric devices do not serve the same functions.

Every step along the energy use pathway involves energy. Pumps are used to extract water from the ground or surface source and carry it to the treatment facility. More pumps and other electrically-powered equipment are used to move the water through as it is cleaned and made suitable for home use. Getting that water to your home or school requires even more pumps and more energy. And then after you are done using the water, carrying it to wastewater treatment facilities also requires energy. Different kinds of commercial buildings use water in different ways, but they all have domestic use and restroom use in common. Except for restaurants, this is the largest water use in commercial buildings. In restaurants, it is the second largest use, after kitchen use.

Buildings can also be rated on their energy efficiency. Some comparisons use the amount of total energy consumed per occupant. This method is useful for similar homes or apartments whose energy use depends on how many people live there. For example, a single‑story, 1,600‑square‑foot house with three bedrooms, two bathrooms, and a basement foundation might use more or less energy depending on the number of occupants. By calculating the amount of energy per occupant, it becomes easier to compare similar homes. Other types of buildings do not always have the same number of occupants. Commercial office buildings, schools, restaurants, and other buildings that are busy at certain times and empty at others are usually rated by the amount of energy used per square foot or square meter of space.

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When it comes to generating electricity, the efficiency of a power plant is calculated by the amount of electricity produced as a percentage of the energy used to generate it. Most thermal power plants are about 35 percent efficient, meaning that roughly 65 percent of the energy in the fuel—whether coal, uranium, or natural gas—is not converted into electricity. Solar panels, by comparison, are about 25 percent efficient; three‑quarters of the energy in the sunlight that reaches them is not transformed into electrical energy. Energy efficiency ratings—whether for appliances, electronics, vehicles, buildings, or power plants—must be made on an even comparison basis. It is not about being fair; it is about having the best information possible. It is not useful to compare a home to a school in terms of energy efficiency because they have different functions, different numbers of occupants, different devices inside, and different construction materials. Comparing a small sedan to a large, dually pickup truck is equally unhelpful.

Energy Conservation While it would be nice to be able to replace all of our electronics and appliances with energy efficient models, most of us do not have the luxury of being able to afford to do so. We must make do with what we have. That is where energy conservation comes in. This part of energy management focuses on our behavior. Perhaps you cannot afford to purchase a new, ENERGY STAR® rated refrigerator. You can, however, use your existing refrigerator wisely by not leaving the door open a long time and keeping it full rather than empty. Energy conservation uses our existing vehicle, building, appliances, and electronics in a wise, energy conscious manner.

ENERGY STAR® LOGO Image Courtesy of U.S. Federal Government

The ENERGY STAR® program is administered jointly by the US Department of Energy and the Environmental Protection Agency. Devices that use the least amount of energy in their category earn the ENERGY STAR® rating.

Even the most energy-efficient buildings can be used in a way that ignores conservative practices. The best doors with the tightest-fitting seals do not function well if they are propped open while the heating or cooling systems are running. A hybrid car, which has excellent gas mileage because of its design, is not running at its peak performance if the driver sits with the vehicle running for a half hour at a time or if the trunk is full of heavy, unnecessary equipment. Even if rooms have motion sensors that turn off the lights after 20 minutes of no activity, the lights can be switched off earlier to save energy. It sometimes takes some conscious effort to develop good energy conservation habits. Some people like to have a window open in the winter with lots of blankets while they sleep, and it takes time to adjust to having a warmer room and fewer blankets. Stay aware of the time when playing a video game to find a good place to stop in time for dinner, rather than just pausing the game and allowing the system to run while eating. With enough practice and patience, good habits in energy use develop and take root. Before you know it, you will be picking up aluminum cans to recycle, closing doors and windows that have been left open unnecessarily, and turning off lights that have been left on.

Energy Use & Climate Change You may be wondering why there has been such a push to reduce the amount of energy we consume. Beyond saving money and conserving resources, our behaviors are having a very real impact on global climate. In short, our energy-hungry ways are causing big changes in Earth’s climate. More than 80 percent of the energy used in the United States is obtained from fossil fuels. These energy sources are carbon-based, and we burn them to obtain the energy stored in the bonds of the compounds in petroleum, coal, and natural gas. When carbon-rich compounds are burned, one of the products is carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas. Greenhouse gases absorb and hold thermal energy. As the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere has increased, so has the temperature of the atmosphere. The data graphed in the figure on page 40 shows how CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere have increased since the Industrial Revolution. A second line, plotted on a secondary y‑axis, shows the global temperature anomaly over the same years so you can see how these two trends relate. Temperature anomaly is how far the measured temperature deviates from an expected normal temperature. Notice that both plots show a positive slope, indicating an increase of both measurements as time progresses. Also notice that around 1977 the slope of both plots increases, meaning CO2 levels and temperatures increased at a faster rate from one year to the next.

The TheGreenhouse Greenhouse Effect

The atmosphere naturally traps and holds thermal energy.

SUN

Atm o DI

s p he re

RG Y

HEAT HEAT EARTH

When solar energy reaches Earth, some is reflected back to space by the atmosphere. Some more is absorbed by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and transformed into thermal energy (dark arrows). About half reaches Earth’s surface, where it is transformed to thermal energy. Some is absorbed by the Earth, but most of it is transferred back to the atmosphere. A small percentage of this thermal energy radiates into space. Most of it remains in the atmosphere, warming the planet.

U.S. GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS, 2022

SOURCES CARBON DIOXIDE

79.7%

TRANSPORTATION 34.7%

ELECTRICITY INDUSTRIAL 30.3% 23.7%

RESIDENTIAL & COMMERCIAL OTHER 12.7% 6.5%

METHANE

11.1%

MANMADE EMISSIONS

ENERGY 40.2%

AGRICULTURAL WASTE MANAGEMENT 20.4% 39.4%

OTHER 0.01%

NITROUS OXIDE

6.1%

AGRICULTURAL 79.0%

ENERGY USE 10.9%

WASTE 6.2%

INDUSTRIAL 4.3%

F-GASES

3.1%

OZONE DEPLETING SUBSTANCES HCFC-22 PRODUCTION 89.9% Data: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 4.2% *F-gases include HCFCs, PFCs, and SF6, which are used in many different industrial applications, including refrigerants, propellants, and tracer chemicals. **Totals may not equal 100% due to independent rounding.

Scientists who study Earth’s climate systems, called climatologists, have concluded that anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions are causing global climate change. These greenhouse gas emissions are coming from human activity—transportation fuels, electricity generation, industrial manufacturing of things like cement and steel, agriculture, and burning fuels for heat. The effects of climate change are a decrease in ice on land and at sea, warmer water in streams, rivers, lakes, and the oceans, more severe weather events, prolonged drought, intense heat waves, and increases in health problems like asthma and heart disease. Scientists and policy makers are looking for ways to reduce carbon dioxide emissions, and one of the best ways to do so is to decrease the amount of energy we derive from fossil fuels.

Global Temperature Change Since 1880 500

1.2

Temp Anomaly CO2 PPM

0.8

400

0.6 0.4 0.2

C02 PPM

Global Temperature Anomaly °C

1.0

0.0

300

-0.2 -0.4 -0.6

1880

1900

1920

1940

1960

1980

2000

2020

200

POWER TRANSMISSION ELECTRONICS METALS INDUSTRY PRODUCTION 2.6% 2.2% 0.9%

Saving Energy Safely Regardless of which area of energy efficiency and conservation you choose to pursue in your future career plans, there are some basic principles you must follow. Safety regulations are not designed to be restrictive and burdensome. Rather, they are intended to keep everyone safe on the job and while working with potentially dangerous equipment and in hazardous situations.

Who Makes the Rules? Workers in the energy and building trades follow three main kinds of rules: laws, regulations, and codes. Laws are written by elected officials, such as Congress or state legislatures. Laws set the big‑picture requirements for safety, construction, licensing, and environmental protection. They are enforced through the courts. Regulations are written by government agencies—for example, OSHA within the U.S. Department of Labor. Regulations explain how to follow the law by giving detailed, enforceable rules for workplaces. OSHA inspections and citations are based on these regulations. Codes are usually written by industry organizations, such as the National Fire Protection Association or the International Code Council. These codes become enforceable only when a state or local government adopts them. Fire marshals, building inspectors, and permitting offices enforce the parts of the code used in their community. In addition to government regulations, companies and labor unions also create their own safety requirements, which workers must follow while on a job site. These aren’t laws or government regulations, but they function as important workplace safety rules and are often based on OSHA standards.

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The U.S. federal government oversees safety through the Department of Labor. Within it, OSHA sets and enforces safety regulations for construction, industry, and general workplaces. For example, the safety goggles you wear in science lab fall under OSHA’s eye protection standard (29 CFR 1910.133), which requires eye or face protection whenever hazards like flying particles, chemicals, or harmful light could cause injury. Similarly, the hard hats worn on construction sites are required under OSHA’s head protection rule (29 CFR 1926.100). This rule requires protective helmets in any area where there is a danger of head injury from falling objects, flying objects, or accidental impact. Although the federal government sets nationwide safety and energy standards, states and local governments can adopt their own laws, codes, and regulations. These local rules often differ from place to place and may be more strict than federal requirements, but they cannot be less protective.

On the job site, keep walkways clear of any trip hazards and secure rugs and cords. Be aware of your location, nearest exits, and the fastest way to get to them. Avoid any areas where ceilings or walls are crumbling or falling, and stay outside of areas marked with caution tape. Safety isn’t something you learn one time and then walk away. It is a daily habit you use. Many companies begin each day or meeting with a safety moment or statement that is designed to keep everyone safe—not just those working with potentially dangerous materials or conditions. Maintaining a clean, safe workplace environment is important to a culture of safety. Never be afraid to ask for an instruction to be repeated or clarified if you are unsure. Your safety-focused actions will ensure that everyone finishes the day healthy.

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

Gear Up! Safety starts with having the right tools, clothing, and other safety gear for the job at hand. Personal protective equipment (PPE) includes all of the wearable items that are designed to keep you safe in specific environments or under certain circumstances. Some commonly used PPE includes: Safety glasses or goggles—these must have side shields and in some cases protect all around the eyes Gloves appropriate to the task, such as cut-resistant or insulated Closed-toe shoes, usually with a hard sole and safety toe Hearing protection in the form of ear plugs or muffs Hard hats Respiratory protection such as dust masks or respirators where breathing hazards exist The clothing worn on the job might also fall under PPE, depending on the task and environment. Know what is expected and what is safe, and wear those items even if they’re uncomfortable or look silly.

Keeping It Real (Safe) In addition to understanding the regulations and codes that address safe work practices and wearing the correct PPE, workers who are in efficiency and conservation related careers need to employ safe work practices. Each occupation will have its own set of specific work standards to follow, but there are some that are common across all careers that you should be familiar with. When working with electricity, assume all wires, panels, and other electricity-carrying equipment are energized. Don’t open a panel or breaker box without proper training. Keep water away from anything electrical, and never overload a circuit or outlet. If you need to use tools, inspect them and any other equipment before using. Tools are made for a specific purpose; don’t use them outside of that function. Use ladders with care and never stand on the top step. If anything is damaged or worn, report it and do not use it.

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The Bottom Line There’s a reason you’re learning about careers in energy efficiency and conservation. It may be that you’re really interested, or it may be that your teacher has assigned it. Either way, the information in this first lesson is important to everyone and not just people directly employed in the efficiency industry. All Americans should know where their energy comes from and where that energy gets used. Everyone should know what energy efficiency is and why it’s important, and why it’s important now. We all need to be safe at work, wherever we work, especially if we are employed in more hazardous careers such as electricians or heating and cooling specialists. Because we all use energy, it is important to understand how we use it, why we use it, where we use it, and how to keep our energy use under control.

Lesson 2: Electricity and Power for Buildings Electricity

Measuring Electricity

What is the first thing you think about when reading the word, “energy?” If you thought of electricity first, you’re not alone. Energy and electricity are frequently used interchangeably, even though energy encompasses much more than just electricity.

Electric energy is carried by electrons, tiny particles that move around the nuclei of atoms. Normally, electrons stay close to their own atoms, but if they are given enough energy, they can move from place to place. The energy that encourages electrons to move is called voltage. When a voltage source—like a battery or a power outlet—pushes electrons through a conductor and toward a device, we call that movement electric current.

The electric power generation sector of the U.S. economy uses the most energy. This is not surprising when you consider all of the things we do that require electricity. Chances are that while you are reading this, you are using artificial light powered by electricity to see. Stop and think about the first fifteen minutes of your day. How many of those minutes involved something electric?

Atom

Understanding electricity is essential for many careers, including those in heating and cooling, efficiency, building controls, and renewable energy. Every building system uses electricity in some way.

Electricity as an Energy Source Electricity is a little different from the other sources of energy that we talk about. Unlike coal, petroleum, or solar energy, electricity is a secondary source of energy. That means we must use other primary sources of energy, such as coal or wind, to make electricity. It also means we can’t classify electricity as a renewable or nonrenewable form of energy. The energy source we use to make electricity may be renewable or nonrenewable, but the electricity is neither.

U.S. Electricity Net Generation, 2025 PROTON

40.80%

Natural Gas Uranium

17.72%

Coal

16.64%

Petroleum 0.43%

NUCLEUS NONRENEWABLE

Other 0.24%

10.48%

Wind Solar

6.68%

Hydropower

5.46%

Biomass

RENEWABLE

1.04%

Geothermal 0.35% *Total may not equal 100% due to independent rounding. Data: Energy Information Administration Other: purchased steam, fossil fuel gases, tire-derived fuels, non-biogenic waste, batteries, chemicals, etc.

ELECTRON NEUTRON

Electrons move easily through conductors, such as copper and aluminum. Most electrical wires are made from these metals and covered with a plastic insulation layer. Plastic is an insulator, meaning electrons do not move through it easily. Insulation thickness matters: devices that operate at higher voltage require thicker insulation and heavier‑gauge wire so the energized electrons don’t escape the conductor. Air is also an insulator, although a very strong voltage— like in a lightning storm—can force electrons to jump through it. Voltage describes how much energy an electron has and how strongly it is pushed to move. It is sometimes called electric potential. You can think of voltage as the “pressure” that encourages electrons to cross an insulating gap or move through a material. Higher voltage means electrons have more energy and are more likely to push through resistance. Voltage is measured in volts.

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The current is the number of electrons that pass a point in the wire each second. These electrons may have high energy (high voltage) or low energy (low voltage), but as long as they are moving, they contribute to the current. Current is measured in amperes. Voltage and current interact with a property called resistance. Resistance describes how much a material opposes the movement of electrons and is measured in Ohms (Ω). High‑resistance materials make it difficult for electrons to flow, while low‑resistance materials allow electrons to move more easily. Even among conductors, thicker wires have lower resistance than thinner wires, which is one reason high-voltage circuits use heavy‑gauge wire. Electrical power tells us how quickly electrical energy is being used or converted into another form, such as light or heat. Power is calculated by multiplying voltage and current: Power = Voltage × Current Power is measured in watts. A device using 1,000 watts might draw 100 volts and 10 amperes, or 1,000 volts and 1 ampere—the power is the same even though the voltage and current are different. Your family’s electric bill is based on the amount of electric energy used, which depends on power and time. Resistance and power factor into many of the appliances you probably use every day. The heating element in an electric stove is designed with high resistance so electrical energy is converted into heat. Hair dryers and space heaters work the same way on a smaller scale. Microwave oven instructions list wattage because a higher‑wattage microwave delivers energy faster, reducing cooking time. Electric devices use two main types of electrical power: DC and AC. Direct current (DC) flows in one direction and is used by batteries, flashlights, LEDs, and most electronics. Alternating current (AC) changes direction back and forth. In the United States, AC power reverses direction 60 times per second, or 60 hertz (Hz). When you plug a DC‑powered device into an AC outlet, a power converter (often the “brick” on the charging cord) changes AC into DC and adjusts the voltage to the correct level. This conversion process is not perfectly efficient, so some energy is lost as heat. This is why the converter is usually warm while the device is charging.

In a parallel circuit, there are multiple paths for electric current to flow. Parallel wiring is useful when one power source needs to operate several loads independently. The sections of a LED icicle light set are wired in parallel with one another. If one section goes out, the others stay lit because each has its own path back to the power source. Most buildings use a combination of circuits. Your home has a main power source where electricity from the utility enters the service panel (breaker box). From there, the panel feeds several branch circuits. Each branch circuit supplies power to outlets, lights, and appliances that are all wired in parallel, so each device gets the full 120 volts and can be turned on or off independently. All the branch circuits are also in parallel with each other at the panel. If one device fails on a branch, the others on that branch (and in the rest of the house) still work, but a short circuit or overload on a branch will trip its breaker to protect the wiring.

Making Electricity Almost all electricity made in the United States is generated by large, central power plants. There are about 14,000 power plants in the U.S. Most power plants use natural gas, coal, nuclear fission, or other energy sources to superheat water into steam in a boiler. The very high pressure of the steam—about 75 to 100 times normal atmospheric pressure—turns the blades of a turbine, which changes the linear motion of the steam into circular motion. The blades are connected to a generator, which houses a large magnet surrounded by coiled copper wire. The blades spin the magnet rapidly, rotating the magnet inside the coil producing an electric current. The steam, which is still very hot but now at normal pressure, is piped to a condenser, where it is cooled into water by passing it through pipes circulating over a large body of water or cooling tower. The water then returns to the boiler to be used again. Power plants can capture some of the heat from the cooling steam. In old plants, the heat was simply wasted. Not all power plants use thermal energy to generate electricity. Hydropower plants and wind farms use motion energy to turn turbines, turning a generator, which produces electricity. Photovoltaic plants use radiant energy to generate electricity directly.

ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT

Electric Circuits Electric current needs a pathway to flow; this pathway is called a circuit. A circuit can be closed, forming a continuous path, or open, which has a break in the path. Current will not flow in an open circuit. Switches are used to open or close circuits to turn devices off and on.

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A simple circuit has one power source and one load. A basic flashlight is a good example: it has one power source (the batteries), one load (the light), and a switch that completes or breaks the circuit. When connecting multiple loads, circuits can be arranged in two main ways: series or parallel. In a series circuit, all components are wired so that electrons have only one path to travel. If any component in that path fails, the entire circuit stops working. Icicle lights with LEDs have sections wired in series; if one part of the section fails, the whole section will not light.

Generating Electricity

NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

Three basic types of power plants generate most of the electricity in the United States—fossil fuel, nuclear, and wind. There are also hydropower, geothermal, waste-to-energy, and solar power plants, but together they generate about 13.53 percent of the electricity produced in the United States in 2025.

FOSSIL FUEL POWER PLANTS Fossil fuel plants burn coal, natural gas, or petroleum. These plants use the chemical energy in fossil fuels to superheat water into steam, which drives a steam generator. Fossil fuel plants are sometimes called thermal power plants because they use heat to generate electricity. Natural gas and coal are the fossil fuels of choice for many generation companies across the U.S., providing 40.80 and 16.64 percent of total U.S. electricity respectively. Petroleum produces 0.43 percent of the electricity in the U.S.

NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS Nuclear plants generate electricity much as fossil fuel plants do, except that the furnace is a reactor and the fuel is uranium. In a nuclear plant, a reactor splits uranium atoms into smaller elements, producing a great amount of thermal energy in the process. The heat is used to superheat water into high pressure steam, which drives a turbine generator. Like fossil fuel plants, nuclear power plants are thermal plants because they use heat to generate electricity. Nuclear energy produced 17.72 percent of the electricity in the U.S. in 2025.

WIND FARMS Wind turbines use the energy of moving air, or wind, to push on blades attached to a hub, eventually driving a generator. Wind energy has been the fastest-growing renewable energy source in the last 20 years and is now the fourth largest electricity producer in the U.S. In 2025, wind energy accounted for 10.48 percent of electric power generation.

Image courtesy of JBs666 via Wikimedia Commons

Aerial view of Calvert Cliffs Nuclear Power Plant, Calvert County, Maryland.

Moving Electricity We are using more and more electricity every year. One reason that electricity is used by so many consumers is that it’s easy to move from one place to another. Electricity can be produced at a power plant and moved long distances before it is used. Let’s follow the path of electricity from a power plant to a light bulb in your home. First, the electricity is generated at the power plant. Next, it goes by wire to a transformer that “steps up” the voltage. A transformer steps up the voltage of electricity from the 2,300 to 22,000 volts produced by a generator to as much as 765,000 volts (345,000 volts is typical). Power companies step up the voltage because less electricity is lost along the lines when the voltage is high.

The Continental U.S. Electric Grid

The electricity is then sent on a nationwide network of transmission lines made of aluminum. Transmission lines are the huge power lines connected by tall power towers you may see when you’re on a highway. The lines are interconnected, so should one line fail, another will take over the load. Step-down transformers located at substations along the lines reduce the voltage to 12,000 volts. Substations are small buildings in fenced-in areas that contain the switches, transformers, and other electrical equipment. Electricity is then carried over distribution lines that bring electricity to your home. Distribution lines may either be overhead or underground. The overhead distribution lines are the electric lines that you see along streets.

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Transporting Electricity Power plant generates electricity

Transmission lines carry electricity long distances

Transformer steps up voltage for transmission

Power Tower

“The Grid” When people discuss “the grid” they are referring to the interconnected system of power plants, transmission lines, distribution lines, and electricity users. It’s not a true grid like graph paper, but is structured such that electricity can take more than one pathway through a region. Going “off-grid” means a building, usually a homestead, is built without any grid connection and has its own electricity-generating equipment. Most of the time, electricity is generated with solar panels or a generator powered by diesel or gasoline. Sometimes, people include battery storage with their off-grid systems. A microgrid is a group of homes or related buildings (such as a college campus) that can use power from the grid or can disconnect and generate its own electricity. Some microgrids also have storage capabilities. We will discuss microgrids in greater detail in Lesson 7.

Before electricity enters your house, the voltage is reduced again at another transformer, usually a large gray can mounted on an electric pole. This neighborhood transformer reduces the electricity to 240 and 120 volts, the amount needed to run the appliances in your home. Electricity enters your house through a three-wire cable. The “live wires” are then brought from the circuit breaker or fuse box to power outlets and wall switches in your home. An electric meter measures how much electricity you use so the utility company can bill you. The time it takes for electricity to travel through these steps—from power plant to the light bulb in your home—is a tiny fraction of one second.

Distribution lines carry electricity to houses

Step-down transformer reduces voltage (substation)

Electric Poles

Neighborhood transformer on pole steps down voltage before entering house

Power to the People Everyone knows how important electricity is to our lives. All it takes is a power failure to remind us how much we depend on it. Life would be very different without electricity—no more instant light from flicking a switch, no more television, no more refrigerators, or stereos, or video games, or hundreds of other conveniences we take for granted. We depend on it, business depends on it, and industry depends on it. You could almost say the American economy runs on electricity. It is the responsibility of electric utility companies to make sure electricity is there when we need it. They must consider reliability, capacity, baseload, peak demand, and power pools. Reliability is the capability of a utility company to provide electricity to its customers 100 percent of the time. A reliable electric service is without blackouts or brownouts. To ensure uninterrupted service, laws require most utility companies to have 15 to 20 percent more capacity than they need to meet peak demand. This means a utility company whose peak demand is 12,000 megawatts (MW) must have 14,000 MW of installed electrical capacity. This ensures that there will be enough electricity to meet demand even if equipment were to break down on a hot summer afternoon. Capacity is the total quantity of electricity a utility company has on-line and ready to deliver when people need it. A large utility company may operate several power plants to generate electricity for its customers. A utility company that has seven 1,000 MW plants, eight 500 MW plants, and 30 100 MW plants has a total capacity of 14,000 MW. Baseload power is the electricity generated by utility companies around-the-clock, using the most inexpensive energy sources— usually coal, nuclear, and hydropower. Baseload power stations usually run at full or near capacity. When many people want electricity at the same time, there is a peak demand. Power companies must be ready for peak demands so there is enough power for everyone. During the day’s peak, between 12:00 noon and 6:00 p.m., additional generators must be used to meet the demand. These peaking generators run on natural gas, diesel, or hydropower and can be put into operation in minutes because they require little start-up time. The more this equipment is used, the higher our utility bills. By managing the use of electricity during peak hours, we can help keep costs down.

The use of power pools is another way electric companies make their systems more reliable. Power pools link electric utilities together so they can share power as it is needed. A power failure in one system can be covered by a neighboring power company until the problem is corrected. There are eight regional power pool networks in North America. The key is to share power rather than lose it. The reliability of U.S. electric service is excellent, usually better than 98 percent. In some countries, electric power may go out several times a day for several minutes or several hours at a time. Power outages in the United States are usually caused by such random occurrences as lightning, a tree limb falling on electric wires, or a fallen utility pole.

But that’s not all. Between three and eight percent of the electricity generated at a power plant must be used to run equipment. And then, even after the electricity is sent over electrical lines, another seven percent of the electrical energy is lost in transmission. Of course, consumers pay for all the electricity generated, lost or not. The cost of electricity is affected by what time of day it is used. During a hot summer afternoon from noon to 6 p.m., there is a peak of usage when air-conditioners are working harder to keep buildings cool. Electric companies charge their industrial and commercial customers more for electricity during these peak load periods because they must turn to more expensive ways to generate power.

Economics of Electricity How much does electricity cost? The answer depends on the cost to generate the power (56 percent), the cost of transmission (14 percent) and local distribution (30 percent). The average cost of electricity is about 17.30 cents per kWh for residential customers, thirteen cents (13.41¢) for commercial customers, and a little less than nine cents (8.62 ¢) for industrial customers. A major key to cost is the fuel used to generate the power. Electricity produced from natural gas, for example, costs more than electricity produced from uranium or hydropower. Location plays a part in electricity costs. Hawaii and California residents can pay up to 41 cents and 33 cents per kWh, respectively, while residents of North Dakota pay only 11.81 cents per kWh. Commercial customers in the U.S. follow the same patterns, but because they buy more electricity at once, their cost is lower, averaging at about 13 cents per kilowatt hour. Another consideration is how much it costs to build a power plant. A plant may be very expensive to construct, but the cost of the fuel can make it competitive to other plants, or vice versa. Nuclear power plants, for example, are very expensive to build, but their fuel— uranium—is very cheap. Coal-fired plants, on the other hand, are much less expensive to build than nuclear plants, but their fuel— coal—is more expensive. When calculating costs, a plant’s efficiency must also be considered. In theory, a 100 percent energy-efficient machine would change all the energy put into the machine into useful work, not wasting a single unit of energy. But converting a primary energy source into electricity involves a loss of usable energy, usually in the form of thermal energy. In general, it takes three units of fuel to produce one unit of electricity from a thermal power plant.

Average Residential Price for Electricity, 2025 PRICE PER KILOWATT-HOUR < 12¢ / kWh 16-20¢ / kWh WASH. ORE.

MONT. IDAHO

NEV.

CALIF.

UTAH

ARIZ.

12 to 14¢ / kWh 21-29¢ / kWh

N.D.

WYO.

N.H. VT.

MINN. WIS.

S.D. NEB.

COLO.

KAN.

N.M.

OKLA. TEXAS

14-16¢ / kWh > 30¢ / kWh

MICH. N.Y.

PA. IND. OHIO ILL. W.VA. VA. KY. MO. N.C. TENN. S.C. ARK. MISS. ALA. GA. LA.

IOWA

MAINE

MASS. R.I. CONN. N.J. DEL. MD.

FLA. ALASKA WASHINGTON, D.C. HAWAII Data: Energy Information Administration

In 1900, most power plants were only four percent efficient. That means they wasted 96 percent of the fuel used to generate electricity. Today’s thermal power plants are over eight times more efficient with efficiency ratings around 35 percent. Still, this means 65 percent of the initial thermal energy used to make electricity is lost. You can see this waste heat in the clouds of steam pouring out of giant cooling towers on newer power plants. A modern coal plant burns about 4,500 tons of coal each day, and about two-thirds of the energy in this is lost when the chemical energy in coal is converted into thermal energy, then into electrical energy. A hydropower plant, on the other hand, is about 90 percent efficient at converting the kinetic energy of moving water into electricity.

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Building Simple Electric Circuits & Background For electrons to flow through a wire, the wire must make a complete path or circle. This path is called a circuit. A battery produces electricity, or moving electrons, only when it is part of a circuit. You can add a switch to a circuit to open and close the path. A compass can help you determine if your circuit is completed or not. If it is complete, electricity will flow, creating a magnetic field to move the compass. You can also add a load to the circuit so that the electricity can do work as it flows through the circuit. A light bulb is an example of a load.

? Question  How does a completed circuit affect a compass?

Diagram 1

 Hypothesis

Read the procedure and record your hypothesis.

Battery

 Materials 1 Battery holder 1 Switch 1 Light bulb holder 1 Battery (D)

1 Light bulb 1 Student compass 3 Pieces of wire or alligator clips

Procedure 1.

Place the battery in the battery holder. Using one wire, attach the ends of the wire to the terminals on the sides of the battery holder, as shown in Diagram 1. Use the compass to determine if you have completed a circuit. Are there electrons flowing through the wire? Record observations on page 48. Disconnect.

Add a switch to the circuit. Unhook one end of the wire from the battery holder and attach it to one of the terminals of the switch, as shown in Diagram 2. Attach a second wire to the other end of the switch and to the other end of the battery holder.

Place the compass under one of the wires. Close the circuit by pushing on the switch until it touches the metal under it. Open and close the switch several times, observing the movement of the compass needle. Record observations on page 48.

Add a load to the circuit. Attach the light bulb to the circuit as shown in Diagram 3. You will need three wires. One wire is attached to the battery holder and the light bulb holder. The second wire is attached to the light bulb holder and the switch. The third wire is attached to the other terminal of the switch and the battery holder.

Close the switch. Have you made a circuit? Does the light bulb glow? Observe the movement of the compass needle.

Diagram 2 + Battery with Switch

Diagram 3 + Battery with Switch and Bulb

CONTINUED ON NEXT PAGE

 Data Record your observations.

Conditions

Observations

Diagram 1 (Step 1)

Are there electrons flowing through the wire? How do you know?

Diagram 2 (Steps 2 and 3)

Movement of compass:

Diagram 3 (Steps 4 and 5)

Does the light bulb glow?

 Conclusion For each question, make sure you support your answer with experimental evidence. In other words, what about the experiment you just did verifies your answer? 1. In conductors, electrons are loosely bound and therefore easy to move. In insulators, electrons are tightly bound and therefore hard to move. Examine the switch. It is made of plastic and metal. Which material in the switch is a better conductor?

Which material in the switch is an insulator?

Why do you think the copper wire is covered in a plastic coating?

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Series Circuit with Multiple Loads & Background There are many different ways to make circuits. You might want to connect several loads or power sources in one circuit. Computers have millions of circuits connected together. One way to connect power sources, loads, and switches is in a series circuit. In a series circuit, the electricity flows through all of the parts of the circuit in one loop.

Diagram 1

? Question  How are loads affected when wired in series?

 Hypothesis Read the procedure and record your hypothesis.

 Materials 1 Battery holder 1 Switch 3 Light bulb holders

1 Battery (D) 3 Light bulbs 5 Pieces of wire or alligator clips

Procedure 1.

Make a simple circuit with one power source, one switch, and one load as shown in Diagram 1. Observe the brightness of Light Bulb 1 when you close the switch.

Make a series circuit with one power source, one switch, and two loads, as shown in Diagram 2. Connect the parts in this order: Battery to Switch; Switch to Light Bulb 1; Light Bulb 1 to Light Bulb 1; Light Bulb 2 to Battery.

When you close the switch, observe how the light bulbs glow. Do they both glow as brightly as one bulb did? Does one bulb glow more brightly than the other? Record your data on page 50.

Make a series circuit with one power source, one switch, and three loads, as shown in Diagram 3. Connect the parts in this order: Battery to Switch; Switch to Light Bulb 1; Light Bulb 1 to Light Bulb 2; Light Bulb 2 to Light Bulb 3; Light Bulb 3 to Battery.

When you close the switch, observe how the light bulbs glow.

Diagram 2 +

2 ;

Diagram 3

2 ;

CONTINUED ON NEXT PAGE

 Data Record your observations.

Conditions

Observations

Diagram 1

How bright is the bulb?

Diagram 2

What is the brightness of the bulbs? How do they compare to each other?

Diagram 3

What is the brightness of the bulbs? How do they compare to each other?

Diagram 4

What is the brightness of the bulbs? How do they compare to each other?

Diagram 5

What is the brightness of the bulbs? How do they compare to each other?

 Conclusion For each question, make sure you support your answer with experimental evidence. In other words, what about the experiment you just did verifies your answer? 1. What happened to the brightness of the light as you added loads to the circuit but kept only one battery for the power source?

2. If you unscrew one of the light bulbs in a series circuit, what happens to the circuit? Try it and see. Explain what happens.

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Series Circuit with Multiple Batteries and Loads & Background In the first series circuits, you added loads (light bulbs) to the circuit. The amount of work that the loads could do decreased. In this experiment, you will add power sources (batteries) to the series circuit to see if the loads receive more power when the power sources and loads are connected in a series (one loop).

? Question  How will adding power sources affect loads wired in series?

Diagram 4

 Hypothesis Read the procedure and record your hypothesis.

 Materials 3 Battery holders 1 Switch 3 Light bulb holders

+ 3 Batteries (D) 3 Light bulbs 7 Pieces of wire or alligator clips

Procedure 1.

First, close the switch in the circuit you made in Diagram 3 on page 43. Observe the brightness of the bulbs.

Make a series circuit with two power sources, one switch, and three loads, as shown in Diagram 4. Connect the parts in this order: Battery 1 (-) to Battery 2 (+); Battery 2 (-) to Switch; Switch to Light Bulb 1; Light Bulb 1 to Light Bulb 2; Light Bulb 2 to Light Bulb 3; Light Bulb 3 to Battery 1 (+). Make sure you connect the negative end of Battery 1 (-) to the positive end of Battery 2 (+).

When you close the switch, observe the brightness of the bulbs. Did their brightness change when you added another power source, as compared to Diagram 3 (Step 1 above)?

Make a series circuit with three power sources, one switch, and three loads, as shown in Diagram 5. Connect the parts in this order: Battery 1 (-) to Battery 2 (+); Battery 2 (-) to Battery 3 (+); Battery 3 (-) to Switch; Switch to Light Bulb 1; Light Bulb 1 to Light Bulb 2; Light Bulb 2 to Light Bulb 3; Light Bulb 3 to Battery 1 (+). Make sure you connect the negative end of one battery to the positive end of the other.

When you close the switch, observe the brightness of the bulbs. Did their brightness change when you added another power source?

 Data

Diagram 5 + +

Use the data table on page 50 to record your observations.

 Conclusion 1. What happened to the brightness of the light as you added batteries to the circuit?

2. Did adding power sources to the series circuit increase the power to the loads? (power = voltage x current)

CONTINUED ON NEXT PAGE

Parallel Circuits & Background In series circuits, electricity flows through all parts of the circuit in one loop. In parallel circuits, there are separate circuits within the larger circuit. If there is one power source and more than one load, each of the loads is connected to the power source separately. Part of the power goes to each load.

? Question 

Diagram 1

How are parallel circuits different from series circuits?

 Hypothesis Read the procedure and record your hypothesis.

 Materials 1 Battery holder 3 Switches 3 Light bulbs

1 D Battery 9 Pieces of wire or alligator clips

Diagram 2

Procedure First, make a simple circuit as in Diagram 1. Observe the brightness of the light bulb when you open and close the switch. Open the switch again and leave it open.

Make a parallel circuit with one power source, two switches, and two loads, as shown in Diagram 2. Leaving the simple circuit from step 1 assembled, attach one more switch and one more light bulb. Connect the Battery (+) to Switch 2; Switch 2 to Light Bulb 2; Light Bulb 2 to Battery (-). Leave both switches open.

Close Switch 1 and observe the brightness of Light Bulb 1. Open Switch 1 and close Switch 2, and observe the brightness of Light Bulb 2. Keeping Switch 2 closed, close Switch 1 again to provide electricity to both bulbs and observe the brightness of both bulbs. Open the switches and leave them open.

Make a parallel circuit with one power source, three switches, and three loads, as shown in Diagram 3. Leaving the parallel circuit assembled in step 2 connected, add an additional switch and bulb to the battery. Connect the Battery (+) to Switch 3; Switch 3 to Light Bulb 3; Light Bulb 3 to Battery (-). Leave all switches open.

Diagram 3

Close Switch 1 and observe the brightness of Light Bulb 1. Open Switch 1 and close Switch 2, and observe the brightness of Light Bulb 2. Open Switch 2 and close Switch 3, and observe the brightness of Light Bulb 3. Close all three switches, providing electricity to all three bulbs, and observe the brightness of the bulbs.

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 Data Record your observations.

Conditions

Observations

Diagram 1

How bright is the bulb?

Diagram 2, first switch only

How bright is the bulb?

Diagram 2, second switch only

How bright is the bulb?

Diagram 2, both switches

How bright are the bulbs?

Diagram 3, switch 1 only

How bright is the bulb?

Diagram 3, switches 1 and 2 closed

How bright are the bulbs?

Diagram 3, all switches closed

How bright are the bulbs?

 Conclusion For each question, make sure you support your answer with experimental evidence. In other words, what about the experiment you just did verifies your answer? 1. If one of the light bulbs is unscrewed, will the other bulbs glow? Try it and see. Explain your observations.

2. Do you think the battery would last as long with three circuits as with one?

CONTINUED ON NEXT PAGE

Series and Parallel Circuits & Background In this experiment, you will build circuits that have both series and parallel connections. You will connect the power sources in series circuits and the loads in parallel circuits.

Diagram 1

? Question 

How do loads behave in mixed circuits?

 Hypothesis Read the procedure and record your hypothesis.

 Materials 3 Battery holders 3 Switches 3 Light bulb holders 3 D Batteries

12 Pieces of wire or alligator clips 3 Light bulbs Colored pencils

Procedure 1. Make a mixed circuit with two batteries in series, and two sets of one light bulb and one switch in parallel, as shown in Diagram 1. Connect Battery 1 (-) to Battery 2 (+); Battery 2 (-) to Light Bulb 1; Light Bulb 1 to Switch 1; and Switch 1 to Battery 1 (+). Then connect Battery 2 (-) to Light Bulb 2; Light Bulb 2 to Switch 2; and Switch 2 to Battery 1 (+). Leave both switches open. 2. Close Switch 2 and observe the brightness of both light bulbs. Open Switch 2 and close Switch 1 and observe both bulbs again. Lastly, close both switches and observe both bulbs.

Diagram 2 +

+ +

3. Make a mixed circuit with three batteries in series, and three sets of one light bulb and one switch in parallel, as shown in Diagram 2. Connect Battery 1 (-) to Battery 2 (+); Battery 2 (-) to Battery 3 (+); Battery 3 (-) to Light Bulb 1; Light Bulb 1 to Switch 1; and Switch 1 to Battery 1 (+). Then connect Battery 3 (-) to Light Bulb 2; Light Bulb 2 to Switch 2; and Switch 2 to Battery 1 (+). Lastly, connect Battery 3 (-) to Light Bulb 3; Light Bulb 3 to Switch 3; and Switch 3 to Battery 1 (+). Leave all switches open. 4. Leaving the two switches open, close each switch one at a time and observe the brightness of the bulbs. Next, keep one switch open while closing two switches and observe. Finally, close all three switches and observe the bulb brightness.

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 Data Record your observations.

Conditions

Observations

Diagram 1, both bulbs

How bright are the bulbs?

Diagram 1, only one bulb

How bright is the bulb?

Diagram 2, all bulbs

How bright are the bulbs?

Diagram 2, one bulb removed

How bright are the remaining bulbs?

Diagram 2, two bulbs removed

How bright is the remaining bulb?

 Conclusion For each question, make sure you support your answer with experimental evidence. In other words, what about the experiment you just did verifies your answer? 1. Could you tell that the power from the batteries was divided in the parallel circuits? What experimental evidence supports your answer?

2. If you wanted a string of lights to keep working if one of the bulbs burned out, would you wire the lights in series or parallel? Why?

CONTINUED ON NEXT PAGE

Understanding Utility Pricing Mechanisms & Background Some utilities charge customers on a tiered system. This encourages customers to keep their total electricity use down. Utilities with customers that have any kind of meter can utilize this system. The table below shows how a tiered system might work.

kWh Used per Month

Charge per kWh

up to 300 kWh

$0.15

300 kWh up to 500 kWh

$0.18

over 500 kWh

$0.23

For example, if a family uses 625 kWh of electricity in a month, they will be charged $45.00 for the first 300 kWh, $36.00 for the next 200 kWh, and $28.75 for the last 125 kWh, for a total of $109.75 for their electricity use. There will be other charges such as connectivity, maintenance, and taxes. Use the following chart to answer the questions on page 57.

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? Questions  1. This family’s home uses electricity to heat water and the interior of their home. Which day(s) do you think were coldest? Why do you think that?

2. The family’s utility provider charges $0.22 for up to 400 kWh used, $0.26 for 400-700 kWh used, and $0.32 for more than 700 kWh. What was the family’s electricity charge for this month?

3. On which days did the family move up a tier in pricing?

4. What are three things the family could have done to use less electricity?

Lesson 3: Building Envelope One of the most important turning points in human history was when people stopped relying on nature for shelter and started building it themselves. By building houses rather than finding them, humans created safe spaces for themselves that provided shelter from bad weather, allowed them to stay warmer in winter, and kept unwanted visitors, like predators and bugs, out. Shelters kept in what was wanted and kept out what was unwanted. These shelters were the first examples of a building envelope.

THERMAL IMAGING ON A WINDOW

A building envelope consists of the parts of a building that keep the insides in and the outsides out. It is the walls, doors, windows, floor, and roof or ceiling. The purpose of the building envelope is to provide a comfortable, safe, dry place for occupants. You are probably aware that some building envelopes function better than others. What makes a good building envelope good?

The Wind Huffs and Puffs The most effective building envelope would have no openings at all—no doors, no windows, and no places where pipes, wires, or ducts pass through it. However, this is both highly impractical and completely useless. A good, functional building envelope has properly constructed openings that prevent air infiltration. The walls are solid and prevent air from pushing through. The windows open and close properly, and when closed do not allow outside air to come inside. The doors open and close without getting stuck and have no gaps around the opening. Air infiltration is an energy industry phrase that describes air from outdoors being able to get inside, or infiltrate, the building. A good building envelope keeps air infiltration to a minimum.

A House Heats Up and Cools Down Until the mid‑20th century, most American homes had little or no insulation—especially in the walls. Many houses built before the 1950s used whatever materials were available for insulation, such as newspaper, mineral wool, horse hair, or nothing at all. National building codes didn’t require wall insulation until 1965, and some states didn’t adopt those standards until the 1970s or 1980s. That’s why people who grew up in older homes sometimes remember frost on the inside of their walls during winter. The 1973 oil embargo emphasized to everyone just how much energy we as a country were using and prompted people to really think about how much energy they use in all areas. Foam and cellulose were the first insulating materials used. In 1983, the Model Energy Code established nationwide guidelines for minimal insulation levels. As a result, the amount of insulation in the attic, walls, and floor of a building significantly increased. The International Energy Conservation Code in 2000 replaced the MEC, requiring higher R-values in all insulated spaces. Today there are rigorous standards for building envelope insulation against air infiltration and thermal bridging. However, not all states have adopted building codes set to these more restrictive standards.

Image courtesy of NEED staff

Thermal imaging uses sensors that detect infrared radiation and display the information in colors. Blues and purples are cooler, while oranges and reds are warmer.

R-Value and Thermal Bridging These are two technical terms with which you should become familiar. R-value is the rating given to a material’s resistance to transferring thermal energy. The higher the R-value, the better an insulator. Thermal bridging refers to a material or object that connects both sides of an insulator and conducts thermal energy across it. The material is creating a bridge for the thermal energy to travel. One common example of thermal bridging is an aluminum window frame. Window frames hold the glass and connect to the walls. They are exposed to both the outside and inside of the building. Aluminum is a good conductor of thermal energy and in this case can act as a thermal bridge. Windows with aluminum frames will often get frosty on the inside in cold weather.

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Materials Science and Insulation Materials science is the study of how the properties of materials— density, strength, and thermal resistance—are determined by their internal structure. Engineers use materials science to design products that perform specific jobs, from lightweight airplane wings to the foam in your running shoes. Insulation is a perfect example of materials science at work. A good thermal insulator is a material that slows thermal energy transfer by trapping air in small spaces and resisting the movement of thermal energy through it. The less easily thermal energy can move through a material, the better that material is at keeping a building comfortable in any season. Researchers evaluate insulation by measuring thermal resistance (R‑value per inch), studying moisture behavior, and assessing environmental impacts such as recyclability and manufacturing energy use. Developing a new insulation material often involves years of experimenting with fibers, foams, additives, and production methods to create something effective, safe, and affordable.

CELLULOSE Cellulose insulation is made from 80–85 percent recycled newspaper that is treated with borate fire retardants. Cellulose is highly eco‑friendly because it is made from CELLULOSE recycled materials and uses relatively little energy to produce. The major drawback is settling; loose‑fill cellulose can settle about 20 percent over time, which must be accounted for at installation. Dense‑pack cellulose has far less settling and also provides excellent air‑blocking, because it is packed tightly into wall Image courtesy of Adobe Stock cavities.

FIBERGLASS Fiberglass is the most widely used home insulation material in the United States. It is made by spinning molten glass into thin fibers that trap air, giving the material its insulating ability. Fiberglass is available as batts, which are a specific width and length, or as loose pieces that are blown into place. Fiberglass lasts for decades if kept dry, but it does not provide air sealing. It must be paired with an air barrier. While fiberglass is recyclable, making fiberglass is energyintensive. Fiberglass is lightweight, inexpensive, and relatively easy to install, but its performance depends heavily on proper placement without gaps or compression.

SPRAY FOAM (OPEN‑CELL AND CLOSED‑CELL) Spray foam is an expanding foam made from two separate substances and applied as a liquid that grows to fill gaps. Spray foam also provides air sealing and, with closed‑cell, a moisture barrier. It can last for 80 years or more without settling. The main environmental downside is its chemical manufacturing process and the need for a gas or liquid additive, called a blowing agent, to make it foam; however, lower‑impact formulas are becoming more common.

RIGID FOAM BOARD (EPS, XPS, AND POLYISO) Rigid foam boards are used for exterior continuous insulation or foundation walls. There are three main types:

MINERAL WOOL OR ROCK WOOL Mineral wool, also called rock wool, is manufactured by melting basalt rock and steel slag and spinning it into dense fibers. Mineral wool is naturally fire resistant and is about three times denser than fiberglass, which helps with sound absorption and moisture resistance. Compared to fiberglass, it is about 50 percent more expensive. It does not burn, absorb water, or sag, so it maintains performance over time. Mineral wool has a better impact on the environment. It contains recycled slag and is GREENGUARD Gold certified for low emissions.

MINERAL OR ROCK WOOL Image courtesy of Adobe Stock

EPS (Expanded Polystyrene): best temperature stability and lowest environmental impact among foam boards. XPS (Extruded Polystyrene): excellent moisture resistance, but blowing agents may have higher global warming potential. Polyiso (polyisocyanurate): performance drops in very cold weather. Rigid foam boards last a long time and maintain R‑value for decades. Environmental impact varies widely with blowing agents used in manufacturing.

INSULATED CONCRETE FORMS (ICF s ) Insulated concrete forms (ICFs) combine structure and insulation in one system: two EPS foam panels are filled with concrete. Walls made with ICFs are excellent insulators because of the insulating R-value from the foam and the thickness of the concrete. Using ICFs eliminates thermal bridging in the wall and creates exceptionally airtight, durable walls. They last the lifetime of the building and often improve the efficiency of the heating and cooling systems because the heavy concrete layer inside the foam keeps the temperature from changing significantly. The biggest environmental impact is the carbon footprint of the concrete, but ICFs greatly reduce the amount of energy used in the building.

STRUCTURAL INSULATED PANELS (SIPS) SIPs are factory‑built panels made of an insulating foam core sandwiched between two sheets of oriented strand board (OSB). SIPs are often 4-6 inches thick and create very tight building envelopes. They also reduce thermal bridging because the insulation is continuous across the panel. Their environmental footprint largely depends on the foam used; however, OSB skins use fast‑growing, managed‑forest wood.

The Next Generation of Insulation Research into insulation is focusing primarily on combining materials that will both insulate and provide structure in walls. Insulated concrete forms and structural insulated panels are two examples of this kind of construction. Another example combines extruded polystyrene (foam) insulation with a thin concrete layer, creating a hybrid of ICF concepts. Combining structural elements with insulation reduces labor

time and costs and essentially eliminates thermal bridging. Continuous exterior insulation, now common in modern energy codes, often uses rigid foam or mineral wool boards to create high‑performance envelopes with fewer weak points.

Bringing It All Together When choosing an insulation material, engineers and builders weigh thermal performance, cost, longevity, environmental impact, and ease of installation. Fiberglass is inexpensive and common; mineral wool offers fire and moisture resistance; cellulose is highly eco‑friendly; spray foam provides unmatched air sealing; rigid foam boards deliver high R‑value in thin layers and ICFs and SIPs combine structure and insulation in innovative ways. Understanding the science behind these materials helps explain why no single option is “best.” The right choice depends on climate, building design, and performance goals.

INSULATION MATERIALS AT-A-GLANCE

TYPICAL COST (INSTALLED, 2026)

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

LONGEVITY

R 3.0 to R 4.3 per inch (batts and dense pack)

$0.30–$1.50/sq ft (batts); $0.50–$2.00/sq ft (blown in)

Made from glass; recyclable but energy intensive to produce

Very long lasting if kept dry; performance depends on installation quality

R 3.8 to R 4.3 per inch

$1.00–$2.10/sq ft installed (typical)

Contains recycled steel slag; low VOC; fire resistant and mold resistant

Maintains R value for decades; does not sag or settle

MATERIAL

R VALUE PER INCH

FIBERGLASS

MINERAL WOOL (ROCK WOOL)

CELLULOSE

R 3.2 to R 3.8 per inch $0.60–$2.30/sq ft (loose (loose fill or dense pack) fill); $1.50–$3.00/sq ft (dense pack)

~80–85% recycled newspaper; low manufacturing energy; very eco friendly

20–30 year lifespan; loose fill settles ~20% over time

SPRAY FOAM (OPEN CELL)

R 3.5 to R 3.6 per inch

$1.50–$2.50/sq ft installed

Chemical based; some low impact formulas emerging

~80+ years; does not settle

SPRAY FOAM (CLOSED CELL)

R 6.0 to R 7.0 per inch (highest of common materials)

$3.00–$4.50/sq ft installed

Same as open cell; blowing agents vary in impact

Extremely long lasting; provides moisture barrier

RIGID FOAM – EPS

R 3.6 to R 4.4 per inch

$0.35–$0.90/sq ft (material only)

Lowest environmental impact among foams; stable over time

Long service life; R value stays stable

RIGID FOAM – XPS

R 4.5 to R 5.0 per inch

$0.50–$1.20/sq ft (material only)

Uses blowing agents with higher global warming potential

Long lasting; small R value loss over time

RIGID FOAM – POLYISO

R 5.6 to R 6.5 per inch (drops in cold temps)

$0.70–$1.50/sq ft (material only)

Moderate environmental impact; high performance per inch

Durable; long life but performance varies with temperature

ICFS (INSULATED CONCRETE FORMS)

About R 21 from foam; effective R 30–R 50 with thermal mass

Cost varies widely by home; not sold per sq ft of insulation alone

EPS foam + concrete; high embodied carbon but excellent operating efficiency

Lasts the lifetime of the building; foam does not degrade

SIPS (STRUCTURAL INSULATED PANELS)

R 20–R 32 for 4–6 inch panels (≈ R 4–R 5.3 per inch)

$7–$15/sq ft installed (walls/roofs)

Depends on foam core; OSB skins use managed forest wood

Very long lasting; minimal thermal bridging

VOC = Volatile Organic Compounds

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“R” You Sure This Insulation Is to Code? The higher the R-value, the better the insulator. There are many types of insulating materials. An International Energy Conservation Code (IECC) provides guidance for designers, builders, and retrofitters of residential buildings. This code has designations for insulation, fenestration (windows), and air sealing to ensure the building envelope is properly insulated and sealed to reduce energy costs. For each climate zone there is a minimum required R-value which can be met by adding continuous insulation layers (CI) between the wall and exterior, or by achieving the R-value by using a combination of insulation in the cavities between surfaces and on the exteriors of walls. The table below showcases attics and walls only. However, floors, wall cavities, ceilings, and attics may all differ, depending on climate zone. The use of alternative building supplies may also alter the R-value necessary.

7 6 4

5 4

3 3 2

2 1

KEY CLIMATE ZONE

7/8

MINIMUM R-VALUE REQUIREMENT TO MEET 2021 IECC CEILING R-VALUE IN AN UNINSULATED ATTIC R-VALUE FOR UNINSULATED 2X4 WOOD-FRAME WALL

R30

R13 or R0 + R10 CI*

R49

R13 or R0 + R10 CI

R49

R20 or R13 + R5 CI or R0 + R15 CI

4 (except Marine)

R60

R20 + R5 CI or R13 + R10 CI or R0 + R20 CI

5 (and Marine 4) R60

R20 + R5 CI or R13 + R10 CI or R0 + R20 CI

R60

R20 + R5 CI or R13 + R10 CI or R0 + R20 CI

7 and 8

R60

R20 + R5 CI or R13 + R10 CI or R0 + R20 CI

*CI stands for "continuous insulation" that is applied to the exterior of the wall assembly just inside the cladding material (siding, etc.). Examples “R5 CI or R13” provides two different choices: R-5 continuous insulation (CI on the interior or exterior surface of the wall or R-13 cavity insulation on the interiors side of the wall. When a combination of CI and cavity fill insulation is required, the first value listed is the cavity insulation, and the second value is continuous insulation. Example: R13 + R5 CI means R-13 cavity fill insulation PLUS R-5 continuous insulation on the exterior. In some cases, the required R-value of the continuous insulation may differ depending on whether it is installed on the interior or exterior side of the wall. ©2026 The NEED Project Your Future in Energy Efficiency and Conservation www.NEED.org

Snug as a Bug The building envelope’s main function is to keep us warm, dry, and safe. A good building envelope is well insulated and has windows and doors that close well. The insulation allows the interior to be climate controlled. In cold weather the interior is kept warm, and in hot weather the interior ideally is kept cool. On rainy days the interior stays dry. Perhaps the most important part of controlling the indoor climate is keeping the building warm in cool weather. Much of the United States experiences cold weather in winter—some places have exceptionally cold weather. We need to have a way of warming the interior. Most homes have central heating systems that heat a fluid, usually air, and circulate it. Some older homes have boiler systems that heat water and circulate the hot water. A forced-air furnace uses a heat exchanger to heat air from the home and a large fan to push the hot air through small passageways called duct work or simply ducts. Each room has at least one opening from the duct that allows the heated air to come out. Each floor of the house will have at least one return air duct that leads back to the fan in the furnace. A boiler system does the same thing, except it uses a pump to push the hot water around, and pipes to carry it. Thermal energy from the heated air or water needs to be distributed to the rest of the room so it maintains a comfortable temperature. Thermal energy is always transferred from high temperature to low temperature through three mechanisms: Conduction – this is the transfer of thermal energy between objects that are in contact with each other. Energy transfer occurs from one atom or molecule to another because they are in direct contact with each other. The particles stay in place but vibrate faster as they absorb thermal energy. Adjacent particles then move faster as they absorb energy, and so it continues until everything is the same temperature. This occurs through the rest of the object until the whole object is the same temperature. For example, if you hold a mug of hot chocolate, your hands get warm because they are in direct contact with the mug. When you put a pot on a burner to boil water, you are using conduction to heat it. Convection – this is the transfer of thermal energy with a moving fluid. If you have ever watched a lava lamp you have seen convection in motion. In the lava lamp, the moving fluid is wax. It gets warm from the light, melts, expands as it warms, and rises to the top. The wax then cools, contracts, and sinks. Warm wax is less dense than the other liquid inside the lamp, and cool wax is more dense than the liquid. As the wax warms, its density decreases and it rises to the top. Cooling the wax increases its density and the wax sinks. This happens in any body of liquid or gas with uneven heating. The movement of hot and cold fluid in a circle is called a convection current. Air fryers use convection to cook food. They blow air across a heating element, and the moving, hot air cooks your food. Radiation – this is the transfer of thermal energy via waves of energy. If you have ever sat beside a campfire, warming your hands, you have used radiation. The sun radiates energy through waves. Small space heaters have a heating element that gets warm and radiates thermal energy. The oven, broiler, and toaster in your kitchen all use radiation to cook food.

Which method is most efficient? It depends on the objective. If you want to quickly heat a large space, convection is the fastest way to do it. Heat up the air and move it around the room. Conduction is the best way to heat up a specific object, especially if the object is made of a conducting material. Most frying pans, sauce pans, and stock pots are made of metal because metals conduct thermal energy well. They heat up quickly on a burner. Radiation, however, can heat up a large space and can also heat up a specific object. We tend to gravitate toward radiative heat sources because they just feel good. On a cold day, a fire in a fireplace is very comforting and cozy.

Buildings Breathe When your home was designed for its heating and cooling systems, one assumption the designer made was that the interior doors would remain open. This allows air to move from one room to another, and rooms farther away from the furnace stay warm because air from other rooms can move in. Most of the time, duct work delivering warm air to a room will be located on the floor because warm air, being less dense, will rise. Duct work carrying cold air will ideally be installed in the ceiling or high on a wall because cold air is more dense. The placement of the duct openings takes advantage of convection currents and the density of the air being delivered. Most of the time, though, one set of ducts is used to deliver both heated and cooled air. The placement depends on the construction materials in the floor, ceiling, and walls. A building on a basement or crawl space will have ducts in the floor. A building on a cement slab foundation will have ducts in the ceiling. Air will not just circulate from room to room or through the duct work. It will also move throughout the house from the basement all the way up and out the attic, especially in warm weather. If you live in a tall house that has two stories, a basement, and an attic space, you might have noticed air currents coming up a stair way or through other spaces in your house on hot days. This is called the stack effect. Air in the attic, which is usually not insulated, gets hot and pushes out the attic vents. Cooler air is pulled up to replace the air through convection. The stack effect is not only operating on hot days. On cold days, when your heating system is running, convection can cause your home to lose warmed air through poorly insulated ceilings or any open gaps in upper floors. And if it is a very cold or windy day, your home can lose heated air because of differences in air pressure. Bernoulli’s principle states that a moving fluid, like air, has a lower pressure than a static fluid. On a very windy day, the air pressure will be lower than the pressure inside your house where the air is not moving around nearly as fast. Gaps in windows and exterior doors will allow air to be pulled out in an effort to balance the pressure.

Buildings Should Stay Dry Inside In addition to keeping you warm, your home is intended to keep you and your belongings dry. Mold spores are everywhere, and given the right environment and a food source, mold will grow just about anywhere. Mold will grow on paper or wood anywhere there is sufficient moisture. Bathrooms are very humid environments, and that is why mildew will often grow on the walls and in the corners of your bathtub or shower. Mildew is another fungus and needs moisture to grow. Mold and mildew do not need water the way plants do—high humidity or light condensation are all they need to flourish.

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Humidity is Relative Air is a mixture of gases, and one of them is water vapor. The amount of water vapor in the air depends on several factors like climate, wind speed, and temperature. Relative humidity is the term we use to describe the amount of moisture in the air. It is a measurement of the total amount of water vapor in the air as a percentage of the maximum amount the air could hold. Warm air, with faster-moving molecules, will hold more moisture than cold air. Suppose it is a cold winter day. The outdoor temperature is 25°F and the relative humidity is 79 percent. If we warm that air to a comfortable 70°F without adding more moisture to the air, the relative humidity drops to just 17 percent! If you’ve ever wondered why your skin and mouth are so much drier in the winter, it is likely because of the significant drop in relative humidity. The most comfortable humidity range is 40-60 percent; lower, and your skin and lips are dry, your house feels colder than it is, and you tend to build up static electricity just from normal movement. Relative humidity above 60 percent, however, can provide the perfect environment for mold and mildew to thrive. Now, suppose it is a hot summer day. The outdoor temperature is 85°F and relative humidity is 70 percent. Cooling that air down to our comfortable 70°F results in a calculated relative humidity of 115 percent! It is uncommon to have 100 percent humidity indoors – such as when the bathroom is all steamy after a hot shower—because there are many materials and surfaces that will absorb moisture. But don’t worry, your air conditioner will collect condensation—moisture that has condensed out of thin air—and collect it in a tray or send it down a nearby drain. Running the air conditioner on a hot, humid day will not cause mold to grow indoors as long as the water collected by the air conditioner can be safely removed. Dehumidifiers can be added to help this process.

Relative Humidity Heating air without adding moisture reduces the relative humidity of the air. In this diagram water or moisture is represented by blue (darker) shading.

Warm Air

Cool Air

the water gets into the building, it needs to be dealt with quickly and effectively so mold and mildew don’t grow, wood framing doesn’t rot, and the R-value of insulation is not compromised. Water vapor will always move from warm, moist areas toward cool, dry areas. In winter, water vapor will move toward the exterior of the house. In summer, water vapor will work its way indoors. In many parts of the U.S., especially where winters are cold, the biggest moisture concern is vapor moving from the warm interior toward the colder exterior. A typical wall is built with cladding, framing, insulation, interior cladding, and a vapor barrier. Cladding is the surface you see. Indoors it is sheetrock (drywall) or plaster with paint or wallpaper. Sometimes interior cladding is wood, like shiplap. Outside, you might see siding, brick, stone, or other materials. Between the interior and exterior cladding is the framing. This is the structural part of Interior Cladding the wall, usually made Framing and Insulation with wood lumber or Sheathing aluminum and covered with a sheathing of Exterior Classing some kind, like oriented strand board (OSB) or plywood. Insulation will be in the framed wall with the framing Placement of vapor pieces, called studs. In barrier in homes cold-winter climates, with more cool weather than warm builders often add a weather vapor barrier (or vapor retarder) to help control moisture.

Wall Cross Section

Cool air is like a small Without a vapor barrier, moisture would move from the warm part sponge—it holds a small of ofthe wall and diffuse through the wall until it reached the dew amount water. Warm air is like a larger point temperature, at which the water will condense. The dew point sponge—it holds moredepends on the outdoor relative humidity and is usually temperature moisture. Warming the warmer than the outdoor temperature. If you imagine a cross-section air increases the amount of ait can wall, with of water hold, but the interior warm and the exterior cold, different parts of the wall will be a temperature anywhere between those two the relative humidity decreases because Eventually, no extremes. without a vapor barrier, the moisture will diffuse additional moisture is through the wall until it reaches its dew point. Then the water vapor added.

will condense and everything in that part of the wall will start to get wet. Wood framing will be wet enough to grow mold and if left long enough, will start to rot.

100%

50%

25%

Water, Water, Everywhere Moisture can get into a building three ways. There can be a leak in the plumbing or envelope that bring in a lot of water in a short amount of time. If there are gaps around windows or doors, or cracks in the exterior walls, air moves in with its associated moisture. And, over time, water vapor will diffuse through materials. Regardless of how

Adding a vapor barrier in the right place in the wall will prevent water vapor from reaching its dew point temperature and condensing. For most homes in cold-winter climates, the vapor barrier is a thin plastic sheeting that is placed between the interior cladding and framing. This location inside the wall will not allow water vapor to cool down enough to condense. It is important to note that a vapor barrier does not prevent air movement. Most moisture problems in walls come from air leakage, not vapor diffusion, so stopping air movement is just as important as using a vapor barrier.

Building Envelope Visual Inspection  Background Maintaining a sound building envelope is a challenge. Materials expand and contract at different rates as they warm and cool. Wood will shrink if it is not fully dry when incorporated and will swell if it encounters moisture. Some materials become brittle over time due to exposure to sunlight. Settling of soil can cause shifts that result in gaps or cracks. For these reasons and more, it is important to conduct periodic visual inspection of your building envelope whether you are a homeowner or building manager.

? Questions Where are gaps and failures of the building envelope exterior most likely to occur?

 Hypothesis Write a hypothesis that addresses the question.

 Procedure 1.

Collect images as instructed by your teacher and share them to a central location.

Analyze each image assigned to your group if your teacher is having you analyze them on your own.

In each image, identify any gaps in the building envelope that need closer inspection.

Record any possible actions you think need to be taken to address your findings.

With your team, present your findings to the class.

 Data and Observations IMAGE NUMBER

AREA FOR CLOSER INSPECTION

RECOMMENDED ACTIONS

 Conclusion 1.

Did you notice any signs of deterioration, moisture intrusion, or structural movement?

If you could open up one area for further inspection, where would it be and why?

Which observed issues do you think should be the highest priorities?

If the issues that you observed are not addressed, what could happen over time?

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InsulBox Build Instructions  Background To compare the performance of various types of insulation in a simulated wall cavity, you can use an “InsulBox.” An InsulBox is a wooden box with four spaces inside. Three have insulation, and one is empty. In this activity you will build your own InsulBox for later use in experiments comparing various insulation types.

 Materials 1” x 1” wood 2 - 12” × 12” Pieces of ¹/8” chipboard, or ¼” plywood, or equivalent 4 - 1 1/2" x 1/4" Bolts with wingnuts Bolts with wingnuts Measuring tape Saw Drill with ¼” wood bit Safety glasses Wood glue Clamps

 Procedure 1.

Examine the diagram of the InsulBox on page 19. The interior cavities must all be equal in size.

Use the diagram to make a list of the pieces you need to prepare. List the items needed in the table below.

Prepare all the necessary pieces.

Glue and clamp all the 1” pieces and leave to dry overnight.

Glue and clamp the bottom board (chipboard, plywood) onto the frame and leave it to set overnight.

Measure and mark a point that is ½” in from the vertical and horizontal edges on each corner.

Gently drill through the corners of the frame with the center point of a ¼” bit in the locations you just marked. Use gentle pressure so you don’t split the wood.

Place the bolts through the holes so the head of the bolt sits against the bottom of the board. Put a couple small drops of glue between the head of the bolts and the bottom board so that the bolts stay in place even when the wing nuts are removed.

Measure and mark a point that is ½” in from the vertical and horizontal edges of the top 12" x 12" board (chipboard, plywood).

10. Gently drill through the corners of the top board with the center point of a ¼” bit in the locations you just marked. Use gentle pressure so you don’t split the wood. 11. The InsulBox is now ready for use. Fill three of the cavities with insulation materials. The fourth should remain empty. For storage, place the top board in place over the corner bolts, and secure the lid with the wingnuts.

 Parts list: MATERIAL

DIMENSIONS

NUMBER OF PIECES NEEDED

CONTINUED ON NEXT PAGE

 Conclusion 1.

There were a couple of measurements missing from the diagram. Add the missing dimensions to the diagram if you have a printed copy or list and describe them here.

What you built is a model of a wall cavity. What are some advantages and disadvantages of using a model of this scale for experimenting with different materials for insulating walls?

When you apply for a building permit, the permitting office will typically require the applicant to submit detailed construction plans with properly labeled drawings. What are some things that the permitting office will look at in these drawings to make sure the planned structure is safe and compliant with building codes?

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What’s in Your Wall? ? Question What happens to the external temperature when the space in a wooden box is filled with insulation? Which insulating materials have the greatest effect?

 Hypothesis Write a statement to describe how temperature might differ with different insulation and which materials might be most effective.

 Materials InsulBox Infrared thermometer Heating pad Timer

 Procedure 1.

Plug in the heating pad and turn it on the highest setting. Place it on a table top where it is firmly supported.

Place the InsulBox on top of the heating pad.

Use the infrared thermometer to record the temperature of each chamber. Record this under Time: 0 in the data table.

Every five minutes, record the temperature of each chamber. Do this for a half hour or for as long as indicated by lab protocols.

Calculate the overall temperature change for each chamber. Then use the information on pages 58-62 to predict the type of insulation in each.

When directed, remove the lid of the InsulBox and record the actual insulation inside each chamber.

 Data and Observations TEMPERATURE TIME (MIN)

CAVITY #1

CAVITY #2

CAVITY #3

CAVITY #4

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 ΔT Insulation Prediction Actual Insulation

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 Conclusion 1.

Rank the insulation types in the InsulBox by R-value, lowest to highest.

Did the data you collected reflect the R-value ranking? Use evidence from your investigation to support your answer.

Using your data set, explain why insulating the attic of a home is important.

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Inspecting Using Infrared  Background Thermal energy moves in three main ways: conduction, convection, and radiation. This activity focuses on infrared radiation (IR), which is thermal energy emitted by all objects that are warmer than their surroundings. The warmer an object is, the more infrared radiation it emits. Infrared radiation is invisible to the human eye, but it can be detected with special cameras that translate temperature differences into images. These images allow inspectors to find patterns of heat loss, air leakage, and temperature differences that would otherwise be difficult to identify. When conducting an energy audit, inspectors often use infrared cameras to extend their senses. IR images can identify areas of missing or inadequate insulation, air leaks in the building envelope, uninsulated pipes, and electrical equipment that is releasing excess heat. IR cameras have also been used to detect wet spots in sheetrock, showing where water is leaking through the roof or from upstairs plumbing. Images from an infrared camera show a range of colors corresponding to certain temperatures. Lighter colors like white and yellow indicate higher temperature, while darker colors like blue and purple indicate lower temperature. The camera often provides temperature scale information with the image.

? Question How do IR images show areas where energy is being wasted?

 Procedure 1.

As a class, conduct a visual inspection of the building envelope, capturing images with both visible light and IR.

Divide the images you acquired among your class or group so that each team has approximately 5 sets of images to inspect more closely.

With your team, analyze the images closely to identify places that need attention to reduce energy loss. Propose an energy-saving measure (ESM) for locations where you find issues.

Present your team’s findings and proposed solutions to the rest of the class.

 Data and Observations Use the following data table to identify issues and propose a solution. If you need more space, use a separate sheet of paper.

LOCATION

OBSERVATIONS

PROPOSED SOLUTION

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 Conclusions 1.

What areas did you and your classmates identify that need attention to prevent further waste of energy and money?

Who in your school community would you present your findings to, and why?

When you get started in a new trade, it is important to have the right tools. Explain why it would be helpful for someone involved in inspecting and maintaining buildings to have access to an IR camera.

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Interpreting Infrared Images  Background Thermal energy moves in three main ways: conduction, convection, and radiation. This activity focuses on infrared radiation (IR), which is thermal energy emitted by all objects that are warmer than their surroundings. The warmer an object is, the more infrared radiation it emits. Infrared radiation is invisible to the human eye, but it can be detected with special cameras that translate temperature differences into images. These images allow inspectors to find patterns of heat loss, air leakage, and temperature differences that would otherwise be difficult to identify. When conducting an energy audit, inspectors often use infrared cameras to extend their senses. IR images can identify areas of missing or inadequate insulation, air leaks in the building envelope, uninsulated pipes, and electrical equipment that is releasing excess heat. IR cameras have also been used to detect wet spots in sheetrock, showing where water is leaking through the roof or from upstairs plumbing. Images from an infrared camera show a range of colors corresponding to certain temperatures. Lighter colors like white and yellow indicate higher temperature, while darker colors like blue and purple indicate lower temperature. The camera often provides temperature scale information.

? Questions How do IR images show areas where energy is being wasted?

 Procedure 1.

Following your teacher’s directions, open the file or folder with the IR image set. Your teacher may choose to project them to your class all at once.

Look at each pair of images assigned to you.

Identify areas of higher temperature and colder temperature. Determine if these areas indicate a place where energy is being wasted.

Record the information for the image set in the data table, identifying any energy saving opportunities.

Repeat steps 3 and 4 for each additional pair of images.

 Data and Observations PAGE NUMBER

HOT SPOTS

COLD SPOTS

OPPORTUNITIES TO SAVE ENERGY?

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 Conclusions 1.

On a hot summer day, you take an infrared photograph of a house that is well-insulated and has the air conditioning running. How would you expect the image of the house to look? What color(s) would you see? Use evidence collected in the activity to support your answer.

You have moved inside the house from question #1. There is a ceiling fan in the room that was recently installed. However, the installers neglected to replace the insulation in that part of the ceiling when they finished their work. What would the IR image look like? What color(s) would you see, and where? Use evidence from the activity to support your answer.

Why would a visual inspection of a house be conducted on a warm day, but IR images taken on a hot day? What would the weatherization specialist hope to see on the hot day? Use evidence from the activity to support your answer.

Explain how using an IR camera can help you find ways to save money and reduce your carbon footprint.

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Wall Construction Analysis  Background Your class has been chosen to consult with Maria, a client moving north from Atlanta, Georgia to Northampton, Massachusetts. She just finished a nightmare of a renovation because moisture from those hot, humid, Georgia summers got into the exterior walls of her house, causing mold to grow. This is a problem she wants to avoid completely in the house she is building in Massachusetts. Maria knows that winters in Northampton are very cold, but she has no experience with the construction methods this new climate dictates. Maria is not overly wealthy, so she needs to stay within her $550,000 budget, and she wants her quartz countertops and marble bathroom! Maria has come to her meeting with Jack, her builder, ready to insist on a wall construction that allows moisture exchange in both directions, allowing for hot, humid summer weather. Jack has lived in Massachusetts his whole life and is very familiar with moisture control in residential buildings and what minimum codes recommend. Jack assures Maria that the construction of her home will still control moisture using proper wall design, air sealing, and insulation. However, recognizing Maria’s anxiety over mold growth, he presents her with several options, including the bare minimum that meets building code, for the exterior walls for her new home. BASE WALL ASSEMBLY – MINIMUM ACCORDING TO BUILDING CODE This wall will be wood-framed and include vinyl siding, house wrap, OSB sheathing, 2x6 stud walls with R-19 fiberglass batt insulation, 6-mil polyethylene vapor retarder, and painted drywall. This will keep her home reasonably warm in winter and control moisture, avoiding mold in the wall. Jack further explains that the bare minimum construction is going to cost about $100,000, but may not provide the level of insulation needed for the coldest Massachusetts winter days. If Maria chooses the Base Wall Assembly, her entire house build will come in $50,000 under budget, which is appealing to Maria. Still, she wants to hear the other options Jack has prepared and the option your class as a whole recommends.

2 Instructions As a small group, read your assigned option. Use the graphic organizer to prepare a list of the pros and cons, and decide if you would choose this option if you were Maria. Plan a quick, three-minute presentation to the class about the option and whether you think it is a good choice. You will also hear similar presentations from the other groups, and as a class you will be selecting the option you think Maria should choose.

Wall Construction Options ALTERNATIVE WALL CONSTRUCTION #1 – WOOD FRAMING WITH EXTERIOR RIGID FOAM This wall will be wood-framed and be similar to the base assembly, except that a layer of rigid foam insulation—either polyisocyanurate or extruded polystyrene—will be added outside the OSB sheathing but beneath the vinyl siding. When properly installed this layer of insulation will be continuous, with very little thermal bridging. It also makes sure the OSB sheathing stays warm so moisture cannot condense on the sheathing, significantly reducing the risk of mold growth. This option will cost about $135,000 due to materials and additional labor.

ALTERNATIVE WALL CONSTRUCTION #2 – THICKER WOOD FRAMING This wall will be wood-framed in the manner similar to the base assembly. However, instead of 2x6 studs, the framing will be upgraded to 2x8 studs and include thicker fiberglass batts in the walls. The R-value of the insulation will go from R-19 to R-25, and might even be able to include R-30 batts. Thicker walls with higher R-value insulation will be warmer but will not prevent all air movement through the wall. This option will cost about $120,000 due to larger studs and thicker insulation.

ALTERNATIVE WALL CONSTRUCTION #3 – CLOSED-CELL SPRAY FOAM INSULATION This wall uses standard 2×6 wood framing, but the stud cavities are filled with closed‑cell spray polyurethane foam instead of fiberglass batts. Closed‑cell spray foam provides a cavity R‑value between R‑34 and R‑38; however, the overall R‑value of the wall will be slightly lower due to thermal bridging through the wood framing. In addition to its high insulating value, closed‑cell spray foam seals the wall against air movement, reducing air infiltration and limiting the amount of moisture that can be carried into the wall by moving air. Using spray foam makes future changes—such as adding wiring or light fixtures—much more difficult. This option also has a higher environmental impact due to the petroleum‑based materials used in the foam and the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted during and shortly after installation. This option will cost approximately $140,000 due to higher material costs and specialized labor.

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ALTERNATIVE WALL CONSTRUCTION #4 – STRUCTURAL INSULATED PANELS Structural Insulated Panels (SIPs) are advanced composite materials made of a “sandwich” of foam core with oriented strand board (OSB) on either side. They replace the traditional wood framing altogether and are the structural wall element of the house. These 6.5” thick panels have an R-value of R-24, are very airtight, and keep the sheathing warm so moisture cannot condense on it. Because they provide continuous insulation, there are few thermal breaks and the potential for mold is reduced dramatically. They do require custom manufacturing, and if Maria wants to change the exterior walls of her house in the future, it is much more difficult to do so with SIPs. This option will cost $200,000 to use.

ALTERNATIVE WALL CONSTRUCTION #5 – INSULATED CONCRETE FORMS Insulated Concrete Forms (ICFs) use a form made of rigid foam that is filled with concrete, forming a foam-concrete-foam sandwich. The foam on the interior and exterior of the wall provides R-30 insulation and built-in vapor retardation. Concrete is not affected by occasional moisture, and the use of synthetic materials all but eliminates mold and pest infestation. They’re also a great soundproofing option and are very energy efficient. However, once these walls are built, they’re built. Modifying the building or running any additional wiring is very difficult. This is the most expensive option, and will run $200,000 to $250,000, but because it is also so energy efficient, Maria’s utility costs after she moves in will be 50-60 percent less than with the other options.

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Wall Construction Graphic Organizer Construction Method: Construction Method Cost: What does this method do to the total house construction budget?

Construction Method Pros and Cons:

PROS

CONS

Based on this information, what is your recommendation regarding this construction method for the client, Maria?

Lesson 4: Conditioning the Air The building envelope, consisting of insulated walls, roof, floor, doors, and windows, works as a system to keep conditioned air inside. The better the building envelope keeps interior and exterior air separated, the more efficient it is, and the less the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) equipment runs. The HVAC system conditions air by keeping it at a comfortable temperature, managing humidity, and providing fresh air in commercial buildings and homes that have exceptionally well-sealed building envelopes. The heating and cooling systems use the most energy in buildings of all types. Energy used to heat and cool residential buildings accounts for about 44 percent of all of the energy used in the home. In commercial buildings, like stores, restaurants, government buildings, and schools, it’s more than half—51 percent! When energy efficiency specialists like Certified Energy Managers and Certified Energy Auditors begin evaluating energy use in a building, the HVAC system is one of the first things they investigate. The condition of the air inside a building affects its indoor air quality. Known colloquially as IAQ, indoor air quality refers to how clean, breathable, and livable the air inside a building is. Poor IAQ leads to sluggish, unmotivated, and sometimes unhealthy people. If a room is too hot or too cold, too humid or too dry, or has a lot of dust, pollen, odors, or chemical vapors in the air, the people in the room may not be as functional and might even get sick.

Natural gas furnaces commonly have an efficiency of about 80 percent, though high-efficiency furnaces up to 98 percent are available and frequently installed. An electric forced air furnace has a big electric resistance heating element in place of the gas burner and heat exchanger. An electric forced-air furnace is 100 percent efficient in transforming the electrical energy into thermal energy, but the cost to operate an electric furnace is much higher than natural gas furnaces. Other heating systems used in residences include boilers, heat pumps, mini-splits, space heaters, wood stoves, and electric baseboard heating systems that are essentially permanent electric space heaters installed along the walls of a room.

Types of Heating Systems in U.S. Homes DOES NOT USE HEATING 4.69% STEAM OR HOT WATER BOILER 7.52%

OTHER HEATING EQUIPMENT 2.17%

CENTRAL FORCED AIR FURNACE 60.24%

ROOM HEATERS 12.33%

A Comfortable Temperature The laws of thermodynamics tell us that thermal energy will move from high temperature to low temperature until everything is the same temperature. Thermal energy is moved through conduction, convection, and radiation. Most residential HVAC systems use convection to heat rooms by heating air and pushing it through ducts into rooms. Convection currents form as warm air rises and cool air sinks, and the air mixes until it equilibrates at a consistent temperature. Cooling systems work the same way but use cold air instead of warm air. The convection currents moving warm and cool air around a room also transport dust, moisture, and allergens like pet dander or pollen. Homes that use radiators with hot water instead of forced-air heating systems are often less dusty because the air is not being pushed around or stirred by convection. Six out of every ten homes in the United States are heated with a central, warm-air furnace. This type of heating equipment uses an energy source to heat the air, and a large fan to push the air through duct work within the walls, floor, or ceiling of the rooms in the building. The location of the vents depends on whether the building is a single-family dwelling and what kind of foundation it has. Natural gas furnaces are most common. This type of furnace features a pilot light or electric igniter that lights a large burner when the furnace cycles on. The combustion chamber for the burner is in the middle of a heat exchanger, which gets hot from the flame but does not mix combustion gases with the air being pushed around the house.

HEAT PUMP 13.06%

Data Source: EIA RECS, 2020

Pumping … Heat? Even though most homes have a central, warm-air forced furnace, after 2020, thirteen percent of homes had heat pumps. While that seems like a small percentage, in the last five years, the number of homes using high-efficiency heat pumps or those specifically designed for colder weather has been growing. Why is that? Heat pumps and their smaller counterparts, mini-splits, are a more energy-efficient way to heat a space.

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You may be wondering how a device can pump thermal energy. In truth, thermal energy is not “pumped” anywhere. A heat pump uses two scientific principles, compression and evaporation, to heat air. Inside a heat pump is a compressor connected to a tube, called a coil, filled with a refrigerant. Heat pumps cycle through four phases: compression, evaporation, expansion, and condensation. The refrigerant is circulated through these four phases in order.

Refrigeration Cycle CONDENSOR

High Pressure Gas

High Pressure Liquid EXPANSION VALVE

COMPRESSOR

Low Pressure Gas 4

Low Pressure Liquid

EVAPORATOR

1. The compressor takes low-pressure refrigerant and increases its pressure. 2. The refrigerant condenses from gas to liquid. 3. The liquid refrigerant goes through an expansion valve, from high pressure to low pressure. 4. The low-pressure liquid refrigerant evaporates from liquid to gas. By moving through this four-step cycle over and over, thermal energy is moved from one part of the coil to another. When the refrigerant condenses, it releases thermal energy. When it evaporates, it absorbs thermal energy. In this way, a heat pump can be used for both heating and cooling. If it is cooling a room, the evaporation part of the process will occur indoors and the condensing portion will be outside. If it is in heating mode, the reverse will happen and condensing will occur indoors. Refrigerators and window air conditioners work this way but in only one direction, releasing thermal energy outside. A heat pump is special in that it can operate in both directions, releasing thermal energy indoors or outdoors. Historically, heat pumps were not a good option for cold climates. The compressor technology just could not pull on the refrigerant coming out of the expansion valve sufficiently well so it would evaporate in the coil. If the outdoor temperature went below 40°F, a backup heat source would be necessary. However, recent technological advances have made cold-climate heat pumps (CCHP) possible. These advanced heating systems will function as low as -5°F to -15°F! Except for the coldest climates, CCHP systems will heat most homes in the United States without engaging a backup system.

Mini-splits A ductless mini-split heat pump works very similarly to a standard heat pump. It has a portion that is installed inside the room on an exterior wall, and a portion that is installed outside. A hole is cut in the exterior wall to connect the interior and exterior portions. The big difference with this technology is that each room has its own heat pump and there is no duct work. The advantage to using mini-splits instead of a central heat pump is that rooms can be set to different temperatures. Rooms that are not used often can be conditioned to a lesser degree—kept cooler in winter and warmer in summer – until they are needed. If you like your bedroom cool but your living area warm, a mini-split in each space will allow you to do exactly that. However, installing mini-splits can cost up to twice as much as a central system. Long-term, much of that initial up-front investment is paid back in lower energy bills. Mini-splits are also useful when any additions are added to a home. Instead of increasing the size of the furnace or heat pump and running additional duct work, a mini-split can be installed in the addition. Heat pumps and mini-splits are both air sourced systems. This means the energy for evaporation comes from the air surrounding the coil with the refrigerant. There are also heat pumps that can get thermal energy from deep underground. Known as ground-source heat pumps and also as geothermal systems, the refrigerant cycles in the same way through the same four phases. However, the thermal energy is absorbed from underground, where the soil remains at a relatively constant temperature year-round.

Breathe Deep: Indoor Air Quality Basics It’s not enough to just condition air to a comfortable temperature. Odors, dust, pollen, pet dander, and chemicals from home improvement or cleaning all impact indoor air quality. And let us not forget carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. These gases are odorless, colorless, and can be deadly. Carbon monoxide is a byproduct of incomplete natural gas or propane combustion—if your home has a gas furnace, fireplace, or stove, carbon monoxide is a very real concern. Carbon monoxide is just about the same density as air. If it is present in your home, it will be present at all locations from the floor of the lowest level to the ceiling of the uppermost level. A good carbon monoxide detector is a must in homes using natural gas.

CARBON MONOXIDE DETECTOR Image courtesy of Adobe Stock

Carbon dioxide is far less dangerous than carbon monoxide but still deadly in high enough concentration. It is the primary product of natural gas, propane, and wood combustion and cellular respiration. The breath you exhale is not pure carbon dioxide, but the CO2 concentration is higher than the air you inhale. Over time, in a tightly sealed room, carbon dioxide will accumulate.

Normal, everyday living produces dust from clothing fibers, dead skin cells, pet fur, pet dander, and soil tracked in from outside. These are also seasonal pollens when plants are in bloom and odors from cooking. All of these can build up and make the air unhealthy. Improving indoor air quality (IAQ) is done through two mechanisms: filtration, and ventilation.

The Filter Factor If you have ever used a slotted spoon or made coffee or tea, you’ve used filtration. Filtration is one of the simplest and most important ways to keep indoor air clean. A filter has tiny openings called pores that let air pass through while trapping particles that are too large to fit through. Every time your furnace or air conditioner runs, air is pulled through a filter before it is distributed to the rest of the building. If that filter is doing its job well, dust, lint, pollen, and other debris are trapped in the filter instead of being spread in the air you breathe.

FURNACE FILTERS: DIRTY AND CLEAN

Using the wrong filter—or forgetting to change it—can have real consequences. If the MERV rating is too high for the fan, or the filter is clogged, the system is forced to work harder, which wastes energy, shortens equipment life, and can even cause breakdowns. If the MERV rating is too low, or the filter is dirty, more dust circulates indoors, more allergens float around, and more contaminants pass into the ducts and rooms where people spend their time. Without clean air to breathe, people cannot focus, work well, or be comfortable. Filtration is the first, and easiest, step in improving indoor air quality.

The V in HVAC If you have ever been in a warm room with poor ventilation, you know how stuffy the room can feel and how sleepy you become. Even on a cold day, opening a window for a short amount of time for some fresh air can really improve your energy level and productivity. Ventilation is not something we think about until it is not there. A fresh air supply is vital to maintaining good indoor air quality. Ventilation was first addressed in England by King Charles I in 1631 when he decreed that house ceilings should be at least 10 feet high and windows be taller than wide. The primary concern at the time was smoke from fires, and higher ceilings with taller windows would provide for better ventilation. The first ventilation standards were written for commercial buildings. In 1973, the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and AirConditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) published standard number 62-1973, Standards for Natural and Mechanical Ventilation. The prescribed amount of fresh air necessary in commercial buildings was set at 10 cubic feet per minute (cfm) per person in the building. Depending on the primary use of the building, that number can vary. And while Standard 62-1973 was not required by law, it was the starting point for a common standard against which ventilation was measured.

Image courtesy of Adobe Stock

Not all HVAC filters are the same. Some are designed mainly to protect the equipment by keeping out large particles like dust and hair. Others are designed to improve indoor air quality by trapping smaller particles such as pollen, mold spores, and fine dust. These higher‑quality filters are often sold as “allergen filters” or “pollen filters,” and they help remove particles like pollen or mold spores that can be bothersome, especially in people with allergies or asthma. Choosing the right filter depends on the purpose of the filter. Is it needed to protect the equipment, protect the people in the building, or both? Rather than relying on descriptive, qualitative terms like “pollen filter” or “allergen filter,” HVAC filters are rated quantitatively using the Minimum Efficiency Reporting Value, or MERV. The higher the MERV rating, the smaller the pores in the filter. A lower MERV rating (like MERV 4–8) mainly blocks larger dust and lint. Mid‑range ratings (MERV 9–12) trap smaller particles like pollen and pet dander, which makes them a good fit for households with allergies. High‑end filters (MERV 13–16) capture even finer particles, including some bacteria and smoke. These are often recommended in schools, hospitals, or buildings where clean air is especially important. However, higher‑MERV filters can also restrict airflow if the HVAC system wasn’t designed for them, so choosing a filter that fits both your air‑quality needs and your equipment is essential.

ASHRAE has updated that standard several times. Today, ASHRAE publishes two separate ventilation standards that serve as the primary references for modern building design. The commercial ventilation standard is ASHRAE Standard 62.1—Ventilation and Acceptable Indoor Air Quality, and the residential ventilation standard is ASHRAE Standard 62.2—Ventilation and Acceptable Indoor Air Quality in Residential Buildings. ASHRAE 62.1 governs commercial and institutional buildings, including schools. ASHRAE 62.2 applies to low-rise residential buildings like apartments, townhouses, and single-family homes. Both standards define the minimum amount of outdoor air buildings must bring in to maintain acceptable indoor air quality. Instead of using just one number like the 1973 standard did, the new standards use formulas based on the building’s purpose, the number of people using the space, and the size of the area. Both standards address indoor air quality through ventilation and filtration. The commercial standard includes requirements for moisture control and HVAC system upkeep while the residential standard addresses exhaust fans for kitchens and bathrooms. While local building codes may adopt or modify these standards, the ASHRAE requirements are the basis against which buildings are rated. ASHRAE relies on evidence-based science when writing standards that ensure people inside buildings have high-quality air to breathe.

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Pollution Indoors When you think about pollutants, you might think about smoke from a tall chimney or smoke stack, or vehicle exhaust, or even the brownish haze that hangs over a city on a hot summer day. We usually only think about air pollution as being an outdoor problem, not an indoor concern. The reality is, though, that many pollutants are generated from indoor activities and if a building is not ventilated well, those pollutants accumulate and become a problem. Some indoor air pollutants are more concerning than others because of the health effects they can cause. The following list of indoor air pollutants is not complete, but they are the most prevalent. Particulate matter - this includes things that you could potentially see with a magnifying glass—dust, soot from smoke, and pet dander are three common examples. Every home has some amount of particulate matter in the air and it can be very irritating. Carbon dioxide (CO2) - people often say that we breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide—and that is not true, but it’s not entirely false, either. Your dog panting right in your face is breathing extra carbon dioxide all over you because his cells, like yours, use oxygen and eliminate CO2. The breath you exhale has more CO2 in it than the air you inhaled. If your home is very tightly sealed, CO2 can build up and make you experience brain fog and feel tired. It’s an even greater issue in commercial buildings that are densely populated, like schools, churches, and restaurants that hold a lot more people in the same amount of space. Newer commercial buildings or those that have installed updated HVAC systems have CO2 sensors that signal a ventilation system to pump in fresh air. Volatile Organic Compounds or VOCs - every time you spray furniture polish on a table, or body fragrance spray on yourself, you release volatile organic compounds into the air in your home. VOCs are carbon-based molecules that have a low boiling point and can easily vaporize at room temperature. Some common VOCs are formaldehyde, benzene, acetone, and d-limonene, which gives many cleaning products a pleasant, citrusy scent. Cigarette smoke, nail polish remover, plastic materials and recently dry-cleaned clothing contain VOCs. Many home finishes and furniture emit VOCs, too. Paint, chair and sofa cushions, vinyl flooring, carpet, and sometimes pillows all off-gas VOCs when they are new. People who are more sensitive notice VOCs almost right away. Over time, VOCs that build up indoors can make everyone feel poorly with headaches, nausea, or an irritated nose or throat. If VOCs persist for a long time, they can lead to serious health problems.

CLEANING PRODUCTS CONTAIN VOCs

Image courtesy of Adobe Stock

Combustion byproducts - beyond CO2, burning things produces carbon monoxide and nitrogen dioxide, too. Carbon monoxide is particularly dangerous because it is odorless, colorless, and about the same density as air, meaning it mixes evenly in air. Unlike smoke from a fire, there is no place to move to avoid it. Hemoglobin is the protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen to the rest of your body. It binds to carbon monoxide 200-250 times stronger than it does oxygen, and your cells have no use for carbon monoxide. Your body becomes starved for oxygen, and that is a dangerous situation to be in. Any device inside the home that burns natural gas, whether it is your furnace, a stove, or a fireplace, will produce nitrogen dioxide (NO2). The thermal energy from the flame will provide the energy nitrogen and oxygen in the air need to react and combine. In a furnace or fireplace with a flue to carry combustion gases outdoors, this is not as much of a concern. However, unvented fireplaces, gas stoves, and furnaces with a cracked heat exchanger or problems with the flue can also cause nitrogen dioxide to accumulate. NO2 is irritating to mucous membranes—places like your eyes or the inside of your nose that never dry out. It also irritates the respiratory system, which is especially problematic for people with breathing problems like chronic bronchitis or asthma. Over time, nitrogen dioxide can cause permanent damage to respiratory tissues. Moisture and biological pollutants - moisture is included with biological pollutants because organisms like mold, bacteria, and mildew need adequate moisture to survive. A bathroom with a rarelyused shower is far less likely to have a mold or mildew problem than one used daily by several people. You and your pets also contribute to air pollutants in this category. Dust mites on your skin, clothing, and bedding consume the dead skin cells you shed. Your pets produce dander and have their own colonies of mites. Even though bacteria, dust mites, and other microorganisms are beneficial because they clean up after us, too many can be irritating and make us sick. Ozone - like moisture, this is another pollutant that is beneficial when it’s in the right amount and location, but harmful in the wrong amount and location. High aloft in the upper atmosphere is a layer of ozone, O3, that absorbs ultraviolet radiation from the sun that would otherwise greatly shorten the life span of every living thing on Earth. However, ozone at ground level, or worse yet, inside our homes and workplaces, is harmful rather than helpful. Ozone, like oxygen (O2), is a strong oxidizer—it will interact with other molecules like VOCs and create a category of harmful molecules called free radicals. The free radicals can then attack all kinds of molecules in our cells and cause irritation, damage lung tissue, worsen asthma, and ionize DNA leading to cancer. Ozone will also cause plastic, rubber, and fabrics to degrade faster. The list of sources of indoor ozone is long. Anything with a motor or that creates an electric spark or arc can produce ozone from oxygen in the air. Old motors with brushes are particularly good at this, but even modern devices like laser printers and vacuum cleaners can produce ozone. There are even some devices that deliberately produce ozone. Marketed for their ability to kill bacteria and eliminate odors, these devices produce ozone in quantities much above that which is safe. Some air purifiers are ozone emitters. California has banned purifiers that produce more than 0.05 ppm and has put additional regulations on other ozone-emitting devices.

Aerosols - any liquid that is sprayed as a fine mist can become an aerosol. An aerosol is a liquid in very, very small droplets that remains suspended in air. Aerosols don’t have to come from a spray can—they can also come from a manual pump, such as window cleaner or body fragrance mist. Aerosols add to particulate matter in air, and if they came from a spray can with a propellant, they add to any existing VOCs. Radon - when uranium in the Earth’s crust undergoes radioactive decay, one of the products is radon, a radioactive gas. Radon is an element in the group of noble gases and is not a problem everywhere or for everyone. Older homes with small cracks in the foundations, or homes with basements or crawlspaces, are most likely to have radon infiltration. Because it is colorless and odorless, radon is only detected through a professional test. If a test is positive for radon, mitigation systems must be installed. As you can imagine, inhaling a radioactive substance can cause substantial damage to lungs and airways.

Is Ventilation Air Infiltration? A good building envelope prevents air infiltration so the conditioned air on the inside is not diluted with unconditioned air from outdoors. However, building standards require a certain amount of fresh air be ventilated inside to keep everyone healthy and comfortable. If it sounds like these two concepts are in opposition to each other, you are correct. Building engineers need to maintain a balance between energy efficiency and ventilation. If your home was built within the last 10 years, it is probably very well sealed, and ventilation is something you need to think about. If your home is older, it is probably just leaky enough that ventilation is not a big concern. In times of extremely hot or cold weather, commercial building operators may choose to limit or eliminate entirely the amount of fresh air brought into the building. This is a very fine line to walk, though, and the need to be energy efficient while also providing healthy, fresh air to the building occupants is a difficult task. Recovery ventilators allow fresh air into a building without completely losing the energy put into conditioned air that is pumped out. There are two main categories of recovery ventilators. Heat recovery ventilators (HRVs) exchange only thermal energy between the two air streams. Energy recovery ventilators (ERVs) exchange thermal energy and some moisture. As fresh air is pulled in and stale air is pushed out, the two streams of air are allowed to flow near each other without mixing. Thermal energy moves from high temperature to low temperature, and some of the energy that went into conditioning the air moving out is recovered. While the air streams are completely separated in an HRV, a water vapor-permeable membrane separates them in an ERV, and some moisture along with thermal energy is recovered.

Crimped End Duct

Uncrimped End Duct

One section of duct work is connected to another by crimping the end so it is slightly smaller in diameter and will fit inside the end of the next piece. The joint between two pieces must then be sealed with foil tape so air does not leak. One of the most common issues with HVAC equipment that appears to be faulty is leaky duct work. It is also one of the easiest to fix. Leaky ductwork can waste 20-30 percent of the energy used by an HVAC system.

HVAC System Commissioning When an HVAC system is ready to operate, it needs to be tested to ensure it is operating correctly. This process is called commissioning. Whether it is a new system in a new build, or a replacement system in an old building, this last step is important to make sure everything is properly installed and adjusted. Commissioning involves checking the airflow through the vents, measuring the amount of refrigerant in the cooling system, testing the controls, making sure the ventilation is appropriate, and inspecting the wiring, drainage, and safety mechanisms. Only when all of these things are correct will the system operate at its most efficient. Commissioning should not be the last time the system is checked by an HVAC professional, though. It needs to be inspected, cleaned, and if necessary repaired on an annual basis. Proper maintenance keeps HVAC systems functioning at their best and keeps energy expenditures under control.

TECHNICIAN SERVICING AN OUTDOOR HEAT PUMP

A Highway for Conditioned Air The heated or cooled air provided by your HVAC system needs to get from the equipment to the rooms in your house. This is done through duct work. Ducts are metal tubes that run through the floor or in the attic and carry conditioned air from your HVAC system. The system of ducts and vents is often called the duct work. If the ducts are running through spaces that are not insulated, such as the attic, the installer uses insulated duct work so the energy used by the HVAC equipment is not lost in the attic.

Image courtesy of Adobe Stock

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Keeping Cool  Background Most heating and cooling systems use a heat exchanger to warm or cool air before circulating it through the house. Natural gas and propane furnaces have the burner inside the heat exchanger, and air is pushed over it by a fan. Heat pumps have a looped coil that circulates refrigerant through the refrigeration cycle. The warm part of the cycle occurs indoors in winter and outdoors in summer. Heat pump compressors work in both directions. This activity demonstrates the way a heat exchanger works.

 Materials Hot water 2 400 mL beakers 1 Shallow plastic container 2 Thermometers 6‘ (1/4” diameter) Copper capillary tube coil attached to narrow-neck funnel with tubing Water Pitcher or bucket Ice 1 250 mL Graduated cylinder 1 Pair of thermal protective gloves 1 Large binder clip Straw

Binder Clip

Figure 1: Heat exchange coil in a shallow tray

Procedure 1.

Using a straw, blow through the tubing with some force to ensure that there is not water trapped in the coil that would create a vapor lock and inhibit flow in later steps. Place the shallow plastic container on a book to elevate it slightly. Position the copper tubing so that the coiled part lays flat in a shallow container as seen in Figure 1.

Position the other end of the copper tubing over the edge of the container so that any water exiting the tubing will fall into an empty beaker. Use the large binder clip to secure the tubing to the container (see Figure 1).

Place approximately 300 mL of hot water in the other beaker (not the one at the end of the coil).

Insert one thermometer into the beaker of water.

Place the other thermometer into the beaker at the end of the tubing coil. This beaker should be empty, but once water goes through the coil you will collect water in this beaker.

Pour cold water (no ice) from the bucket into the shallow container until the copper coil is covered with water.

After the thermometer has been in the first beaker for at least a minute, record the initial temperature in the data table.

Wearing thermal protective gloves to prevent burns, support the funnel and slowly pour the hot water into the funnel so it flows through the copper coil without spilling over. The water that flows through the coil is collected in the second beaker.

After water has finished exiting the copper coil, gently swirl the second beaker and read the final water temperature.

10. Carefully pour the water from the second beaker into the graduated cylinder and determine the volume of water. Record the volume on the data table. 11. Calculate the change in temperature of the water that traveled through the copper coil (ΔT = TFinal – TInitial) and record this on the data table.

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 Data INITIAL WATER TEMPERATURE (TI)

FINAL WATER TEMPERATURE (TF)

CHANGE IN WATER TEMPERA‑ TURE (TF-TI)

VOLUME OF WATER

 Conclusion 1.

Count the number of loops in your copper coil. How do you think the temperature change in the water would be affected if you had half as many loops? What about twice as many? Explain your answers.

Air heats up faster than water because it has a lower heat capacity. Water has a very high heat capacity. What do you think the temperature change would have been if you were measuring the temperature of the air around the coil? Explain your answer.

How would you change the experiment to “keep warm” and model heat exchange in the opposite season?

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Calculating Ventilation &Background: Calculating Airflow—What to Expect You will be measuring airflow through your ventilation system in feet per minute using an anemometer. Multiplying the anemometer measurement by the area of the vent, in square feet, will provide a certain number of cubic feet per minute (CFM) that, when combined with the volume of your classroom, will determine how many air changes per hour are happening with your ventilation system. However, there are two important things to keep in mind when conducting this activity. 1.

The minimum amount of air exchanged in a classroom according to ASHRAE standards is 2.5 changes per hour, but not all of the air coming through your vent is fresh. Some of it is recirculated air, and in times of extreme temperature events, as seen in the coldest winters and hottest summers, the outside ventilation may be eliminated or severely restricted. This is because of the amount of energy needed to heat extremely cold or cool extremely hot air. In the interest of energy efficiency, sometimes outside ventilation is set aside to keep the indoor temperature and humidity at a safe and comfortable level.

This airflow measurement activity is not meant to be an official, inspection-level measurement. Ideally, you will finish calculating the air flow into your classroom and arrive at an answer somewhere between 2.5 and 4.0 changes per hour. However, because of the nature of the instruments you are using and their accuracy, do not be alarmed if you arrive at exceptionally high or low air exchange rates with this activity. If you are concerned about the indoor air quality in your classroom, gather data on several different days and discuss it with your administrator and building maintenance staff.

 ? Question

A Quick Word About Units

How quickly could the air in your classroom be refreshed?

In most science classrooms, International System (SI) units are used, and you would expect to be measuring air volumes in liters rather than cubic feet. However, because American HVAC specialists and building codes work in Imperial units, this activity has you working with feet and inches rather than liters, meters, and centimeters.

 Hypothesis Estimate how many times the air in your classroom could be exchanged with fresh air by the ventilation equipment present.

Materials Anemometer Measuring tape or laser measuring device Calculator

Procedure 1. You will need one copy of Data Table 1 for each vent in your classroom. For example, if you have four vents, you will need four copies. You can use separate sheets of paper for each vent data table. Then copy the second Data Table 2 into your notebook. 2. Use the anemometer to measure the wind speed in feet per minute from your classroom’s ventilation system. If you have more than one vent, you will need to do this for each vent in your room. 3. Measure the cross-sectional area of the vent: a. If the vent is rectangular in shape, measure the length and width in inches. Divide each number by 12, and multiply them together. This is the area in ft2. b. If the vent is circular, measure the diameter in inches. Divide this by two to get the radius, then by 12 to convert inches to feet. Square this number, and multiply by π (pi), to get the area of the vent in ft2. c. If the vent is neither rectangular nor circular, trace it onto a large sheet of paper. Using a ruler, divide the shape into regular shapes (semicircles, rectangles, triangles, etc.) and calculate the area of each shape, then add them together to get the area of the entire vent. 4. Multiply the airflow by the cross-sectional area to get cubic feet per minute (CFM). 5. Repeat steps 2-4 for the rest of the vents, if applicable. Add the airflow in cubic feet per minute for all of the vents in the room to get the total airflow in CFM for the entire room and enter this value into the second data table. 6. Multiply CFM by 60 to get cubic feet per hour. 7. Measure the length, width, and height of your classroom, in feet. 8. Calculate the volume of your classroom in cubic feet. 9. Divide the volume of your classroom in cubic feet by the airflow in cubic feet per hour, to get the number of room volumes per hour, or air changes per hour, that are moving through your classroom’s ventilation system. CONTINUED ON NEXT PAGE ©2026 The NEED Project Your Future in Energy Efficiency and Conservation www.NEED.org

 Data You will need one copy of Data Table 1 for each vent in your room. Copy it onto extra sheets of paper if necessary.

Data Table 1 Vent Location: Airflow speed (from anemometer):

ft/min

Rectangular

Vent Area Circular

inches ÷ 12 =

feet

Width

inches ÷ 12 =

feet

Area (l × w)

ft2

Diameter

inches

Radius = Diameter ÷ 2

inches

Radius

Irregular Total Airflow (CFM)

Length

inches ÷ 12 =

feet

Radius squared

ft2

Area (πr2)

ft2

Area

ft2

Airflow speed (ft/min) × vent area (ft2) =

ft3/min (CFM)

Data Table 2 Room Size

Length

feet

Width

feet

Height

feet

Volume (l × w × h)

ft3

Total airflow (CFM)

Sum of airflow of all vents =

CFM

Total hourly airflow (ft3/hr)

Total airflow (CFM) × 60 =

ft3/hr

Room changes per hour

Volume of room (ft3) ÷ Total hourly airflow (ft3/hr) =

changes/hr

 Conclusion 1. Most building codes require a bare minimum of 2.5 changes per hour of fresh air for classrooms (some are higher). Would your ventilation system be able to provide that if the vent is open all the way? What is the minimum percentage that your ventilation system can be open to achieve this requirement?

2. Identify sources of error in this activity. Using these error sources as a basis, explain why your calculations should not be used in an official capacity to determine compliance with building codes.

3. One of the most difficult tasks for building managers to work through is the balance between keeping a room at a comfortable temperature and ensuring enough fresh air is brought into the building. Write a paragraph or two describing why this is difficult. Include a discussion of scenarios that might favor a room temperature approach over fresh air, and other scenarios that might favor fresh air over a comfortable room temperature.

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Lesson 5: Lighting Imagine how your day would be different if you did not have artificial lighting. You would really only be able to do things between sunrise and sunset, and significantly less in winter than in summer. When people started moving light into their homes and using it after dark, productivity increased dramatically. Until the end of the 19th century, artificial lighting was produced by burning some kind of fuel—fires in fireplaces and stoves, oil lamps, kerosene lamps, and candles. One of the major drawbacks to using fire for lighting is that the light is not very intense, and doing any kind of fine, detailed work to candlelight really strains eyes quickly. Another drawback is that combustion of anything indoors leads to reduced indoor air quality. Perhaps the biggest drawback is that anything with a flame, whether an open flame or covered by a glass lamp shade, is a significant fire hazard. When electricity became available, artificial lighting improved dramatically. The earliest electric lamps were brighter than candles and kerosene lamps, though they weren’t nearly as bright as the lighting we use today. The first artificial lights were incandescent, with a thin filament that got so hot it glowed, or incandesced, and produced light. At first, the filament was a carbonized cotton thread or bamboo fiber. The lamp, or light bulb, was a near-vacuum glass chamber with the filament inside. Around the turn of the 19th century, the organic fibers were replaced by tungsten. Today’s modern incandescent bulbs still use tungsten, albeit with an improved design. Up until 2007, incandescent bulbs were the standard that people used. The Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA) in 2007 changed how people light their spaces when it required that higher efficiency lighting be made commonly available and more affordable. Prior to this standard there were different shapes and styles of light bulbs available. Today, the most commonly purchased lamp for indoor use is a light-emitting diode or LED light.

Go Right to the Light Source There are many different kinds of lighting styles, types, and fixtures available. Lighting fixtures can be hard-wired, with a wall switch, or they can be portable and have a cord that you plug into an outlet. Some lighting is battery-operated and can have rechargeable batteries inside. Lighting can look yellowish, or bluish, or perfectly white. It can be bright, dim, or somewhere in between. Let’s take a look at each of these options and see what they mean and how they function. There are four major categories of artificial lighting: Incandescent; Fluorescent; Light-emitting Diode (LED); and High-intensity Discharge (HID). Each lighting technology has its own set of advantages and disadvantages. Incandescent lamps contain a thin tungsten wire, called a filament, that is supercoiled by winding it into a coil and then winding that coil into a coil. Electric current passes through the filament. Friction from the electrons makes the filament get so hot that it glows and produces light. The efficiency of incandescent lamps is very low; only 10 percent of the electricity used by the lamp is emitted as radiant energy, or light. The other 90 percent is emitted as thermal energy!

If your goal is to heat something, an incandescent INCANDESCENT BULB lamp can do a good job. They are used as the heat source in some toys that bake small treats or melt wax into new crayons. However, the purpose of a light is to illuminate, not heat. Ten percent efficiency was just not acceptable under the EISA. Soon after EISA was passed, light bulb manufacturers made halogen-incandescent lights that significantly improved efficiency. The filament was enclosed in a capsule containing halogen Image courtesy of gas and used about 25 percent less energy for Adobe Stock the same amount of light. However, the majority of electricity being used was still being transformed into thermal energy.

Fluorescent Tube Lamp Mercury and inert gases

Phosphor coating Base with bi-pin plug In fluorescent tubes, a very small amount of mercury mixes with inert gases to conduct the electrical current. This allows the phosphor coating on the glass tube to emit light.

Fluorescent lights are long, narrow, glass tubes that are filled with a mixture of gases including mercury. A device at the end of the tube, called a ballast, emits an electric arc through the tube, energizing the electrons in the mercury. The mercury releases that energy as UV light, and a powdery, phosphor coating on the inside of the glass tube changes the UV light into a mixture of visible light colors, each with its own wavelength. When the colors of light are combined, the result is light that appears white to our eyes. Fluorescent lighting has been the standard in commercial buildings for a long time and was used in some home lighting fixtures, especially in bathrooms and kitchens. Compact fluorescent light (CFL) bulbs were manufactured in the early 2010s and could be placed in desk lamps and many light fixtures. By replacing incandescent bulbs with CFLs, homeowners were reducing the energy consumed by lighting by 75 percent. However, the shape was odd and would not accommodate some lamps, and the hazard of mercury vapor if one broke made many people nervous.

Light-emitting diode lights, or LEDs, have been around for quite a while, but in the early 2000s they were much more expensive, costing $30-40 for one light bulb! The color was poor, the light was dim, and people really did not like them. However, as with most other technology, LEDs have improved significantly over the last 15 years to the point where they are commonplace and now the most purchased type of lighting for residences. Commercial buildings are also changing over to LED lighting. The major driving force behind the wide adoption of LED lighting is its efficiency—LEDs that are just as bright as similar incandescent bulbs use at least 80 percent less energy and last up to ten times longer. Some light fixtures come with integrated LEDs, meaning there is no bulb to change. Under many circumstances, installing a light fixture with an integrated LED means it only needs to be dusted—no bulbs need to be changed for its entire lifespan of 30 years or more. Some schools and office buildings are choosing to retrofit existing fluorescent light fixtures with strips of LED lights. Doing so allows the light to be dimmed, reduces energy consumption by about 25 percent, and eliminates the need for frequent fluorescent tube lamp changes. Though LED lighting is the most efficient option available today, some people find LED light uncomfortable for their eyes. LEDs run on direct current (DC), but the electricity in our homes is alternating current (AC), which switches polarity 60 times per second (60 Hz). To make LEDs work on household power, every LED bulb or fixture contains a rectifier, a small electronic device that converts AC to DC. Because the incoming power is constantly switching directions, the rectifier produces a tiny pulse with each cycle. Most people never notice this rapid flicker, but individuals who are sensitive to light sometimes do. Digital cameras can also pick it up: because a camera captures images in very fast slices of time, its sampling rate can occasionally line up with the LED’s pulse, making the light appear to blink on screen even though it looks steady to the human eye.

Inside an LED epoxy case LED chip emitted light

reflecting cup

photons p-type layer p-n type junction n-type layer

anode lead cathode lead

LEDs offer better light quality than incandescent bulbs and halogens, last 25 times as long, and use even less energy than fluorescent bulbs. LEDs now have a wide array of uses because technology has improved and costs have decreased. They come in several shapes and sizes.

High-intensity discharge (HID) lighting is seldom used at home but quite often used in commercial settings where a lot of light is needed. If the lights in your school’s gymnasium take 15-20 minutes to become fully bright, they are probably HID. Parking lot and stadium lights are also often HID lighting. This very powerful lighting uses a lot of energy.

One HID bulb can use 350-400 watts and is often the size of a toy foam football. HID lamps are expensive, too. Many schools, stadiums, and convention centers have begun changing their HID fixtures to LED fixtures. LEDs last longer, use a fraction of the energy, and can be turned on and off as needed, rather than staying on for hours at a time. A high school gym with HID lighting is often lit early before school starts and left on until late in the evening after the last athletic team or community group has left. LEDs allow each group using the space to turn the lights on and off as needed, saving a lot of energy and money.

The Brightest Bulb on the String Before EISA, people typically shopped for lighting by wattage – most desk lamps and overhead light fixtures could accommodate up to 60 watts of power. A 60-watt incandescent bulb became a standard brightness that people used to compare lighting and determine what they wanted in various places in their homes. Now that different kinds of lighting are available that use considerably less power, shopping by wattage is not the best way to purchase lights. However, manufacturers still put “60W equivalent” or similar language on their packaging, because that is how people are still referencing lamps. The best way to compare different types of lighting is by looking at how much light they produce and how much power they use. This is called lighting efficacy. Efficacy is measured in lumens per watt, where lumens describe how much total light a lamp gives off. A bulb with higher efficacy produces more light using less electricity, which makes it more energy efficient. An incandescent lamp only produces about 10-15 lumens/watt. Fluorescent and HID lights are better, at 40-70 and 60-120 lumens/watt, respectively. LEDs have the highest efficacy at 80-150 lumens/watt, or in some cases more. LEDs are the most efficient type of artificial light source we have available today. The federal government has created a label that helps us Lighting Facts Per Bulb compare and choose lights. 800 lumens Brightness Known as a "Lighting Facts" Estimated Yearly Energy Cost $1.57 label, it resembles a Nutrition Based on 3 hrs/day, 11¢/kWh Cost depends on rates and use Facts label that allows you to see the nutritive content of Life 9 years Based on 3 hrs/day foods you are eating. However, Light Appearance Warm Cool a Lighting Facts label shows you the amount of light produced 2700 K by that specific lamp, measured Energy Used 13 watts in lumens, and the total power the lamp uses, measured in watts. It also gives you an estimated annual cost, how long you can expect the lamp to last, and the color temperature of the light it emits. When comparing light bulbs, it is important that lamps with the same brightness and color temperature are compared to each other.

Color Temperature Sets the Mood Lighting for office buildings or schools is not typically chosen by its color temperature. You have one color of light, and that’s what you get. However, we tend to choose different colors of light at home based on what we will be doing in a room. The color temperature tells you how warm or cool the light will look, given as a Kelvin temperature. The range of color temperatures is 2000–3000 K for very warm light that resembles candlelight or from a fire, all the way up to 6500 K or more for very bright, blue-white light similar to daylight on a bright, sunny day. Note that the color temperature has nothing to do with

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LIGHTING COLOR TEMPERATURE

Image courtesy of Adobe Stock (best viewed in color PDF)

the brightness of light—it is simply a value indicating which end of the color spectrum, from reddish to bluish, any particular light falls onto. Your brain will adjust the way you see things appropriately such that white things always look white, but if you take a photograph in those different lighting colors and do not have the white balance enabled on your camera, lower color temperature photos will have a yellowish or amber cast to them. The color temperature of the light you choose can influence the energy level and alertness of the people in the room. Formal dining spaces and places where you relax, like a living room or your bedroom, are typically lit with a lower color temperature. Places where you need bright light and higher energy, like the kitchen or in a home gym, will usually have a higher color temperature. If there is a place where you need to be able to see colors as they truly are, a neutral light in the middle of the Kelvin range will be best. LED light bulbs in all of these color temperatures are available, and many light fixtures with integrated LED lights allow you to set the color temperature of the fixture to match the other lights in the room. There are even smart light bulbs that can be adjusted with an app on your phone, so you can change the light color depending on what you are planning to do.

The Right Light for the Job In addition to choosing the right color temperature of light for your room, you also need to make sure the space is appropriately lit for the tasks that will be taking place. The lighting in a movie theater or concert hall is rather dim. Surgical suites are very brightly lit. Most daily activities take place somewhere between movie theater and surgery in terms of the light needed, yet many spaces, especially in commercial buildings, are significantly over-lit, wasting energy. Replacing low-efficiency lighting with LEDs is an excellent first step; installing so many LEDs they can be seen from space just because they are inexpensive and more efficient is still a waste of energy. The Illuminating Engineering Society has developed a list of appropriate light levels for spaces based on the tasks being done, age of people using the space, and the type of space. These levels are followed by architects, lighting designers, engineers, and building operators to ensure the right amount of light is available. For designing and outfitting a space, the standards indicate specific illuminance values in foot-candles or lux. A foot-candle is the amount of light illuminating a sheet of paper one foot away from one candle. The SI or metric unit for illuminance is lux, which is one lumen per square meter. Engineers and other professionals may use lux, but the IES standards are expressed in foot-candles. The table beside provides recommended light levels for some common areas in schools and homes.

ROOM AND TASK

RECOMMENDED LIGHT LEVEL IN FOOT-CANDLES

Classroom – general work

30-50

Classroom – lab work

50-70

Gymnasium

20-30

Restrooms

10-30

Hallways

5-10

Home living room

10-20

Kitchen – general work

30-50

Kitchen – countertops

50-100

Bathroom vanity

40-70

Bedroom

10-20

Reading areas

30-50

Stairways

5-15

Switches and Dimmers for Lights! Oh My! If you’ve been told once, you’ve been told 100 times—turn the lights off when you leave the room! Adults repeat this because unnecessary lighting uses energy unnecessarily. The light switch has often been the only way to control the light—it’s either on or off. Some rooms, like theaters and dining rooms, have dimmer switches that allow the user to adjust the light level. In the last 25 years or so, engineers have developed sophisticated controls and control systems that allow customization of lighting and provide a backup system to turn lights off when the room is empty. The most commonly used lighting control is a vacancy sensor that turns lights off after no motion has been detected after a certain amount of time has passed. Many commercial spaces use these controls to avoid having lights left on all night after the last person has left for the day. However, the first person arriving in the morning needs to turn the lights on manually. If automatic turn-on is desired, an occupancy sensor is used. Occupancy sensors turn the lights on when someone enters, and turn them off when no motion is detected after a specified time period. Freezer cases in grocery stores and public restrooms often have occupancy sensors.

Another common lighting sensor is a dimmer. You may have already seen a dimmer, or may have one in your home. Dimmer switches allow you to brighten or dim the lights according to your needs. Some dimmer switches automatically adjust the light level according to surrounding light. The screen on your phone or laptop is often set to sense the ambient light and adjust its brightness accordingly.

Using Natural Light

Sometimes, very large buildings use lighting controls that are set according to the time of day. The on and off times are set and an internal clock in the control will turn the lights on or off. This allows the user to light the space when people are present and turn the lights off when people are absent. The control system may also allow for different on and off times according to the day. For example, a large church might turn the lights on inside the sanctuary on Sunday morning but not Monday – Saturday. Timers for plug-in items like lamps and grow-lights have been available for decades. You set the time on and off by pushing or pulling switches, set the current time, plug it into the outlet, and plug your device into the timer. Time scheduling controls work in a similar way but use electronic switching rather than manual switching and allow for many on-off periods throughout the day or week.

There are times when using light through the window is not helpful. For example, if the sun is low in the sky in the evening and is shining through the window on your TV, you will not be able to see the TV very well. The sunlight will cause a major glare on the screen. You may have encountered this at school when your teacher is using a projector or smart board. Those devices do not adjust according to the amount of sunlight streaming through a window, and even if they did it is doubtful they would be able to compete with the brightness of the sun. Under these circumstances you will probably choose to forgo the free natural light, close the blinds, and use the artificial light.

Many large retailers with very large, open stores have several skylights embedded in the roof that allow daylight inside. The artificial lighting system includes sensors that adjust the artificial light according to the amount of daylight detected by the light sensors. This is known as daylight harvesting and it is one way retailers with very large buildings, like club warehouses, grocery stores, and home improvement centers, can control energy costs. Daylight harvesting is not as common in residential buildings, as homes are usually much smaller and have divided spaces inside. Residences are also not uniformly lit. You do not want the bathroom or kitchen-level brightness when you’re playing a video game or relaxing after dinner. People like to have full control of the lighting in their home, and have many different lighting types—accent lighting, task lighting, and overhead lighting are just three. A lighting control system that uses daylight harvesting and adjusts all of those lights in all of those rooms would be complicated and expensive. Some higher-end homes, or homes built to demonstrate energy-efficiency technology, are the only residences likely to use daylight harvesting.

The Best Lighting Control Automatic controls can help building owners save a lot of money on energy bills, but only if they’re used correctly. For example, if an occupancy sensor turns the lights off after no one has been in the room for 15 minutes, that means the lights were on for 15 minutes when nobody was in the room every single time someone enters. If that happens four times in a day, the lights were on for an hour more than necessary. If a school schedules lights to be on in classrooms Monday-Friday from 7 am until 4 pm but does not adjust that schedule over breaks, the lights come on for weeks at a time over the summer when nobody is using the building! Lighting controls are not intended to be “set it and forget it” kind of controls. You need to think about what’s happening. If you enter a room and the lights come on, see if you can manually turn them off when you leave instead of allowing the sensor to do it. It might not seem like much, but over time, with everyone cooperating, a lot of energy can be saved. Every lighting control system has a way to manually override it when necessary or it makes sense to do so.

The most energy-efficient lighting system is a natural lighting system. Sunlight is free! Design strategies that incorporate natural light take advantage of this free energy source. However, it’s not as simple as just opening the blinds or curtains.

There are also times of the year when allowing sunlight inside is not helpful. On hot, summer days when you are running an air conditioning system, allowing sunlight inside to warm your house does not make sense. To help your cooling system run less, close blinds and curtains to keep sunlight out. In winter, when the heat is on, let the sunshine in. It will help warm your space and could possibly improve your mood, too. Some homes are designed with overhangs that will block summer sun but allow winter sun in. This is one feature of a passive solar house that is fairly easy to incorporate. The depth of the overhang depends on the latitude of the building and is calculated accordingly. Overhangs in Florida will not be the same as overhangs in Minnesota. Daylight harvesting combines lighting controls with efficient design. The skylights and sensors work together to keep the interior of the space light at a consistent level without overlighting the space. It takes advantage of the free daylight provided by the sun. Another option similar in function to skylights is light shelves. These are placed such that incoming daylight is reflected and directed deeper into the room. The horizontal surfaces are built against windows above eye level. A light shelf intercepts light coming in the top of the window and reflects it upward. The ceiling reflects the light downward into the room. Using a light shelf moves natural light further into a room than it would go otherwise.

BRONX LIBRARY CENTER

Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons

The second floor of the Bronx Library in New York has a light shelf that redirects daylight further into the building.

Using artificial lighting in an energy-conscious way does not need to be complicated or difficult. It does, however, take a little bit of awareness of artificial lighting use and some thoughtful consideration to how lighting is used. Homeowners can choose ENERGY STAR® rated light fixtures and bulbs, and use only as much light as is necessary. Task lighting, such as a table lamp or desk lamp, is one way to use the light you need without being wasteful by lighting the entire room. Audit rooms for the light levels with existing lighting, and make adjustments as needed to fall within recommended ranges according to the tasks being performed. Select lamps with the right number of lumens and color temperature for the activity and energy level you want for the space. A few careful considerations can help reduce the amount of energy you use to light your home.

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GOAL:

To compare the heat output of an incandescent to a compact fluorescent lightbulb.

MATERIALS:

2 lamps, 1 incandescent lightbulb, 1 compact fluorescent bulb, 2 thermometers, tape

PREPARATION: Read all of the steps in the procedure.

Light Bulb Investigations Write your hypothesis below:

HYPOTHESIS:

 ? Questions PROCEDURE: What is the difference in thermal energy output of different light bulbs? 1. Place the incandescent bulb in one lamp and the compact fluorescent bulb in the other. What is the difference in light output of different light bulbs? 2. Place the lamps a table How do light bulbs compare in the amount of on energy used?about 40 cm apart facing a blank wall.

Materials

Tape the thermometers to the wall so that the lamps shine directly on them, as shown in the diagram below.

2 Lamps 4.bulbRecord theitsthermometer readings in the chart below. 1 Light emitting diode (LED) and packaging 1 Incandescent bulb 5. Turn on the lamps. Record the thermometer readings at 2-minute intervals for 10 minutes. 2 Thermometers Tape 6. Calculate and record the change in temperature for each bulb. Compare. Δ = change. Kill A Watt® meter Light meter Ruler or RESULTS: meter stick Calculators

Hypothesis Write hypotheses stating which bulbs you think will be the hottest, brightest, and use the most energy.

Procedure

CONCLUSION:

1. Place the incandescent bulb in one lamp and the LED bulb in the other lamp. If you do not have two lamps, conduct two trials, one for each bulb. 2. Place the lamps on a table about 20 cm away from a blank wall. The light should face the wall. 3. Tape the thermometers to the wall so the lamps shine directly on them, as shown in the diagram. 4. Record the thermometer readings every two minutes. 5. Calculate and record the change in temperature (ΔT) for each bulb. 6. Turn on the light meter and remove the cover from the sensor. Place the sensor on the wall in front of the thermometer and record the foot-candles for each bulb. 7. Turn off each lamp and unplug them. Plug one into the Kill A Watt® meter and plug the meter into the wall. Push the Watts button and turn on the lamp. Record the power used by the lamp. Repeat for the other lamp. PAGE 30

Learning & Conserving Student

8. Answer the conclusion questions.

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 Data Bulb type

Package stated Wattage

Package stated Lumens

Temperature (Celsius) 0 min

2 min

4 min

6 min

8 min

10 min

ΔT

Light meter reading

KILL A Watt® meter reading

Incandescent LED

 Conclusion 1. Compare the lumen rating on the light bulb packaging with the foot-candle measurements you took using the light meter. Is the brightest bulb the one with the higher lumen rating? Explain your answer using data from the investigation.

2. Each bulb uses a different method for emitting light. Based on your observations of temperature change, which bulb do you think is more efficient? Does this agree with the watts recorded on the Kill A Watt® meter? Justify your answer using data from the investigation.

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Lighting by Design ? Questions What happens to the lighting levels in a room if light fixtures are not thoughtfully and specifically placed on the ceiling of a room?

 Hypothesis Write a hypothesis addressing the question. Your hypothesis should make a prediction about how illuminance levels might vary across work surfaces.

 Materials Light meter Meter stick or measuring tape

 Procedure 1.

Use the first drawing space to create a scaled diagram of the ceiling of your classroom. Indicate the length and width measurements, the placement of light fixtures with dimensions, and the location of any doors or windows.

Use the second drawing space to create a scaled diagram of the floor of your classroom. Indicate the length and width measurements, the placement of desks, tables, and other work surfaces with dimensions, and the location of any doors or windows. Mark with an X the surfaces you are evaluating – your teacher may not want you to evaluate all of them.

Make sure any blinds or curtains are open. Turn on all lights in the room.

Use the light meter to measure the illuminance at three different points on each desk, table, or work surface. Record the values in the data table. Average those values and record the average in the data table.

Consult the recommended light levels found on page 86. Record the recommended light level for each desk, table, or work space you are evaluating.

Find the final average (all averages averaged together) and record it at the bottom of the data table. This final average provides an overall snapshot of how the room is lit across multiple work surfaces.

 Data and Observations Drawing Space #1

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Drawing Space #2

If the following table does not have enough lines for your data gathering, copy the table headings on a separate sheet of paper.

SURFACE

METER READING 1 (FC)

METER READING 2 (FC)

METER READING 3 (FC)

AVERAGE METER READING (FC)

RECOMMENDED LIGHT LEVEL (FC)

Average of all Surfaces:

 Conclusion 1.

Why were you instructed to take three different readings at three different locations on each work surface?

Which work surfaces were underlit? Which were overlit? Use the data from your investigation to support your answer.

What is the average illuminance of the entire room, with all measured work surfaces taken into account? Is this room, on average, properly lit? Use the data from your investigation to support your answer.

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Study the drawing of the light fixtures and the drawing of the work surfaces you evaluated. Do the measurements make sense, given the placement of the light fixtures? Explain your answer.

What was the range of average illuminance values from the surfaces around the classroom? Does this seem to be a wide range? Explain your answer.

What arrangement of light fixtures would you propose to solve wide variations in the illuminance in your classroom?

Why do you think the electrician wired the lights for your classroom in the way they are presently set up?

What changes would you recommend to the lighting in your classroom that could potentially save money? Be specific.

Lesson 6: Controls for Energy-Using Systems Operating and maintaining buildings in terms of energy use can be an overwhelming task if you are trying to keep track of everything on your own. With today’s automated technologies and the ubiquitous presence of computers, controlling the amount of energy systems use is a little easier.

INTERIOR BAKELITE LIGHT SWITCH BUTTONS

Using Fluids for Controls When you think about flipping switches, turning dials, or using other physical items to control a machine, you are probably envisioning using a solid, not a liquid or gas. The switches you flip or dials you turn are all within reach, though. What would you do if you needed to open a vent in the space between the second and third story of a building? It’s not a place you can personally access, even with a ladder. This is where pneumatic and hydraulic systems come in. Pneumatic systems use compressed air to control systems, and hydraulic systems use a liquid under pressure. Liquids and gases are both fluids, meaning they flow and take the shape of the containers they are in. Liquids, though, are different from gases in that they have a definite volume that does not change. Gases can be compressed and pressurized; this is how we transport natural gas through pipelines and bottle oxygen, welding gases, and propane for barbecue grills. Liquids cannot be compressed into a smaller volume.

Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons

Light switches have existed in many forms, including this push-button light switch, which was common in the early 1900s.

Maintaining Control You may be using simple controls without realizing it. When you bake something in the oven, you set the temperature for baking and the oven maintains that temperature. The HVAC system is controlled by a thermostat. The water heater has a thermostat, too, which keeps the water in the tank as hot as you like and available when you need it. These controls do not always help save energy—they merely keep something functioning with the temperature you choose. Controls are available in two basic types: mechanical, sometimes called analog; and digital. Mechanical controls are manipulated physically, with a physical action being relayed through a physical system. When you flip a light switch or turn a volume dial on a radio, you are using a mechanical control. Digital controls use a combination of electronics and digital signaling to change things. If you use an app on your phone to turn on a light, you are using a digital control.

Pneumatic systems were often used to control HVAC systems before about 1990. An air compressor was attached to the lines and set to maintain a specific pressure, usually well above atmospheric pressure. Leaks along the pneumatic lines, even very small ones, cause the compressor to run more often or for longer periods of time, wasting energy and leading to excessive wear. Leaks in pneumatic lines can waste 20-30 percent of the energy used to run the system. It is important that pneumatic lines be maintained. Hydraulic systems are used to move heavy loads or push something remotely. Elevators commonly have hydraulic lift systems, and construction equipment often has arms that move with hydraulics. A liquid, often an oil, is forced from one chamber into another. Because the oil cannot be compressed, it pushes against a piston, extending the arm or lifting the elevator. Pumping the oil back out retracts the piston.

AIR COMPRESSOR Image courtesy of Adobe Stock

Digital controls and control systems will do everything analog controls will do—such as keeping temperatures where you’d like—but can incorporate energy management while doing so. Controls and control systems are used more widely in commercial buildings, but there are some controls residential energy users can use that will help save energy.

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Maintaining Control of Energy Use

A Sixth, Seventh, and Eighth Sense

The most common energy-saving control in residences is a programmable thermostat. Rather than a single set point, a programmable thermostat allows you to set an indoor temperature according to the time of day. It allows you to drop the temperature at night while everyone is asleep or during the work day while everyone is gone. Programmable thermostats also allow you to have different schedules according to the day of the week. For example, on weekends, people may be gone at a different time than they would be while going to work or school. The user can override the program as necessary.

Control and building automation systems allow a person to quickly and easily see what is happening in a building and to program the systems for desired outcomes. The systems are able to do this because they incorporate a wide variety of sensors. A sensor is a device that measures something like temperature, light level, humidity, and so on. The sensor is not the part of the system that makes the decision to turn something on. It is merely gathering data that the rest of the control system, whether a human system (you) or an automated system, uses to make a decision. Thermostats and home security systems have sensors that will activate an action, whether it is turning on the heat or sounding an alarm.

A step up from a programmable thermostat is a smart thermostat. It does all the things a programmable thermostat does but is also internet-connected and can be programmed on the thermostat itself or by using an app on a phone or computer. Smart thermostats can “learn” your habits and anticipate them by automatically changing the temperature before you do. If a member of your family is a studentathlete, and competitions are always on Thursday nights, the smart thermostat will learn that you are changing the temperature while away on Thursdays and incorporate that setting into its programming. New construction homes can have built-in lighting control systems that can be programmed to turn lights on and off automatically according to the family’s schedule. Lighting controls are often accessed through a touch-panel in a central location, and like a programmable thermostat, the user can override the lighting program. A centrallycontrolled lighting system is not very common yet, due to its cost. However, as smart light bulbs, voice-activated assistants, and smart phone functionality increase, centrally-controlled systems will soon be affordable enough to be commonplace. Commercial buildings are where automatic controls are widely used. A building operator can use a central location, like an office computer, to schedule temperature and light levels according to occupancy. A central control system can even divide the building into zones and change the settings in each zone as needed. In a school, for example, the classrooms are not usually needed after 4 p.m., but athletic spaces may be used until 10 p.m. The building engineer can put classrooms, the lunch room and kitchen, offices, and athletic spaces on separate schedules according to when they are in use.

Building Automation Systems The type of central controls used in commercial buildings is often referred to as a building automation system, or BAS. This system enables the user to monitor light level, temperature, humidity, CO2 level, and many other parameters, all with the intent on keeping energy use under control. A BAS is not just about energy use, though. It can trigger security alarms or fire alarms. It can also help the building operator identify malfunctions before they become big, expensive problems. A BAS can be set to provide reports on a regular basis, flagging irregularities such as if a motion sensor was activated unexpectedly, CO2 levels were not reduced in the expected amount of time, or a fan was running more than anticipated. Many BAS can be accessed remotely on a smart phone or other internet-connected device. Having the system remotely accessed removes the need to have someone in the building 24 hours a day, seven days a week.

A sensor takes a physical input, such as a light level or temperature, and changes it into an electrical signal, like a change in resistance, voltage, or current. For example, a light sensor produces a higher or lower voltage depending on how bright the room is. The control to which the sensor is connected will then use that input to make a decision. As you might expect, more complicated measurements require more complicated sensors. CO2 sensors work with infrared absorption, and motion sensors use infrared, ultrasonic, or microwave detection to send a signal. However, the process is the same—the control acts on the signal from the sensor.

Meters and Data Loggers Sensors provide instantaneous measurements—what is happening right now. The information they provide is a data point, or measurement, that the control system can use. Meters and data loggers can also be incorporated into control systems. A meter measures an accumulated amount of something. Your home’s electric utility meter measures the amount of electricity that has been used by the building. On a monthly basis, the utility company records the meter reading and subtracts the earlier value from the later value to get the amount of electricity used during that time period. The utility’s billing system is acting like a data logger by recording the information over time. A data logger uses a meter and records the measurement on the meter at specified time intervals. Some school laboratory experiments have you do this by recording a temperature every 30 seconds and recording it. The thermometer is the meter, you are the data logger. Automated data loggers are programmed to take a measurement every so often and record it. Evaluating the data can reveal trends that can help the user fine-tune a schedule, set point, or sensor setting. This type of analysis can also help the user know when heavy use is occurring. Suppose a resident has a high water bill and can not understand why it is so high. Looking at the time-of-day water use can help the homeowner understand what activities are using a lot of water and regulate them. Most data loggers are used in commercial buildings. Any data loggers that a resident might use are usually contained in the utility’s billing system. However, data loggers that can be used at home are available and can help residents understand when a device or group of devices are running and for how long. They can be attached to entire circuits at the breaker box or placed on individual devices by plugging the logger into an outlet and plugging the device into the logger.

Getting on the Schedule The input from meters and data loggers can be incorporated into control systems to make better decisions about when devices should be scheduled to run. Scheduling a device simply means determining ahead of time when during the day or week something will be operating. If you program a thermostat at home, you are scheduling the HVAC system. If you install a smart outlet or smart light and indicate it should turn on at a certain time each day, you are scheduling that outlet or light. Residents with charges for an electric vehicle often schedule recharging to occur overnight when demand for electricity is low. Commercial systems will schedule things according to a lot of different factors. They might use an expected occupancy to determine a schedule, or adjust a schedule according to time of year, such as when parking lot lights are on. Commercial building operators might also schedule things to turn on according to the amount of electrical power they use. Commercial electric utility customers are billed differently than residential customers. The bill a residential customer will receive is related solely to the amount of electrical energy, measured in kilowatt-hours, that was used during the billing period. A kilowatt-hour is one thousand watts running for one hour. Commercial customers have two types of charges on their bill: energy and demand. The energy part of the bill is the kilowatt-hour charge similar to residential customers but usually at a lower rate. The demand portion is a charge based on the maximum power that was needed by the building at any point in time, measured in kilowatts. Many large devices, like commercial cleaning systems or ovens, need a large surge of power to get started, then drop back in terms of the power needed to run. If all of these large demand devices turn on at the same time, the demand charge for the customer is very high. By scheduling devices to turn on at different times, the building operator can avoid a high demand charge and keep energy costs low.

Set, Observe, Repeat The last piece of the system controls puzzle is time, and specifically, what happens over a specific period of time. BAS, data loggers, utilities, and even individuals all record data points. It’s not enough to simply record the data—it must be analyzed and acted upon. Gathering data and reflecting on it should, if everything else is going right, lead to minor adjustments in schedules, programs, settings, and data sampling intervals. This process applies to a lot of situations, from manufacturing to logistics to education, and it absolutely has a place in using controls and control systems to manage energy consumption. Data sets may reveal patterns, or trends, that repeat and become predictable within a certain time period. For example, teachers may observe that all pop quizzes given on a Monday have lower average scores than pop quizzes administered later in the week. The trend in this case is that the longer students are out of school, the less likely they are to recall the previous lesson. Energy systems can also reveal trends.

Observing trends is not enough. If a pattern within the data recorded by control systems is recognizable, the settings or programming in the control systems should be appropriately adjusted. When a control system is installed and programmed, that’s not the end – it is actually the beginning of managing energy use. The information gleaned from the control system empowers the user to make adjustments to further reduce energy use. Even after several years of set, observe, repeat, building operators will tell you the process never ends.

Where Does AI Fit in? Artificial intelligence (AI) has burst into daily use with every online store, search engine, and software company having its own version, each with its own name. There are a lot of ways that AI can help people use less energy. Smart thermostats learning their users’ patterns are a simple application of artificial intelligence. AI can analyze sensor inputs and relay anomalies. For example, it can tell you if your cooling system is running longer on each cycle, indicating that it is not cooling as efficiently as possible. AI can also suggest some things to check, such as whether the filter needs to be changed or the refrigerant needs to be recharged. AI can help adjust settings and schedules based on what lies ahead. AI might ask you if you want to change your thermostat settings, knowing you’ll be on vacation next week. If the AI has access to weather forecasts, it can help you predict how hard your HVAC system might have to work in the near future and recommend some maintenance. Utilities can use AI to predict when demand for power is probably going to increase and get ahead of high demand by asking customers to limit electricity consumption at certain times. AI is like any other tool; it is useful for some things and not for others. We are in the “Model T” era of artificial intelligence. A lot of the major bugs have been eliminated, and use of AI has become fairly accessible and common for everyone. However, like anything, there are limitations. AI may be able to do things faster or keep track of things better than a human can, but it lacks the instinct, emotional connection, and human touch needed to make things personal and warm. AI can identify places where energy consumption can be reduced, but it cannot read non-verbal cues like facial expression and body language and make immediate adjustments accordingly. In other words, AI can assist humans, but it cannot fully replace them. It can be used to accomplish specific tasks, even very complicated ones, but it lacks the experience and instinct we often use, without realizing it, to make decisions.

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Smart Thermostat  Background In today’s world, many of the devices we use every day are becoming “smart.” Smart devices are systems that can sense their environment, make decisions based on data, and automatically respond without constant human input. Examples include smart thermostats, motion activated lights, and energy-efficient appliances. These technologies play an important role in saving energy by ensuring that power is used only when it is actually needed. One of the most important areas where smart devices improve energy efficiency is temperature control. Heating and cooling systems account for a large portion of energy use in homes and buildings. A smart thermostat can monitor temperature, turn equipment on or off at the right time, and prevent wasted energy. Instead of running constantly, fans or air conditioners operate only when the temperature rises above a set point, helping to maintain comfort while reducing electricity consumption. In this activity, you will build a simple version of a smart thermostat using Arduino and a temperature sensor. Your system will measure the surrounding temperature and automatically turn a small fan on or off based on the reading and your setting in the program run on the Arduino. Through this project, you will learn how sensors, microcontrollers, and basic programming work together to create energy-efficient smart devices—the same principles used in real-world technology designed to conserve energy and reduce environmental impact.

? Questions How does a smart thermostat decide when to turn a fan on or off?

 Hypothesis Write a statement explaining how you think a smart thermostat decides when to turn a fan on or off.

 Materials Breadboard Arduino Uno board Digital temperature and humidity sensor modules 5 Jumper wires (male/male) 3 Jumper wires (male/female) Mosfet IRF520 transistor 9V Battery 9V Battery connector Blower motor, WINSINN 50mm 5015 Blower Fan 24V 4 AA batteries 1 4AA battery holder Multimeter Glue gun (optional) Rigid cardboard (optional)

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 Procedure Connect the anode (+) of the battery pack to the breadboard’s rightside power rail (+). This will provide a path for 6V of electricity from the AA battery pack to the blower motor.

Connect the cathode (-) of the battery pack to the breadboard’s leftside ground rail (-). This will provide a path for electricity from the blower motor back to the AA battery pack.

The temperature sensor has three pins that need to be connected using male/female jumper wire. The female end connects to the pins on the temperature sensor. The male ends connect to the Arduino input pins. Not all sensor models have the same label or sequence. Connect the “-” pin to a GND input pin on the Arduino. This acts as the sensor’s cathode, providing a path out of the sensor for electricity. Some models of this sensor have this labeled as “GRD” and are located in a different position. Check your sensor labels and pin positions. Be sure that the “-“ or “GRD” pin on the sensor is connected to the port labeled “GRD” on the power section of the Arduino. Connect the “out” pin to the #2 input pin on the Arduino. This wire will communicate the sensor’s temperature reading to the Arduino. On some models this is labeled “Data.” Connect the “+” pin to the 5V input pin on the Arduino. This acts as the sensor’s anode, providing a path into the sensor for the 5V of electricity provided to the Arduino from the USB cable. 5V is the standard voltage carried by a USB cable. This pin may be labeled “UCC” on some sensor models and may be in a different position than seen in this diagram. Be sure that the “+“ or “UCC” pin on the sensor is connected to the port labeled “5V” on the power section of the Arduino.

Install the Mosfet transistor on the right side of the breadboard, parallel to the dividing line in the breadboard. The flat metal portion of the transistor should face the center of the breadboard, and the black plastic portion should face out. The three pins on the Mosfet transistor should be lined up with three different rows on the breadboard. The Mosfet transistor’s three pins each connect to three rows. Use male/male jumper wire to make each of these connections to the Mosfet transistor’s three rows. Connect the row where the topmost pin is connected to the ground rail (-) of the breadboard. Use another male/male jumper wire to connect this same row to a GND input pin on the “POWER” section of the Arduino. Connect the row where the center pin is connected to the cathode (-) input pin of the blower motor with a male/male jumper wire. Connect the row where the bottom-most pin is connected to the #9 input pin on the Arduino in the section labeled “DIGITAL PWM”.

Why Does This System Use Separate Power Sources? The Arduino is powered by the USB cable connected to the computer and/or the 9V battery. This provides a steady, low‑power 5‑volt supply for the microcontroller and sensor. The fan requires more current than the Arduino can safely provide, so it is powered by a separate battery pack. The Arduino does not power the fan directly—it only controls when the fan turns on or off. Many real‑world control systems work this way - computers and sensors operate at low power, while motors and other equipment require their own power sources.

Why Is There a Transistor in This Circuit? The Arduino is the “decision-maker” in this system, but it cannot safely supply enough electrical current to power the fan. If the fan were connected directly to the Arduino’s power pins, the board could be damaged. The transistor acts like an electronic switch. A small signal from the Arduino tells the transistor when to turn on or off, and the transistor then allows electricity from the battery pack to flow to the fan. In systems like HVAC equipment, industrial machinery, or building automation systems, low‑power control circuits are commonly used to control higher‑power devices in the same way.

Using a male/male jumper wire, connect the anode (+) input pin of the blower motor to the power rail (+) of the breadboard.

Once you have completed your build, bring your assembly to your teacher for inspection and to load the initial code onto your Arduino. a. Open the Arduino file for this project on the computer. It can be downloaded here: https://bit.ly/42Kk7rZ. b. Connect the Arduino to a USB port on the computer with the cable. c. Go to Tools  Port and select the port that is connected to the Arduino. To figure out which port is the correct one, you may have to disconnect and see how the list changes, then reconnect to see the port number that appears once connected. d. From the dropdown menu at the top where it says “Select Board,” choose Arduino UNO. e. Click the checkmark in the top left to “compile” for code. f. Click the arrow next to the check mark in the top left to put the code out to the Arduino board. Your code will begin to run.

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Record the behavior of your system.

Choose a new temperature set point. Visit your teacher to change the code and load in onto your Arduino.

10. Record the behavior of your system. 11. If time allows, continue exploring adjustments to the code and record the impacts on system behavior.

How Does the System Make a Decision? The temperature sensor continuously measures the surrounding air temperature and sends that information to the Arduino as an electrical signal. The Arduino compares the measured temperature to a temperature set point programmed into it. If the measured temperature is above the set point, the Arduino turns the fan on. If the measured temperature is below the set point, the Arduino turns the fan off. This comparison process is the basis of how thermostats and many other automatic control systems work.

Troubleshooting 1.

If the system does not behave as expected, first check all your wire connections to ensure that jumper wires are in the correct ports on the Arduino board and that good contact in made in the breadboard, sensor, and fan.

Continuity testing: if the system still does not work correctly, consider testing your jumper wires individually. You will use the multimeter to accomplish this. If the wires are good, the resistance from one end of the wire to the other will be low. a. To set up your multimeter, place the red wire into the VΩmA port and the black wire into the COM port. Turn the dial on the multimeter to measure resistance. When not connected, the resistance will be very high, and your multimeter will read 1 to show that the value exceeds the limits of measurement. b. With the male/male jumper wires, touch one probe to each end of the wire. If the wire has no breaks and the end pins are well connected, you will see a large drop in the resistance, showing that you have continuity. If the resistance remains high, you have a bad wire. c. For the female/male jumper wires, first find a male/male jumper that you know for certain is good. Insert one end of the male/ male into the female jumper and then test just like you did in the previous step. d. If you find any bad wires ask your teacher where to put them so they don’t get mixed in with other supplies and cause problems for others.

Battery test: with your multimeter set on “20 DCV” place one probe on each pole of the battery. The reading tells you the voltage available.

Battery holder test: place the battery/batteries in their holder. Set the multimeter to 20 DCV. a. For the 9V with the barrel connector, place one probe inside the cylinder of the barrel, and touch the other probe to the outside of the barrel. If you get a similar reading compared to the reading when you directly measured that battery, there is nothing wrong with your battery holder. b. For the four AA battery pack, touch one probe of the multimeter to each of the wire coming from the battery pack. You should get a reading around 6 V if everything is connected correctly inside the battery holder.

Fan test: to test that the fan works, briefly connect the one jumper wire going to the fan to the power rail and the other to the ground rail. The fan should turn on. If it does not, either the fan is bad or the batteries are.

MULTIMETER SETUP

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 Data and Observations TEMPERATURE SETTING (°F)

FAN BEHAVIOR

NOTES

 Conclusion 1.

Did your setup work correctly the first time? If not, what troubleshooting steps did you take?

Theoretically, a thermostat should turn on the instant the temperature crosses the set point, and off the instant the temperature crosses back. However, actual thermostats do not do this—equipment would wear out very quickly and it would use a TON of energy. What do you think actual smart thermostats do to avoid this situation?

What are some other variables or components you think would be helpful to incorporate into this system?

What kinds of smart devices have you seen in action?

What are some benefits and challenges related to the use of smart devices?

How can a system like this save energy?

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Motion‑Activated Smart Lighting  Background Even though the most common smart device in a home is a smart thermostat, smart technology is not limited to temperature control. Another common way smart devices improve energy efficiency is by responding to movement. Motion‑activated lights are widely used in homes, schools, and public buildings to prevent lights from being left on when no one is in the room. Instead of relying on people to remember to flip a switch, these systems use sensors to detect motion and automatically turn lights on when someone enters a space and off when the space is empty. In this activity, you will build a simple motion activated lighting system using an Arduino and a motion sensor. Your system will detect movement and automatically control a light, applying the same core ideas from the smart thermostat activity—sensing the environment, processing data, and controlling an output—but in a new context. Through this project, you will deepen your understanding of sensors, microcontrollers, and basic programming while exploring how motion-based smart systems are used in real-world buildings to reduce energy use and prevent wasted electricity.

? Questions How does this smart light decide when to turn on or off?

 Hypothesis Write a statement indicating what input(s) a motion-sensing light control uses to turn a light on or off.

 Materials Breadboard Arduino Uno Board 3 Jumper wires (male/male) 3 Jumper wires (male/female) LED 9V Battery 9V Battery connector

220 Ω Resistor AM312 Mini pyroelectric PIR sensor module Multimeter Glue gun (optional) Rigid cardboard (optional)

 Procedure 1.

If instructed by your teacher, use a small amount of hot glue to attach breadboard, Arduino, and sensor to a support board to hold components in place.

Connect the breadboard’s power rail (+) to the #9 input pin on the Arduino in the section labeled “DIGITAL PWM” with a male/male jumper wire.

Connect the breadboard’s ground rail (-) to a GND input pin on the Arduino with a male/male jumper wire. When the motion sensor is triggered, 5V of electricity will flow through the #9 pin and out through the GND pin.

Place an LED in the breadboard with its longer anode (+) on the left and shorter cathode (-) on the right.

Use a 220Ω resistor to connect the breadboard’s anode (+) to the same breadboard column as the LED’s anode (on the left).

Use a male/male jumper wire to connect the breadboard’s cathode (-) to the same breadboard column as the LED’s cathode (on the right).

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The PIR motion sensor has three pins that need to be connected, using male/female jumper wires. The female end connects to the pins on the PIR motion sensor. The male ends connect to the Arduino input pins. The female ends of the jumper wires may not fit snugly on the sensor pins. Consider using a couple drops of hot glue to ensure the connection remains stable. a. Connect PIN A to the 5V pin on the Arduino. This acts as the sensor’s anode, providing 5V of electricity a path into the sensor. b. Connect PIN B to the #2 pin on the Arduino. This wire will communicate with the Arduino when the sensor detects motion. c. Connect PIN C to a GND pin on the Arduino. This acts as the sensor’s cathode, providing the 5V of electricity a path out of the sensor

Once you have completed your build, bring your assembly to your teacher for inspection and to load the initial code onto your Arduino. a. Open the Arduino file for this project on the computer. It can be downloaded here: https://bit.ly/4nK5oqr. b. Connect the Arduino to a USB port on the computer with the cable. c. Go to Tools  Port and select the port that is connected to the Arduino. To figure out which port is the correct one, you may have to disconnect and see how the list changes, then reconnect to see the port number that appears once connected. d. From the dropdown menu at the top where it says “Select Board,” choose Arduino UNO. e. Click the checkmark in the top left to “compile” for code. f. Click the arrow next to the check mark in the top left to put the code out to the Arduino board. Your code will begin to run.

Record the behavior of your system.

10. Sit still and see if the light goes off after a short time. 11. If the light goes off, wave your hand near the sensor and see if the light turns on. Record the behavior of the system. 12. Choose a new time delay. Visit your teacher to change the code and load in onto your Arduino. 13. Record the behavior of your system. 14. If time allows, continue exploring adjustments to the code and record the impacts on system behavior.

Troubleshooting 1.

If the system does not behave as expected, first check all your wire connections to ensure that jumper wires are in the correct ports on the Arduino board and that good contact is made in the breadboard, sensor, and fan.

Continuity testing: if the system still does not work correctly, consider testing your jumper wires individually. You will use the multimeter to accomplish this. If the wires are good, the resistance from one end of the wire to the other will be low. a. To set up your multimeter, place the red wire into the VΩmA port and the black wire into the COM port. Turn the dial on the multimeter to measure resistance. When not connected, the resistance will be very high, and your multimeter will read 1 to show that the value exceeds the limits of measurement. b. With the male/male jumper wires, touch one probe to each end of the wire. If the wire has no breaks and the end pins are well connected, you will see a large drop in the resistance, showing that you have continuity. If the resistance remains high, you have a bad wire. c. For the male/female jumper wires, first find a male/male jumper wire that you know for certain is good. Insert one end of the male/male into the female end of the jumper wire and then test just like you did in the previous step. d. If you find any bad wires ask your teacher where to put them so they don’t get mixed in with other supplies and cause problems for others.

 Data and Observations TIME DELAY (MILLISECONDS)

LED BEHAVIOR

NOTES

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 Conclusion 1.

Did your setup work correctly the first time? If not, what troubleshooting steps did you take?

What are some other variables or components you think would be helpful to incorporate into this system?

What kinds of smart devices have you seen in action?

What are some benefits and challenges related to the use of smart lighting?

How can a system like this save energy?

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Hydraulic Gripper  Background Hydraulic and pneumatic systems are similar in that they both rely on fluids to transmit forces. The main difference between the two systems is the type of fluid in the contained system. In a hydraulic system, the fluid is a liquid and cannot be compressed. The volume of liquid pushed in one part of the system is pushed out in another part of a system. The fluid can transmit pressure, but it is not changed. A pneumatic system uses a gas, which compresses under pressure. Hydraulics are used in many heavy-load applications, like lifts for car repair and construction equipment. These systems are also used to position the blades of a wind turbine into place or move them back during high winds. They may also be used to help manage stormwater drainage, and water pressure in large buildings.

? Question How does a syringe full of liquid transfer force?

 Hypothesis Write a statement explaining how you think liquid in a syringe transfers force.

 Materials 9 Jumbo craft sticks Glue gun and sticks Ruler Pencil Cutting mat Box cutter Drill with 1/8 bit Scissors Wooden skewers 4 1.5 cm Wooden cubes 1 1.5 cm Wooden cubes with 1/8” center hole

Rubber band 10” Tubing (1/8” inner diameter) 2 10 mL Syringes Multimeter 2 Alligator clips 1 Jumper wire (6-inch) Wire stripper/cutters 4” of 1” wide copper tape 4” of 1” wide Velostat 1 Index card 1 400 mL Beaker of water

HYDRAULIC GRIPPER CONSTRUCTION

 Procedure PART I – CONSTRUCT GRIPPER 1.

Measure the midpoint on 4 craft sticks and cut them into equal halves. Use light pressure when cutting the sticks to prevent splitting.

On two of the halves that you just cut, make a mark along the centerline of the stick 1 cm from the end on the rounded end.

Carefully drill holes approximately 1/8 inches in diameter where you made the mark in the previous step. Apply very gentle pressure when making the holes or the stick will split.

Cut a 3 cm section off the wood skewer. This will be the pivot point of the pincher.

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Using hot glue, join a half stick to two wooden blocks, as seen to the right. Place a second half stick as a top layer of this assembly.

Repeat the previous step to make a mirror image. Let’s refer to these as left finger and right finger.

Place the wood skewer piece through the hole in the remaining wooden block. Place a half piece of craft stick with holes onto the stick. Refer to the images as needed.

Hold a straight edge against the bottom blocks as seen in the image as a guide. Glue the free end of the half stick with the holes to the right finger parallel to the guide as shown.

Flip the assembly over and attach the remaining half stick with the hole onto the skewer. Glue the other side of the right finger parallel to the previous one as seen here.

STEPS 5 & 6

10. On the straight end of one of the remaining half sticks, mark and trim off a 3 cm x 2 mm strip of wood on each side. 11. Use the trimmed half stick to attach the left finger to the cross piece that was just attached to the right finger. The trimmed side is inserted between the craft sticks of the left finger and glued to the inner face of the block. The untrimmed end is glued to the block face pointing toward the fingertips as seen in the picture. Use caution in this step and the next to ensure that the fingertips touch each other when the pincher is in its closed position.

STEPS 7 - 9

12. Attach the remaining half stick parallel to the previous one as seen in the picture. We will now refer to these two assemblies as the left and right hands.

STEPS 10 & 11

STEP 12

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13. Connect the hands with the wooden pin.

STEPS 13 - 17

14. Cut the rubber band into two pieces. 15. Glue approximately 1.5 cm of the end of one piece of the rubber band to the end of one whole craft stick. Repeat with the other piece on the other end of the stick. 16. Hold this full stick against the flat edge of the joined hands. Loosely fold the free ends of the rubber band pieces up and around the blocks on the joint and glue them to the block. 17. Once the glue is set, test the mechanism by holding the wooden pin in one hand and pull up and down gently on the full stick attached in the previous step. This should make the fingers open and close. 18. Disassemble one syringe. Glue the flat top of the plunger to the center of the full stick attached in the previous step. 19. On a full craft stick, make a mark and drill a hole on the center line 1 cm from the end. Repeat this step with a second craft stick. 20. Fit a stick from the previous step onto the wooden pin. Put one on each side of the assembly. This is the handle of the gripper. 21. Test the mechanism again by moving the plunger up and down while holding the sticks that you just installed.

STEPS 19 - 21

STEP 18

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22. With the fingertips of the gripper in the fully closed position, assemble the syringe so that the plunger is near the 6 mL mark.

STEPS 22 & 23

23. Wrap a loop of masking tape around the handle about an inch from the top. This will be removed later. 24. Attach the tubing to the end of the syringe. 25. With masking tape and hot glue, attach the remaining two craft sticks to the handle 90 degrees from the other two sticks with their ends under the flared edges of the syringe. 26. Attach the second syringe to the tubing with it in its fully closed position. 27. Test the device by slowly pulling and pushing on the plunger of the second syringe. 28. If it does not work as expected, do some troubleshooting. If it works as expected, you are ready to fill the drive system with water. 29. Remove the second syringe. Pull the stick that is attached to the other plunger down until the plunger is fully inserted into the syringe in the handle. Place the end of the tubing in a beaker of water and move the stick and plunger back up until the fingertips are fully closed. The syringe in the handle and the attached tube should now contain water. If you have air bubbles, expel them and try again to fill with water.

STEPS 24 & 25

30. Connect the tip of the second plunger to the free end of the tubing. 31. Test the gripper by gently pulling and pushing on the plunger of the second syringe.

STEPS 26-31

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PART II – CONSTRUCT PRESSURE SENSOR 1.

Measure and cut a 7 cm x 3 cm piece of an index card.

Fold the card in half so it is 3.5 cm x 3 cm, then reopen.

Measure and cut two pieces of conductive copper tape that are 2.5 cm x 2.5 cm.

Peel off the backing paper and stick one square in the center of one half of the index card.

Fold the card in half and use a pencil to mark the locations of the copper tape corners on the inside of the card opposite from where the copper is attached. Attach the second square of copper tape to the other side with the corners at the places you just marked. See the image to the right.

Cut a jumper wire into two equal pieces. Strip approximately 1.5 cm of the shielding off of the cut ends of the two wires.

Lay the exposed wire from one piece on the left edge of the copper tape on the left side of the card and secure it in place with a small strip of copper tape. Repeat this with the other wire on the other side.

Cut two 3 cm x 3 cm squares of Velostat film.

Lay one piece of Velostat on each side. Leave a small gap on the center line and secure both with a thin piece of tape.

STEPS 1-6

STEPS 7-11

10. Fold the card in half. 11. Use another narrow piece of tape to hold the card closed. Your sensor is now ready for use.

PART III – TEST GRIPPER You will now use the sensor that you just built to assess the pressure exerted by the gripper that you built. The Velostat film allows electricity to flow when the two layers are pressed together. Without the application of pressure there is higher resistance (R) to the flow of electricity. With greater pressure, there is less electrical resistance. We will measure R using a multimeter, calculate 1/R, and use this value as an indicator of pressure. 1.

Set up your multimeter by placing the red lead into the port labeled “VΩmA” and the black lead into the port labeled “COM.”

Connect each probe to an alligator clip at the end of a jumper wire. Connect the other end of each jumper wire to one of the wires coming out of the sensor.

Turn on your multimeter to measure Ohms (Ω).

Pinch the sensor and watch for changes in the reading on the multimeter as you vary your pressure.

*In this step, do not use excessive force or you will break your gripper or cause your hydraulic line to disconnect and spill fluid.* With a partner, grasp the sensor with the gripper fingers by pushing down on the second syringe plunger. Record the reading on the multimeter.

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 Data and Observations MEASURED RESISTANCE

1/R

 Conclusion A device such as this gripper can help do two things: a. It takes an input force in one location and applies it in a different place. b. It can translate a rotational force from a motor into a linear force. 1.

Why might you need a mechanism that can receive an input force in one location and apply that force somewhere else?

You activated this mechanism by pushing on a syringe. If given a motor and some gears, what changes could you make so that this device translates rotational forces from the motor into linear forces of the gripper fingers?

What are some advantages and disadvantages of using hydraulic systems?

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Pneumatic Gripper  Background Hydraulic and pneumatic systems are similar in that they both rely on fluids to transmit forces. Pneumatic systems use compressed air to transmit power and are often used in building management where fast, repetitive movement and simple control are needed. For example, pneumatic actuators are commonly used in HVAC systems to control dampers and valves, helping regulate airflow and temperature throughout a building. Pneumatics are also used in automatic doors, building automation controls, and some maintenance tools used by facility staff. The advantages of pneumatic systems include simplicity, lower cost, and cleaner operation, since air leaks do not create the same contamination issues as hydraulic fluid leaks. However, pneumatic systems generally produce less force and less precise control than hydraulic systems, which limits their use in heavy-load applications like elevators. They can also be less energy efficient, since air compressors must run to maintain pressure and compressed air can escape through small leaks in the system. Even small leaks lead to big energy loss – sometimes as much as 20 percent! Most modern HVAC controls rely on digital signals sent through a wire rather than a pneumatic actuator. However, pneumatic systems are still in wide use in many buildings, especially schools, so it is useful to understand how they work.

? Question How does the size of a syringe affect the amount of force transmitted with air?

 Hypothesis Write a statement describing how much force might be supplied by air from a syringe.

 Materials Gripper arm from hydraulics activity Sensor built in hydraulics activity 3 mL Syringe 20 mL Syringe Multimeter Alligator clip Jumper wire

 Procedure 1.

If you do not have the gripper made in the hydraulics activity, follow those instructions to make one.

Remove the syringe that is not part of the handle and eject all water from the tubing and syringe. Reattach the tubing to the syringe that is part of the handle.

With the gripper in its fully closed position and the free syringe with the plunger fully inserted, reattach the syringe to the tubing.

You will use the sensor built in the previous activity to assess the pressure exerted by the gripper using different size syringes. The Velostat film in the sensor allows electricity to flow when the two layers inside are pressed together. Without the application of pressure there is higher resistance (R) to the flow of electricity. With greater pressure, there is less electrical resistance. We will measure R using a multimeter, calculate 1/R, and use this value as an indicator of pressure.

Set your multimeter by placing the red lead into the port labeled “VΩmA” and the black lead into the port labeled “COM.”

Connect each probe of the multimeter to an alligator clip at the end of a jumper wire.

Connect the other end of each jumper wire to one of the wires coming out of the sensor.

Gently pull back on the syringe plunger to open the gripper fingers enough to slide the sensor between the fingertips.

Turn on your multimeter to measure Ohms (Ω).

10. Pinch the sensor with the gripper and record the resistance reading on the multimeter as you push the plunger of the syringe all the way in. 11. Swap the 10 mL syringe at the end of the tube not in the handle with the 3 mL syringe and take a new measurement. 12. Swap the 3 mL syringe at the end of the tube not in the handle with the 20 mL syringe and take a new measurement.

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 Data and Observations SYRINGE VOLUME (ML)

RESISTANCE (Ω)

1/R

3 10 20

 Conclusions 1.

For each syringe that you tested, calculate 1/R and write that in the table above. This is a proxy or stand-in measure to represent the pressure applied by the gripper.

Which syringe resulted in the greatest force between the gripper fingers? Why do you think this is the case?

If you are managing a building that uses pneumatic systems, what might be some preventative maintenance you should perform to keep the system from wasting energy?

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Lesson 7: Renewables, Energy Storage, and Electric Vehicles Energy efficiency and conservation are not driven only by cost savings. As human activity increases CO2 levels in the atmosphere, the environmental impacts of energy use have become more important to individuals, businesses, and communities. Solar and wind—two widely available renewable energy sources—now play a much larger role in how we meet our energy needs. Historically, energy use was local and immediate—people burned wood for heat or candles for light. Over time, electricity generation shifted energy production to large, centralized facilities such as power plants and refineries, with energy delivered through infrastructure like the electric grid and fuel pipelines. Today, growing concern about environmental impacts is pushing energy production back toward more local solutions, such as rooftop solar panels and energy storage systems. While these changes can reduce emissions and increase flexibility, they also create new challenges for electric utilities, which must predict and balance electricity supply and demand. As energy storage systems and electric vehicles become more common, managing the grid will become even more complex. Understanding how solar, wind, energy storage, and electric vehicles all fit together in an energy economy built around good energy management is important for everyone, but especially for those working in the energy sector.

A typical solar panel is about 1 meter wide and 1.7 meters long (3 ft x 5.5 ft). They can be combined in any number and in just about any arrangement to get the total number of watts desired. The only requirement is that they must face directly toward the sun without any shading. Even the narrow shadow of a parking lot light pole can interfere with the electricity generated by a solar panel. In the Northern Hemisphere, solar panels are installed facing south. Ideally, panels will face directly south but occasionally the installation site requires that they be slightly away from south. The angle difference from south is called the azimuth. The farther away from the equator, the more the panels need to be tilted up away from the ground to be as direct-facing as possible. That angle is called the tilt. Solar systems are typically installed on racks or frames that keep the panels in a fixed position. Some solar systems are on single-axis tracking systems that move the panels from east to west throughout the day, following the path of the sun through the sky. Double-axis systems are also available that adjust the tilt as well as the tracking angle to always have the panel directly facing the sun.

All the Bells & Whistles Solar systems consist of more than just solar panels and racks. Because buildings Solar and wind systems installed and the electric grid use on a home or business are called alternating current (AC), distributed generation systems. solar PV systems require an Generating electricity in this way inverter. The inverter converts distributes it out around the grid DC into AC that can be used rather than concentrating it at by household appliances, one central place, the power lighting, and HVAC systems. plant. Inverters also perform critical safety functions, such as shutting down power production if the grid goes offline to protect utility workers. Many solar systems on residential and commercial buildings have a data acquisition system that shows how much electricity the system is producing in real time, how much it has produced in a given time period, and how much CO2 has been saved by using the solar system. The software can also show any problems that have occurred in the system. Solar systems might also have an energy storage system so electricity is available at night or on cloudy days.

Spread the Wealth

Solar Photovoltaic Systems In 1905, a young Albert Einstein published four groundbreaking scientific papers, one of which identified and described the photoelectric effect. This is the work for which Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921. The photoelectric effect describes the way light can energize electrons and start a process of energy transfer. It is the way solar cells generate electric current. Also known as photovoltaic cells (PV), solar cells convert sunlight directly into electricity using semiconductor materials. When sunlight strikes a PV cell, electrons are energized and begin to move, creating direct current (DC) electricity. Solar cells are interconnected within a panel to boost current and voltage. Residential and commercial solar systems are typically made up of multiple panels wired together to produce useful amounts of power.

PV CELL

Placement Is Key

Scale Up or Down Solar systems are easy to increase or decrease in generating capacity by simply adding or removing panels and adjusting the inverter and storage system accordingly. The vast majority of solar systems are grid-tied, meaning that the building is also connected to the electric power grid and any electricity generated by the system that is not being used in the building can be exported to the grid for others. Image courtesy of Adobe Stock

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Some solar systems are off-grid systems, meaning the building and panels are not grid-tied. This is common for buildings or equipment that are far from transmission and distribution lines. Also known as stand-alone systems, they can also be used on trailers to power construction equipment or camping gear, ships and other vehicles to power electrical equipment on board, or equipment placed in remote places, like cameras. Space is about as remote a location as possible; satellites and the International Space Station use solar systems. A third, less common, application for solar systems is within a microgrid. The prefix micro- means “tiny” and in this case describes a place where electricity is generated in the same place it is used. Multi-family residential buildings with solar panels on top are one example of a microgrid. College campuses with several buildings and a large solar system are another example. Solar systems are ideal for microgrids because they are easily sized according to the site-specific needs. Microgrids can be connected to the main electric power grid or they can be stand-alone systems. Using solar energy has many benefits. The energy source is available every day at no cost, and using solar energy does not put more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. However, it is not perfect. Solar energy is most abundant during the middle of the day, which does not always align with peak electricity use in the evening. And, on days with heavy clouds or rain, the system may produce little to no electricity. Combining solar systems with a way to store energy can overcome this challenge.

The Answer Might Be Blowing in the Wind Humans have been using wind power for a long time to travel on water, grind grain, and pump water for cattle in remote areas. The first use of wind energy to generate electricity was in 1888 when Charles Brush built a 12 kW turbine and installed it in Cleveland, Ohio. Wind turbines were improved throughout the 20th century. Today, wind energy generates over ten percent of US electricity, and that amount is only going to grow. Wind turbines convert the motion energy of moving air into electrical energy. The wind pushes on the blades, spinning the hub. The hub is attached to a gearbox that changes the rotational speed of the hub so the generator produces electricity that is in sync with electricity on the grid. Most wind turbines on land are very large and can each generate 2-5 MW or more. Turbines used offshore are larger and can generate up to 15 MW each. These turbines are used in utility-scale installations called wind farms. Wind turbines installed on homes or businesses are much smaller. These turbines will generate about 10-20 kW and are not typically approved in suburban or urban areas because of zoning and FAA restrictions.

Energy Storage for More Solar energy production peaks at midday; wind energy production peaks in the pre-dawn morning. Neither time coincides with the lateafternoon peak demand for electricity in most areas. Including energy storage with wind and solar systems allows access to electricity at a time different from when it was produced. Batteries are currently the most common form of electrical energy storage used with renewable energy systems. Many residential solar systems include battery storage. Energy storage does more than bridge the gap between peak production and peak demand. It is helpful for electric utilities in that it can reduce the demand for electricity at peak demand times. Batteries can also be used to provide power when an outage has occurred. Residential battery systems are becoming more common, but one of the largest and most underutilized batteries may already be sitting in the driveway.

Electric Vehicles as Energy Storage For nearly 100 years, internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles were the only choice available. Some of the issues with ICE vehicles are that they are noisy, they produce air pollutants, their fuel is made from a nonrenewable source (petroleum), and they are terribly inefficient. Only about twenty percent of the energy in the gasoline or diesel is used to move the vehicle. The rest of the energy is lost as thermal energy. Electric vehicles (EVs) are much more efficient. Powered by large rechargeable batteries, EVs are quieter and produce no air pollutants, (not accounting for the way the electricity was generated). While the battery’s main job is to power the vehicle, it can also serve as an energy storage resource. Most vehicles are parked more than 90 percent of the time, which means their stored energy is often unused.

How an Electric Vehicle Works BATTERY

ELECTRIC MOTOR

PLUG

Electric vehicles store electricity in large battery banks. They are plugged into a wall outlet (either a 240-volt or standard 120-volt) for several hours to charge. An electric motor powers the wheels, and acts as a generator when the brakes are applied, recharging the battery.

Onshore Wind Turbine OnshoreDiagram Wind Turbine Diagram Blade

Blade Rotor hub

Low-speed shaft Low-sp Rotor hub Low-speed shaft Low-sp Gear box Gear box

Nacelle

High-speed shaft

Nacelle

Bla

High-speed shaft

Most home batteries can store 10-15 kilowatt-hours of electrical energy. Many EV batteries store at least 60 and up to 100 kWh, making them several times larger than home batteries. The only necessary change to use an EV for energy storage is the type of charger installed. Using an EV as storage requires bidirectional charging, which allows electricity to flow into the vehicle when charging and out of the vehicle when energy is needed elsewhere.

Tower

Tower Generator Gene Ge neraato t r

Generator Gene Ge neraato t r

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There are two major ways an EV can be used for energy storage: vehicle-to-home (V2H) and vehicle-to-grid (V2G). Vehicle‑to‑Home (V2H) allows an electric vehicle to supply electricity directly to a house. In this setup, a bidirectional charger and transfer equipment connect the EV to the home’s electrical system. This allows the vehicle to be a backup during power outages or store excess energy produced by a solar system to use later in the day. People who live in areas with time-of-day electricity pricing can avoid the highest rates by using power from their EV. When grid power is available and energy is inexpensive, the EV charges. When the grid is down or power is expensive, the home draws electricity from the EV. Safety systems ensure the home is isolated from the grid during outages to protect utility workers. Vehicle‑to‑Grid (V2G) allows an electric vehicle to send electricity back to the utility grid. Instead of just powering a home, the EV supports the broader electric system. V2G is helpful because it can reduce peak demand, balance generation and demand, and help stabilize the grid system. V2G programs typically involve utilities, specialized metering, and regulatory approval. For this reason, V2G is more common in pilot programs and commercial or fleet applications than in individual homes.

So Demanding Throughout this lesson there has been a lot of discussion about peak production and peak demand, and when using solar or wind energy, the two timeframes do not align well. Demand is the word utilities use to describe and quantify the amount of electricity customers need. Peak demand is the maximum amount of electricity needed by all customers in a time period, usually a day. Most of the time, peak demand occurs in the evening after people have returned home from work or school. This is especially true on hot summer days. The hottest part of any day is from late afternoon into the early evening, and on the hottest days air conditioning is running full blast. This puts a tremendous strain on the grid as power providers try to keep up with demand. During excessive heat waves, brownouts or blackouts can occur. A rolling blackout is when power is deliberately cut to a specific area for a bit of time, then restored as another area has its power cut for the same bit of time, and so on. Rolling blackouts are also called load shedding and are used as a last resort when demand for electricity exceeds the amount of electricity that can be generated in that area. Rolling blackouts are much better than exceeding the generating capacity and causing a brownout or full blackout. A brownout results in a drop in voltage and can cause damage to devices with motors, like the compressor of a refrigerator.

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In addition to being a more efficient, cleaner way to get around, EVs can be a great energy storage mechanism for individual families or an entire electric utility service area. EVs with bidirectional charging can provide electricity during these peak periods so the grid does not have to produce as much, preventing strain and rolling blackouts. Using EVs in this way is called peak shaving—each EV can take a little bit off the top of that peak demand number and shave it down. If only a few percent of vehicles on the road were EVs equipped with bidirectional charging and coordinated with the grid, they could supply enough electricity during peak hours to significantly reduce the need for rolling blackouts. EVs are not a replacement for power plants or transmission lines, but they can act as a distributed battery that helps the grid during short periods of extreme demand. V2H and V2G are currently only in demonstration phases in the U.S. The greatest focus on reducing grid strain with respect to EVs right now is on smart charging, a strategy that recharges EV batteries without adding demand to an already-strained grid system. The EV owner chooses to charge the EV while demand is low, such as overnight when most people are sleeping. At times of extremely high demand, the EV is used as a stand-alone generator, powering specific devices rather than using grid-supplied electricity. Called vehicle-to-load (V2L), an EV can be used to run anything that can be plugged into an ordinary, 15 Amp household circuit. Good examples are a refrigerator, microwave, laptop and phone chargers, or a small window air conditioner. V2L will not power all of these items at once, but it will power one of them.

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Follow the Rules Any system that produces or exports electricity must follow interconnection rules to ensure safety and reliability in the U.S. These rules govern how solar systems, batteries, EV chargers, and microgrids interact with the electric grid. Interconnection rules require anti-islanding protection, appropriate metering of electricity, good communication with the utility, and full compliance with electrical codes. These rules allow renewable energy and storage systems to operate safely in concert with traditional power plants. Anti-islanding protection disconnects the system(s) from the grid if a power outage occurs. If energy storage is used with a solar system, electricity can continue to flow from the solar panels into the storage system without energizing the meter and distribution lines connecting the building to the grid. This protects line workers repairing damage.

Microgrids in Action

Before a solar, wind, or storage system can be used, the local utility must inspect it for safety and code compliance. A bidirectional meter that measures the electrical energy going into as well as coming out of the building is needed. The system must meet all safety standards and codes, including anti-islanding. An interconnection agreement is typically implemented between the utility and customer, defining the specifications, standards, and metering methods that will be used with the system. If the system meets all of these requirements, approval is granted and the system can be used.

SOLAR PANELS FOR ALABAMA'S SMART NEIGHBORHOOD

Microgrids combine local generation, storage, and controls to operate independently or in coordination with the grid. The following real‑world examples show how these systems work:

SHADOW MOUNTAIN – MENIFEE, CALIFORNIA This is one of the most advanced real residential microgrids in the country, built by KB Home with Schneider Electric, SunPower, and Southern California Edison. It consists of 219 net-zero homes equipped with a solar system and battery storage. The homes are all connected in a community microgrid with a 2 MW community battery that provides backup power during grid outages. Supported by a U.S. Department of Energy grant, it is widely cited as California’s first true residential microgrid community.

ALABAMA POWER’S “SMART NEIGHBORHOOD” – BIRMINGHAM, ALABAMA This development includes 62 single‑family homes connected to a microgrid with a 330 kW solar array, a 400 kW natural gas generator, and 360 kW battery storage. Each home has a Home Efficiency Rating System (HERS) score of 40-50, meaning it is 50-60 percent more efficient than similar single-family homes. The microgrid includes a cloud-based home energy management system that adjusts the heat pumps and water heaters according to energy prices and aims to use as little electricity from the grid as possible. The homeowners in this community participate in regular meetings to assess satisfaction and comfort. The microgrid neighborhood can be used as a model for future smart home microgrids, with homeowner input driving improvements. Residents in this neighborhood avoided a half-dozen power outages in the first two years because of the resilience built into the microgrid.

ALABAMA POWER'S “SMART NEIGHBORHOOD”

Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons

MARCUS GARVEY VILLAGE MICROGRID – BROOKLYN, NEW YORK Located in the Brownsville neighborhood of Brooklyn, Marcus Garvey Village includes 625 apartments for low- and middle-income residents. The city’s electric utility, Con Edison, was going to build a new substation. However, lessons learned from Superstorm Sandy in 2012 that demonstrated weaknesses in the system plus the high cost of a new substation led developers to create a microgrid. Marcus Garvey Village can rely upon its 400 kW rooftop solar system, a 400 kW natural gas fuel cell, and a 300 kW / 1200 kWh lithium-ion battery storage system. The 1.1 MW electricity generated by the microgrid does not meet the entire development’s demand for electricity, especially during peak demand periods. But the microgrid has saved residents 15 to 20 percent on their monthly electricity bills. Because rent includes electricity, the complex owners have used the savings for programming for residents. The battery system allows residents to have access to power during outages or high-demand periods when rolling blackouts are common. If a power outage is prolonged, a communal space is available for residents to gather to stay warm, charge cell phones, and refrigerate medicines for up to twelve hours. Each of these systems uses renewable energy, storage, and smart controls to provide reliable power while reducing environmental impact. Microgrids don’t have to be complicated and are not just for wealthy owners of single-family homes. A microgrid can be a single home, a single multi-family or mixed-use building, or a group of buildings. Microgrids can be grid-tied or stand alone. Regardless of the size or purpose, microgrids are a way people can pool resources and meet their energy needs while easing demand on the power grid.

Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons

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Storing Sunlight  Background You are probably unaware that you have been using energy storage for quite some time. Any time you put a battery into a flashlight, remote control, or toy, you are using energy storage. When you charge up your phone or your laptop, you are storing energy in the battery to use later. While the conversation around energy storage is relatively new, the concept is not. Renewable energy sources are fantastic except for one important issue—they cannot be depended upon to produce energy all the time. Hydropower depends on rainfall. Wind energy requires consistent wind speeds, but within a specific range. Solar systems can produce electricity even when it is overcast, but they do not generate electricity overnight or during heavy cloud cover. Combining renewables with storage significantly increases their dependability. This activity uses a capacitor to model a rechargeable battery that stores energy at one time to be used later. A capacitor contains two conductive metal plates separated by an insulating layer called a dielectric. A dielectric is a non-conducting substance such as ceramic, plastic, glass, Mylar, paper, or air. This insulating layer blocks direct current from flowing through the capacitor. Instead, electrons flow onto the plates charging the capacitor. One plate has a positive charge and the other has a negative charge. The capacitor stores the energy of the electrons in an electrostatic field between the plates. When electricity is needed, current flows out of the capacitor, discharging it. The electrostatic field decreases as the energy moves out of the plates. Capacitors come in a wide range of sizes depending on their function—from a tiny plastic capacitor inside a calculator to a supercapacitor powering a commuter bus. A capacitor is not the same as a battery. They store electrical energy in very different ways. While a battery stores energy in a chemical reaction, a capacitor stores energy in an electric field. Capacitors charge and discharge much faster than a battery, are long lasting, lose less energy as heat, and are almost 100 percent efficient. They are lighter than batteries, low maintenance, and don’t contain harmful chemicals or toxic metals. When you need a lot of energy fast—use a capacitor. In this activity, the capacitor will store enough energy to light the LED briefly, but not for long. You will be constructing a circuit with two switches and two paths through the capacitor. The initial design can be setup with a 9V battery, but you will then modify it to include a solar panel as the source of the charge.

 Materials 1 Breadboard 1000 µF Capacitor 2 Resistors, (1000 Ω and 470 Ω) 1 Rectifier diode

2 Alligator clip jumper wires 3 Jumper wires (male/male) 1 LED 9V Battery

9V Battery clip with wires 1 Solar panel 2 Momentary switches Timer or stopwatch

@Helpful Tips The LED, capacitor, and rectifier diode are polarized. This means they must be connected in the circuit correctly, with the negative leg on the negative side and the positive leg on the positive side. The capacitor and diode have gray stripes indicating the negative side. Use the mnemonic device, “gray to ground.” The negative side of a circuit is often used as ground in this activity. The longer leg on the LED should be connected to the positive side of the circuit. If it is connected backwards, it will not light. The diagram and photograph are one way the circuit can be connected. You do not need to use the same numbered rows as in the photograph, but do make sure things that should be connected are in the same numbered row on the same side of the gap in the center. In our diagram, we have our breadboard oriented horizontally, with components moving to the right on the breadboard as you connect. You can orient it vertically, but will need to consider the connections and directions when building.

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FIGURE 1: STORAGE CIRCUIT

 Procedure PART 1: BUILD THE STORAGE CIRCUIT 1.

Connect the breadboard’s power rail (+) to the 9-volt battery’s positive terminal and the ground rail (-) to the battery’s negative terminal using a 9V battery clip with wires.

Connect a 470 Ω resistor from the power rail (+) to a spot in terminal strip (4).

Bridge, or connect, the same terminal strip (4) to another terminal strip (6) using a momentary switch. The switch should be installed so that the leads are vertically aligned, only bridging or crossing over one terminal strip.

Connect the switch’s terminal strip (6) to another terminal strip (12) with the rectifier diode. The diode should be aligned so that the gray line is aimed to the right, away from the switch.

Connect terminal strip (12) to another terminal strip (14) using a 470 μF capacitor. The capacitor should be aligned so that the gray line is aimed to the right, away from the switch.

Complete the circuit by connecting the capacitor’s disconnected terminal strip (14) to the breadboard’s ground rail (-) using a male/ male jumper wire.

PART 2: BUILD THE DISSIPATING CIRCUIT 1.

Install a 1,000 Ω resistor into the same terminal strip (12) as the rectifier diode and capacitor. Connect the other end of the resistor across the bridge (center gap) and install it into a new terminal strip (12) on the other side of the bridge.

Install a momentary switch’s left lead to the same terminal strip (14) as the capacitor/jumper wire. The switch should extend across the bridge to the other side’s terminal strips as well. The switch should be installed so that the leads are vertically aligned, only bridging over one terminal strip.

Connect the resistor’s terminal strip (12) to the switch’s right lead terminal strip (14) using an LED. Make sure that the LED is properly aligned, so that the positive anode (long leg) is connected to the resistor, and the negative cathode (short leg) is connected to the switch’s right lead.

PART 3: TEST THE STORAGE BANK 1.

Test that the capacitor is empty by pressing the switch on the LED side of the breadboard. The LED should not light.

Charge the capacitor bank by pressing the switch on the capacitor side of the breadboard. Hold it for five seconds to charge the capacitor and then release.

Discharge the capacitor bank by pressing the switch on the LED’s side of the breadboard. The LED should light.

If the LED does not light, check these common errors: Ensure all components are fully inserted into the ports. If the ends are not fully inserted, they will not connect to the terminal strips. Ensure that the LED is properly aligned with the capacitor. The anode (long leg) should connect to the resistor, and the cathode (short leg) should be connected to the switch. Check that the rectifier diode is properly aligned with the current from the battery. The gray line should be aimed away from the battery. Check that the capacitor is properly aligned with the current from the battery and LED. The gray line should be aimed away from the battery.

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FIGURE 2: SOLAR ENERGY STORAGE CIRCUIT

PART 4: STORE SOLAR ENERGY 1.

Hold the LED’s switch down until the LED dims to nothing and the light goes out completely. This means the capacitor is fully discharged.

Disconnect the battery from the breadboard.

If your solar panel has wires that will connect into the breadboard, insert the positive wire (red) into the power rail (+) of the breadboard. Insert the negative wire (black) into the ground rail (-) of the breadboard. The solar panel will now be the source of your charge, taking the place of the battery. I

If your solar panel does not have wires that can insert directly into the breadboard, use alligator clip jumper wires to make the connections. Keep the positive (red) terminal of the solar panel connected to the power rail (+), and the negative (black) terminal of the panel to the ground rail (-).

Place your solar panel and breadboard in direct sunlight. Press and hold the capacitor switch for ten seconds. Release and hold down the LED switch. Observe and record the amount of time the LED stays brightly lit before it starts to fade.

Discharge the capacitor fully until the light is completely out. Repeat step 5, but adjust the time to 5 seconds. Observe and record.

Continue to experiment by using more or less modules of your solar panel, changing the time for charging, and switching up how you connect your solar panel’s modules (series or parallel). Observe and record how each condition impacts the operation of the LED.

PART 5: LIMITATIONS 1.

Hold switch B down until the capacitor is fully discharged. The LED will dim to nothing. Hold B down until it goes out completely.

Place the panel and breadboard system in direct sunlight again. Hold switch A down for five seconds.

Hold B down and measure the amount of time the LED is lit before it starts to fade. Record observations.

Repeat steps 1-3, but this time charge the capacitor for 20 seconds.

FIGURE 3: CIRCUIT SCHEMATIC

BAT 4 + S8

R7 470 Ω

BAT 4 9V

1000 µF

1000 Ω

S9 D8 RED

BAT 4 -

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 Data and Observations POWER SOURCE

CONDITIONS DESCRIPTION

CHARGE TIME

OBSERVATIONS (DISCHARGE TIME, BRIGHTNESS, ETC.)

Battery

Solar panel

 Conclusions 1.

Does your solar panel produce more or less electricity than the 9V battery? Explain your answer, using evidence from the activity to support your answer.

If you have a digital multimeter available, check the solar panel in full sunlight against the battery according to your teacher’s directions. Is your answer to question #1 correct? Explain.

What happened to the length of time the LED would stay lit as you reduced the solar panel charging time?

What happened to the length of time the LED would stay lit as you increased the solar panel charging time?

What do you predict would happen if you charged the capacitor for 30 seconds? For 40 seconds?

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How much of a difference did additional charging time make in the amount of time the LED would stay lit? Cite evidence from the activity to support your answer.

What amount of charging time do you predict would no longer make any difference in the amount of energy the capacitor could store and the LED would stay lit? If your teacher agrees, test your hypothesis.

Battery energy storage has a capacity limit, beyond which no energy is stored. Explain why having the right size battery storage with a solar system is important. What happens to solar energy that does not get stored in the battery system or used on the grid?

 Extensions Experiment with different sizes of capacitors. Adjust your answers to the conclusion questions. Continue testing charging time. Can you find the maximum charging time? Create a graph of charge time vs discharge time.

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Investigating Thermal Mass  Background Use of passive solar energy in a building depends a great deal on the design of a building. For buildings in the northern hemisphere, passive solar designs include extra windows facing south to allow more radiant energy to enter the building. A passive solar house includes overhangs above the building that will block the higher, summer sun, while allowing the lower, winter sunlight to shine through the windows. Another passive solar house design incorporates angled south-facing windows to allow for greater solar gain in the winter months when the sun is lower in our sky. To keep the interior of the building warm all night, thermal mass is incorporated. Thermal mass is how we describe a material's ability to absorb energy and hold it as thermal energy. Common thermal mass materials used in passive solar house designs include concrete and stone. The thermal mass is warmed by the sun during the day, and the thermal energy is radiated into the home at night. These design features allow sunlight to warm the interior during cold months, reducing energy consumed for heating.

? Question What material properties make the best thermal mass?

 Hypothesis Write a statement identifying the properties materials must have to be good thermal masses.

 Materials Small box Clear plastic sheet Clear tape Thermal mass options Thermometer Heat lamp

Balance Beaker Graduated cylinder Scissors or box cutter Meter stick Protractor

HOUSE CONSTRUCTION

 Procedure PART I – CONSTRUCTING PASSIVE SOLAR HOUSE 1.

Mark and cut flaps as indicated in diagram and video.

Mark and cut out the panel where the window will be installed. The window opening should be 12 cm x 7.5 cm.

Mark and cut a panel of transparency sheet, 13 cm x 8.5 cm, for the window and use clear tape to attach it to the opening made in the previous step. Apply the clear tape on both the inside and outside of the box.

Fold over one side flap where indicated in the diagram and video.

PART I: STEP 1

PART I: STEP 4

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Mark and cut an opening through both layers for a door that is 5 cm x 8 cm. Use a ruler as seen in the video to crease the cardboard where the door will swing open.

Finish folding the box as shown in the video. Check the angle of your window using a protractor. The angle should be approximately 55 degrees.

Use packing tape to seal all gaps. Be sure the door can be opened and closed.

Cut through the additional layer of cardboard that now overlaps the door in the interior of the house.

Measure the mass and volume of the thermal mass you will use. Record the data in your science notebook. If you measure the volume by displacement, be sure that the water is room temperature and items are completely dry before completing the next steps.

10. Carefully open the door and insert your thermal mass material.

PART I: STEP 5

PART I: STEP 6

11. Close door carefully.

PART II – TESTING 1.

Insert the thermometer all the way through a side wall so that the probe is in the center of the home.

With the lamp off, set your home near the lamp at the distance that your teacher instructs. Position the home so that the side of the house intended to face south is facing the lamp.

Read the initial temperature from the thermometer. Record this temperature on the data table for Time 0.

Turn on the lamp. Start timing.

Record the temperature every two minutes.

After 10 minutes, turn off the lamp.

Record the temperature every two minutes for an additional 10 minutes.

Get the data for the control house (no added thermal mass) and add it to your data table.

PART II: STEP 1

 Data and Observations Material:

Mass:

Volume:

THERMAL MASS MATERIAL

TIME (MIN)

YOUR THERMAL MASS MATERIAL TEMPERATURE (F)

CONTROL (NO ADDED MATERIAL) TEMPERATURE (F)

0 2 Lamp ON

4 6 8

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THERMAL MASS MATERIAL

TIME (MIN)

YOUR THERMAL MASS MATERIAL TEMPERATURE (F)

CONTROL (NO ADDED MATERIAL) TEMPERATURE (F)

10 12 Lamp OFF

14 16 18 20

On the next page, graph temperature vs. time. 1.

Write the title on each axis. Temperature will go on the Y-axis since you will analyze how temperature changes over time. Minutes will go on the X-axis. Include the units of measure in parentheses after the label on the Y-axis.

You want to use the space available on the graph paper to spread out your data so it is easier to see patterns. Follow these steps to accomplish this: a. Count the number of blocks on the Y axis. b. Calculate the range of the values for the temperature data. To do this, subtract the smallest value from the largest value. This is your range. c. Now divide the range by the number of blocks on this axis. Round this number up to a number that you think makes sense. For example, if your answer is 0.186°F, then round up to 0.2°F. d. Label the values for the blocks using the number you just chose as the increment between each line. e. Repeat this step for minutes on the X-axis Plot your points and draw a line between each point in the sequence.

Next plot the points for the control data and draw a line between each point in a different color.

 Conclusion 1.

During the simulated day (the time when the lamp was on) how much did the temperature in your house increase? How does this compare to the control with no added thermal mass?

After the light was turned off, the homes began to cool. How did the change in temperature of your home compare with the control? Use the graph to help explain the pace of the cooling in each.

What do you think the effect would have been with twice the thermal mass? With half the thermal mass? Use the evidence you collected to support your answer.

How can incorporating passive solar design and thermal mass save energy and reduce greenhouse gas emissions?

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X-Axis Title

Graph Title

Graph Template

Y-Axis Title

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Understanding Microgrids PRE-PRINTED PAGE INSTRUCTIONS

&Background You’ve learned about the grid, the system of interconnected transmission and distribution lines that carry electricity from power plants and generating sites to homes and businesses. A microgrid is just a very small version of the power grid that can stand on its own power supply with a limited number of buildings connected to it. Some microgrids are single buildings with many occupants. An example would be a high-rise with apartments or condominiums, office space, and stores or restaurants. Sometimes these buildings have parking structures in the levels below ground. The owner of the building may decide to cover the roof of the building with solar panels and connect the homes and businesses to the solar system, providing some or all of their electricity needs. This would be one microgrid. Small island communities sometimes have a single power plant or generating source such as a hydropower plant. This power plant provides power to the small community and does not distribute the power to the rest of the grid. Because it is an isolated community with its own isolated power source, it is another type of microgrid.

WARNING The button batteries and mini LED lights used to create this circuit are choking hazards and dangerous if swallowed. Please use caution, and ensure all parts are securely fastened and kept away from children. Seek help immediately if batteries or bulbs are swallowed.

You will be building DC circuits to “power” one or two buildings on your own microgrid map.

Materials 2 Meters of copper tape 2 LEDs (3V) 1 Button battery (3V) Microgrid worksheet page

Procedure 1. Decide where in the country your microgrid will be built. Your teacher may assign you a location or you may be free to choose. 2. Use the State Electricity Profile from the U.S. Energy Information Administration to decide which energy source makes the most sense for your microgrid. You can reach this source by clicking on this link: www.eia.gov/electricity/state. 3. In the box, draw or write the energy source you will use to power your microgrid. 4. The pictures on the page represent grid components and end users of electricity. Connect all the components in order, and connect the power source to the end users, by drawing lines between them. 5. Turn the page over. On the back you will see a pre-drawn pathway for constructing a simple DC circuit with a dark, rectangular line. The small circle indicates where an LED will be placed. It should correspond to one of the houses on the front of the page. 6. Apply copper tape to the pathway of the circuit. Make sure the corners are well connected. Leave a break in the tape at the site of the LED. 7. Use the button battery and LED to determine the proper orientation of the LED in the circuit by pushing the battery between the two leads on the LED. If the LED lights, it is properly oriented. If not, flip the battery. Note which surface of the battery corresponds to the shorter lead and which corresponds to the longer lead. 8. Bend the LED leads outward so they form a right angle. Poke a hole in the circle where the LED should be placed, and push the LED through the circle so the leads are on top of the copper tape. Note which lead is the short lead. 9. Apply small pieces of copper tape over the LED leads so they are securely and tightly connected to the copper tape. You want to ensure you have a good connection here. 10. Crease the paper in the corner where the dotted line is. Folding this corner over will act as the switch in your circuit. 11. Place your battery so the correct side or terminal (+ or -) is connected to the appropriate lead of the LED.

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12. Fold the corner of your paper over and pinch it together. You can use a binder clip to hold it in place. The LED should light. If it does not, unfold, flip the battery and try again. If it still does not light, make sure your copper tape on the battery does not connect the textured negative terminal to the edge of the battery, which is the positive terminal. If it does, you are short-circuiting the battery and current will not flow through the LED. Keep troubleshooting until you get the LED to light. You need the following 3 conditions to be met for the LED to light: a. A continuous length of copper tape. Any breaks or gaps will not allow current to flow. b. Good connection between the copper tape and the LED leads. c. Proper orientation of the battery according to the placement of the LED. 13. To light a second house or building, poke a hole through the lighter circle in the middle of the page. It should align with another house on the front of the page. 14. Apply copper tape to the lines leading to the second circle, leaving a space. 15. Insert a second LED at the circle and secure with small pieces of copper tape. Make sure its orientation matches that of the original LED. 16. Insert the battery and close the switch again. If both LEDs do not light, make sure they are both aligned in the same direction, and make sure you have good connections along all the copper tape junctions.

 Conclusion 1. When you constructed your first circuit, you built a simple, series, parallel circuit (circle the correct answer). How do you know this is the type of circuit you built?

2. When you added the second LED, what kind of circuit did you then have on your paper? How do you know?

3. One LED requires 3 volts to light. If you were to add LEDs to every building on the front of your microgrid page, how would you connect them? How many batteries would you need? Explain your answer. Draw a diagram to show how it would work.

4. Why did you choose the power source you wrote or drew on your page? What values did you use to make the decision? What limiting factors kept you from choosing something different? Would you need additional or backup sources for your town? If so, which would you choose and why?

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Understanding Microgrids STUDENT-BUILT GRID INSTRUCTIONS

&Background You’ve learned about the grid, or the system of interconnected transmission and distribution lines that carry electricity from power plants and generating sites to homes and businesses. A microgrid is just a very small version of the grid that can stand on its own power supply with a limited number of buildings connected to it. Some microgrids are single buildings with many occupants. An example would be a high-rise with apartments or condominiums, office space, and stores or restaurants. Sometimes these buildings have parking structures in the levels below ground. The owner of the building may decide to cover the roof of the building with solar panels and connect the homes and businesses to the solar system, providing some or all of their electricity needs. This would be one microgrid. Small island communities sometimes have a single power plant or generating source such as a hydropower plant. This power plant provides power to the small community and does not distribute the power to the rest of the grid. Because it is an isolated community with its own isolated power source, it is another type of microgrid.

You will be building DC circuits to “power” one or two buildings on your own microgrid map.

Materials 2 Meters of copper tape 2 LEDs (3V) 1 Button battery (3V) Tape or glue Blank sheet of paper Envelope with grid components or scissors

Procedure 1. Decide where in the country your microgrid will be built. Your teacher may assign you a location or you may be free to choose. 2. Use the State Electricity Profile from the U.S. Energy Information Administration to decide which energy source makes the most sense for your microgrid. You can reach this source by clicking on this link: www.eia.gov/electricity/state. 3. Take the small pictures of grid components out of the envelope and spread them out on your desk, or cut out the pictures from the sheet provided. Arrange them in order from power plant to end users, with grid components between them, in the right order. 4. In the upper left corner of a blank sheet of paper, write or draw a picture to represent your chosen energy source for your microgrid’s power plant. 5. Tape or glue the pictures on your paper so they are laid out correctly and form a microgrid. Draw lines between them to indicate connections. 6. Turn the page over. Draw a dotted line in the corner where your power plant is situated on the front, so it makes a triangle. This will be where you place your battery. Folding the corner over will act as a switch to close the circuit. 7. Draw a circle underneath one of the houses in your microgrid. You will place an LED in this location. 8. Draw lines to indicate a circuit from the battery, through the LED, and back to the battery. 9. Apply copper tape to the pathway of the circuit. Make sure any corners are well connected. Leave a break in the tape at the site of the LED. 10. Use the button battery and LED to determine the proper orientation of the LED in the circuit by pushing the battery between the two leads on the LED. If the LED lights, it is properly oriented. If not, flip the battery. Note which surface of the battery corresponds to the shorter lead and which corresponds to the longer lead. 11. Bend the LED leads outward. Poke a hole in the circle where the LED should be placed, and push the LED through the circle so the leads are on top of the copper tape. Note which lead is the short lead. 12. Apply small pieces of copper tape over the LED leads so they are securely and tightly connected to the copper tape. You want to ensure ©2026 The NEED Project Your Future in Energy Efficiency and Conservation www.NEED.org

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you have a good connection here. 13. Crease the paper in the corner where the dotted line is. Folding this corner over will act as the switch in your circuit. 14. Place your battery so the correct terminal (+ or -) is connected to the appropriate lead of the LED. 15. Fold the corner of your paper over and pinch it together. You can use a binder clip to hold it in place. The LED should light. If it does not, unfold, flip the battery and try again. If it still does not light, make sure your copper tape on the battery does not connect the textured negative terminal to the edge of the battery, which is the positive terminal. If it does, you are short-circuiting the battery and current will not flow through the LED. Keep troubleshooting until you get the LED to light. You need the following 3 conditions to be met for the LED to light: a. A continuous length of copper tape. Any breaks or gaps will not allow current to flow. b. Good connection between the copper tape and the LED leads. c. Proper orientation of the battery according to the placement of the LED. 16. To light a second house or building, draw a circle beneath a second house in your microgrid. Determine how this LED should be connected to the circuit, and draw lines where the copper tape will be applied. 17. Apply copper tape to the lines leading to the second circle, leaving a space. 18. Insert a second LED at the circle and secure with small pieces of copper tape. Make sure its orientation matches that of the original LED. 19. Insert the battery and close the switch again. If both LEDs do not light, make sure they are both aligned in the same direction, and make sure you have good connections among all the copper tape junctions.

 Conclusion 1. When you constructed your first circuit, you built a simple, series, parallel circuit (circle the correct answer). How do you know this is the type of circuit you built?

2. When you added the second LED, what kind of circuit did you then have on your paper? How do you know?

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WARNING: The button batteries and mini LED lights used to create this circuit are choking hazards and dangerous if swallowed. Please use caution, and ensure all parts are securely fastened and kept away from children. Seek help immediately if batteries or bulbs are swallowed.

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s T

POWER PLANT Draw or write in your power sources

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Lesson 8: Benchmarking, Codes, and Certifications Benchmarking and certification are where energy efficiency moves from theory into practice. Once a building’s construction, systems, and use patterns are understood, benchmarking establishes a baseline for energy performance and provides a way to track change over time. Codes define the minimum level of efficiency a building must meet, while certifications recognize buildings that perform better than those minimums. Together, benchmarking, codes, and certifications shape how buildings are designed, constructed, renovated, and operated.

Gathering the Data

Measure, Act, Verify, Repeat

AUDITING

Computer software or online tools do not gather data by themselves; someone has to take the measurements and record the observations. An energy audit is a good way to gather data for benchmarking and identifying energy saving opportunities. There are many things homeowners can do themselves in terms of gathering data, but some information may need the help of a professional.

Energy management is not a one‑time event. It is a repeating process that includes auditing a building, identifying opportunities for improvement, making changes, and reviewing results. As buildings are renovated, systems are replaced, or occupants change, the focus of energy management changes as well. In well‑managed buildings, this process does not truly end. The first step is benchmarking. Benchmarking is the process of measuring how much energy a building uses and comparing that use to similar buildings or to the building’s own past performance. In residential settings, benchmarking may involve reviewing utility bills, energy models, or Home Energy Rating System (HERS) ratings as well as taking direct measurements of temperature, light levels, relative humidity, and air flow. In multifamily and commercial buildings, benchmarking is often done using ENERGY STAR® Portfolio Manager. Portfolio Manager is a free online tool developed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency that allows building owners and managers to track energy use over time and compare performance to other buildings. It also provides an ENERGY STAR® score for eligible building types that shows how efficiently a building operates compared to similar buildings nationwide. Many software programs for individual or business benchmarking are available in addition to Portfolio Manager. Some of these programs make energy saving recommendations for the user, while others simply record and track energy consumption trends. Benchmarking does not reduce energy use by itself, but it provides the data needed to identify problems, prioritize improvements, and verify savings.

ELECTRICIAN MEASURING VOLTAGE

Image courtesy of Adobe Stock

An energy audit is a systematic, room-by-room process where data like temperature, light levels, humidity, air infiltration, and sound levels are measured and recorded. The goal is not to fix things but to observe and note every energy-using item and process going on in the room. Audits are usually done when the room is empty and often involve climbing a ladder or getting down on the floor. A good auditor will stand in the center of the room and listen intently for things that are running. Should that item be running? How can it be turned off? What is not running that should be? Audits check the windows and exterior doors to make sure they close properly and that no air is leaking around them. An auditor will also use an infrared camera to observe exterior walls and find places where insulation is insufficient or lacking. Additionally, an audit might include air quality assessment, power consumption of plug-in devices, and water usage. When the audit is completed, the information can be plugged into software or simply summarized in a written report. Using benchmarking software allows the homeowner to track energy use through time and quickly see if improvements made yielded the expected energy savings. Regardless of the way the data is analyzed, the auditor uses the information to make recommendations from the least expensive

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to most expensive, and provides an expected payback period. This is the amount of time that the improvement will need to pay for itself. For example, if an improvement will save $20 per year on energy bills but cost $100, the payback period is five years. Homeowners typically need to assess the up-front cost as well as the payback period before determining if the improvement makes financial sense. In some cases, a great idea is not implemented because it has too large an up-front cost, or the payback period exceeds the amount of time the homeowner expects to live in the home. Commercial buildings are run differently and therefore use the audit data differently. An audit of a commercial building is more or less the same as a residential building, but may include inspection of spaces above ceilings as well as mechanical systems not usually checked by a residential audit. Commercial building owners use different guidelines when deciding on energy efficiency projects, too. If the payback period is three years or less, most companies will automatically implement the project. Payback periods of three to seven years will be analyzed and decided on individually. More than seven years for a payback period will require significant savings on an annual basis beyond the seventh year for a company to consider it.

Certifications: Instant Recognition If you were standing on the sidewalk in a neighborhood, would you be able to tell just by looking which homes were more energy efficient? There are some visible signs that a home is not very efficient. In winter, a house with a lot of icicles dangling from the roof probably does not have good insulation in the attic. The snow is being melted from the roof, the water is dripping down, and when it reaches the cold winter air, it freezes, forming an icicle. Unless the building envelope is in really rough shape, however, it can be difficult to distinguish a house with excellent energy efficiency from one with only mediocre efficiency. This is where certifications are important. ENERGY STAR® is one of the most widely recognized energy efficiency programs in the United States. In residential construction, ENERGY STAR® certified homes are designed and verified to use significantly less energy than homes built to standard code requirements. The program focuses on whole‑house performance, including insulation, air sealing, HVAC systems, lighting, and appliances. ENERGY STAR® also applies to multifamily residential buildings and to certain commercial building types. Because of its broad recognition, ENERGY STAR® certification is often used in utility incentive programs, real estate listings, and public energy policies. LEED, which stands for Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design, is a voluntary certification program from the U.S. Green Building Council that recognizes buildings designed to reduce environmental impact. LEED for homes and LEED for residential multifamily buildings include energy performance as a major category, along with water efficiency, materials, site selection, and indoor environmental quality. There are many ways a building owner can achieve LEED certification, and LEED certification has different levels. While LEED is often associated with commercial buildings, it is also used in residential construction, particularly for larger developments and multifamily housing. Builders and architects can also be LEED certified, identifying them as knowledgeable in energy-saving construction materials and methods.

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PHIUS+ certification is a residential and multifamily certification focused on extremely low energy use. Passive House buildings rely on very high levels of insulation, airtight construction, efficient windows, and controlled ventilation to minimize heating and cooling needs. These buildings typically use far less energy than standard construction, but they require careful design and construction practices. Passive house certification is most common in high‑performance residential projects and multifamily buildings. EarthCraft is a regional certification program used primarily in the southeastern U.S. It applies to single‑family homes, multifamily buildings, and renovations. EarthCraft emphasizes practical energy efficiency, moisture management, indoor air quality, and durability, with requirements tailored to regional climate conditions. Builders and contractors working in EarthCraft programs receive guidance throughout construction, and completed buildings are inspected and tested to verify performance.

Rules to Build By Building codes are laws written by local government describing the minimum construction materials and methods that must be in place in a building to be safe. Any work requiring a building permit must also meet the code requirements as determined by an inspection. From one location to another, building codes can vary significantly. However, all of them meet some absolute minimum requirements for safety and energy use. The International Energy Conservation Code, or IECC, establishes the minimum energy efficiency requirements for new residential and commercial buildings. It is a model code developed by the International Code Council and adopted by states or local jurisdictions. The IECC covers insulation levels, window performance, air sealing, mechanical system efficiency, lighting, ventilation, and controls. The code is updated every three years, and each new edition generally requires higher efficiency or more comprehensive testing. The IECC does not represent best‑in‑class performance. Instead, it defines the baseline that all new construction must meet before a building can be approved for occupancy. ASHRAE Standard 90.1 serves a similar role for commercial buildings and larger multifamily buildings. It provides detailed requirements for building envelope performance, lighting power limits, HVAC efficiency, controls, and service water heating. Many local authorities allow compliance with ASHRAE 90.1 as an alternative to the IECC for commercial construction. Recent updates to the standard place greater emphasis on automatic controls, part‑load efficiency, and energy monitoring. Professionals working in commercial building design, commissioning, and operations encounter ASHRAE 90.1 frequently, even if they are not directly responsible for code compliance. Energy codes establish the minimum level of performance required by law. Benchmarking provides the data needed to understand how buildings actually perform. Certifications recognize buildings that exceed minimum requirements and document best practices. In energy efficiency careers, professionals often work across all three areas. They help buildings meet code, use benchmarking data to identify improvements, and support certification pathways that demonstrate higher performance. Understanding how these systems work together is essential for anyone working in modern residential or commercial construction, building operations, or energy management.

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Exploring Building Codes ? Questions Does your state or municipality have an energy code in place? HELPFUL WEBSITES www.energycodes.gov/infographics www.climatepolicydashboard.org/policies/buildings-efficiency/residential-energy-codes Use the listed websites and any others your teacher provides to answer the questions below. With some of the infographics, you can hover your mouse over different locations to see additional information.

? Questions to Answer 1.

Is the residential Energy Code in your state more or less efficient than the 2021 IECC-R? How do you know?

What states nearest to you have requirements for making some new developments solar and/or electric vehicle ready? What building types are affected?

Examine your state’s energy code timeline. Does your state have an energy code? How has this code changed over time?

Does your state have building performance standards? If so, what are they?

Have any field studies been conducted in your state? If so, when?

 Conclusion As you learned in this lesson, building codes and energy codes can change. Why will it be important for you in your career to stay aware of changes to building and energy codes?

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Energy Audits Everything you have learned about buildings, energy-using systems, and benchmarking can be summarized in an energy audit. In this activity, you will pull all of that knowledge together and audit your classroom, other classrooms, and other spaces in your building. A formal energy audit done by a professional is much more detailed than the work you will do, but that does not mean the information you collect will not be valuable and cannot be used to reduce energy consumption in your school.

Auditing Tools The most important auditing tools are always with you – your ears and eyes. They will tell you more about how a building is using energy than any other tool. With them you can see and hear things that are running and can ask yourself why. You can see gaps around doors and windows, or hear the whistle of air being forced through a crack on a windy day. You can see lights left on in an empty room. You can see condensation building up, or in bad situations, mold or mildew that you can also smell. Do not discount the importance of good observation skills when you audit your work area. The other tools you will use are a thermometer, hygrometer, light meter, and Kill A Watt® meter. These will give you objective measurements to use in evaluating the energy use in a room or building. You have already worked with the light meter and Kill A Watt® meter in previous lessons. Review the instructions for operating the other tools found on the next few pages, and if you have any questions be sure to ask your teacher for clarification.

Work Areas You will work in groups of 2-4 students and evaluate a work area assigned to you. This may be a single room or several spaces such as hallways and stairways. When you enter a work area, first ask the teacher for permission to proceed. Remember to show courtesy and respect by working quickly and quietly and returning things where you found them.

Summarizing the Audit & Making Recommendations If you spend all this time collecting data but then do nothing with it, you have just wasted a lot of time. The point of collecting data on an audit is to evaluate it and look for ways your school as a community can improve. As a class, look over all the data collected for each room and see if some trends emerge. Is a cluster of classrooms too hot or too cold? Is an older section of a building more airtight than a newer section? These are the kinds of things you are looking for. You may also see something that stands out in stark contrast to the rest of the building. If most rooms are a comfortable 72 degrees, but one room is a chilly 66 degrees, something is not right with the HVAC system in that one room. After you have found trends across the entire building or anomalies within your data, the next step is to write recommendations. These will probably start as bullet point-type statements, but they should be formulated into complete sentences or paragraphs. State what you found, what it should be, and make a recommendation to amend it. Professional energy audits include recommendations for upgrades and improvements, their cost, and the amount of money saved through reduced energy use. You will not go this far, but do not hesitate to suggest efficiency upgrades where they would obviously make a significant impact on the energy used in school. For example, replacing high-intensity discharge (HID) lights with LED in the gym has a moderate up-front cost that will yield significant energy savings right away. Whatever recommendations you make, do so with respect, citing the data you collected on your audit. Do not be upset if the authorities in your school district do not take all of your recommendations immediately. If you get them thinking about what they can do to improve, your audit has been successful.

Take Good Notes The second side of the auditing form has an area for notes. This is where you will record unusual observations, such as a gap around a window, an unusually noisy HVAC unit, etc. If there are things plugged in and running, but you are unable to use the Kill A Watt® meter to measure them, make a note of it. If you see something potentially dangerous, don’t wait to tell someone. Inform that teacher, your teacher, the principal, or a maintenance staff member about the problem right away.

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School Building Survey General Information 1. When was the school built? 2. What changes have been made since the school was built? When were they made? 3. What things use energy on the school grounds? Lighted fields? Outdoor lighting? 4. What fuels are used in the school? For heating, cooling, water heating, lighting, other? 5. How much does the school pay each year for energy? How much for electricity? How much for heat? 6. Are there other energy costs that the school pays for, like fuel for buses? 7. How many hours is the school in use each week? 8. Do other groups that use the school pay for the energy they use? 9. Who is in charge of controlling energy use in the school? 10. Who is in charge of maintaining energy-use equipment? Is there a maintenance schedule for all energy-using systems?

Building Envelope 1. What is the building made of? Is it in good condition? 2. In which direction does the building face? 3. How many windows are on each side of the building? Are any windows cracked or broken? 4. Are the windows single or double-paned? Can they be opened? Do the windows have adjustable blinds? 5. How many outside doors are there? Are they insulated? Are there windows in the doors? Are any cracked or broken? 6. Does the building have insulation in the walls and ceiling? 7. Are inside stairwells open or enclosed? 8. Do windows and doors seal tightly, or do they leak air? 9. Are trees placed around the building to provide shade in warm months? 10. Do awnings or overhangs shade windows from the direct overhead sun in warm weather yet allow the slanted rays in winter to enter?

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Heating/Cooling Systems 1. What kind of heating system is used in the school? What fuel does it use? 2. How old is the heating system? 3. Does the heating system have a programmable thermostat to control temperature? What are the settings? 4. What kind of cooling system is used in the school? What fuel does it use? 5. How old is the cooling system? 6. Does the cooling system have a programmable thermostat to control temperature? What are the settings? 7. Is there an air exchange system to provide fresh air when the heating and cooling systems are not operating? 8. Are the boilers, pipes, and ducts sealed and insulated? 9. Are the heating and cooling systems maintained on a regular basis? 10. Does your school make use of passive solar heating?

Water Heating 1. What fuel is used to heat water in the school? 2. Is there more than one water heater? How many? 3. How old are they? 4. Do the water heaters have timers? 5. At what temperatures are the water heaters set? 6. Are the water heaters and water pipes insulated? 7. Are there leaks in the hot water system? 8. Are flow restrictions used?

Lighting 1. What kind of lighting is used in the school? Outside the school? Exit lights? 2. Can the lights be controlled with dimmer switches? In which areas or rooms? 3. Does the school make use of skylights and natural lighting? 4. Are there timers for the outside lights so they go off automatically? 5. Are there automatic timers for any of the indoor lights?

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Student Audit Recording Form Date: ___________________

Time: ______________________

Outdoor Temperature: ______________

Outdoor Relative Humidity: _______ Weather: _______________________________________ Is the heating system in use?

yes

Is the cooling system in use?

yes

Optional: Temperature of air exiting vent: __________________________________________________ Work Area Description: _________________________________________________________________ Who is in the room? _______________________________________________________________ Can you feel any air currents in the room? If so, describe where: _____________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Are there any vents that can be opened to the outdoors? If yes, are they currently open?

yes

Number of Outside Windows: __________ Open

yes

Temperature of vent ______________

__________ Closed

Results of Tissue Paper Test: __________________________________________________________________________________________ Indoor Temperature of Room: __________

Thermostat setting: ________

Relative Humidity: _________ Landscaping and surfaces outside of room ______________________________________________________________________________ Turn on the water, and start timing until hot water is delivered. Hot Water Temperature: ___________

Length of Time for Hot Water: ___________

Are there any dripping faucets? _____________________ Lighting Types Present: _______________ Light Meter Reading: ______________ Can the lights be dimmed?

yes

Can some lights be turned on, and some left off?

yes

Were the lights on when you entered the room?

yes

Were the blinds closed when you entered the room?

All

Some

Are doors leading outside tightly closed?

yes

N/A

Are doors leading inside tightly closed?

yes

None

N/A

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Fill in the table below for every electrical device (plug-in) in the room:

Copier

In Use

Standby

Running

Device

Plugged in

Mode Watts Used if Running

Watts of Phantom Load

75 x

1,265

Other notes and comments:

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Findings and Recommendations Engineers study building systems, then report the results of their investigations and recommend ways to use less energy. Use this form to organize the data you gathered on the Student Audit Recording Forms to prepare a presentation on your findings and recommendations. In your presentation, include an introduction and conclusion that explain your findings and recommendations.

Building Envelope What We Learned: Our Recommendations to Save Energy:

Room Temperature & Thermostat Settings What We Learned: Our Recommendations to Save Energy:

Windows & Doors What We Learned: Our Recommendations to Save Energy:

Lighting What We Learned: Our Recommendations to Save Energy:

Electrical Appliances What We Learned: Our Recommendations to Save Energy:

Water Heating What We Learned: Our Recommendations to Save Energy:

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Lesson 9: Careers in Energy Efficiency and Conservation There are literally hundreds of careers in energy efficiency and conservation. The list below is organized by industry focus and includes a description, the education you will need, and any certifications that are helpful or necessary. These are not just jobs. They are careers that can, and often do, build into each other. A list of certification abbreviations and their meanings can be found on page 141.

Building Construction & Trades Architect - Architects design buildings that meet safety, code, and energy performance requirements. In energy-efficient construction, architects integrate insulation, orientation, daylighting, and mechanical systems into the overall design. Education: Bachelor’s or master’s degree in architecture. Certifications: Architectural licensure (required); LEED AP or Passive House Designer (helpful). Building Envelope Specialist - Building envelope specialists focus on walls, roofs, windows, doors, and air sealing to improve energy efficiency and moisture control. They diagnose problems like air leaks, thermal bridging, and insulation failures. Education: Trade school or community college; many enter through construction trades. Certifications: BPI Building Analyst, Envelope Professional credentials (helpful). Commissioning Technician / Assistant Commissioning Agent Commissioning technicians help test, verify, and document that building systems such as HVAC, lighting, and controls are installed correctly and operate as designed. They collect measurements, run system tests, and support lead commissioning agents during new construction or major renovations. Education: Trade school, apprenticeship, or associate degree; often entered after HVAC, electrical, or controls experience. Certifications: Building Commissioning Professional (BCxP) or AABC Commissioning Group (ACG) credentials are helpful; OSHA safety training is commonly required. Construction and Building Inspector - Construction and building inspectors review structures during and after construction to ensure they meet building codes, safety standards, and energy‑efficiency requirements. They inspect framing, insulation, mechanical systems, electrical work, and fire protection systems. Education: Technical training, associate degree, or trade background; requirements vary by jurisdiction. Certifications: State or local inspector certification required; ICC (International Code Council) certifications are widely recognized and often required. Facilities Maintenance Technician - Facilities maintenance technicians keep building systems operating safely and efficiently. They perform inspections, minor repairs, and troubleshooting across electrical, mechanical, and plumbing systems. Education: High school diploma; on‑the‑job training. Certifications: OSHA safety training; CBO prep (helpful).

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HVAC Technician - HVAC technicians install, maintain, and repair heating, ventilation, and air‑conditioning systems. Efficiency-focused technicians optimize airflow, refrigerant charge, and controls. Education: Trade school or apprenticeship. Certifications: EPA 608 (required); NATE or HVAC Excellence (helpful). Insulation Installer - Insulation installers place and upgrade insulation materials such as fiberglass, cellulose, mineral wool, or spray foam. Their work directly reduces heating and cooling energy use. Education: High school diploma; on‑the‑job training. Certifications: Spray foam or manufacturer certifications (helpful). Plumber / Pipefitter - Plumbers and pipefitters install and maintain piping systems for water, heating, and cooling. High‑efficiency buildings depend on properly-designed hot water and hydronic systems. Education: Apprenticeship or trade school. Certifications: State licensure (required); hydronics or heat‑pump training (helpful). Weatherization Technician - Weatherization technicians improve the energy efficiency of existing homes, especially older or low‑income housing. Typical tasks include air sealing, insulation upgrades, and basic safety testing. Education: High school diploma; workforce training programs. Certifications: DOE Weatherization Installer or Crew Leader (often required).

Energy Auditing, Testing, & Performance Building Performance Analyst - Building performance analysts use data, testing, and modeling to assess energy and comfort. They often combine field testing with software analysis. Education: Associate or bachelor’s degree. Certifications: BPI, energy modeling credentials (helpful). Energy Auditor - Energy auditors evaluate how buildings use energy and identify opportunities to reduce consumption while maintaining comfort and safety. They measure air leakage, insulation levels, equipment performance, and energy use patterns, then produce recommendations and reports. Education: Certificate, trade background, or associate degree; some enter with a high school diploma plus training. Certifications: BPI Building Analyst or Certified Energy Auditor (CEA) certifications are often required or strongly preferred. Energy Manager - Energy managers oversee energy use across one or more buildings, using data, controls, and operational strategies to reduce costs and emissions. Certified Energy Managers coordinate long‑term planning, benchmarking, and efficiency projects rather than performing field diagnostics. Education: Associate or bachelor’s degree is typical, often after experience in a technical role. Certifications: Certified Energy Manager (CEM) credential is widely recognized and often expected.

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Energy Rater / HERS Rater - Energy raters evaluate homes using standardized rating systems to measure efficiency. Their work is commonly used for new construction, renovations, and incentive programs. Education: High school diploma plus specialized training. Certifications: RESNET HERS Rater (required).

Smart Grid Technician - Smart grid technicians support advanced electrical systems and communication technologies. They help utilities manage demand, storage, and distributed generation. Education: Associate degree or technical training. Certifications: Utility or grid‑technology certifications (helpful).

Building Operations, Facilities, & Management

Lighting & Electrical Systems

Building Operator - Building Operators manage daily building operations with a focus on efficiency and occupant comfort. They coordinate maintenance, controls, and system schedules. Education: Trade or technical background. Certifications: CBO certification (often required). Facilities Manager - Facilities managers oversee building systems, staff, and budgets. Energy efficiency is a major responsibility in large or complex buildings. Education: Trade background, associate degree, or bachelor’s degree. Certifications: CFM, CBO, or energy certifications (helpful). Project Manager - Project managers coordinate energy efficiency upgrades from planning through completion. They manage schedules, budgets, and contractors. Education: Trade background or associate/ bachelor’s degree. Certifications: PMP or construction management credentials (helpful). Sustainability Coordinator - Sustainability coordinators track energy, water, and emissions goals for organizations. They support reporting and efficiency initiatives. Education: Associate or bachelor’s degree. Certifications: LEED Green Associate or sustainability certificates (helpful). Utility Program Manager - Utility program managers design and oversee efficiency programs for customers. They track savings, budgets, and participation. Education: Bachelor’s degree. Certifications: CEM or program evaluation credentials (helpful).

Controls, Automation, & Data Building Automation Specialist - Building automation specialists install and maintain control systems that manage HVAC, lighting, and sensors. Their work enables energy savings and remote monitoring. Education: Trade school or associate degree. Certifications: BAS manufacturer certifications (helpful).

Electrician - Electricians install and maintain wiring, lighting, and power systems. Energy‑efficient buildings rely on electricians trained in modern controls and EV infrastructure. Education: Apprenticeship or trade school. Certifications: State electrical licensure (required). Energy Storage Technician - Energy storage technicians install and maintain battery systems for buildings and microgrids. Storage improves reliability and demand management. Education: Technical training or associate degree. Certifications: Battery or inverter manufacturer certifications (helpful). Lighting Designer - Lighting designers plan illumination systems that balance efficiency, comfort, and visual quality. They work with architects and engineers. Education: Bachelor’s degree. Certifications: LC (Lighting Certified) or IES credentials (helpful).

Renewables, Storage, & Grid-Connected Careers Lineworker - Lineworkers install and maintain power distribution lines. Their work keeps the grid reliable and safe. Education: High school diploma plus apprenticeship. Certifications: Utility training; safety certifications (required). Microgrid or Distributed Energy Technician - These technicians support integrated systems of solar, storage, and controls. Microgrids improve resilience and efficiency. Education: Trade training or associate degree. Certifications: Manufacturer or grid‑integration credentials (helpful). Power Plant Operator - Power plant operators monitor and control electricity generation equipment. Efficiency and reliability are core responsibilities. Education: Technical training or associate degree. Certifications: NERC or plant‑specific training (often required). Renewable Energy Engineer - Renewable energy engineers design large‑scale energy systems. They analyze performance, reliability, and grid integration. Education: Bachelor’s degree or higher in engineering. Certifications: Professional Engineer (PE) for advancement.

Computer Systems Analyst - These analysts manage software and data platforms used in building automation and energy monitoring. They troubleshoot system integrations. Education: Bachelor’s degree. Certifications: IT or BAS software credentials (helpful).

Solar Installer - Solar installers mount panels, connect wiring, and commission PV systems. Their work supports distributed clean energy. Education: High school diploma; trade training. Certifications: NABCEP PV Associate or Installer (often required).

Controls Technician - Controls technicians wire, program, and troubleshoot automated building systems. They work closely with commissioning teams. Education: Trade school or apprenticeship. Certifications: Controls vendor training; electrical licensing may be required.

Solar System Designer - Solar designers size and design PV systems using site data and modeling tools. They ensure safety and performance. Education: Associate or bachelor’s degree in engineering. Certifications: NABCEP Design Specialist (helpful).

Lighting Controls Technician - Lighting controls technicians install occupancy sensors, daylight systems, and scheduling controls. Their work reduces energy waste from lighting. Education: Trade training or electrical background. Certifications: Lighting controls or electrical certifications (helpful).

Transmission System Operator - Transmission operators manage electricity flow on high‑voltage grids. They balance supply and demand in real time. Education: Associate or bachelor’s degree. Certifications: NERC System Operator certification (required).

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Safety, Quality, & Oversight Fire Inspector - Fire inspectors enforce fire codes and inspect buildings for hazards. Efficient buildings must still meet life‑safety standards. Education: Technical training or associate degree. Certifications: State or local fire inspector certification (required). Safety Inspector - Safety inspectors ensure job sites and buildings meet safety standards. They reduce risk and prevent accidents. Education: Technical training or associate degree. Certifications: OSHA or safety inspector credentials (helpful). Safety Manager - Safety managers oversee safety programs across projects or facilities. They train workers and enforce regulations. Education: Trade background or bachelor’s degree. Certifications: CSP or CHST (often required).

Specialized Science & Technical Support Building Scientist - Building scientists study how materials, systems, and occupants interact. They apply physics to improve comfort and efficiency. Education: Bachelor’s or graduate degree. Certifications: Building science or Passive House credentials (helpful). Electric Vehicle Technician - An EV technician is someone trained to understand electric vehicles – their battery systems, motors, and other parts that move the vehicle. EV technicians have a good understanding of electrical systems and electricity in general as well as typical vehicle systems like transmissions and brakes. Education: Trade school or associate degree. Certifications: ASE xEV Level 2/3 (helpful) or SME EVF (required). Indoor Air Quality Specialist - IAQ specialists evaluate ventilation, pollutants, and moisture. Their work supports health and efficiency. Education: Certificate or associate degree. Certifications: IAQ or HVAC certifications (helpful).

CSP – Certified Safety Professional – Board of Certified Safety Professionals (BCSP) DOE WAP Installer – Weatherization Installer Certification – U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) EPA 608 – Section 608 Technician Certification – U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) EVF – Electric Vehicle Fundamentals – SME (formerly Society of Manufacturing Engineers) HERS Rater – Home Energy Rating System Rater – RESNET (Residential Energy Services Network) HVAC Excellence – Professional Technician Certification – ESCO Group / HVAC Excellence ICC – Building Inspector Certifications – International Code Council (ICC) IES – Illuminating Engineering Society LC – Lighting Certified – National Council on Qualifications for the Lighting Professions (NCQLP) LEED AP – LEED Accredited Professional – U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) LEED GA – LEED Green Associate – U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) NABCEP PV Associate – Photovoltaic Associate Certificate – North American Board of Certified Energy Practitioners (NABCEP) NABCEP PV Installer – Photovoltaic Installation Professional – NABCEP NATE – North American Technician Excellence Certification – NATE (nonprofit certification body) NERC System Operator – System Operator Certification – North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC)

Key to Listed Certifications

OSHA – OSHA Safety Training Credentials – U.S. Department of Labor (OSHA)

Certifications listed in the above career descriptions are spelled out below. The abbreviation is first, then its full name, and last the organization that administers and governs the use of the certification.

PE – Professional Engineer License – State Licensing Boards (NCEES framework)

ACG – Commissioning Certification – AABC Commissioning Group (ACG) ASE xEV – High-Voltage Electrical Safety – National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence BCxP – Building Commissioning Professional – Association of Energy Engineers (AEE) BPI BA – Building Analyst – Building Performance Institute (BPI) BPI EA – Energy Auditor – Building Performance Institute (BPI) CBO – Certified Building Operator – Building Owners and Managers Institute (BOMI)

PMP – Project Management Professional

Training for Your Career It doesn’t matter which career you decide to pursue, or the company for which you will work—all jobs require a certain amount of training. Like the list of careers in the previous section, this is not a comprehensive list of training programs available, but it will give you an idea of what to look for. The types of training facilities and programs vary greatly by geographic region, so do some checking online or with community or school leaders to learn what is available in your area. This list starts with the most basic, least-involved program and builds from there.

CFM – Certified Facility Manager

IN-HOUSE TRAINING PROGRAMS

CEA – Certified Energy Auditor – Association of Energy Engineers (AEE)

If you have had a summer or after-school job where you were being trained by a manager or a more experienced employee, you’ve gone through in-house training. Employers determine what each employee needs to know, and then either trains specific people to do the training or enlists the assistance of experienced employees to help out. Sometimes a company’s Human Resources department will have required training sessions that every employee must attend.

CEM – Certified Energy Manager – Association of Energy Engineers (AEE) CHST – Construction Health and Safety Technician – Board of Certified Safety Professionals (BCSP) CPHD / CPHC – Passive House Designer / Consultant – Passive House Institute US (PHIUS)

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Many power plant operator positions are entry-level positions and include in-house training. Some power providers will send their employees to third parties for classes in specific topics, but most of the day-to-day knowledge needed to be a power plant operator is trained on the job by the power provider. While specific energy sources and power providers will have equipment and operations that vary, the basic concepts and knowledge will carry over from one power plant to another. Construction jobs also offer in-house training. Companies and positions that do not use union employees will often train their employees on the job. Entry-level positions in construction are often called “grunt work,” because it involves a lot of fetching heavy materials and tools for the more experienced employees, and lifting those items may force an involuntary grunt. However, in between lifting and carrying supplies, experienced workers will show new employees what they are doing and over time will have newer employees do some of the work. An unofficial hierarchy of employees may exist within a company or on a crew, with the most experienced workers directing the rest of the team.

CERTIFICATIONS Training for a specific certification is more formal. There will be a specified number of classes, hours of training, or both that must be completed before the certificate is awarded. Certification training programs can be as short as one week or as long as several months to a year. Some more lengthy certification programs will feed into associate or bachelor's degree programs at local colleges. Power plant operators might get certified in certain control systems, large machinery, or specific skills, that make them more employable. People looking to enter construction or trade jobs may find short courses in relevant topics like shop math and basic tools to give them an advantage in obtaining those jobs. Look for courses that provide a certificate of completion after you have finished the work.

APPRENTICESHIPS Apprenticeships are much like in-house training but are more formal. Often occurring within a trade union, apprenticeships have a specified number of formal classroom hours plus hours on the job that must be completed before the apprenticeship is completed. One of the most attractive parts of apprenticeships is that for the most part, they are paid, and all of the training is free for the attendee. Some apprenticeships do not provide a salary in the first few months or first year, but the rest of the training includes a paycheck, with an hourly wage that increases as the apprentice moves through the program. Union apprenticeships are often in high demand because they include all the benefits of being a union member employee. However, there are usually limited numbers of people accepted into these apprenticeships every year, and the application process is competitive. Many programs use a point system for things like experience, recommendations, and scores on pre-training knowledge tests.

TRADE SCHOOLS The programs offered at trade schools are more like regular school but with additional hands-on experience. Students attend formal classes that are a part of a structured certification or degree program. An example of a trade school is a driving school that teaches people to drive large trucks and qualify for the Commercial Driver’s License. Trade schools are often staffed by working professionals in the trade and can often include paid internships as part of the training. They can lead directly into a degreed program and usually provide a certificate of completion.

COMMUNITY COLLEGES Most cities and large towns have a community college branch, where any adults who have graduated from high school or an equivalent program can take classes. Trainees at community college pay tuition, but it is often at a discounted rate because the college is subsidized by state and local governments. Some states have a statewide community college program while others are divided by county or region. The coursework at a community college can lead to a certificate or associate degree, and often, a community college works closely with one or more universities to provide coursework that transfers directly into bachelor’s degree programs at the universities. Taking courses toward a bachelor’s degree in this way is often much less expensive than taking the same classes at the university, but community colleges are usually populated by commuting trainees and therefore lack the atmosphere that universities offer with dorm life and athletics.

TRADITIONAL COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES Acceptance to these institutions is limited to adults who have completed high school or its equivalent and who meet minimum academic standards set by each institution. In addition to completing an application for admission, the requirements often include test scores on national standardized tests, grade point average, and sometimes recommendations from instructors, or a portfolio of relevant work related to the intended course of study. The number of degrees available at universities is almost as varied as the universities themselves are from each other. State-funded universities are less expensive for in-state attendance than private universities, but all charge several thousand dollars in tuition each semester. Degrees earned at universities are not measured by number of hours of instruction or employment, but rather satisfactory completion of a specific list of courses that total a minimum number of credit hours. Most university undergraduate students enroll in 15-16 credit hours each semester, which amounts to 4-6 courses. Some students take more courses, and some take as few as 12 hours. The benefit of a university degree is that students can study things that really interest them or closely match their aptitudes and interests. Many universities have a reputation for academic excellence, and simply holding a degree from those institutions can be an advantage in the job market.

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Making a Decision

MEASUREMENT

Whatever route you decide upon for your post-secondary training, you need to ask some important questions about the institution where you will train. How many students who start the program finish? How long does it typically take a student to complete the program? What is the total cost of attendance, including books and fees? What percentage of the graduates from the same program you are considering find a good job with in six months of graduating? It is important to know exactly what you are getting into before you agree to spend your money on a program.

Skills When you are finally ready to apply for your career in energy efficiency and conservation, you’ll want to know how you can stand out from the other applicants. The right education is the first step, but there are some skills that you will need, too.

SHOP MATH Think back to elementary school—how much did you like working with fractions? Shop math refers to being able to mentally manipulate numbers that include fractions and decimals. The United States is still using Imperial units—inches, feet, yards, miles, etc.—and these are often measured in fractions of a whole. Being able to quickly and accurately add 1 ½ to 3 ¾ is a skill that many people, especially those in trades and who work for utilities, need to know. Another math skill commonly needed on the job is unit conversion. Being able to convert inches to feet, for example, is important. If you are converting from a small unit to a larger one and get a bigger number, you made the conversion backwards—try again! If a board measures 9 inches long, and you convert that to 108 feet, you should have divided instead of multiplying. Try again! The correct answer is 0.75 feet (9 divided by 12 is 0.75).

TYPE OF UNIT AND ABBREVIATION MEASUREMENT Length

Some jobs require accurate measurement of other quantities, like weight or volume. Weight is measured in ounces, pounds, or tons in the Imperial system. Metric quantities are based on the gram, with large objects being measured in kilograms or tonnes (metric tons). Imperial units for volume start with the teaspoon and move all the way to the gallon. The table below shows the units used in measurement and their metric equivalents.

COMMUNICATION Without communication, we would never share ideas or be able to work together. The development of complex language is one trait that sets humans apart from all other creatures on Earth. Good communication skills prevent conflict and promote cooperation and productivity. No one will ever expect you to speak with perfect diction or write with perfect grammar. However, your words represent you, and if you do not attempt to use proper grammar or pronounce your words clearly enough to be understood, the content of your message will not get the attention it deserves. If you are submitting a written document at work and you are even slightly unsure about its grammatical accuracy, have someone proofread it for you. Online tools and even AI can also help you polish your writing.

IMPERIAL

inch (in)

12 in = 1 ft

foot (ft)

3 ft = 1 yd; 5,280 ft = 1 mi

yard (yd)

1760 yd = 1 mi

mile (mi) Weight

Being able to accurately read a ruler is an important skill to have. It does not matter what kind of ruler you use as long as you understand the markings. On Imperial rulers and tape measures, the major markings are inches. Those are then divided with minor markings denoting one-half, one-quarter, one-eighth, and sometimes one-sixteenth and one-thirty-second of an inch. The half-inch mark will be the largest, followed by the quarter-inch mark, and so on. Some tape measures include feet. Metric rulers are marked in centimeters at the major marks, and millimeters with the minor marks. Some metric rulers have a slightly larger minor mark at 5 mm or one-half of a centimeter. Meter sticks, of course, are one meter or 100 cm long and are marked in centimeters and millimeters.

METRIC 1 in = 2.54 cm

1 mi = 1.60934 km

ounce (oz)

16 oz = 1 lb

1 oz = 28.345 g

pound (lb)

2000 lb = 1 t

1 lb = 0.453592 kg

teaspoon (t) or (tsp)

3 tsp = 1 tbl

1 tsp = 5 mL

tablespoon (T) or (tbl)

16 tbl = 1 cup

cup (c)

2 c = 1 pt

pint (pt)

2 pt = 1 qt

quart (qt)

4 qt = 1 gal

ton (t) Volume

gallon (gal)

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1 qt = 0.946353 L 1 gal = 3.78541 L

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Good communication is more than grammar and diction, however. It involves being able to tell someone else the ideas you have in your head. Sometimes that is difficult when your ideas are very abstract. Do your best to explain yourself, and learn to read the body language and facial expressions of those you are speaking to. If there are a lot of puzzled looks, try explaining your idea a different way using different words. People often thwart their communications by making assumptions. Never assume that your intent or purpose is known to anyone but you. Remember, people cannot read your mind. Communicate as clearly as possible what you want someone else to do, what your expectations are, or the concerns you have.

BASIC TOOL KNOWLEDGE What do you mean, you don’t know what a stork beak plier is? Don’t worry, most people don’t know, and that is because a stork beak plier is not a common tool. But there are some tools you should know, and know how to use properly. Spend some time with a basic tool kit that includes pliers, both simple and adjustable; screwdrivers; wrenches; hammers; a speed square; a pry bar; a cordless drill; and saws of various sizes and shapes, both manual and power. Understanding the use of basic tools is only going to help you and might earn you the quick favor of a future employer.

BASIC TOOLS

Soft Skills Soft skills are skills that do not have text-books, certification programs, or degrees. Soft skills are often acquired through life experiences, but they can also be practiced. This is not a comprehensive list, but employers will expect you to use them every day.

RELIABILITY Your boss needs to know that if you say you will be there, you will. If you cannot be relied upon to complete a task or even show up for work, others have to step in and do the work you did not get done. Things happen, and sometimes you have to ask to have time off. Do not let that be a habit, unless you want to be looking for a new job soon.

PUNCTUALITY Punctuality is a specific form of reliability. Your workday will likely have set starting and ending times. Make it your common practice to show up not only right on time, but a little bit early. If your workday starts at 8:00 a.m. and that is when you walk through the door, you are not ready to work at the start of the day. Aim to arrive five or ten minutes early so you can get in, get settled, and be working at the start of the day. If something holds you up, let someone on your team, preferably your supervisor, know as soon as you know you will be late.

COOPERATION Image courtesy of Adobe Stock

Communication and cooperation are closely aligned with each other. Co- means “together”; cooperation literally means operating together. However, it goes beyond simply working together. Cooperation is an attitude of teamwork, allying yourself with your coworkers to achieve a common goal. Cooperation involves communicating effectively, being pleasant and empathetic toward your coworkers, and putting self-centered thoughts and perspectives aside.

COOPERATION BASIC ENERGY INDUSTRY KNOWLEDGE The first two lessons in this curriculum guide provide some basic industry knowledge. Don’t stop here, though. Browse news articles about developments in the energy industry. What new heating technologies are on the market? What is the cost of natural gas for home heating? Pay attention to legislative and executive acts regarding energy efficiency and renewable energy. Keep track of emerging technologies like insulated concrete forms. The energy picture in ten years will be very different than it is today.

DRIVING CERTIFICATIONS AND LICENSES Getting your driver’s license is an important milestone toward adulthood. There are other certifications you can get beyond your basic operator’s license that will make you more employable. The categories and requirements vary from one state to another, so check with your state’s licensing authority. If you are certified to drive a box truck, for example, your employer will find that a helpful skill to have.

Image courtesy of Adobe Stock

You can also earn certifications for operating heavy equipment such as excavators and forklifts. Training for these pieces of equipment is often provided by employers when necessary, but if you ever have the opportunity to learn, do not pass on it. You never know when a skill like that will be important to have. ©2026 The NEED Project Your Future in Energy Efficiency and Conservation www.NEED.org

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PROFESSIONALISM

WORK ETHIC

We all have bad days. We all encounter things that upset us or cause us to be less than our usual selves in some way. Being able to put those things aside and get the job done as needed is what professionalism is all about. If you have an argument with a family member at lunchtime, you need to put it out of your mind and get back to work. If a family emergency should arise, the professional thing to do would be to talk to your supervisor about it and explain the situation without divulging too many details. Even if you do not need to leave work, letting your boss know what’s going on helps them help you get through the day, and allows them the opportunity to be empathetic toward you.

If it’s worth doing, it’s worth doing well. It may sound cliché, but it’s true. If you are paid for two hours’ work, work for two hours. If you are paid to build a doghouse, build the best doghouse you can. Do everything efficiently, accurately, and completely. Do not cut corners or look for shortcuts. If you have an idea for how you can get the job done faster, try it, but if it does not work, go back to the old way and get the job done. It’s perfectly acceptable to talk to your coworkers while working as long as it does not get in the way of getting the job done. Never check your phone for text messages or your social media accounts. Some workplaces will not allow it. Only accept phone calls from people who you know will call you only if it was important. Put in a full, good day’s work that will make you proud.

INITIATIVE Taking initiative does not have to be a big deal. We usually talk about taking initiative and it is usually in reference to big tasks—solving a problem, developing a new idea, or something equally large. In reality, though, opportunities to demonstrate initiative are around us every day. Hold the door open for a coworker, pick up trash you see on the floor, empty an overflowing trash bin, volunteer to do an extra task, or stay late to finish a job. Taking initiative often enough turns into good leadership.

LEADERSHIP Who in your school is or was a good leader? What made them a good leader? Historically, people looked to tall men to be leaders. Being tall doesn’t make a person a good leader any more than it makes them a good tree. Good leaders come in all shapes, sizes, colors, and genders. Having a good idea of where the company or crew needs to go, and helping the rest of the organization to get there, is what good leadership is all about. A quarterback is expected to lead his football team to a winning season. He is not responsible for everything on the team, but he does his job well and inspires those around him to play well. There are many phrases used to describe good leaders: leading by example; servant leadership; inspiring; taking people where they want to go; empowering others. There aren’t many leadership qualities that are focused on the leader. Good leaders are outwardly focused and not easily distracted. They are sensitive to the thoughts and feelings of others without compromising the principles and goals of the group.

LEADERSHIP

Pre-Employment Testing There are occasions when your employment is conditional on passing certain tests. Three are listed here, but don’t be surprised if you encounter others at some point.

PROHIBITED SUBSTANCES When you are hired for a full-time job, passing a drug test is almost always a condition of employment. Do not try to cheat the system. Drug tests are improving all the time in terms of their sensitivity and accuracy. Employers want to know that you will not come to work impaired by substances that could endanger you or your coworkers.

KNOWLEDGE TESTS Many licenses require a passing score on a test that demonstrates your knowledge in that area. They may be associated with a more formal training program or stand alone. Some employers want a general idea of what you know and may informally ask you some questions about things that will come up on a job, or what you would do in a hypothetical situation. Do not panic; just answer the questions or take the tests to the best of your ability. If you had special testing accommodations in school, ask for those accommodations when you take the test. Learning differently does not exclude you from being able to do a job well.

DEXTERITY OR PHYSICAL CAPABILITIES TESTS It would be irresponsible for an employer to hire a person to do a job that they cannot successfully do. Being asked to take a dexterity test or demonstrate certain physical capabilities is not discriminating against you; it is ensuring that you are capable of doing the job without injuring yourself or others. Fortunately, few positions require these sorts of tests, and companies are finding more ways to accommodate people with more variation in physical abilities.

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Practical Math Applications Each of the following problems illustrates how good math skills are important. They are real-world situations that apply the skills required in many energy industry careers today. Each has only one best answer, and many use multiple skills. 1.

Eight different boxes contain a number of 3/4 inch, #8 flat-head, bright wood screws. The numbers of screws are 124, 72, 36, 92, 38, 64, 74, and 67. What is the total number of screws?

From a full container of dry cells, 325 dry cells are placed in the stockroom, 45 dry cells are placed on the shelf in the showroom, and 18, 25, 30, 24, and 6 dry cells are sold to customers. How many dry cells are removed from the full container?

An electrical contractor charges $598 for a job. The materials cost $263. The cost of labor is $173. Find the profit.

For a residential job, a reel containing 1,050 feet of cable is delivered. Three 45-foot lengths and three 65-foot lengths are used. How many feet are left on the reel?

A factory installs three motors. One is 5 horsepower (hp), another is 7 hp, and the third is 10 hp. If one horsepower equals 746 watts, how many watts of power total do the three motors represent?

A large room contains 40 fluorescent lamps. Twenty-three of them are 40-watt lamps, and the remainder are 60-watt lamps. What is the total number of watts used by all the lamps?

A total load of 25,620 watts is distributed equally over five branch circuits. What is the average load per circuit in watts?

A certain wiring job has 28 outlets equally spaced over 351 feet. If one outlet is placed at the beginning and one at the end, what is the center-to-center distance between outlets?

A box contains 315 half-inch conduit couplings and weighs 119 pounds. An identical box also contains half-inch conduit couplings and weighs 47 pounds. How many couplings are in the second box?

10. A wiring job requires 5,127 feet of cable. If the cable comes in 250-foot coils, how many coils of cable are required? 11. What is the total thickness of a wall having 7/8-inch finish siding, 7/8-inch rough siding, 3 3/4-inch studs, and 13/16 inch of lath and plaster? 12. What is the shortest strip of fiber from which five pieces of the following lengths can be cut: 7/8 inch, 3 1/8 inches, 2 1/16 inches, 12 1/4 inches, and 1/16 inch? Allow 1/8 inch for each saw cut. 13. A motor brush is 1 7/8 inches long. How long is it after 49/64 wears away? 14. A motor commutator 3 1/8 inches in diameter is turned down to remove a flat spot. If 3/64 inch is removed from the surface, find the finished diameter. 15. A standard package of 3-inch molding junction boxes weighs 6 1/4 pounds. If 16 packages are purchased, find the total weight. 16. In estimating a job, it is decided that it should take 13 people 3 1/2 hours each to do part of the work, and 7 people 6 3/4 hours each to do the remainder of the job. Determine the total number of hours estimated for the job.

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17. A copper contact is insulated from its support with one piece of mica 1/8 inch thick, two pieces of fiber each 1/16 inch thick, and 1/8 inch of pressboard; the copper is 1/32 inch thick, and the support is 1/4 inch thick. What is the total thickness of copper, insulation, and support? 18. What space on a bolt will six washers or spacers of the following thicknesses occupy: 1/64 inch, 1/32 inch, 1/64 inch, 1/32 inch, 1/8 inch, and 3/16 inch? 19. A contractor requires the following for a job: BX cable, $32.65; conduit pipe, $12.56; toggle switches, $24.45; octal boxes, $7.50. What is the total cost of these materials? 20. The thicknesses of insulation between the copper conductor and the iron core of a motor armature are 0.002 inch of enameled insulation, 0.006 inch of cotton insulation, 0.010 inch of slot insulation, and 0.008 inch of varnished cambric insulation. Find the total thickness of insulation. 21. A pin insulator measures 1.312 inches in diameter at the small end and 1.9375 inches at the large end. What is the difference in diameters between the small end and the large end? 22. A special resistance wire has a diameter of 0.037 inch. The next smaller size is 0.0345 inch in diameter. Find the difference in the diameters. 23. What is the resistance of a piece of copper wire that has a size of 2.5 mil-feet if 1 mil-foot has a resistance of 10.4 ohms? 24. What is the tax bill for a contractor if his shop has an assessed valuation of $35,000 and the tax rate is $27.50 per thousand dollars of assessed valuation? 25. If it costs $1,877 to construct 1/3 of a mile of an underground transmission system, what is the average cost of this job per foot? Express the answer to the nearest tenth of a cent. Recall that one mile = 5,280 feet. 26. The power for a circuit is 1,265.75 watts. Seven equal units use this amount of power. Find the number of watts to the nearest hundredth used per unit. 27. A piece of 1/4-inch diameter copper rod is rolled down in a mill to 0.010 inch in thickness for magnet wire sleeving and clips. In decimal form, how much is the copper reduced in size? 28. A meter is to be bolted to a switchboard. The meter studs that will fit into the holes on the switchboard are 0.4365 inch in diameter. Express the hole sizes in decimal form if they are to be 1/32 inch larger in diameter than the studs. 29. Each worker receives $122.35 per day. The wages are reduced 8%. Find to the nearest cent the amount each worker receives per day after the reduction. 30. An electrical repairer charges 33% of the cost of a new motor for a rewinding job. If the motor costs $287.00 when new, what is the amount charged for rewinding? 31. A radio signal is measured at 150 μV. Express this as volts. 32. The average microwave oven operates at a frequency of 2.45 GHz. Express this value in hertz. 33. The outside diameter of an electrical conduit is 6.3 centimeters. The thickness of the conduit is 4 mm. Find the inside diameter of the conduit. 34. To run a 3-wire cable, a hole is drilled through a plate, the subflooring, and the finished flooring. The plate is 1.6 cm, the subflooring is 3.4 cm, and the finished flooring is 8 mm. Find the depth of the hole in centimeters. 35. The distance from the electric utility hookup to an outbuilding is 75 meters. The conduit used to bury the cable costs $3.50 per five feet. How much will the conduit used for running the cable to the outbuilding cost? 36. The maximum weight for shipping a carton is 70 pounds. How many cartons will be needed to ship 150 motors that each weigh 1.3 kg?

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Résumé Template First and Last Name

Address, City, State, Zip Phone number and E-mail address

Employment Objective Brief one- or two-sentence statement describing the ideal or desired employment position for this applicant.

Experience Most recent relevant job related to desired position

Month/year range in this position

Company Name, City, State Responsibilities Skills Acquired

Next most recent relevant job related to desired position

Month/year range in this position

Company Name, City, State Responsibilities Skills Acquired

Third employment position, may or may not be relevant

Month/year range in this position

Company Name, City, State Responsibilities Skills Acquired

Education Graduate School (if applicable)

Years Attended

City, State Degree attained and date Major Anything else relevant, such as awards, honors, distinctions, or research area(s)

College or Trade School City, State Degree attained and date Major/minor Anything else relevant, such as awards, honors, or distinctions

Years Attended

High School City, State Year Graduated Relevant classwork or focus

Years Attended

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Career Networking Template

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Soft Skills Checklist

Good communicator

Strong handshake

Good work ethic

Motivated

Good time manager

Good listener

Flexibility

Team worker

Problem solver

Critical thinker

Negotiator

Self-confident

Patient

Uses technology wisely

Self-starter

Solutionsoriented

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Personality Party Cards

KNOW-IT-ALL:

Personality Party

Someone who has all the answers and knows how to solve every problem. This person often doesn’t receive suggestions from others well and does not respond to feedback of any kind. Sometimes this person is easily annoyed with those who have different ideas and also who have NO ideas.

CHEERLEADER:

Personality Party

Someone who is always positive and supportive of others. This person likes to achieve the desired outcome and will provide encouragement to stay focused. Although this person wants everyone to feel great about their work, sometimes this person clashes with others because their positivity is not well-received.

GROUCH:

Personality Party

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Someone who is annoyed about most things and brings their bad mood to every task. This person is annoyed by people and by tasks, and often finds something negative to say about any task, project, or even success. This person is not necessarily pushy or loud, and perhaps will contribute to group work, but they will let you know they are unhappy about it.

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Personality Party Cards

LEADER:

Personality Party

Someone who is comfortable tackling any task, even if they are not the most familiar with it. This person enjoys directing others and figuring out where each team member could be helpful. This person likes to pitch in and check in on others. Sometimes leaders may butt heads with others if they feel their ideas are being challenged.

PROCRASTINATOR:

Personality Party

Someone who understands exactly what to do but delays it until the pressure of a deadline motivates them to act. This person often works better under pressure or time constraints but will also pass their work or tasks off to others until they feel the pressure to take part. This person is not lazy or incapable but may exhibit a lot of stress when they are feeling pressure to get involved.

Personality Party

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Glossary

air infiltration

unwanted air leaking into or out of a building

alternating current (AC)

electricity that changes direction or polarity

anthropogenic

originating from human activity, or man-made

benchmarking

comparing energy use to a standard

building automation system (BAS)

central control system that manages building operations

building envelope

the parts of a building that separate the inside from the outside; walls, roof, windows, doors, floor, and ceiling are included

carbon monoxide

dangerous, colorless, odorless gas consisting of one carbon atom bonded to one oxygen atom (CO)

cellulose

insulation made from recycled paper and treated to resist pests, fire, and mold

chemical energy

energy stored in the chemical bonds of a substance and released during a chemical reaction such as burning wood, coal, or oil

circuit

a complete path for electricity to flow

code

a set of technical rules that establish minimum standards for how buildings and systems must be designed, built, and maintained to ensure safety, health, and energy efficiency

color temperature

Kelvin temperature related to the color appearance of light

commercial

the part of the economy having to do with buying and selling of goods and services

commissioning

testing a system to ensure it works correctly

conduction

thermal energy transfer through direct contact

control system

system that adjusts equipment based on inputs from sensors

convection

thermal energy transfer through a moving fluid

current

related to the number of electrons moving through a circuit

data logger

device that records measurements over time

daylight harvesting

adjusting artificial light based on the amount of natural light inside a building

daylighting

using natural light to illuminate the inside of a building

dew point

temperature at which water vapor condenses

direct current (DC)

electricity flowing in one direction

elastic energy

energy stored through the application of a force to stretch or compress an item

electric power

the rate at which electrical energy is transferred; measured in Watts; the part of the economy related to electricity generation

electrical energy

the energy associated with electric charges and their movements

energy

the ability to do work, produce change, or move an object; electrical energy is usually measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh), while heat energy is usually measured in British thermal units (Btu)

energy audit

inspection of a building to measure energy use and identify opportunities for savings

energy conservation

saving energy through behavior changes and installing energy efficient devices

energy density

amount of energy that can be stored in a given mass

energy efficiency

proportion of usable energy from a system as a percentage of the energy that went in; qualitative description of the amount of energy a machine or device uses to function

energy storage

transforming kinetic energy into potential energy to use at a later time

fiberglass

insulation made by spinning melted glass into thin fibers

filtration

using a solid filter to remove particles from air

fluorescent lighting

lighting technology that produces light by energizing mercury vapor and sending it through a phosphor coating

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gravitational potential energy

energy of position or place

grid

the system of power plants, poles, towers, transformers, and wires that delivers electricity to users

heat exchanger

device that transfers thermal energy without mixing materials

HVAC

heating, ventilation, and air conditioning system; controls temperature and air quality indoors

hydraulic

systems using liquid under pressure

incandescent lighting

lighting technology that produces light by heating a thin wire (filament) until it incandescences, or glows

indoor air quality (IAQ)

the cleanliness of air and how healthy it is to breathe

industrial

the part of the economy having to do with the production of goods

insulated concrete form hollow foam blocks that are stacked and filled with concrete to form strong, insulated walls (ICF) insulation (electrical)

material through which electrons cannot move easily

insulation (thermal)

material that slows thermal energy transfer

inverter

device that converts direct current to alternating current

kinetic energy

the energy of motion; motion energy

laws

statute passed by legislative bodies, such as Congress or state legislatures, that establish legal principles and goals

light-emitting diode (LED)

solid state lighting technology that is the most energy efficient available

lighting efficacy

light output per unit of power (lumens per watt)

lumens

measurement of luminous flux from a light source; brighter light sources emit more lumens of light

minimum efficiency reporting value (MERV) rating

number describing the particle size a filter can capture; the higher the MERV rating, the smaller the particle

microgrid

small, local energy system that can operate independent of the grid

mineral wool

insulation made by melting rock or industrial slag and spinning it into thin fibers

motion energy

the displacement of objects and substances from one place to another; kinetic energy

nonrenewable

energy sources that cannot be renewed or made again in a short period of time; petroleum, natural gas, coal, propane, and uranium

nuclear energy

energy stored in the nucleus of an atom that is released by the joining or splitting of the nuclei

oriented strand board (OSB)

engineered wood construction material made by compressing and gluing layers of wood strands into strong panels

parallel circuit

multiple paths available for electric current

passive solar

a means of capturing, storing, and using heat from the sun without using specialized equipment

particulate matter

tiny particles in the air

pneumatic

systems using compressed air

potential energy

the energy stored within a body

power

the rate at which energy is used

personal protective equipment (PPE)

safety gear worn to prevent injury

programmable thermostat

HVAC controller that follows a schedule

R-value

measure of how well insulation resists thermal energy flow

radiant energy

any form of energy radiating from a source in electromagnetic waves

radiation

thermal energy transfer by waves of infrared radiation

regulations

detailed, specific rules created by executive branch agencies

relative humidity

amount of water vapor in air compared to the maximum the air can hold; expressed as a percent

renewable

energy sources that can be made or used again in a short period of time; solar, wind, biomass, geothermal, and hydropower

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residential

the part of the economy having to do with homes and neighborhoods

resistance

the degree to which a material opposes electrical current

rigid foam board

insulation made by combining chemicals that expand into a foam that is shaped into solid boards

secondary energy source

also known as energy carriers, these sources require another source of energy to be created; electricity is an example of a secondary source of energy

sensor

device that measures a specific environmental condition, such as temperature or light level

series circuit

only one path available for electric current

slag

stone byproduct remaining after separating metal from ore

smart thermostat

HVAC controller that learns patterns and can be controlled remotely

sound energy

energy that travels in longitudinal waves

spray foam

insulation made by combining two chemicals that react, expand into a foam, fill a cavity, and harden in place

stack effect

air moving through a building due to temperature differences

structural insulated panel (SIP)

construction material consisting of a layer of rigid foam insulation sandwiched between two structural boards

substation

facility that receives electricity from transmission lines, steps down the voltage, and distributes it to a town or neighborhood

thermal bridging

a pathway that allows thermal energy to bypass insulation

thermal energy

the total potential and kinetic energy associated with the random motions of the atoms and molecules of a material; the more the molecules move and vibrate the more energy they possess

thermal mass

material that stores thermal energy and releases it slowly

transformer

device that changes voltage

transportation

the part of the economy dealing with the movement of people, goods, and services

vapor barrier

material that slows moisture movement through walls

ventilation

bringing fresh air into a building

volatile organic compounds (VOCs)

chemicals that easily become gases and can negatively affect air quality

voltage

the force that pushes electrons through a circuit

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www.NEED.org

Youth AWards Program for Energy Achievement

Youth Energy Conference & Awards

NEED’s annual Youth Awards Program for Energy Achievement rewards students for their efforts in energy outreach and student leadership.

The NEED Youth Energy Conference and Awards gives students more opportunities to learn about energy and to explore energy in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and math).

The Youth Awards Program is great for all schools—new to energy education, or veteran. Projects and outreach completed for the program provide opportunity for enrichment and engagement, as well as an opportunity for your students, classroom, and school to shine. Youth Awards projects can be completed by afterschool/out-of-school time programs, community groups, and even families!

The annual June conference has students from across the country working in groups on an Energy Challenge designed to stretch their minds and energy knowledge. The conference culminates with the Youth Awards Ceremony recognizing student work throughout the year and during the conference.

What’s involved?

For More Info: www.NEED.org/youthenergyconference

Students and teachers set goals and objectives and keep a record of their activities. Students create a digital project to submit for judging. In April, digital projects are uploaded to the online submission site.

Check out: For more information and project submission details, we invite you to visit https://youthawards.NEED.org. Be sure to explore the site to view past winning projects and garner inspiration!

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Looking for more energy information and resources? Check out the “Student” section of NEED’s website for great energy information and resources, including our graphics library, science fair project ideas, video clips, our Energy Infosheets, and much more!

Visit www.NEED.org/NEED-students

URANIUM A T A GLANCE

Uranium pr ov energy cons ided almost 9 percen t umed in th e United St of all ates in 20

WHAT IS UR

ANIUM?

Uranium is a naturally occur ring radioactive heavy and is element, that classified as is very hard and a metal. It is fissioned. It is also one of the the fuel used few elements by nuclear powe that is easily the Earth was r plants. Urani created and um was forme is found in rocks a lot of urani d when all over the world um are called . Rocks that conta uranium ore, abundant, is or pitch-blend in a nonrenewa e. Urani um, although ble energy sourc Three forms e. (isotopes) of urani um are found in uranium-235 nature, urani and uranium-2 um-234, 38. These numb and protons ers refer to the in each atom number of neutr . Uranium-235 production becau ons is the form comm se, unlike the only used for other isotopes, energy bombarded the nucleus splits by a neutron. During fissio easily when bombarding n, the uranium-2 neutron, causin 35 atom absor g its nucleus bs a mass. At the to split apart same time, the into two atom fission reacti s of lighter radiation, as on releases energ well as releas y as heat and ing more neutr on to bombard ons. The newly other uranium released neutr atoms, and the ons go over. This is called process repea a chain reacti ts itself over on. and

WHAT IS NU

24.

URANIUM FU

EL CYCLE

The steps— from mining the uranium disposal—a ore, through re called the its use in a nucl uranium fuel ear reactor, cycle

to its

TOP NUCLEA

R STATES

CLEAR ENER

Nuclear energ y is energy that comes from particles that the nucleus of make up all objec an atom. Atom ts in the unive s are the protons, and rse. Atoms consi electrons. Nucle st of neutrons, ar energy is releas two processes: ed from an atom nuclear fusion through one or nuclear fissio released when of n. In nuclear the nuclei of fusion, energ atom s are combined y is the sun produ or fused toget ces energy, In her. This is how nuclear fissio of atoms are n, energy is releas split apart. Nucle ed when the ar fission is the nuclei nuclear plant only method s to generate currently used electricity. by

PENNSYLVAN

GEORGIA

(The U.S.

does not

reprocess)

ALABAMA

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www.NEED.org

Your Future in Energy Efficiency and Conservation Evaluation Form State: ___________

Grade Level: ___________

Number of Students: __________

1. Did you conduct the entire unit?



Yes



2. Were the instructions clear and easy to follow?



Yes



3. Did the activities meet your academic objectives?



Yes



4. Were the activities age appropriate?



Yes



5. Were the allotted times sufficient to conduct the activities?



Yes



6. Were the activities easy to use?



Yes



7. Was the preparation required acceptable for the activities?



Yes



8. Were the students interested and motivated?



Yes



9. Was the energy knowledge content age appropriate?



Yes



10. Would you teach this unit again? Please explain any ‘no’ statement below



Yes



How would you rate the unit overall?



excellent



good



fair



poor

How would your students rate the unit overall?



excellent



good



fair



poor

What would make the unit more useful to you?

Other Comments:

Please fax or mail to: The NEED Project

8408 Kao Circle FAX: 1-800-847-1820 Manassas, VA 20110 Email: info@need.org

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