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Exploring Nuclear Energy Hands-on and critical thinking activities that help students to develop a comprehensive understanding of the scientific, economic, environmental, technological, and societal aspects of nuclear energy.

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Grade Level:

Sec

Secondary

Subject Areas: Science

Social Studies

Language Arts

Technology

NEED Mission Statement The mission of The NEED Project is to promote an energy conscious and educated society by creating effective networks of students, educators, business, government and community leaders to design and deliver objective, multi-sided energy education programs.

Permission to Copy NEED curriculum is available for reproduction by classroom teachers only. NEED curriculum may only be reproduced for use outside the classroom setting when express written permission is obtained in advance from The NEED Project. Permission for use can be obtained by contacting info@need.org.

Energy Data Used in NEED Materials NEED believes in providing teachers and students with the most recently reported, available, and accurate energy data. Most statistics and data contained within this guide are derived from the U.S. Energy Information Administration. Data is compiled and updated annually where available. Where annual updates are not available, the most current, complete data year available at the time of updates is accessed and printed in NEED materials. To further research energy data, visit the EIA website at www.eia.gov.

Teacher Advisory Board

Teacher Advisory Board Constance Beatty Kankakee, IL

Robert Lazar Albuquerque, NM

La’Shree Branch Highland, IN

Melissa McDonald Gaithersburg, MD

Jim M. Brown Saratoga Springs, NY

Paula Miller Philadelphia, PA

Mark Case Randleman, NC

Hallie Mills St. Peters, MO

Lisa Cephas Philadelphia, PA Nina Corley Galveston, TX

Samantha Danielli Vienna, VA

Monette Mottenon Montgomery, AL

Mollie Mukhamedov Port St. Lucie, FL In support of NEED, the national Teacher Advisory Board (TAB) is dedicated to developing, Shannon Donovanimproving, and promoting standards-based, effective energy curriculum, training, and outreach. NEED thanks these individuals forRItheir support and collaboration. Greene, Cori Nelson Winfield, IL Greg Schanne Paula Miller, M.Ed Samantha Danielli, M.Ed Adebisi Babayemi, M.Ed, NBCT Michelle Garlick Philadelphia, PAJr. Philadelphia, PALong Grove, IL Vienna, VA Bowie, MD Don Pruett Hallie Mills, EdD Amy Schott, M.Ed, La’Shree Branch Jennifer Davis, M.Ed Puyallup, WA NBCT Raleigh, NC Sammamish, WA Cincinnati, OH Highland, IN Michelle Gay Kristin M.Ed Jennifer Mitchell-Winterbottom, M.Ed, WT Michelle Garlick, M.Ed James M. Brown, NBCT, CEM, BOC Daphne, AL JudySlota, Reeves Yardley, PA Pottstown, PA Saratoga Springs, NY Cary, IL Lake Charles, LA Brandon Staton Nancy Gifford, M.S. Mollie Mukhamedov Karely Carlos, M.S. Nancy Gifford Thomasville, NC Lodi, CA Harwich, MA Port St. Lucie, FL Harwich, MA Libby Robertson Jennifer Trochez Mark Case, M.S. Erin Gockel, M.Ed Matthew Reis, PhD Chicago, IL Maclean, M.Ed, NBCT Chía, ColombiaErin Gockel Los Angeles, CA Randleman, NC Farmington, NM Greg Holman Craig Richard,Farmington, M.Ed Scott Valenta Lisa Cephas, M.Ed NM Amy Schott Winfi eld, IL NC Atkinson, NH Philadelphia, PA Paradise, CA Raleigh, Melissa King, MLIS Libby Robertson Nina Corley Robert Griegoliet Galveston, TX Gaithersburg, MD Chicago, IL Naperville, IL Tom Spencer Chesapeake, VA Eric Havel Oakland, CA Jennifer Trochez MacLean NEED Teachers eventually must retire from the classroom, but many remain engaged in their communities and with NEED curriculum, training, and DaNel Hogan Los Angeles, CA outreach activities. NEED thanks these individuals for their continued support and collaboration. Tucson, AZ Constance Beatty Barbara Lazar, M.Ed Cori Nelson Judy Reeves Wayne Yonkelowitz Kankakee, IL Albuquerque, NM Hinckley, IL Lake Charles, Greg Holman Fayetteville,LAWV Paradise, CA Melinda Forist Robert Lazar Don Pruett, Jr., M.Ed Wayne Yonkelowitz, M.Ed, NBCT,

NEED TAB Emeriti

Wellfleet, MA

Albuquerque, NM

Puyallup, WA

Barbara Lazar Albuquerque, NM

Milken Educator Fayetteville, WV

Exploring Nuclear Energy

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Exploring Nuclear Energy Table of Contents Standards Correlations

Radioactive Decay

Materials

Average Atomic Mass

Teacher Guide

Examining Nuclear Energy

Rubrics for Assessment

Nuclear Energy Expo

Nuclear Energy Bingo Instructions

Internet Resources

Nuclear Fuel Rod Assembly Career Exploration and Model

Nuclear Energy Assessment Answer Key

Fuel Rod Assembly Template

Nuclear Power Plant Simulation Cards

Masters Think, Learn, Question Master

Nuclear Power Plant Simulation Summary

Periodic Table of the Elements Master

Nuclear Power Plant Paper Model

Uranium in the Round

Nuclear Industry Career Roundup Cards

Nuclear Power Plant Designs: Boiling Water Reactor

Culminating Activity: Nuclear Power Plant Hearing

Nuclear Power Plant Designs: Pressurized Water Reactor

Culminating Activity: Nuclear Energy Letter Prompt

Nuclear Energy Assessment

Nuclear Energy Bingo

Science of Electricity Model

Glossary

Radioactivity: Stable and Unstable Isotopes

Evaluation

Radiation Dose Chart

Nuclear Power Plant Simulation Summary Master

Student Informational Text Careers in the Nuclear Industry

 Nuclear Energy Kit 8 Plastic spoons 1 Exploring Nuclear Energy 8 Packs of clay Teacher/Student Guide 1 Roll of copper tape 1 Energy From Uranium 10 LEDs Teacher/Student Guide 10 Button batteries (3V) 4 Cardboard boxes (6x6x9) 1 Blue plastic tablecloth 15 Chipboard pieces 100 Tokens 100 Straws, opaque 1 Flashlight 300 Straws, transparent 30 Plastic Cups 5 Packages of 4 mm beads Sand (one of a different color) Salt 8 Containers with lids Gravel 12 Pair of gloves 30 Coffee filters 8 Pair of metal tongs ©2026 The NEED Project Exploring Nuclear Energy www.NEED.org

1 Roll of mesh screen 1 Science of Electricity Model Small round bottle 1 Spool of magnet wire 1 12” x 1/4” Wooden dowel 4 Rectangle magnets 2 Rubber stoppers with hole 1 Foam tube 1 Set of alligator clips 1 Multimeter 2 Nails

Standards Correlation Information www.NEED.org/educators/curriculum-correlations

Next Generation Science Standards This guide effectively supports many Next Generation Science Standards. This material can satisfy performance expectations, science and engineering practices, disciplinary core ideas, and cross cutting concepts within your required curriculum. For more details on these correlations, please visit NEED’s curriculum correlations website.

Common Core State Standards This guide has been correlated to the Common Core State Standards in both language arts and mathematics. These correlations are broken down by grade level and guide title, and can be downloaded as a spreadsheet from the NEED curriculum correlations website.

Individual State Science Standards This guide has been correlated to each state’s individual science standards. These correlations are broken down by grade level and guide title, and can be downloaded as a spreadsheet from the NEED website.

Exploring Nuclear Energy

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Materials ACTIVITY

INCLUDED IN KIT

ADDITIONAL MATERIALS NEEDED

Science of Electricity

Small round bottle Rubber stopper with hole 12” x ¼” Wooden dowel Foam tube 4 Rectangle magnets Small nail Large nail Spool of magnet wire

Push pin Hand operated pencil sharpener Ruler Permanent marker Sharp scissors Masking tape Fine sandpaper Safety glasses Utility knife (optional)

Radioactivity

Graph paper

Candy Chemistry

Plastic cups

M&M® candies* Paper towels Digital balances Graph paper

Nuclear Energy Expo

Tri-fold or poster boards Art supplies

Nuclear Fuel Rod Assembly Career Exploration and Model

4 mm Beads (two colors) Shoebox-sized boxes (6x6x9) Clay Button batteries (3V) Knit gloves Copper tape Empty containers with lids LEDs Chipboard Straws Tongs Plastic Spoons

Masking tape Ruler Scissors Paper clips or puzzle pieces

Nuclear Power Plant Simulation

Blue plastic tablecloth Tokens or poker chips Flashlight

Poster board Index cards Red paper Blue paper String Hole punch Rope or extension cord Masking tape Swivel stool (optional)

Nuclear Power Plant Simulation Paper Model

Colored pencils

Uranium in the Round

Cardstock

Nuclear Industry Career Roundup

Cardstock or colored paper

*NOTE: Any marked, two-sided object will work for this activity, including other candies, pennies, and two-sided discs. If using candies, it is sometimes difficult to clearly see the printing on each piece of yellow colored candy. **NOTE: This kit includes materials that are used in both of NEED’s nuclear guides. You may not use or need all of the contents within the kit to complete the activities you have selected.

Exploring Nuclear Energy

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Teacher Guide Grade Level Secondary, grades 9-12

 Time Approximately 10-20 45-minute classes, depending on the activities selected

@ Science Notebooks This curriculum is designed to be used in conjunction with science notebooks. Experimental questions, procedures, sample data tables, and conclusion questions are provided. If you do not use notebooks in your classroom, students may require paper for recording data and conclusions. If you use notebooks in your classroom, your students may choose to incorporate the activity sheets into their notebooks.

& Background This is an integrated curriculum designed to teach students about the use of uranium as an energy source. Informational text and multidisciplinary activities help to develop students’ understanding of nuclear energy.

2 Preparation Familiarize yourself with the activities and information contained within the guide. Select the activities that will be most appropriate for your students. Gather any materials you will need for the activities you select. A list of materials can be found on page 5.

Activity 1: Introduction  Objective Students will be able to describe how nuclear energy is generated.

 Time 1 class period

 Materials Think, Learn, Question (TLQ), page 26 Nuclear Energy Bingo, pages 22-23, 83 Student informational text, pages 31-53 Rubric for Assessment, page 21 (optional)

2Preparation Make copies of the informational text and Think, Learn, Question (TLQ) worksheet for each student.

 Online Resources See page 24 for a list of informative and interactive websites that support this content.

Procedure 1.

Give students 3-5 minutes to brainstorm what they may already know about nuclear energy, as well as questions they may have. Then give about 2 minutes to let students share their thoughts with a partner. Follow with a whole class discussion.

During the discussion, record students’ thoughts on the board or chart paper. Students may try to correct each other’s misconceptions during the conversation. Allow this discussion to take place. However, if there is something that remains in dispute, do not correct the misconception yourself, but make note of it and add it to the question section. Let students know that they should be looking for supporting evidence for their ideas and answers to their questions in the coming days.

Play Nuclear Energy Bingo as an introductory activity. Complete instructions are found on pages 22-23, and a blank bingo sheet can be found on page 83.

If you opt to have students participate in the mock nuclear power plant hearing, introduce the culminating project to your students and assign roles for them to take on as they learn about nuclear energy. Encourage students to analyze information from the viewpoint of their assigned role. Throughout the unit, students should also conduct outside research in preparation for their presentation at the hearing. Share the rubric with the class before beginning research and preparation. See page 19 and pages 77-78 for more details about the hearing.

Assign students to read the informational text. As students read, they should keep notes on key points and facts. This can be done in their notebooks, or using the TLQ handout. Students can complete the reading during class time or as homework, depending on your preference. ©2026 The NEED Project

Exploring Nuclear Energy

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Activity 2: Science of Electricity  Objective Students will be able to explain how electricity is generated.

 Time 1–2 class periods

 Materials FOR EACH GROUP Fine sandpaper Multimeter Alligator clips Sharp scissors Ruler Hand operated pencil sharpener Push pin Safety glasses Utility knife (optional) Science of Electricity Model instructions, pages 54-56

1 Small bottle 4 Strong rectangle magnets 1 12” x ¼” Wooden dowel 1 Rubber stopper with ¼” center hole Foam tube Spool of magnet wire Masking tape Permanent marker 1 Small nail 1 Large nail

2Preparation Make copies of the Science of Electricity Model instructions. Gather supplies and set up assembly stations for students to work in groups of four. Preview the magnet safety and turbine troubleshooting tips before conducting the activity. Consider assembling a model ahead of time to be fully aware of instructions and better assist the class.

Procedure 1.

As a class, review how electricity is generated from previous reading.

Assign students to work in groups of four. Using the Science of Electricity Model instructions, students should work together to build their own generator.

After students have tested their generators by spinning them by hand, have them think about other methods for turning the dowel that might be easier and more consistent.

OPTIONAL: The Science of Electricity Model can be constructed ahead of time and used as a demonstration. Students can then be challenged to improve upon the demonstration model.

 Extensions Provide your students extra time and materials to optimize the design of their generators using less materials and/or generating more electricity. Provide students with extra time and materials to add to their generator to produce electricity from another source, other than the motion energy of their hands.

Exploring Nuclear Energy

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Activity 3: Radioactivity  Objectives Students will be able to define radiation. Students will be able to list possible sources of radiation.

 Time 1 class period

 Materials Graph paper Radioactivity: Stable and Unstable Isotopes activity, pages 57-58 Radiation Dose Chart*, page 59 *NOTE: The Radiation Dose Chart has been used with permission from the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission.

2Preparation Make copies of the student activitiy.

Procedure 1.

As a class, review the topic of radiation and radioactive isotopes using prior reading and pages 33-34 of the student informational text for assistance.

Students will find the missing information and complete the charts on the Radioactivity: Stable and Unstable Isotopes activity. a. Students should plot the stable isotope points on a graph with the protons along the X-axis and the neutrons along the Y-axis. b. When the points have been plotted, students should draw a curve through the points. c. Students should plot the points of the unstable isotopes on the same graph.

Give each student a copy of the Radiation Dose Chart. Help students determine elevation, if needed. Discuss with students the different sources of radiation and have them determine the yearly amount of radiation to which they are exposed. Are students surprised by the results?

 Technology Connection Visit the Brookhaven National Laboratory, www.nndc.bnl.gov/nudat3, for an online, interactive plot of the isotopes and their stability. The site shows a plot of protons vs. neutrons, and by choosing various display criteria, students can see mode of radioactive decay, half-life, and other data sets. We highly recommend teachers spend some time on the site using it, changing display parameters, and developing a strategy for using it in the classroom, as some of the data shown is very technical in nature and students will need some scaffolding to have a meaningful interactive experience. Alternatively, students can use the table of isotopes published online by the Commission on Isotopic Abundancies and Atomic Weights and a spreadsheet program to plot the naturally-occurring isotopes. From their graphs, students should be able to recognize a generalized ratio of protons to neutrons in the most stable isotopes. Access the table by visiting www.ciaaw.org/isotopic-abundances.htm.

Exploring Nuclear Energy

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Activity 4: Candy Chemistry  Objectives Students will be able to describe how atoms decay. Students will be able to describe that different isotopes of the same element exist. Students will be able to draw a decay curve.

 Time 1-2 class periods

 Materials FOR EACH PAIR OR GROUP 100 M&M’s® candies* Small cup Paper towel

Balance Graph paper The Periodic Table of the Elements master, page 27

Radioactive Decay worksheet, page 60 Average Atomic Mass worksheet, page 61 Examining Nuclear Energy worksheet, page 62

*NOTE: Any marked, two-sided object will work for this activity, including other candies, coins, and two-sided discs. If using yellow candies, however, it is sometimes difficult to clearly see the printing on each piece.

2 Preparation Put 100 M&M’s® in a small cup for each pair or group of students. Make copies of student worksheets. Prepare a copy of the master to project, if needed.

Radioactive Decay Procedure 1.

Review the concept that unstable (radioactive) elements want to be stable. Radioactive isotopes go through a process of decay to reach a stable state. When an element sample decays such that half of its nuclei remain, this is called a half-life. Half-life may be a fraction of a second, or it could be millions of years, depending on the radioactive isotope. Half-life cannot be used to predict when a single atom will decay, only how much time for half of the atoms. Half-life is not accurate for smaller numbers of atoms.

Pass out the Radioactive Decay worksheet and have students complete the activity.

When all of the atoms have decayed, students should graph their data. If using candy, remind students not to eat M&M’s® until they finish the atomic mass activity.

Average Atomic Mass Procedure 1.

Explain to students that natural uranium contains 99.28% U-238, 0.71% U-235, and 0.04% U-234. This is similar to other elements in nature; elements are found with their isotopes combined. Scientists have calculated the average atomic mass of each element, taking into account the masses of each isotope and the relative abundance in which each isotope occurs. This is what is shown in the Periodic Table of the Elements. Project the master to demonstrate, if needed. Students will be modeling this phenomenon in this activity.

Students will need two separate colors of M&M’s® and a balance. Pass out the Average Atomic Mass worksheet.

Students should follow the directions to find the average atomic mass of their candy boron sample.

In nature, boron contains 18.4% of B-10 and 81.6% of B-11, so the results students obtain are close to real life.

Assign students to review the section on nuclear energy in the informational text, if needed. Pass out the Examining Nuclear Energy worksheet. Have students complete the worksheet as class work or homework.

*NOTE: This same activity is conducted in a more step-by-step manner in the intermediate nuclear unit, Energy From Uranium. The intermediate version can be used in place of the secondary version, depending on the levels and abilities of your students. Download the guide and activity at www.NEED.org/product-category/nuclear.

 Social Studies Connection Have students conduct research on pioneers in nuclear science and give a presentation that gives the who, what, where, when, why, and how of the pioneer’s accomplishments. The EIA Energy Kids page has good resources for students, www.eia.gov/kids. ©2026 The NEED Project

Exploring Nuclear Energy

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Activity 5: Nuclear Energy Expo  Objective Students will be able to identify and list important historical, societal, and economic information related to nuclear energy.

 Time 1-3 class periods, depending on the facilitation

 Materials FOR EACH GROUP Tri-fold board or poster board Markers Nuclear Energy Expo questions, pages 63-64

2 Preparation Make copies of the expo questions for each student. Gather display boards and art supplies. Divide the class into small groups for a research project. Pre-select the topics for each group if necessary. Possible topics could include: Nuclear Fission Economics of Nuclear Energy The Nuclear Navy Nuclear Fuel Cycle Influential Women in Nuclear Science France’s Nuclear Program Nuclear Power Plants and Reactors Nuclear Accidents Nuclear Fusion Safeguards and Spent Fuel Radon Reactor Designs, past and future Nuclear Weapons and Proliferation Nuclear Medicine The Future of Nuclear Energy

Procedure 1.

Assign students to small groups and have each group research the selected topic using the informational text, www.NEED.org/resources/nuclear-materials, and other resources as needed.

Project or give each student the questions that apply to their assignment. They should use these questions to guide the information that they will present.

Conduct the activity during class or as work outside of class. If conducting in class, in the first session, students should read about and research their topic, brainstorm ways to present the information to the class, and start to prepare presentations for their posters or boards. Extended research can become homework, if necessary. Students should finish preparations in session two.

Display the tri-fold boards around the room. Each student should receive a copy of the Nuclear Energy Expo questions for each topic and should gather answers during classroom presentations.

 Technology Connection Have students create multimedia presentations in place of tri-fold boards.

Exploring Nuclear Energy

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Activity 6: Nuclear Fuel Rod Assembly Career Exploration and Model & Background The process of manufacturing uranium fuel pellets, fuel rods, fuel rod assemblies, and reactor cores involves hundreds of specialized people with varying degrees of training. These tasks typically take place in several different facilities, but this modeling activity condenses them down to one facility. The purpose of this activity is to model a nuclear reactor core for students and to introduce them to a few careers involved in the nuclear power industry. This model does not incorporate control rods, as a means to simplify construction. Discuss and evaluate how this impacts the model and careers, if desired. Additionally, be aware that this model incorporates wiring an LED to showcase Cherenkov radiation (blue light) emitted from fission reaction. Students may need to be reminded that electricity is not produced in the reactor itself, if that misconception is present.

WARNING: The button batteries and mini LED lights used to create this circuit are choking hazards and dangerous if swallowed. Please use caution, and ensure all parts are securely fastened and kept away from small children. Seek help immediately if batteries or bulbs are swallowed.

 Objective Students will be able to evaluate a model of a nuclear reactor core in a power plant. Students will be able to explain some of the careers in nuclear power. Students will be able to describe the importance of safety precautions when handling radioactive materials.

 Time 1 class period

 Materials PER STUDENT GROUP

 Materials FOR THE ENTIRE CLASS

4 mm Beads in a container with a few of another color beads, paper clips, or puzzle pieces added as contaminants 1 Shoebox-sized box (6x6x9 in) or similar 1 Lump of modeling clay 1 Button battery (3V) 3 Pairs of knit gloves 1 m copper conductive tape Empty container for “radioactive waste” 1 LED Masking tape Ruler Scissors 20 Drinking straws (more or less depending on the size of the boxes) Spoon Tongs Chipboard or scrap cardboard Fuel Rod Assembly Template, page 69

Nuclear Power Plant Designs masters, pages 29-30

2 Preparation Preview the activity fully and construct your own model to experience the activity and anticipate any troubleshooting or challenges students may encounter. Decide if you will pre-assign student groups and roles within each group (per the list on page 12). You may assign more than one electrical technician per group. Gather materials and prepare them for student use. It may be helpful to place each group’s materials in a plastic tote. Decide if you will have students compete for the fastest time assembling a working reactor core. Competition can be fun but if students are prone to choose speed over careful work, this might not be the best choice for your students. Make one copy of the Fuel Rod Assembly Template per student group. Prepare copies of the power plant masters to project. ©2026 The NEED Project

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Tips, Tricks, and Strategies Wearing gloves may make handling materials awkward for students, but don’t skip this step. In the nuclear industry, safety gear is mandatory and this requirement helps students appreciate the importance of protective equipment in real-world roles. Students who have very short finger nails may struggle to peel the backing from the copper tape. Your boxes may be smaller than the fuel rod template. Cut the template down as needed, reducing the number of straws (fuel rods) each group will use. At most, each group will use 20. An easy way to fill the straws is to “scoop” them into the beads, then tilt the straws to drop the beads into place. Covering the top of the straw with a finger or thumb and shaking will settle the beads into place. One standard drinking straw will hold approximately 60 4mm beads. It is easy to short circuit the button battery if the copper tape touches both the textured top of the battery and the smoother side. If you look closely at the battery, there is a narrow, black insulating ring or gap separating the two terminals. Make sure students know they should not allow a single conductor (like a piece of copper) to touch both terminals at the same time. The most common reason a simple LED circuit does not work is because the LED is oriented in the wrong direction. Pay attention to the long end and short ends of the leads. If your LED does not light up, switch the orientation of the bulb. Please remind students about safety concerns for swallowed batteries (see previous page for warning). It is advised you do not allow students to take batteries home.

Procedure 1.

Introduce the activity by having students read pages 38-42 of the student informational text.

Project the Nuclear Power Plant Designs masters. Walk students through both designs and explain that two-thirds of the operating nuclear power plants in the U.S. have pressurized water reactors and one-third have boiling water reactors.

Divide students into groups.

Allow students enough time to read through the activity and ask any questions. If you are using the time to complete the activity as a friendly competition, explain the parameters and the rewards, if you have chosen any.

If you have pre-assigned student roles, clarify them now. Otherwise, have students choose roles. Have students arrange themselves spatially such that the nuclear material handler is within reach of the chemistry technician, mechanical technician, and electrical technician. The industrial machinery mechanic should be within reach of the electrical technician, and the reactor operator should be within reach of the nuclear material handler and electrical technician (see diagram to the right).

Allow sufficient time to complete the activity. When students have completed their models, designate a space for their completed models and a procedure for returning unused materials.

 Extensions

Chemistry Technician

Electrical Technician

Industrial Machinery Mechanic

Nuclear Material Handler

Reactor Operator

Mechanical Technician (1-2)

If you are teaching a unit on DC circuitry, challenge students to devise a system that incorporates more than one LED and/or varies the brightness of the LED according to the number of fuel rods inserted in the reactor. Have students use fish tank tubing and other easily found materials to complete the model with cooling water, steam generator, turbine, and electricity generator. A simple DC motor can also be used as a generator if the motor shaft is spun at high speed. Have students research the career(s) that would usually install the components of these additional systems.

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Activity 7a: Nuclear Power Plant Simulation & Background The operation of a nuclear power plant can be difficult to visualize, with its many systems, gauges, valves, backup systems, and alarms. However, the basic process is quite simple, and this simulation allows students to walk through that process. In this simulation, students will each act as the major parts of a Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) nuclear power plant system: control rods, fuel rods, circulating water, and generation and transmission lines. They will pass off or pick up energy as they transform in their section of the plant. Energy is represented using “energy chips”, and the simulation demonstrates how that energy is passed and distributed throughout the entire system without exchanging radiation. The simulation is meant to show the very basic operation of a nuclear plant, and how the energy is transferred from one loop to another within the power plant operation. If the simulation itself requires too many students, too much set-up, or too much time and space, consider Activity 7b: Nuclear Power Plant Simulation - Paper Model. Instructions begin on page 16.

 Objectives Students will be able to describe how a nuclear power plant generates electricity. Students will be able to explain how energy is transformed in a reactor and identify its efficiency.

 Time 1 class period

 Materials Blue construction paper Rope or extension cord Flashlight Masking tape Swivel stool (optional) Nuclear Power Plant Simulation Summary master, page 28 Nuclear Power Plant Simulation cards, page 70

Tokens, poker chips, sticky notes, or counting pieces (60-100) 3 Pieces of poster board Blue plastic tablecloth String Hole punch Red construction paper

2 Preparation Cut two “turbine blades” from one piece of poster board. Print the hangtags and fold in half so that one side says steam and the other says water. Punch holes in the top and thread string through to make a necklace. Make six or seven two-sided hang tags from red and blue construction paper, so red is on one side and blue is on the other. Laminate if you wish. Punch holes and construct necklaces as before. If you would like, trim the plastic table cloth into a pond shape. Mark out three areas on the floor with masking tape using the diagram on the master. One area will be the primary loop, one will be the secondary loop with generator and transmission, and one will be the cooling system or loop. Indicate “exchange zones” where energy chips will be handed from one loop to another as the activity progresses.

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Set-up Procedure 1.

Assign student roles in the simulation based on the summary and diagram on the master.

Explain to students that you will be simulating how a nuclear power plant generates energy. You will place them in the simulation based on their job. Explain that they are not to leave their area or cross into another during the simulation, unless their job allows for it.

Each “fuel rod” has five students in line. Form two fuel rods, for a total of 10 people. Provide each with a stack or bag of energy chips.

One student will act as a control rod, with two pieces of poster board in their hands.

Arrange 3-4 students in the primary loop to act like pressurized water. Provide each a red/blue hang tag and energy chips as described in the simulation and shown on the diagram.

Arrange 3-4 students in the secondary loop to act as water/steam, circulating with energy chips and hang tags that say “water” on one side and “steam” on the other.

Arrange one student with “blades” made from poster board sitting on a swivel stool or standing at the exchange zone between the secondary loop and transmission. This student will be the turbine.

Arrange 2-3 students to act as transmission lines holding rope or a cord to represent the lines and electricity grid, carrying power and energy chips from the generator to the electrical load.

Arrange one student to hold the light to act as the electrical load consuming power in homes and schools. Explain that a load is a power consumer and can be any device (lamp) or a bunch of devices in a group (neighborhood). Give the load a flashlight or soundmaking device.

10. Arrange the cooling system using 2-3 students with red/blue hang tags. They will circulate through a “reservoir” of a blue plastic table cloth on the floor. They will carry the energy chips to the reservoir (red) and leave the reservoir without most of them (blue).

Simulation Part 1 (ignore numbers on the diagram) 1.

Begin with the control rod standing between the two fuel rods, blocking the way for the pressurized water students in the primary loop. Ensure everyone in the primary, secondary, and cooling loops each have one energy chip.

To start up the reactor, the control rod will come out of the space between fuel rods.

The primary loop will circulate, walking between the fuel rods, each picking up two energy chips and turning their hang tags to red. When the primary loop reaches the exchange zone with the secondary loop, those two energy chips are handed to the secondary loop and the hang tags are turned back to blue. They will retain their original energy chip.

The secondary loop will turn their hang tags to “steam” when gaining energy chips. In the appropriate exchange zones, one energy chip will be handed to the transmission line, and the other will be handed off to the cooling loop. At that point the hang tags will be turned back to “water”. They will retain their original energy chip.

Along the transmission line, the energy chips will be passed first through the turbine, who will spin, pass off chips, and the transmission line will continue passing the energy chips to the person holding the light. The light will be switched on when the energy chip reaches the load.

In the cooling loop, hang tags will be turned to red while gaining energy chips. The loop will circulate through the reservoir, where the gained energy chips will be dropped off, and the hang tags turned back to blue. The will retain their original energy chip.

All of the people in all of the three loops will continue to circulate until you are satisfied that students understand what is happening.

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Simulation Part 2 (use numbers on the diagram) 1.

Every person representing water in the primary, secondary, and cooling loop should start with one energy chip.

The fuel rod students will have desks or tables between them, with an ample supply of “energy chips” on the desks. As the pressurized water people (starting with blue hang tags) move between them, the fuel rods will pass a total of 10 additional energy chips (one from each person in the fuel rods) to the primary loop as shown on the diagram. The hang tag of the pressurized water people should be switched to red upon picking up energy chips.

The people in the primary loop will take the 10 energy chips and circulate to the secondary loop. They will “lose” four chips to the environment by dropping them on the floor in the exchange zone and pass on six chips to a secondary loop person. They should still be left with one energy chip.

At this point the primary loop should turn their hang tags to blue again and continue through the loop back toward the reactor.

As the secondary loop people approach the primary loop, their hang tags say “water.” As they take six energy chips from the pressurized water in the exchange zone, they turn their hang tags to say “steam.”

The secondary loop “steam” people walk past the turbine and give it a gentle push to turn it, and hand three energy chips to the turbine.

The turbine hands three energy chips to the transmission line.

As the energy chips are passed down the transmission line, the electrical device is turned on and off when electrical energy arrives.

When the steam gets to the cooling system, they hand three energy chips to the cooling loop and turn their hang tags back to “water.” They should keep one energy chip at all times.

10. The cooling loop people take the three energy chips from the secondary loop and turn their hang tags to the red side. As they walk through the “reservoir” they drop the three chips into the reservoir and turn the hang tag to blue, and holding onto one chip. They continue to circulate in this manner. 11. At the conclusion of the activity, the control rod person will walk back into the space between the fuel rods to begin the shutdown process. 12. Ask students to discuss their roles. Why does round two have some students always retaining an energy chip? Ask students to identify advantages of nuclear power plants and any concerns they might have about the plants. Discuss in context. 13. Point out that this simulation represents a Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR). Ask students to identify where the pressurizer might go in this simulation.

 Extensions Once you have gone through the simulation, students may be ready to simulate what happens if one of the systems fails. At this point, limit the secondary loop to holding 20 energy chips as the maximum. Simulate a cooling loop failure by stopping the cooling loop. Students continue as before, but the cooling loop does not circulate. Have students explain what will happen in the secondary loop and the primary loop. Instruct the control rod to intervene, shutting the system down to prevent overheating. Simulate a failure in the secondary loop by having students stop. If the primary loop can only hold 20 chips each, what happens to the reactor? Again have the control rod intervene. Ask students to manipulate the simulation to demonstrate another type of generation facility, where a different energy source is used to generate the thermal energy. Discuss the similarities and differences in the design of the facilities when compared to a nuclear plant.

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Activity 7b: Nuclear Power Plant Simulation - Paper Model & Background The Nuclear Power Plant Simulation is an excellent way for your students to actually see how thermal energy is exchanged throughout the reactor and turbine. However, the amount of space and number of students needed to successfully complete the activity make it unfavorable for some. This alternative activity is a good substitute to incorporate quickly. The operation of a nuclear power plant can be complicated and tough to visualize, with its many systems, gauges, valves, backup systems, and alarms. However, the basic process is quite simple, and this model helps students understand the basic process. This model uses a diagram, found on page 70, and colored pencils, usually one red and one blue per student, but any two contrasting colors will work well.

 Objectives Students will be able to describe how a nuclear power plant generates electricity. Students will be able to explain how energy is transformed in a reactor and identify its efficiency.

 Time 1 class period

 Materials Colored pencils, 2 different colors for each student (typically red and blue) Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) master, page 30 Nuclear Power Plant Paper Model, page 72

2 Preparation If necessary, review the circulating loops and operation of a pressurized water nuclear power plant. The US Department of Energy, Office of Nuclear Energy has a good, succinct description (www.energy.gov/ne/articles/nuclear-101-how-does-nuclear-reactor-work) and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission has an animated GIF (www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/basic-ref/students/animated-pwr.html). Copy the Nuclear Power Plant Paper Model, one copy for each student. Obtain an adequate supply of colored pencils, crayons, and/or markers, two different colors per student. Prepare a copy of the master to project.

Procedure 1.

Project the PWR master. Identify the containment structure, power plant, cooling water source, reactor, and the circulating loops of water. Demonstrate the direction of flow of the water through the various parts of the entire system.

Explain that the water loop within the containment system is a closed loop, is the only place where water comes in contact with radioactive material, and that loop circulates entirely within the containment structure.

Show students that the primary loop heats water to steam through a heat exchanger. The water-steam system is in the secondary loop, which is also a closed loop.

Identify the pathway of high-pressure steam out of the heat exchanger in the steam generator, through the turbine, and back to the condenser.

Show students how the cooling water from the reservoir is used in another heat exchanger to cool the steam back into water, completing the pathway. The cooling loop is the only open loop of water in the entire system, meaning it pulls water from an uncontained source and returns warmer water to that source.

Instruct students to choose one color to represent higher temperature H2O, regardless of whether it is in liquid or gas form. The other color will represent lower temperature H2O.

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Point to the primary loop, that circulates water through the reactor core. Ask students where the water is hottest, and where it is probably coolest. Have students shade the primary loop with their high temperature color in the hot area(s) and the low temperature color in the cool area(s) on their model diagrams.

Direct students to the secondary loop. Ask them where the highest temperature is probably found within this loop, and where the lowest temperature is probably located. Have students shade the secondary loop on their model diagrams using the appropriate colors to indicate higher and lower temperatures.

Lastly, indicate the cooling loop, coming from the reservoir. Ask students which part of the loop has the warmer water, and which part has the cooler water. Direct students to shade their diagrams accordingly.

10. Now ask students about thermal energy transfer. Have them circle the places that thermal energy is exchanged between circulating loops of water. Have students put another symbol, such as a star or X, where they think thermal energy is transferred but not used to generate electricity. 11. Ask students which areas they marked with a star or X. Discuss as a class the accepted efficiency of a thermal power plant being 35 percent. Ask students, where does the other 65 percent go? 12. Direct students back to the nuclear power plant as an entire system. Ask them to use their knowledge of energy forms and transformations and identify all of the energy transformations taking place, and where they are taking place.

Activity 8: Uranium in the Round  Objective Students will be able to define nuclear energy vocabulary.

 Time 20-30 minutes

 Materials Uranium in the Round cards, pages 73-75 Cardstock

2 Preparation Copy the game onto cardstock and cut into individual cards. Make an extra copy of the game to use as an answer key. The answer key will read down the column, before continuing to the top of the next column or page.

Procedure 1.

Distribute one card to each student. If you have cards left over, give some students two cards so that all of the cards are distributed.

Have the students look at the bold word(s) at the top of the card. Give them a few minutes to review the information about their word using the informational text, or their TLQ charts.

Choose any student to begin and have them read the question on their card, “Who has...?” The student with the correct answer should stand up and read the bold word or phrase, “I have ....” That student will then read the question on their card, and the round will continue until the first student stands up and answers the final question signaling the end of the round. Keep track of student responses using your printed copy, as the cards go in order. If students should suggest multiple answers to a statement, have the class settle the dispute before moving on by holding a vote.

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Activity 9: Nuclear Industry Career Roundup & Background NEED’s Career Roundups are a good activity to introduce careers in the industry. This activity divides a large group into ten or fewer small groups. Students will each be randomly assigned a career and must search the room for the poster that they think most closely describes their career’s description. The posters are pre-filled with clues about each career, must be downloaded and printed prior to class. As a quicker option, great for virtual environments, download the slide template instead of creating posters. Students can guess as you scroll through the slides. This activity is based upon NEED’s Energy Roundup. Download the original in Energy Games and Icebreakers for teaching about energy sources. Download these resources for free by visiting www.NEED.org/shop.

 Objective Students will be able to describe possible careers available within the energy industry.

 Time 1 class period

 Materials Cardstock or posterboard Tape Scissors Timer Nuclear Industry Career Roundup Cards, page 76 Energy Careers Roundup Slide Deck (optional)

2 Preparation Print the career cards so that you have one slip per student and an equal number of each career. Cut out the cards and laminate, if necessary. Print the posters from https://www.need.org/product-category/nuclear. Create a flap at the top of each poster to conceal the job title. Mount the posters around the walls of the room. Space the posters equally apart and set up chairs for each station, if desired. Place a piece of paper and a pencil by each poster station. The players will use these toward the end of the game. Number the posters 1-10.

Procedure 1.

Assign players to groups using the careers cards you cut out. Let the players draw these out of a hat or pass them out randomly. (You can assign players to fewer than twelve groups by eliminating one or more careers from the hat. Even if you have fewer groups, keep all of the posters on the walls.) Make sure each career you will use is represented by at least one student.

Instruct the players NOT to tell anyone which career they have picked.

Give the players these instructions for playing the game:

PART I 1.

You have all been assigned to a career group. In a minute, you will be getting into these groups. You must follow these instructions.

You cannot speak or communicate with anyone during the first phase of the game.

When I say go, walk to the closest poster, and read the clues that describe the career. If you think these clues describe your career, remain beside that poster. If the clues don’t describe your career, move on to another poster. Repeat the process until you think you have found your career.

You will have three minutes to find your career. Remember, no talking or communicating is allowed. Does anyone have any questions? Ready? The first round lasts three minutes. Go!

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Your three minutes are up, and everyone must be at their poster. Remember, remain silent. Now, will the person closest to each poster lift the flap of the poster so that only the people in your group can see which career the clues describe. (Players lift flaps to reveal career titles.)

Please close the flap. If you’re in the correct group, remain at your poster. If you’re not, look for your career again. This time you have only one minute. No talking or communicating. Go! (Round two lasts one minute. You can continue rounds until everyone has found their career. Subsequent rounds last 30 seconds to one minute each.)

PART II 1.

After all the rounds are finished, give the groups these instructions:

You will be allowed to talk during this part of the game. The members of your group must now decide which of the clues reveal the least about your career. Keep the least revealing clues and eliminate the two clues that reveal the most. I will give you two minutes to do this, and then I will ask three people in your group to each read a clue one at a time. After the second clue has been read, everyone in your group will say in unison, “What are we?”

Now, one person in your group should take the pencil and paper at your station and write the numbers one through ten down the side of the paper. After a group says, “What are we?” the other groups will have 15 seconds to write down the name of the career. Since every career has a number, just write the group’s name by the corresponding number on your piece of paper.

The group that correctly identifies the most career fields wins.

 Extensions Have your students research the job titles provided and others and create lists of facts for their own posters.

Activity 10: Culminating Activity: Nuclear Power Plant Hearing or Letter Prompt  Objective Students will be able to identify the advantages and challenges of nuclear energy.

 Time The amount of time for the final activity can be modified to meet the time you have available.

 Materials Nuclear Power Plant Hearing or Nuclear Energy Letter Prompt directions, pages 77-79

2 Preparation Choose which culminating activity to conduct with your class, using the descriptions below. Make a copy of the activity selected for each student.

Procedure 1.

Brainstorm with students some of the opportunities and challenges they see for using nuclear energy as an energy source. After the class has come up with a list, then read the “Advantages and Challenges of Nuclear Energy” section on page 52 of the informational text. Discuss both lists. Are there some items that are more important or meaningful than others? Why? What would you need to take into consideration if you were to decide whether or not a new nuclear plant should be built?

Conduct the culminating activity selected using the instructions below. Be sure to share the grading scheme or rubric you will use to evaluate student work. A sample rubric is found on page 21.

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 Mock Hearing Assign pairs or small groups of students different roles. Explain to students that a Combined Construction Permit and Operating License is one of the first steps to building a new nuclear power plant. In this stage, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) is open to hearing information on three issues: environmental protection, plant safety, and emergency procedures. In this mock hearing, economic issues will also be discussed. Students will present their position to a NRC Panel that will decide whether or not to allow plans for the plant to proceed. Further details of the assignment are on pages 77-78. OPTIONAL: Rather than having students make up the NRC Panel, recruit members of your staff and/or community to be on the NRC Panel to hear student presentations.

 Persuasive Letters In this assignment, students complete additional research to write a persuasive letter to an elected representative, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, or other decision makers. Letters may be submitted to the teacher, or, you may give students the option to actually send their letters to the intended recipients. Further details of the letter assignment are on page 79.

 Extensions Have students present an alternative choice to nuclear energy if they are against it, or share what issues need to be resolved before they could support nuclear power. Have the class play NEED’s Mission Possible to supply power for their fictitious country. Discuss the role of nuclear energy in meeting a country’s energy, environmental, and economical needs. Mission Possible can be downloaded by visiting www.NEED.org/shop.

 Evaluation Evaluate student work using the rubric provided or a rubric of your choice. Revisit Nuclear Energy Bingo and/or Uranium in the Round as formative assessments of vocabulary and concepts discussed. A final assessment on nuclear energy is located on pages 80-82. Answers can be found on page 25. Evaluate the entire unit with your students using the Evaluation Form on page 87 and return it to NEED.

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Rubric for Assessment This rubric can be used for Nuclear Energy Expo or for the Culminating Activity. CONTENT

ORGANIZATION

ORIGINALITY

WORKLOAD

Project covers the topic in-depth with many details and examples. Subject knowledge is excellent.

Content is very well organized and presented in a logical sequence.

Project shows much original thought. Ideas are creative and inventive.

The workload is divided and shared equally by all members of the group.

Project includes essential information about the topic. Subject knowledge is accurate.

Content is organized in a logical sequence.

Project shows some original work. Work shows new ideas and insights.

The workload is divided and shared fairly equally by all group members, but workloads may vary.

Project includes essential information about the topic, but there are 1-2 factual errors.

Content is logically organized but may have a few confusing sections.

Project provides essential information, but there is little evidence of original thinking.

The workload is divided, but one person in the group is viewed as not doing a fair share of the work.

Project includes minimal information or there are several factual errors.

There is no clear organizational structure, just a compilation of facts.

Project provides some essential information, but no original thought.

The workload is not divided, or it is evident that one person is doing a significant amount of the work.

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Nuclear Energy BINGO Instructions Nuclear Energy Bingo is a great icebreaker for a NEED workshop or conference. As a classroom activity, it also makes a great introduction to an energy unit.

Get Ready

2Preparation

Pass out one Nuclear Energy Bingo sheet to each member of the group.

5 minutes

Duplicate as many Nuclear Energy Bingo sheets (found on page 83) as needed for each person in your group. In addition, decide now if you want to give the winner of your game a prize and what the prize will be.

Get Set

Time

PART ONE: FILLING IN THE BINGO SHEETS

45 minutes

Give the group the following instructions to create bingo cards:

Bingos are available on several energy topics. Download for free at www.NEED.org/shop! Biomass Bingo— Energy Stories and More Change a Light Bingo—Energy Conservation Contract Coal Bingo—Coal guides Energy Bingo—Energy Games and Icebreakers

This bingo activity is very similar to regular bingo. However, there are a few things you’ll need to know to play this game. First, please take a minute to look at your bingo sheet and read the 16 statements at the top of the page. Shortly, you’ll be going around the room trying to find 16 people about whom the statements are true so you can write their names in one of the 16 boxes. When I give you the signal, you’ll get up and ask a person if a statement at the top of your bingo sheet is true for them. If the person gives what you believe is a correct response, write the person’s name in the corresponding box on the lower part of the page. For example, if you ask a person question “D” and they give you what you think is a correct response, then go ahead and write the person’s name in box D. A correct response is important because later on, if you get bingo, that person will be asked to answer the question correctly in front of the group. If they can’t answer the question correctly, then you lose bingo. So, if someone gives you an incorrect answer, ask someone else! Don’t use your name for one of the boxes or use the same person’s name twice.

Energy Efficiency Bingo— School Energy Managers and School Energy Experts

Try to fill all 16 boxes in the next 20 minutes. This will increase your chances of winning. After the 20 minutes are up, please sit down and I will begin asking players to stand up and give their names. Are there any questions? You’ll now have 20 minutes. Go!

Hydrogen Bingo—H2 Educate Hydropower Bingo— Hydropower guides

During the next 20 minutes, move around the room to assist the players. Every five minutes or so tell the players how many minutes are remaining in the game. Give the players a warning when just a minute or two remains. When the 20 minutes are up, stop the players and ask them to be seated.

Oil and Natural Gas Bingo— Oil and Natural Gas guides

Give the class the following instructions to play the game:

Science of Energy Bingo— Science of Energy guides Solar Bingo—Solar guides Transportation Bingo— Transportation guides Wind Energy Bingo—Wind guides

PART TWO: PLAYING BINGO When I point to you, please stand up and in a LOUD and CLEAR voice give us your name. Now, if anyone has the name of the person I call on, put a big “X” in the box with that person’s name. When you get four names in a row—across, down, or diagonally—shout “Bingo!” Then I’ll ask you to come up front to verify your results. Let’s start off with you (point to a player in the group). Please stand and give us your name. (Player gives name. Let’s say the player’s name was “Joe.”) Okay, players, if any of you have Joe’s name in one of your boxes, go ahead and put an “X” through that box. When the first player shouts “Bingo,” ask them to come to the front of the room. Ask them to give their name. Then ask them to tell the group how their bingo run was made, e.g., down from A to M, across from E to H, and so on.

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Now you need to verify the bingo winner’s results. Ask the bingo winner to call out the first person’s name on their bingo run. That player then stands and the bingo winner asks them the question which they previously answered during the 20-minute session. For example, if the statement was “can name two renewable sources of energy,” the player must now name two sources. If they can answer the question correctly, the bingo winner calls out the next person’s name on his bingo run. However, if they do not answer the question correctly, the bingo winner does not have bingo after all and must sit down with the rest of the players. You should continue to point to players until another person yells “Bingo.”

NUCLEAR ENERGY BINGO A.

Knows the atomic mass of the uranium isotope used in nuclear power plants

Knows the name of the process that releases energy in a nuclear power plant

Knows the percentage of electricity produced by nuclear power in the U.S.

Can name at least one other use for nuclear energy

Has visited a nuclear power plant

Knows how many nuclear reactors are operating in the U.S.

H. Knows the country that generates the most electricity from nuclear power

Can name the country that generates the highest percentage of its electricity from nuclear energy

Knows where nuclear waste is currently stored in the U.S.

Can name something in our everyday lives that exposes us to radiation

Knows the name of the part of the nuclear power plant where thermal energy is released

N. Knows what uranium is processed into for use as nuclear fuel

Knows the name of an acceptable on-site storage method for spent fuel

Knows the U.S. state that generates the most electricity from nuclear power

M. Knows the atomic number of uranium

fission

U-235

weaponry medicine

France (63.91% in 2023)

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ceramic pellet

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U.S.

air travel, foods, medical technologies, smoke alarms, ceramics, clocks, etc.

reactor

K on-site at reactors

none

94 reactors, 54 plants

ask for location/description

17.72% in 2025

Knows how much CO2 is produced by nuclear power plants

spent fuel pool or dry cask storage

Illinois

Internet Resources Many websites have interactive simulations of fission, decay, and models of nuclear power plants. Recommended sites include: American Nuclear Society (ANS)—The American Nuclear Society is a not-for-profit, international, scientific, and educational organization. The core purpose of ANS is to promote the awareness and understanding of the application of nuclear science and technology, www.ans.org. Council on Foreign Relations (CFR)—The CFR aims to be a resource to government officials, business executives, journalists, educators and students, civic and religious leaders, and other interested citizens to help them better understand the world and the foreign policy choices facing the United States and other countries, www.cfr.org/energy-and-environment/nuclear-energy. Energy Information Administration (EIA)—The EIA keeps statistical data on nuclear production and consumption, and all of our other energy sources as well, www.eia.gov. EIA Energy Kids Page—Energy information tailored for students, www.eia.gov/kids. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)—For more information about radiation and radon visit, www.epa.gov. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)—The IAEA works with its members and partners worldwide to promote safe, secure, and peaceful nuclear technologies, www.iaea.org. Navigating Nuclear—A partnership with ANS and Discovery Education, Navigating Nuclear: Energizing our world provides high school and middle school classroom resources for nuclear science and its many applications, and includes virtual field trips as well as career resources, www.ans.org/nuclear/navigatingnuclear. National Energy Education Development (NEED) Project—Free teacher and student resources on nuclear energy, including quick-reference fact sheets and activities, www.NEED.org/resources/nuclear-materials. Nuclear Energy Institute (NEI)—The NEI is the policy organization for the nuclear technologies industry in the United States, www.nei.org. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC)—The NRC is the governing body overseeing the nuclear energy industry in the United States, www.nrc.gov. Orano—A leading technology and services provider for decommissioning, used fuel management, site clean-up and closure, and the sale of uranium services. Orano USA is headquartered in Washington, D.C., www.orano.group/usa/en. United States Department of Energy (DOE)—For more information about energy sources you can visit the DOE site, www.energy.gov. United States Department of Energy, Office of Nuclear Energy—A division of the U.S. DOE, the Office of Nuclear Energy promotes nuclear power as a resource capable of meeting the nation’s energy, environmental, and national security needs by resolving technical and regulatory barriers through research, development, and demonstration. Sites are specifically designed for teachers and students, www.energy.gov/ne/office-nuclear-energy.

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Nuclear Energy Assessment Answer Key 1. Label the atom: a. Energy level—(shells) where electrons orbit (outside nucleus) b. Nucleus—center of atom, composed of protons and neutrons, positively charged (center of drawing) c. Proton—positively charged, mass of 1 (inside nucleus) d. Neutron—no charge, mass of 1 (inside nucleus) e. Electron—negatively charged particle, very small (outside nucleus in energy levels) 2. hydropower, biomass, wind, solar, geothermal 3. coal, petroleum, natural gas, uranium, propane 4. Answers may vary. Students may draw pictures of their model generator with coils of wire and magnets in motion.

+ +

a b c d e

5. Answers may include: Nuclear reactions may release heat, light, alpha particles, beta particles, and/or energy 6. Uranium must be enriched because less than 1% of natural uranium is U-235, but only U-235 can undergo fission. Uranium is enriched to bring the level of U-235 to 3-5% (in current nuclear power plants) to create a sustained fission/chain reaction. 7. A moderator slows neutrons and controls the rate of the chain reaction. Moderators are graphite, purified natural (light) water, or heavy water. 8. Label the Nuclear Reactor: a. Reactor Vessel—dual layered with a thick steel wall, holds the nuclear reactor (the casing of the dark gray oval) b. Fuel Rods—holds the fuel rods (225-250 rods/assembly) (inside center white box) c. Control Rods—contain boron or cadmium to absorb or capture neutrons, slowing or stopping the nuclear fission chain reaction (sticking out of white box) d. Pressurizer—in a pressurized water reactor, the pressurizer holds the water at a high pressure so that it doesn’t boil (middle cylinder) e. Steam Generator—uses steam from the pressurizer to turn a turbine generator to create electrcity f. Containment Structure—an important security layer made of cement with a steel lining, designed to prevent leakage of radioactive gases, steam, and water into the atmosphere should a leak occur inside (outer shell of diagram) 9. Nuclear proliferation describes the spread of nuclear weapons, fissile materials, and nuclear technology. The Non-Proliferation Treaty was designed to help control proliferation. Uncontrolled nuclear proliferation is cause for concern when safeguards and peacekeeping are considered. 10. The biggest challenge with spent fuel in the U.S. is storage and disposal of high level waste. 11. Lessons from Nuclear Accidents a. Three Mile Island—safety designs are effective, but also led to additional improved safety features being implemented in nuclear plant designs b. Chernobyl—automatic plant safety features should not be turned off, secondary containment is important, improved training for operators is needed c. Fukushima—ensure working back-up systems to cool reactors are in place, modify hardware for use during emergencies, protect back-up generators and batteries 12. Possible answers may include: containment structure, training of operators/workforce, automatic shut down/control rods automatically drop, water in the containment structure, dual layers of containment structure and reactor vessel (cement and steel) 13. Answers will vary. Events may include the use of the atomic bomb in WWII, the first nuclear power reactor, the incidents at Chernobyl, Three Mile Island, and/or Fukushima. 14. Nuclear science has benefited society through nuclear medicine (x-rays, nuclear imaging, cancer treatments, etc.), smoke detectors, powers Navy vessels, food irradiation, etc.

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MASTER

Think, Learn, Question What Do I Think I Know About Nuclear Energy?

New Learning About Nuclear Energy

Questions I Have About Nuclear Energy

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(223)

(226)

Radium

137.327

132.90545

Barium

87.62

Strontium

Cesium

7 Francium

85.4678

5 Rubidium

40.078

39.0983

Calcium

24.3050

22.989770

Magnesium

Sodium

9.012182

6.941

Beryllium

Lithium

2 IIA

4 Potassium

1.00794

1 Hydrogen

Group 1 IA 1

88.90585

Yttrium

44.955910

(262)

(261)

Thorium 232.0381

(227)

Actinium

140.116

138.9055

Cerium

Lanthanum

Rutherfordium Dubnium

105

180.9479

178.49

92.90638

Tantalum

104

51.9961

Chromium

6 VIB 24

54.938049

Manganese

7 VIIB 25

55.845

Iron

(264)

Bohrium

107

186.207

Rhenium

(98)

231.03588

Protactinium

140 .90765

238.02891

Uranium

144.24

(268)

150.36

(237)

(244)

Neptunium Plutonium

(145)

110

195.078

Platinum

106.42

Palladium

58.6934

Nickel

111

196.96655

Gold

107.8682

Silver

63.546

Copper

11 IB

112

200.59

Mercury

112.411

Cadmium

65.409

Zinc

12 IIB

113

204.3833

Thallium

114.818

Indium

69.723

Gallium

(243)

(247)

Curium

157.25

Gadolinium

(280)

Am Cm Americium

151.964

Europium

(281)

(247)

Berkelium

158.92534

Terbium

(285)

164.93032

Holmium

(289)

(251)

(252)

Californium Einsteinium

162.500

Dysprosium

(286)

N P

115

208.98038

Bismuth

121.760

Antimony

74.92160

Arsenic

30.973761

Phosphorus

14.0067

Nitrogen

15 VA

116

(209)

Polonium

127.60

Tellurium

78.96

Selenium

32.065

Sulfur

15.9994

Oxygen

16 VIA

Fluorine

117

(210)

Astatine

126.90447

Iodine

79.904

Bromine

35.453

Chlorine

18.9984032

17 VIIA

101

168.93421

Thulium

(293)

102

173.04

Ytterbium

(294)

(257)

(258)

(259)

Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium

100

167.259

Erbium

(289)

Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine

114

207.2

Lead

118.710

Tin

72.64

Germanium

28.0855

26.981538

Silicon

12.0107

Carbon

14 IVA

Aluminum

10.811

Boron

13 IIIA

Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium

109

192.217

Iridium

102.90550

Pm Sm

(277)

Hassium

108

190.23

Osmium

101.07

Rhodium

58.933200

Cobalt

9 VIII

Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium

(266)

Seaborgium

106

183.84

Tungsten

95.94

Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium

Hafnium

91.224

Zirconium

50.9415

47.867

Vanadium

Titanium

5 VB

140.116

Atomic Weight

4 IVB 22

Cerium

Scandium

3 IIIB

Name

Symbol

Atomic Number

The Periodic Table of the Elements

Lanthanides

Exploring Nuclear Energy Actinides

Period

The Periodic Table of the Elements He

Helium

(262)

Lawrencium

103

174.967

Lutetium

(294)

Oganesson

118

(222)

Radon

131.293

Xenon

83.798

Krypton

39.948

Argon

20.1797

Neon

4.002602

18 VIIIA

MASTER

CO N

Nuclear Power Plant Simulation Summary STRUCTURE ENT M IN TA

ion

Primary Loop “red” cards

ss mi

tio era

ran &T

Secondary Loop “steam”

Exchange Zone - 1 energy chip Exchange Zone - 1 energy chip

“water” Exchange Zone

Cooling Loop

“blue” cards

“red” cards

“blue” cards

“Reservoir”

Role List/Supplies

Close-up of Transmission

Light 2 chips Turbine *Numbers are relevant to Part 2.

10 students

Fuel Rods - Give each student a few energy chips

1 acts as control rod

Give this student 2 pieces of poster board

3-4 students

Primary Loop - Give each student a red/blue tag, and an energy chip

3-4 student

Secondary Loop - Give each student a water/steam tag and an energy chip

1 student

Turbine - Give two blades

1 student

Light - Give a light

2-3 students

Transmission Lines - Hold the rope

2-3 students

Cooling System - Give each student a red/blue tag and an energy chip

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MASTER

Nuclear Power Plant Designs: Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)

Boiling Water Reactor STEAM GENERATION

ELECTRICITY GENERATION

PRIMARY CONTAINMENT STEAM REACTOR

GENERATOR TURBINE

SWITCHYARD

CONDENSER

COOLING WATER

DETAIL

REACTOR VESSEL

WATER

ELECTRICITY TRANSMISSION

RESERVOIR

STEAM

REACTOR CORE WATER

CONTROL RODS

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MASTER

Nuclear Power Plant Designs: Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) CONTAINMENT STRUCTURE

STEAM LINE

ELECTRICITY GENERATION

ELECTRICITY TRANSMISSION

GENERATOR TURBINE

SWITCHYARD

REACTOR CONDENSER

DETAIL PRESSURIZER CONTROL RODS

STEAM GENERATOR

COOLING WATER RESERVOIR STEAM

WATER REACTOR CORE

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What Is Energy? We all use the word energy daily. We have energy drinks, we pay our energy bills, and politicians discuss energy policy almost daily. However, what energy actually is can be a difficult concept to explain precisely. Our bodies and objects all around us are using energy all the time. Energy allows us to do work and to affect change. It provides the ability to do what we need to do, whether we can visibly see what is happening or on a microscopic level. Energy exists in two basic forms. Stored energy to use later is called potential energy, while energy in motion is called kinetic energy. Each of these two, broad categories can be broken down further into nine different forms of energy. One type of potential energy is gravitational potential energy (GPE), which is energy stored by position. A child at the top of a slide or water behind a dam both have gravitational energy. Elastic energy is potential energy that is stored by applying a force. When you wind up a toy car, you are storing energy in the spring inside of it. If you pull back on a rubber band, you are storing elastic energy in it. Nuclear energy is the potential energy within the nucleus of atoms. Very small changes in the nucleus of an atom can release tremendous amounts of energy. The most commonly used form of potential energy is chemical energy. It is the energy in the bonds between atoms of all the substances in the world. The food you eat, the fuel in the car you drive, the wood your campfire burns are all examples of chemical energy. Kinetic energy – energy in motion - can be broken down into five forms. When large-scale things are moving, they have motion or mechanical energy. A child on a bike, water moving through a stream, and the wind all have motion energy. Thermal energy is the energy that allows atoms and molecules to move around. The more thermal energy in a substance, the faster the molecules move, and the higher its temperature. Sound energy is a form of energy that we often overlook – because a sound is a vibration, it is an energy form. Radiant energy is energy that moves through space in transverse waves. Sunlight and radio waves are examples of radiant energy, as are microwaves and x-rays. Electrical energy is the energy of moving electrons. Electricity is the most common example of electrical energy, but small static electricity jolts and lightning strikes are also examples of electrical energy.

Conservation of energy is not just about saving energy. The Law of Conservation of Energy says that energy is neither created nor destroyed. When we use energy, it doesn’t disappear. We simply change it from one form of energy into another. A car engine burns gasoline, converting the chemical energy in gasoline into motion energy. Solar cells change radiant energy into electrical energy. Energy changes form, but the total amount of energy in the universe stays the same.

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Potential Energy

Kinetic Energy

HILL Energy Energy Transformations Transformations

Chemical

Motion

Chemical

Motion

Radiant

Chemical

Electrical

Heat

Energy Efficiency

Conservation of Energy

Potential and Kinetic Energy

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Energy efficiency is the amount of useful energy you get from a system compared to the energy input. A perfect, energy-efficient machine would change all the energy put in it into useful work—an impossible dream. Converting one form of energy into another form always involves a loss of usable energy, often as waste heat. Most energy transformations are not very efficient. The human body is a good example. Your body is like a machine, and the fuel for your machine is food. Food gives you the energy to move, breathe, and think. Your body is very inefficient at converting food into useful work. Most energy in your body is released as wasted heat.

Sources of Energy We use many energy sources to meet our needs. All of them have advantages and disadvantages—limitation or reliability of supply, and economic, environmental, or societal impacts. Energy sources are usually classified into two groups—renewable and nonrenewable. In the United States, most of our energy comes from nonrenewable energy sources. Coal, natural gas, petroleum, propane, and uranium are nonrenewable energy sources. They are used to generate electricity, heat homes, move vehicles, and manufacture all kinds of products from candy bars to computers. They are called nonrenewable because their supplies are limited, and they cannot be replenished in a short period of time. Petroleum, for example, was formed hundreds of millions of years ago, before dinosaurs lived, from the remains of ancient sea plants and animals. We could run out of economically recoverable nonrenewable resources someday. Renewable energy sources include biomass, geothermal, hydropower, solar, and wind. They are called renewable because they are replenished in a short time, almost as quickly as they are used. Day after day the sun shines, the wind blows, and the rivers flow. We use renewable energy sources mainly to make electricity.

U.S. Energy Consumption by Source, 2025 NONRENEWABLE, 90.87%

RENEWABLE, 9.13%

Petroleum

37.31%

Biomass

5.04%

Natural Gas

35.99%

Wind

Uses: electricity

1.65%

Uses: electricity, heating, manufacturing - Includes Propane

Coal

9.05%

Solar

1.44%

Uses: electricity, heating, transportation

Uses: transportation, manufacturing - Includes Propane

Uses: electricity, manufacturing

Uses: electricity, heating

Energy Sources and Electricity Electricity is neither a renewable or nonrenewable energy source. Electricity is considered a secondary source of energy because it is created or generated using other sources of energy. In the United States, nine of the ten energy sources are regularly used to generate electricity; the only source that is not commonly used for electricity generation is propane. Natural gas is the leading source for electricity, followed by uranium and coal. Wind and hydropower are the leading renewable energy sources for electricity generation. The most common way to generate electricity is by using thermal energy to boil water into pressurized steam that can turn a turbine. Turbines change linear motion into rotational motion; in this case, the linear movement of the steam is changed to a rotation to turn a generator. The generator houses large magnets and coils of copper wire. The turbine blades spin the generator, moving either the coils of wire or the magnets relative to the other. This produces an electric current. Wind and hydropower use a flowing fluid, air or water respectively, to turn a turbine to generate electricity. Because no thermal energy is lost, wind and water are more efficient sources of energy for generating electricity. Solar energy, however, often generates electricity differently than other renewables. Solar energy can generate electricity by capitalizing on the photovoltaic effect with the use of solar panels. It can, under the right conditions, also be generated by heating a substance and using thermal energy to turn a turbine.

Uranium

Uses: electricity

8.52%

Hydropower 0.88% Uses: electricity

*Propane consumption figures are reported as part of petroleum and natural gas totals.

Geothermal 0.12%

Propane

Uses: electricity, heating

Uses: heating, manufacturing

Data: Energy Information Administration **Total may not equal 100% due to independent rounding.

U.S. Electricity Generation, 2025

RENEWABLES

URANIUM

24.01%

17.72%

WIND, 10.48% SOLAR, 6.68%

NATURAL GAS

40.80%

HYDROPOWER, 5.46% Other

COAL

16.64%

0.24%

Petroleum

0.43%

BIOMASS, 1.04% GEOTHERMAL, 0.35%

Data: Energy Information Administration *Total may not equal 100% due to independent rounding

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Elements and Isotopes What exactly is the mysterious thing we call electricity? It is charged particles, called electrons, that are in motion. What are electrons? They are tiny particles found in atoms. Everything in the universe is made of atoms or particles derived from atoms—every star, every tree, and every animal. The human body is made of atoms. Air and water are, too. Atoms are the building blocks of the universe. Atoms are so small that millions of them would fit on the head of a pin.

Carbon Carbon Atom Atom Most carbon atoms have six protons and six neutrons in the nucleus, two electrons in the inner energy level, and four electrons in the outer energy level. OUTER

INNE

ENERGY LEV

R ENERGY LEVE

Atomic Structure

Atoms are made of smaller particles. The center of an atom is called the nucleus. It is made of particles called protons, which carry a positive (+) charge, and neutrons, which carry no charge, that are approximately the same size. Nuclear energy is contained within the nucleus and the strong nuclear force holds the protons and neutrons together. Protons and neutrons are very small, but electrons are much smaller. Electrons carry a negative (-) charge and move around the nucleus in areas of probability, called energy levels. These areas are different distances from the nucleus. If the nucleus were the size of a tennis ball, the atom would be the size of the Empire State Building. Atoms are mostly empty space. If you could see an atom, it might look a little like a tiny center of spheres surrounded by giant clouds (or energy levels). Electrons are found in these energy levels. Since protons have a positive charge and electrons have a negative charge, they are attracted to each other. This electrical force holds the electrons in their energy level. The energy level closest to the nucleus can hold up to two electrons. The next energy level can hold up to eight. Additional energy levels can hold more than eight electrons. The electrons in the energy levels closest to the nucleus have a strong force of attraction to the protons. Sometimes, the electrons in the outermost energy level—the valence energy level—do not. In this case, these electrons (the valence electrons) easily leave their energy levels. Other times, there is a strong attraction between valence electrons and the protons. Often, extra electrons from outside the atom are attracted and enter a valence energy level. Sometimes when the arrangement of electrons is changed, energy is gained or transformed. This energy from electrons is called electrical energy. When an atom is neutral, it has an equal number of protons and electrons. The neutrons carry no charge and their number can vary. Neutrons help hold the nucleus together.

Elements A substance whose atoms all have the same number of protons is called an element. The number of protons is given by an element’s atomic number, which identifies elements. For example, all atoms of hydrogen have an atomic number of one and all atoms of carbon have an atomic number of six. This means that all hydrogen atoms contain one proton and that all carbon atoms contain six protons. An atom is measured by its atomic mass, which is based on its number of protons, neutrons, and electrons. ©2026 The NEED Project

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NUCLEUS PROTONS (+)

NEUTRONS

ELECTRONS (–)

Radioactive Isotopes All elements have isotopes. HENRI BECQUEREL Isotopes are atoms of an element that have a different number of neutrons, thus giving them a different mass. For example, hydrogen has three isotopes all have one proton, but each isotope has a different number of neutrons. While many isotopes of elements are stable, some isotopes are unstable and their nuclei emit particles and/or energy to become more stable. Isotopes of elements that are unstable and emit particles or energy are labeled radioactive Image courtesy of Public Domain via because they are radiating Wikimedia Commons. particles or energy. When particles are given off, isotopes of new elements are usually made. Henri Becquerel, a French physicist, discovered this natural emission in 1896. The most common particles given off are alpha particles (a helium nucleus without electrons 2He4) and beta particles (an energetic electron 0β). Release of high energy gamma radiation is also a common method of achieving stability, but the type of isotope remains the same. Unstable isotopes may give off an alpha or beta particle, but never both together. However, gamma radiation may be given off along with either alpha or beta emissions.

Elements and Isotopes The following are two examples of unstable isotopes that change identities when they release particles: 2

Beta emission

14 6

C -> -10β + 147 N

Alpha emission

238 92

U -> 42He + 234 90 Th

In the first example, a neutron in the nucleus of carbon-14 releases -1 a beta particle ( 0β) and changes into a proton. Since the atom now has seven protons instead of six, it has become a different element, nitrogen, but still has an atomic mass of 14. It is now the isotope nitrogen-14.

In the second example, uranium-238 releases an alpha particle (42He). The alpha particle is made of two protons and two neutrons. That means the atom now contains 90 protons and 144 neutrons (giving a total of 234 nucleons or particles in the nucleus). With 90 protons, it is now the element thorium and has an atomic mass of 234. It is the isotope thorium-234. The process of nuclei becoming more stable is called radioactive decay. The time required for one half of the atoms of the original radioactive isotope to decay into another isotope is known as its half-life. Some substances have half-lives measured in milliseconds while others take billions of years. Uranium-238 has a half-life of 4.6 billion years. Short half-lives result in high activities since a large number of particles or amounts of energy are emitted in relatively short time periods.

What is Radiation? Energy traveling in the form of waves or high speed particles is called radiation. The sun produces radiant energy—energy that travels in electromagnetic waves. Wireless technologies, radar, microwave ovens, medical x-rays, and radiation therapy to treat cancer are all examples of how radiation can be used. Radiation can come in the form of electromagnetic waves (radio, microwave, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet light, x-rays, and gamma rays) and high speed particles (alpha and beta particles). Radiation is classified into two categories— ionizing radiation, which has enough energy to ionize atoms, and non-ionizing. When discussing nuclear science, radiation generally refers to ionizing radiation such as alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays. Alpha particles, beta particles, and/or gamma rays can be emitted from different isotopes of elements. We say these isotopes are radioactive and also call them radionuclides. An isotope is stable when there is close to a 1:1 ratio of protons and neutrons. If an isotope has too few or too many neutrons, the isotope becomes unstable and radioactive. Many elements with fewer than 84 protons have stable isotopes and radioactive isotopes; however, all isotopes of elements with 84 or more protons are radionuclides.

A Radioactive World There are many natural sources of radiation that have been present since the Earth was formed. In the last century, we have added to this natural background radiation with some artificial sources. It may surprise you to know that for an average person, 50 percent of all exposure to radiation comes from natural sources. Much of our exposure to artificial sources is attributable to medical procedures, and commercial and industrial sources. There are three major sources of naturally occurring radiation. They are cosmic radiation, terrestrial radiation, and internal radiation. Cosmic radiation is the radiation that penetrates the Earth’s atmosphere and comes from the sun and outer space. Terrestrial radiation is the radiation emitted from the earth, rocks, building materials, and water. The human body naturally contains some radiation. This is called internal radiation.

ALPHA

BETA

GAMMA

We are constantly using radioactive materials in our daily lives. These include medical radiation sources (such as CT scans, PET scans, and medical and dental x-rays), older TV’s, older luminous watches, some smoke detectors, left-over radiation from the testing of nuclear weapons, and a variety of industrial uses. Another major source of natural radiation is from radon gas, a gas commonly found in the Earth.

Radon Radon is a colorless and odorless radioactive gas found throughout the United States, and is one type of terrestrial radiation. It is formed during the natural radioactive decay of uranium and thorium atoms in the soil, rocks, and water. Since radon is a gas, it can get into the air of the buildings where we live, work, and play. According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), radon causes thousands of deaths from lung cancer each year. Behind smoking, exposure to radon gas is the second leading cause of lung cancer in the U.S. Most radon enters buildings from the soil. Radon enters buildings through cracks in solid floors, construction joints, cracks in walls, gaps in suspended floors, gaps around service pipes, and cavities inside walls. Some radon can also enter a home through the water supply. Both new and older homes are susceptible to radon gas buildup. Since most exposure to radon occurs at home, it is important to measure the level of radon in your home, and limit radon exposure where necessary. The EPA recommends that all homes be tested for radon. Simple test kits are available at most home improvement stores, are inexpensive, and are easy to use. Qualified testers can also be used and are a good choice to perform tests when buying or selling a home.

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Electricity and Magnetism Electrical Energy The positive and negative charges within atoms and matter usually arrange themselves so that there is a neutral balance. However, sometimes there can be a build-up of charges creating more negative than positive charges, or more positive charges than negative charges. This imbalance produces an electric charge. Unlike electric current where electrons are moving, these electrons don’t move until there is another object for them to move to. This is called static electricity. When the charges become too unbalanced there is a discharge of electrical energy between positively and negatively charged areas. This is what causes lightning to jump from cloud to cloud, or between a cloud and the ground.

Bar Magnet

Magnets

The molecules in a magnet are arranged so that most of the northseeking poles point in one direction and most of the south-seeking poles point in the other.

Electromagnetism A magnetic field can produce electricity. In fact, magnetism and electricity are really two inseparable aspects of one phenomenon called electromagnetism. A changing magnetic field can produce electricity. Every time there is a change in an electric field, a magnetic field is produced. We can use this relationship to produce electricity. Some metals, such as copper, have electrons that are loosely held. They can be pushed from their valence shells by the application of a changing magnetic field. If a coil of copper wire is moved in a magnetic field, or if magnets are moved around a coil of copper wire, an electric current is generated in the wire. Electric current can also be used to produce magnets. Around every current-carrying wire is a magnetic field, created by the uniform motion of electrons in the wire. Electromagnets are temporary magnets formed by passing electricity through a coil of wires wrapped around an iron core.

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TURBINE TURBINE SPINS SHAFT Spinning Coil of Wire

MAGNET

Spinning electrons create small magnetic fields and act like microscopic magnets or micro-magnets. In most objects, the electrons located around the nucleus of the atoms spin in random directions throughout the object. This means the micro-magnets all point in random directions cancelling out their magnetic fields. Magnets are different—most of the atoms’ electrons spin in the same direction, which means the north- and south-seeking poles of the micro-magnets they create are aligned. Each micro-magnet works together to give the magnet itself a north- and south-seeking pole.

Turbine Generator

MAGNET

In most objects the molecules that make up the substance have atoms with electrons that spin in random directions. They are scattered evenly throughout the object. Magnets are different—they are made of molecules that have north- and south-seeking poles.

North Pole

South Pole DIRECTION OF ELECTRIC CURRENT TO TRANSMISSION LINES

Generating Electricity When it comes to the commercial production of electricity, it’s all about turbines and generators. A turbine is a device that converts the flow of a fluid such as air, steam, or water into mechanical or motion energy to power a generator. A generator converts the mechanical energy into electrical energy using electromagnetism. An electric generator is actually an electric motor that runs backward. Work is done to cause magnets to spin within coils of wire to produce electricity. Depending on the generator’s design, work can also cause the wires to move. When the wire moves through the external

Electricity and Magnetism Transporting Electricity Power plant generates electricity

Transmission line carries electricity long distances

Transformer steps up voltage for transmission

POWER TOWER

Distribution line carries electricity to house

ELECTRIC Neighborhood POLES transformer steps down voltage

Transformer on pole steps down voltage before entering house

magnetic field, electrons in the wire are pulled and move through the wire. These electrons can be directed out of the generator as electricity. Although electric motors and generators may seem complicated, the principle of electromagnetism is simple. When electricity moves through a wire, a magnetic field is created around the wire. In an electric motor, the motor’s wire is placed between external magnets. When electricity is sent through the wire, the magnetic field created around the wire interacts with the magnetic field of the external magnets. This interaction causes the wire to move. If the wire is designed so it is free to turn, the wire will spin and you have an electric motor. Power plants use huge turbine generators to generate the electricity that we use in our homes and businesses. Different types of power plants use different fuels to change water into steam. Power plants can burn coal, oil, biomass, or natural gas to heat water into highpressure steam, which is used to spin the turbines. Splitting uranium atoms in a nuclear power plant can also produce the thermal energy needed to generate steam. Once the electricity is produced, it is moved to our homes and businesses. It moves through large electrical lines. Electricity moves most efficiently under high voltage. When the electricity leaves the power plant, its voltage must be drastically increased. When it reaches our homes and businesses, the voltage must be reduced so it will not burn up or damage things that use the electricity. The voltage of electricity is easily increased or decreased by a transformer. Transformers are commonly seen in our neighborhoods. Electrical substations are a series of transformers used to increase or decrease voltage. If you have an overhead electrical line that goes into your house, you will see a transformer on the pole where the overhead line leaves the larger power line. Usually, these overhead transformers are grey cylinders. They reduce the voltage so that the electricity can safely enter your house.

NUCLEAR REACTOR

Image courtesy of the NRC via Wikimedia Commons.

Generating Electricity With Nuclear Energy Fission occurs when an atom’s nucleus splits into smaller nuclei. Nuclear energy is released from the nucleus of atoms as they fission and is transformed into thermal energy, kinetic energy, and radiant energy. Just like burning coal and natural gas, thermal energy from nuclear reactions can be used to convert water to steam for turning the blades of a turbine. The motion of the turbine turns a generator and makes electricity to power our homes, businesses, and schools. ©2026 The NEED Project

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Nuclear Energy Yesterday, Today, & Tomorrow What is Uranium? Uranium is a naturally occurring radioactive element, that is very hard and heavy and is classified as a metal. It is also one of the few elements that is easily fissioned. It is the fuel used by nuclear power plants. Uranium was formed when the Earth was created and is found in rocks all over the world. Rocks that contain a lot of uranium are called uranium ore, or pitchblende. Uranium, although abundant, is a nonrenewable energy source. Three forms or isotopes of uranium are found in nature, uranium-234, uranium-235, and uranium-238. These numbers refer to the number of neutrons and protons in each atom. Uranium-235 is the form commonly used for energy production because, unlike the other isotopes, the nucleus splits easily when bombarded by a neutron. During fission, the uranium-235 atom absorbs a bombarding neutron, causing its nucleus to split apart into two atoms of lighter mass. At the same time, the fission reaction releases energy as heat and radiation, as well as releasing more neutrons. The newly released neutrons go on to bombard other uranium atoms, and the process repeats itself over and over. This is called a chain reaction.

Uranium at a Glance, 2024 Classification: nonrenewable

Major Uses: electricity

U.S. Energy Consumption: 8.173 Q 8.68%

U.S. Energy Production: 8.173 Q 7.91% Lighter Element

Atom Splits

FISSION

Neutron

Uranium 235

Neutron

+ Energy

Neutron

Lighter Element

MARIE CURIE

ALBERT EINSTEIN

History of Nuclear Energy Nuclear reactions have occurred in the Earth’s crust since the beginning of time. However, man’s working knowledge of nuclear energy occupies a very small portion of Earth’s history. This knowledge was started by a chain of events beginning in 1895 with the experiments of German physicist Wilhelm Roentgen. He was working with gas discharge tubes and discovered that the tubes caused certain materials to glow in the dark. Shadows of the bones of his fingers were recorded on cardboard coated with barium. He named the energy given off by these gas discharge tubes x-rays. In 1896, Henri Becquerel accidentally discovered that a uranium compound left in the dark near a photographic plate produced an image on the plate. Marie Curie, a student of Becquerel’s, and her husband Pierre, a professor of physics, continued to investigate these emissions from uranium and named them radioactivity. Two years later, the Curies announced that they had discovered two radioactive elements in the ore pitchblende, polonium (named for Marie Curie’s native country of Poland), and radium. Scientific work related to radioactivity continued throughout the early to middle twentieth century. In England, Ernest Rutherford identified two different types of radiation given off by uranium atoms, alpha rays and beta rays (streams of alpha and beta particles). Rutherford’s experiments with radiation showed that a radioactive element changes into a different element when it gives off alpha or beta particles. This change in an element is called transmutation.

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Other significant events included Images courtesy of Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons.

the discovery of the electron by J.J. Thompson and Rutherford’s observation that almost all of the mass and all of the positive charge of an atom were contained in its tiny nucleus. The general structure of an atom containing protons and neutrons in the nucleus and electrons outside the nucleus was completed in 1932 with the discovery of the neutron by James Chadwick. In 1905, Albert Einstein theorized that mass and energy are interchangeable. According to his theory, mass can be converted into energy and energy can be converted into mass. The relationship between the mass and energy of matter is calculated by the equation E = mc2, where E = energy, m = mass, and c = the speed of light. It took over thirty years for scientists to prove Einstein’s theory correct, but this led to the understanding that large amounts of energy could be released from radioactive materials.

Lise Meitner

Image courtesy of Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons.

Lise Meitner was head of physics at the Keiser Wilhelm Institute in Germany and worked closely with radiochemist, Otto Hahn. When Nazis came to power in 1933, many Jewish scientists left. Meitner, who was Jewish by birth, stayed to continue her work at the Institute. In 1938 she was forced to move to Sweden for her safety.

In 1938, German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann discovered that bombarding uranium with neutrons produced barium, a much lighter element. An Austrian physicist, Lise Meitner, and her nephew, Otto Frisch, first explained nuclear fission, a process in which the nucleus splits into two nuclei of approximately equal masses. Using Einstein’s equation, they calculated that this fission released a tremendous amount of energy. Immediately, the world’s scientific community recognized the importance of the discovery. The race was on to see which nation could unleash the power of the atom and create the most powerful weapon ever imagined. The first controlled nuclear fission occurred in 1941 at the University of Chicago by Leo Szilard and Enrico Fermi. Graphite blocks were stacked on the floor of a squash court and natural uranium was inserted among the graphite blocks. The scientists were able to produce the first controlled nuclear chain reaction. A chain reaction requires the correct amount of nuclear fuel (critical mass) to sustain the reaction, neutrons of the proper speed (energy), and a way to control the number of neutrons available for fission. The first large scale reactors were built in 1944 in Hanford, Washington, to produce plutonium for nuclear weapons. As World War II in the Pacific wore on, Japan refused to surrender despite mounting losses. U.S. officials feared a prolonged invasion would cost countless American lives, prompting the development and use of nuclear weapons to force an end to the conflict. The first uncontrolled release of nuclear energy from an atom bomb occurred with the Trinity Test in New Mexico on July 16, 1945. Enough fuel for two more bombs had been fabricated along with the uranium used in the Trinity test. One was designed to use uranium-235, and was detonated by firing a smaller piece of U-235 into a larger piece to achieve critical mass. The second bomb, made from plutonium-239, required a different design. A hollow sphere of Pu-239 was surrounded by conventional explosives that detonated simultaneously, pushing the sphere in on itself to achieve critical mass. The plutonium bomb was named Fat Man and the uranium bomb was nicknamed Little Boy. The industrial city of Hiroshima, Japan, was virtually destroyed by the uranium bomb on August 6, 1945. The TRINITY DETONATION CRATER American government Image courtesy of The U.S. asked Japan to Federal surrender, and they Government chose not to do so. via Wikimedia Commons Three days later on August 9, the plutonium bomb was dropped on Nagasaki with similar, devastating results.

Meitner and Hahn continued corresponding about their research. Hahn wrote to Meitner perplexed that bombarding a uranium nucleus produced barium. Meitner discussed Hahn’s findings with her nephew, Otto Frisch. They interpreted Hahn and Strassmann’s results as nuclear fission, explaining that a large amount of energy is released when the nucleus splits. Meitner was offered a position working on the Manhattan Project, but refused to be a part in the making of a bomb. In 1944, without acknowledgement of Meitner’s work, Hahn was awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry for the discovery of nuclear fission. On August 10, some in the Japanese government began the process of surrender. The surrender was officially declared on August 14 and accepted by the U.S. and allies on August 15, 1945. The tremendous energy inside the tiny nucleus of the atom helped end the deadliest war in history. At the end of World War II, nuclear energy was seen as very destructive; however, scientists started work to harness and use nuclear energy for peaceful purposes. The first use of nuclear power to generate electricity occurred in December 1951 at a reactor in Idaho. In 1954, a nuclear reactor in Obninsk, Russia, was the first connected to an electricity grid. The Nautilus, the world’s first submarine powered by a nuclear reactor, was placed into service by the U.S. Navy in 1954. In 1957, the first commercial nuclear reactor to produce electricity went on-line at Shippingport, Pennsylvania. Other nuclear plants of different designs soon followed. In 1946 the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) was the first agency assigned the task of regulating nuclear activity. In 1974 the AEC was replaced by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), which was established by Congress as part of the Energy Reorganization Act. The NRC’s primary responsibility is to protect public health and safety. To accomplish this the NRC has oversight of reactor and materials safety, waste management, license renewal of existing reactors, materials licensing, and the evaluation of new nuclear power plant applications. As of early 2026, 94 nuclear reactors are operating in 54 plants in the United States. Two of these reactors are fairly new to the U.S. nuclear portfolio. They are located in Waynesboro, Georgia, at the Alvin W. Vogtle Electric Generating Plant, with a total of four nuclear reactors on site, and making it the largest power plant in the country. Construction on these reactors began in 2009. Commercial operation of Unit 3 began in July, 2023, and Unit 4 started in April, 2024. More than 439 nuclear reactors are generating power throughout the world. Following the Fukushima Daiichi incident in Japan in 2011 (see page 44), several countries voted to scale back or phase out nuclear generation. These countries included Germany, Switzerland, and Italy. The Japanese government decided to eliminate all use of nuclear power. In 2014, no electricity in Japan was produced via nuclear power. Japan switched to the use of imported energy like coal and petroleum to fill the void left by nuclear. However, Japan began to allow the use of nuclear power again in 2015. Currently, 33 reactors are operational and generating power, with two more under construction. While nuclear power accounted for nearly 30% of Japan’s electricity in 2011, the country’s goal is to provide 20-22% from nuclear power by 2030. Despite the success of peaceful uses of nuclear power, some people remain hesitant about increasing usage of nuclear energy because of its potential to be used in non-peaceful ways—nuclear proliferation. ©2026 The NEED Project

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Nuclear Fission Energy used to generate electricity in a nuclear power plant is released from the nucleus by a process known as fission, the breaking apart of a nucleus. In a uranium fission reaction, a neutron from outside the atom hits the nucleus of the U-235 atom, is momentarily captured by the nucleus, and then breaks the nucleus into two smaller fragments, of nearly equal masses creating two lighter elements. As a nucleus undergoes fission it also ejects two or more neutrons, which are then able to collide with additional U-235 nuclei. The neutrons that kick off this process are called startup neutron sources, often californium-252 or plutonium-238.

Fusion In nuclear fission, an atomic nucleus splits to create two lighter elements and energy is released. The process of fusion instead involves isotopes combining to form a larger atom. This transformation of matter also releases energy.

Hydrogen Isotope

Energy Neutron

URANIUM ORE

Hydrogen Isotope

Helium

Fusion currently occurs in the solar system within stars like the sun. The sun is a big ball of gases, mostly hydrogen and helium atoms. The sun’s extremely high pressure and temperature cause hydrogen atoms to come apart and their nuclei to fuse. Hydrogen nuclei fuse to become one helium atom. The helium atom that is created contains less mass than the hydrogen atoms that fused. The “lost” mass is emitted as radiant energy.

Nuclear Fuel Cycle The fuel used in a nuclear reactor does not come ready-to-use out of the ground. Like natural gas and petroleum, the minerals from which uranium is extracted go through several steps before they are used in a power plant. There are three phases of the nuclear fuel cycle: front end, which is how the fuel is prepared; service period, which is when the fuel is being used; and back end, which is where spent fuel is disposed or stored.

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If this reaction occurs under conditions favorable for the rapid release of energy, we can see two neutrons bombard and fission two additional U-235 nuclei, then four neutrons bombard and fission four, eight bombard and fission eight, and so on. This forms what is called an explosive chain reaction where the energy released rapidly doubles from one round of fissions to another. This is the type of reaction needed for a nuclear weapon. Inside a reactor, a controlled chain reaction takes place where one fission leads to one additional fission and so on. While there is the potential for accidents due to high pressures or excessive thermal energy production, reactors cannot produce an explosive chain reaction like a nuclear bomb. When the mass of the fission products and neutrons produced by the fission reaction are added and compared to the original mass of the U-235 nucleus and the initial neutron, we find a small difference in mass; the mass of the original U-235 and neutron is greater than the mass of the fission products and neutrons produced. During a fission reaction, this “lost” mass has actually been converted into energy. One of the fundamental laws of nature is the Law of Conservation of Mass/Energy. This law states that mass/energy cannot be created or destroyed, but can change forms. A fission reaction is transforming a small amount of mass into a large amount of energy. The amount of energy released can be calculated using Einstein’s equation, E=mc2 where E is for energy in J, m is for mass in kg, and c is the speed of light in m/s. At first glance, it looks like mass was destroyed during the reaction. However, the difference in mass before and after the fission reaction has actually been transformed into energy released from the U-235 during the nuclear reaction.

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The front end includes mining uranium ore and extracting uranium from the other minerals present in the rocks. Milling further refines the ore to a yellow, powdery compound called yellowcake and readies it for processing. At a conversion plant, the yellowcake, U3O8, is processed through chemical reactions into uranium hexafluoride (UF6). Uranium hexafluoride is unique in that above 60°C it is a gas, but below that temperature it is a solid. Heating it to a gas separates impurities, and cooling it to a solid allows it to be handled easily. The next step on the front end is enrichment, where the concentration of U-235 is increased through centrifugation, which separates a mixture according to density. In order to sustain a fission reaction in nuclear plants currently, U-235 must be present at around 3-5% of the mixture; the yellowcake received from the mill has less than 1% U-235. When the desired concentration is achieved, more chemistry changes UF6 into UO2, a black powder. Uranium dioxide is then compressed into pellets, baked into a ceramic, and inserted into fuel rod assemblies for a reactor core.

All of these physical and chemical processes are necessary so fission reactions will be sustained at the right rate in the reactor core. Four things determine whether fission is sustainable: U-235 concentration; Available neutrons in the reactor; The speed of the neutrons; and the amount of other materials that will absorb neutrons. If there are not enough neutrons moving at the right speed such that the U-235 nuclei absorb them and split, the fission reaction will not be sustained. Water moderates the speed of neutrons and U-238 present in the fuel pellets absorbs them. Everything is balanced correctly such that the fission reactions continue at a safe rate. Another reactor design uses natural concentrations of U-235 but moderates the neutron speeds with heavy water (D2O) – water containing a heavier isotope of hydrogen. Canada and India have nuclear power plants with heavy water reactors; all U.S. power plants have light water reactors.

Uranium Fuel Cycle .

. .

URANIUM FUEL PELLET .

Reactor Vessel

This holds the nuclear reactor and is dual-layered with a thick steel wall so radioactive gases and liquids are contained in the vessel should a crack occur in one of the layers.

Fuel and Fuel Rods

Image courtesy of the NRC

During its service period, a fuel rod assembly is in the reactor core and the control rods are usually fully retracted, allowing the reactor to operate at 100% capacity. Some circumstances, such as testing, maintenance of other non-reactor components, cooling water availability, or electricity demand may cause operators to run the core at less than 100%.

These assembly rods are filled with the UO2 pellets that have been enriched (nuclear fuel). The fuel rods isolate the fuel from the water in the reactor vessel.

Control Rods

Control rods usually contain boron, silver, or cadmium, elements that absorb or capture neutrons to slow or stop the nuclear fission chain reaction. The control rods move up and down among the fuel rods, increasing or decreasing the number of neutrons exposed to the fuel in order to control the chain reaction and the fission process.

Eventually, the U-235 in the fuel pellet will decrease enough in concentration that the fission reactions will slow. This is when the fuel rod assembly is removed from the core and the fuel enters the back end of the nuclear fuel cycle. Two options exist on the back end: open cycle, where the fuel is sent directly to storage; and closed cycle, where the fuel is reprocessed. Presently the United States employs an open fuel cycle, while other countries such as France, Russia, Japan, India, and China reprocess some or all of their used fuel in a closed cycle. (See page 42) for more information on open and closed cycles.)

Moderator

Nuclear Power Plants

A nuclear plant’s thermal energy is used to make steam and generate electricity. The steam carries energy from the reactor vessel to the turbines. After the steam turns the turbines, it is condensed back into water and returned to the reactor vessel. This is done by the heat exchange systems, or heat exchanger.

The center of a nuclear power plant is the nuclear reactor. The purpose of the reactor is to release energy at a controlled rate. This allows the thermal energy produced during fission to produce the steam that turns a turbine and generates electricity. There are two common types of thermal reactors: a boiling water reactor (BWR) and a pressurized water reactor (PWR). They both have many of the same parts and safety features.

Moderators are substances that slow down neutrons so that a chain reaction can be maintained. The moderator is usually purified natural (light) water (H2O) or heavy water (deuterium oxide - D2O). Graphite, a form of carbon, can also be used as a moderator. Unlike graphite in school pencil “leads,” nuclear-grade graphite is almost pure carbon. Graphite reactors are not used in the U.S., but are used in Russia and the United Kingdom.

Heat Exchange System

Heat Exchanger

Containment Structure

This is a thick-walled concrete and steel building designed to prevent radioactive gases, steam, and water from entering the environment should a leak occur.

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Production

States with the Largest Percentage of Electricity Generated by Nuclear Energy, 2024

How a Nuclear Reactor Works

In a BWR the water flows through a single, primary loop from the reactor core to the turbine. In this system, water in the reactor core comes into contact with the fuel rods. As the water is heated by nuclear fission, it changes to steam.

55.94%

NEW HAMPSHIRE

45.20% NEW JERSEY

The steam then flows out of the reactor to the turbines. The steam turns the turbines of the generator to produce electricity. At the generator, there is an external system that uses water from the environment (river, ocean, lake, reservoir) to condense the steam in the primary loop back into water. Water in the primary loop is then pumped back into the reactor vessel where the cycle is repeated. Impurities in the water in the primary system can absorb radiation from the reactor and may become radioactive. Water in the external system does not come into contact with the reactor vessel or water in the primary system. Thus, it is not radioactive and can be returned to the environment after use. The PWR is the most popular commercial reactor type worldwide. Unlike a BWR, a PWR has primary, secondary, and external heat exchange systems, or loops. In the primary loop, heated water from around the reactor is sent to a steam generator or heat exchanger. (A pressurizer prevents the water in the primary loop from boiling.) Here, thermal energy is transferred from the reactor water in the primary system to a separate secondary system, which includes a water and steam mixture. The water from the primary loop does not physically mix with water and steam in the steam generator. The steam in the secondary system flows into the turbine where it turns the generator and generates electricity. This steam is then condensed by water from the external loop before it returns to the steam generator where it is heated and repeats the cycle.

The second method of energy transfer involves releasing thermal energy from the external cooling system into the atmosphere. This is usually accomplished using a cooling tower where warm water is sprayed in small droplets through a draft of dry air. The dry air causes some of the water to evaporate, which leaves the remaining water cooler. This is called evaporative cooling. The cooled water droplets are collected at the bottom of the tower and pumped back to the plant to be reheated. Cooling towers are designed to maximize the draft of air they create. Usually the cooling towers are concave shaped and are the most visible feature of many nuclear plants and other power plants. They release only steam into the atmosphere, not radioactive substances or other emissions as is sometimes thought.

TENNESSEE

53.57%

SOUTH CAROLINA

53.31% ILLINOIS

Data: Energy Information Administration

U.S. Nuclear Power Reactors, 2025

Data: Energy Information Administration *Some plants contain more than one reactor.

Pressurized Water Reactor CONTAINMENT STRUCTURE 4

1 REACTOR

ELECTRICITY GENERATION

STEAM LINE

ELECTRICITY TRANSMISSION

GENERATOR TURBINE

SWITCHYARD

CONDENSER

DETAIL

The BWR and the PWR both use an external source of cooling water to transfer waste heat to the environment. Generally, there are two methods for accomplishing this transfer of thermal energy. If the reactor is located on a large body of water, the warm coolant water can be pumped from the plant into the body of water. The warm water is replaced by cool water from the outside water supply. However, as this thermal energy is released, the temperature of the body of water increases. This temperature increase is closely monitored to make sure the increase does not exceed regulated limits. This system is similar to those of many fossil fuel fired generating plants that also transfer thermal energy from the power plant into an external body of water.

42.67%

PRESSURIZER CONTROL RODS

STEAM GENERATOR

COOLING WATER RESERVOIR STEAM

1. Inside the reactor core are the fuel assemblies, control rods, and water. Fission takes place within 1 the fuel assemblies and heats the WATER water passing through the 3 reactor. Control rods absorb neutrons to control fission. REACTOR CORE 2. Water is piped through the 2 reactor where it is heated. 3. It then travels to the steam generator where it heats a secondary system of water. 4. The steam generator keeps the steam at a high pressure. The steam travels through a steam line to the turbine. 5. The high pressure steam turns the turbine as it passes through, which spins a shaft. The steam then travels through the condenser where it is condensed by cooling water and is pumped back into the steam generator to repeat its cycle. 6. The turbine spins a shaft, which travels into the generator. Inside the generator, the shaft spins coils of copper wire inside a ring of magnets. This generates electricity.

7. Electricity is sent to a switchyard, where a transformer increases the voltage, allowing it to travel through the electric grid. 8. The unused steam continues into the condenser where cool water from the environment (river, ocean, lake, reservoir) is used to condense it back into water. The cooling water never comes in direct contact with the steam, so it is safe to return to the environment. 9. The resulting water is pumped out of the condenser with a series of pumps, reheated, and pumped back to the reactor vessel.

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Boiling Water Reactor STEAM GENERATION

ELECTRICITY GENERATION

PRIMARY CONTAINMENT 3 STEAM REACTOR

GENERATOR TURBINE

WATER 8

ELECTRICITY TRANSMISSION

SWITCHYARD

CONDENSER

COOLING WATER

DETAIL

REACTOR VESSEL

RESERVOIR

STEAM 3

REACTOR CORE 1 CONTROL RODS

WATER

1. The core inside the reactor vessel creates heat. 2. A steam-water mixture is produced when very pure water (reactor coolant) moves upward through the core, absorbing heat. 3. The steam-water mixture leaves the top of the core and is directed to the main turbine.

4. The high pressure steam turns a turbine, which spins a shaft. 5. Inside the generator, the shaft spins coils of copper wire inside a ring of electromagnets. This creates an electric field, producing electricity. 6. Electricity is sent to a switchyard, where a transformer increases the voltage, allowing it to travel through the electric grid. 7. The unused steam continues into the condenser where cool water from the environment (river, ocean, lake, reservoir) is used to condense it back into water. The cooling water never comes in direct contact with the steam, so it is safe to return to the environment. 8. The resulting water is pumped out of the condenser with a series of pumps, reheated, and pumped back to the reactor vessel.

Additional Safeguards in a Nuclear Power Plant Generally, there are two classes of safety systems in new reactor designs, evolutionary and passive. Reactors with evolutionary safety systems have the same basic design as pre-1990s reactors but with improved safety systems. The safety systems are larger with more cooling capacity, more dependable with increased back-up systems, controlled by the latest technology that monitors and controls the safety systems, and are easier to maintain and upgrade. New reactors can be designed with passive safety systems that operate automatically, powered by gravity or natural convection. These systems are designed to minimize operator error. In passive safety systems, if valves are needed they are air or battery-operated. In either case, no outside electricity is needed for valve operations, and thus a loss of electricity does not affect the valves. Earlier designs place the emergency cooling system outside the containment building. In these designs, pumps and back-up electricity sources are needed to move emergency coolant into the reactor. In later-design reactors, emergency coolant and air circulate by natural convection to remove built-up thermal energy. Again, pumps and fans are not needed and back-up electrical systems are not required.

No matter what type of safety systems are in place, it is still necessary for strict Nuclear Regulatory Commission procedures to be followed and inspections carried out as required to prevent meltdowns and accidents.

Spent Fuel Options Radioactive Waste Handling and Storage: Open Cycle

A typical thermal reactor fuel assembly remains in the reactor for three years. Reactors are typically shut down for one month out of every 18 months for refueling and maintenance. Approximately one-third of the spent fuel is removed and replaced with fresh fuel assemblies. The level of radioactivity of spent fuel is initially extremely high due to the short half-lives of the products of U-235 fission and the radioactive transuranic elements (elements with atomic numbers greater than 92) resulting from the absorption of neutrons by U-238. The spent fuel is placed in pools of water near the reactor to allow both the radioactivity and residual heat to decrease. After approximately five years, the fuel can be removed from the pools and placed in secure containers known as dry casks for intermediate storage. The storage of spent fuel presents a challenge for which a long term solution has yet to be determined. Currently, all nuclear spent fuel in the United States is stored in water-filled pools or in dry storage casks on site at nuclear power plants. In 1987, the U.S. Congress chose Yucca Mountain in southwest Nevada as the site for long term high-level waste storage. (Nuclear spent fuel is considered highlevel waste.) Yucca Mountain is an example of an area considered geologically stable and where radioactive material can be stored deep underground and security can be maintained. In 2010, the U.S. Department of Energy filed a motion to withdraw the license application for a high-level waste geological repository at Yucca Mountain. The Department of Energy is no longer persuing Yucca Mountain as a repository for high-level waste. The Blue Ribbon Commission on America’s Nuclear Future was formed to review nuclear spent fuel management policies and made recommendations for future management of nuclear spent fuel to the Secretary of Energy. The United States has not developed plans for another repository. There are currently no countries with an operational disposal facility. Finland and Sweden have licensed and begun construction on disposal sites; both are expected to start accepting spent fuel in late 2025. France’s repository is in the advanced licensing phase, with construction expected to begin in 2027.

Reprocessing Nuclear Waste: Closed Cycle

Reprocessing spent fuel uses chemical methods to separate the uranium and plutonium from the other components of the fuel from the reactor. The extracted uranium is recycled once to produce additional reactor fuel. The plutonium can be mixed with enriched uranium to produce metal oxide (MOX) reactor fuel for both thermal and fast neutron reactors. The relatively small volume of remaining radioactive waste can be stored in liquid form and solidified in glass for permanent storage. While reprocessing recovers uranium and plutonium for use as additional nuclear fuel and reduces the amount of waste to be managed, it also produces waste that is both radioactive and chemically toxic. Countries that have at one time or continue to reprocess fuel include France, Russia, Japan, the UK, China, and India. Each country has varying success and use depending on the processes, facilities, and power plant infrastructure they use.

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Nuclear Accidents Three events that have influenced people’s perception of nuclear energy are the accidents at Three Mile Island in Pennsylvania, Chernobyl in the Ukraine (former Soviet Union), and Fukushima in Japan.

CHERNOBYL POWER PLANT

Three Mile Island

In 1979 there was an Three Mile Island Nuclear Plant accident at the Three Mile Island (TMI) reactor. In the Harrisburg NJ morning, feed-water pumps Pittsburg h PA that moved coolant into Philadelphia one of the reactors stopped MD running. As designed, Baltimore the turbine and reactor DE automatically shut down, VA but an automatic valve Washington D.C. that should have closed after relieving pressure inside of the reactor stayed open. This caused coolant to flow out of the reactor and the reactor overheated, and the nuclear fuel started to melt. By evening, the reactor core was stabilized. Over the next few days there were additional dilemmas, including the release of some radioactive gas into the atmosphere, which led to a voluntary evacuation of pregnant women and pre-school aged children who lived within a five mile radius of the plant. The accident at TMI has been the most serious in U.S. commercial nuclear power plant history, however there were no serious injuries and only small amounts of radiation were measured off-site.

Photo courtesy of Ukrainian Society for Friendship and Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries (USFCRFC).

Chernobyl

The damaged reactor number four of Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant

Ukraine relies heavily on nuclear power to generate electricity. In 1986, there were four reactors operating at the RUSSIA Chernobyl Power Complex BELARUS POLAND with two more reactors under Chernobyl UKRAINE construction. On April 26, 1986, while conducting tests of Unit 4’s reactor behavior at low power settings, plant operators turned off all of the automatic plant safety features. During the test the reactor became very unstable and there was a massive heat surge. Operators were unable to stop the surge and two steam explosions occurred. When air entered the reactor the graphite moderator burst into flames and the entire unit became engulfed in fire.

Between May 2-4, about 160,000 persons living close by the reactor were evacuated. During the next several years an additional 210,000 people were resettled from areas within an approximate 20 mile radius of the plant. Soon after the accident, Unit 4 was encased in a cement structure allowing the other reactors nearby to continue operating.

The steam explosions, along with burning graphite used to moderate the reactor, released considerable amounts of radioactive material into the environment. Two workers died in the initial explosion and by July, 28 additional plant personnel and firefighters had also died. ©2026 The NEED Project

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Today about 1,000 people have unofficially returned to live within the contaminated zone. A New Safe Confinement (NSC) structure was built in 2016-2017 to more securely contain the radioactive materials that remain in Unit 4. Built with a stainless steel skin and slid into place over the damaged building, it now encompasses Unit 4 and the decaying concrete shelter. The structure is 344 feet high, 492 feet long, and 843 feet wide—larger than six football fields. On February 14, 2025, a drone carrying a high-explosive warhead struck the NSC during a conflict between Russia and Ukraine. This strike created a 15m2 hole in the outer cladding and compromising the inner steel membrane. An additional 300 smaller holes were drilled into the metal for firefighting efforts. While the damage did not compromise the steel structure of the NSC, it has been damaged such that it cannot be relied upon to fully contain radioactive material. Major restoration to the structure is planned for 2026.

Fukushima

Lessons Learned

On March 11, 2011, one of the largest earthquakes in recorded history occurred off the coast of Japan. This earthquake created a tsunami that killed nearly 20,000 people as it destroyed buildings, roads, bridges, and railways. When the earthquake occurred, the seismic instrumentation systems worked as designed and automatically shut down the reactors at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station. Fukushima lost off-site power due to the earthquake damaging transmission towers. This resulted in the emergency diesel generators automatically starting to maintain the cooling of the reactors and the spent fuel pools on site. When the tsunami arrived about 45 minutes later, it was estimated to be nearly 50 feet high—much taller than the 16’ seawall constructed to protect the site. When the tsunami hit, all but one of the emergency diesel generators stopped working and DC power from batteries was lost due to the flooding that ensued. Both the emergency diesel generators and the batteries were located in the basement of the turbine building. Beyond that, four of the six reactor units were significantly damaged by the tsunami.

Much was learned by nuclear engineers and operators from these accidents. Although the reactor of Unit 2 at TMI was destroyed, most radioactivity was contained as designed. No deaths or injuries occurred. Lessons from TMI have been incorporated into both evolutionary and passive nuclear plant designs.

The loss of both AC power from the emergency diesel generators and DC power from the batteries disabled instrumentation needed to monitor and control the situation and disabled key systems needed to cool the reactor units and spent fuel pools. This resulted in damage, which included breaches in reactor pressure vessels, leaks in primary containment, and severe fuel degradation. Removing all fuel debris from the reactors has been delayed and is expected to begin around 2037.

While some Chernobyl-style reactors are still operating in Eastern Europe, they have been drastically improved. Training for nuclear plant operators in Eastern Europe has also been significantly improved with an emphasis on safety. Nearly 20,000 people lost their lives due to the tsunami in Japan, while no deaths have been attributed to radiological causes from the Fukushima accident. Radioactive material was, however, released into the air and water as a result of the accident. The effects of this contamination on the flora and fauna will continue to be monitored and studied. The Fukushima accident will improve nuclear safety as power plant operators and regulators take a closer look at the potential of natural disasters, protecting backup emergency diesel generators and batteries from being disabled, ensuring back-up systems to cool reactors and spent fuel pools are redundant and robust, and modifying hardware to improve function during emergencies. Nuclear energy remains a major source of electricity in the United States and around the globe. The safe operation of nuclear power plants is important to quality of life and to the health and safety of individuals worldwide.

The reactors at Fukushima contained uranium dixoide that was encased within zirconium metal alloy material. This material reacts with water to produce hydrogen. As water leaked into the reactor buildings, it caused two hydrogen explosions. Water continues to leak from the area around Unit 1 which creates concern for the structural integrity of the reactor. Full decommissioning of Fukushima Daiichi will likely last beyond 2051.

Fukushima

RUSSIA CHINA

NORTH KOREA

Sea of Japan North Pacific Ocean

Evacuation Zones Following Earthquake Soma

Fukushima

EARTHQUAKE 9.0 Magnitude

Minamisoma EVACUATION ZONE

0-20 km

Tamura

Fukushima Daiichi

Koriyama

Iwaki

Fukushima Daiichi

SOUTH KOREA Hiroshima

STAY INDOORS ZONE 20-30 km

Tokyo

223 kilometers (138 miles) from the plant

Nagasaki

East China Sea

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Future Forward Technology

Compact Fast Reactor

Until the planned expansion at Vogtle Electric Generating Plant in Waynesboro, GA (see page 36), most power plants and all nuclear power plants used designs that were developed in the 1970s and included the latest technology available at that time. These nuclear power plants are referred to as Generation II reactors (see page 45). The designs that have been developed since then have improved safety features and efficiency, but did not really change much else (Generation III and Generation III+). New designs, called Advanced Reactors or Generation IV, are leading nuclear energy into a new era where coolants, fuel types, and construction methods are being re-evaluated and modified. What follows is a short overview of the most promising technologies being developed.

Molten Salt Reactor

This reactor design uses liquid salt as a coolant rather than water. The United States Atomic Energy Commission (now the Nuclear Regulatory Commission) supported research into molten salt reactors (MSRs) in the 1960s. Today research and development in MSR technology continues at Idaho National Laboratory with the hope that a demonstration MSR reactor can be completed and operational by the late 2020s. MSRs have several advantages over light water reactors. MSRs can incorporate the fuel into the coolant by dissolving it in the molten salt. The result is that the fuel can be used longer and allowed to fission more completely, leaving less radioactive waste when the service period is over. MSRs can also operate safely at higher temperatures, and have passive designs built in that include a mechanism for preventing overheating. Should the reactor core temperature get too hot, a salt plug at the bottom melts, the fuel is diluted, fission decreases, and the temperature drops. One major drawback to developing MSR technology is that molten salts are highly corrosive. Much of the research in MSR development is focused on materials that will resist corrosion from the molten salt but also withstand the very high temperatures these reactors generate.

Liquid Metal Reactor

TerraPower, a nuclear technology company, is currently constructing a liquid metal cooled reactor (LMR) in Wyoming. This project, called the Natrium reactor, is the world’s only coal-to-nuclear project, aiming to replace a carbon-emitting power plant with one that emits no carbon dioxide. This design, similarly to molten salt reactors, uses a liquid metal, sodium, as the coolant in the reactor core. The thermal energy from the liquid sodium is transferred to molten salt, which in turn heats water to steam in a heat exchanger. The steam goes on to turn a turbine connected to a generator, producing electricity. The Natrium plant will include molten salt storage – a form of thermal energy storage – that can be used to increase the power plant’s electricity production by using an additional steam turbine and generator. All of this is happening in an out-of-use coal plant.

Light water reactors, like BWR and PWRs, use water as coolant and as a moderator of neutrons to slow them down. Newer, advanced reactor designs are fast reactors, meaning the fuel is able to use neutrons moving at high speeds, and therefore do not need a moderator to slow them. Compact fast reactors are exactly what the name implies – smaller reactors that use fuel compatible with fast-moving neutrons. They factor heavily into molten salt and liquid metal designs in that they can be deployed in remote areas when kept at a smaller scale.

Small Modular Reactors

Most nuclear power plants are enormous, complex structures that take years to construct. The generating capacity of conventional power plants is typically measured in gigawatts (GW) rather than megawatts (MW). One of the major hurdles to expanding nuclear power is the scale of construction both in size as well as financial investment. Small modular reactors (SMRs) are designed to be scaled down, allowing the investor to construct exactly the size power plant needed in a short amount of time, while also allowing for future expansion if needed. SMRs are intended to be the plug-and-play version of nuclear power. They will be manufactured uniformly off-site, then shipped and installed on-site. The generating capacity of an SMR is measured in MW rather than GW, with most designs rated to generate about 300 MW. Most SMRs are designed to be light water (H2O) reactors using conventional ceramic pellet fuel. The major advantage is intended to be economic. By streamlining and centralizing manufacturing, design and construction costs associated with one-of-a-kind power plants are eliminated. Another major advantage is that by adding more modules, the generating capacity can be scaled up to match the electricity demand for the area. When combined with other technologies such as molten salt, liquid metal, or passive safety features, SMRs become even more appealing. The major drawback to SMRs right now is that they are not yet being manufactured in quantities to allow for economies of scale – meaning the cost of one unit is reduced as the number of units made goes up. Some demonstration projects are already in planning or construction phases, and the U.S. Department of Energy expects that commercial deployment of SMRs could occur as early as the 2030s.

SMALL MODULAR REACTOR Image courtesy of Oregon State University via Wikimedia Commons

A SMR design from NuScale Power could generate 77 MW per module, with up to 12 in one facility.

The advantages of liquid metal cooled reactors are very similar to those of MSRs – higher operating temperature, more complete burn of fuel, and passive designs that lead to safer operating conditions. And, like MSRs, corrosiveness of the coolant, most often sodium, is a major hurdle. Liquid metals are also opaque, removing the ability of operators to look into a reactor to assess and monitor it. Additionally, because sodium is highly reactive, contact with air or water can cause violent chemical reactions to occur. Despite these drawbacks, MSRs and LMRs are seen as highly promising because of the thermal efficiency and safer, passive designs. ©2026 The NEED Project

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Fuel Design Developments Currently, all U.S. power plants use low-enriched uranium (LEU) as described on page 38. LEU refers to the 3-5 % of U-235 present in the fuel pellet. However, other fuel designs are in development and may be implemented into nuclear reactor designs in the future.

TRISO

One of the greatest drawbacks to LEU fuel pellets is that unless the temperature is kept under control, the fuel will melt. Nuclear reactor meltdowns are exceptionally dangerous to human health and the environment because the radioactive fuel is no longer contained and radioactive contamination can spread into soil, ground water, and air.

GAS CENTRIFUGE CASCADE TRISO PARTICLES

Image courtesy of the Department of Energy via Public Domain

A series of gas centrifuges used to produce enriched uranium.

Image courtesy of the Department of Energy

HALEU

TRISO particles can also be fabricated into billiard ball-sized spheres called “pebbles” for use in either high-temperature gas or molten saltcooled reactors.

High-Assay Low-Enriched Uranium (HALEU) is prepared and processed very similarly to LEU, but is enriched to a final concentration between 5-20% U-235. There are several benefits to a higher concentration of fissile material in the fuel. One is that smaller reactor designs are possible. Also, a longer service period is possible because more U-235 is fissioned, leading to better fuel efficiency and less long-lived waste material. HALEU can also be used in fast reactors and advanced, Gen IV reactor designs.

Thorium

One isotope of thorium, Th-232, is not fissile, but is fertile – meaning it cannot start a nuclear chain reaction on its own. When used as a fuel in a reactor, Th-232 is combined with U-235. The uranium starts the fission process, and neutrons absorbed by Th-232 cause the thorium to transmute into U-233, another fissile isotope of uranium. The main advantages of using thorium as a fuel are more complete fuel consumption and less radioactive waste. However, safely handling U-233 is challenging. Using thorium fuel would require reactor redesigns because most are designed to use only U-235 fuel.

What if a meltdown were impossible? That is the main benefit of TRISO fuel particles. TRISO stands for TRI-structural ISOtropic particle fuel, and as the name suggests, the fuel is in small particles rather than cylindrical pellets in conventional fuel rod assemblies. The poppyseed sized fuel particles contain UO2 and UCO (uranium oxycarbide) and are covered with four layers of carbon and ceramics designed to contain all of the radioactive materials. Using carbon and ceramics to encapsulate the fuel keeps the radioactivity contained and prevents the particles from melting at high temperatures. The coated particles are suspended in graphite and formed in pellets for fuel rods or encased in more graphite to form pebbles for a PBR. TRISO operates at higher temperatures and can therefore be used in advanced reactor designs like LMR or MSR. TRISO fuel pellets extend the fuel’s service period because they react more completely and efficiently. They also generate less long-term radioactive waste that needs to be stored safely.

What about pebble bed reactors (PBRs)? In this design, nuclear fuel is packed into small graphite spheres instead of long fuel rods. These spheres sit at the bottom of the reactor, forming a bed that looks like a pile of pebbles—hence the name. Around the early 2000s, PBRs were seen as a possible future for nuclear power. But today, only one is still operating, in Shandong Province, China. Although other designs were tested, most projects were stopped because they were too expensive and had safety and reliability problems.

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Nuclear Power Plant Designs As nuclear energy has been developed for generating electricity, the different technologies and designs have changed and improved. Each era of development is called a Generation, followed by a Roman numeral. The newest designs are Generation IV. GENERATION I

GENERATION II

GENERATION III

GENERATION III+

GENERATION IV

1950s-1970s

1970s-1990s

1990s-2000s

2000s-Present

Present, in development

PURPOSE

Prototype and demonstration

Large-scale electricity generation

Enhanced safety, longer life

Increased safety, more standardization, efficient construction costs

Sustainability, reduce waste, resistance to proliferation

FUEL

Natural uranium or low-enriched uranium

Low-enriched uranium

HALEU, thorium, TRISO, liquids

COOLANT

Water, gas, or metal

Water (light or heavy)

Water (light)

Molten salt, gas, liquid metal

SAFETY

Minimal; early designs lacked containment structures

Active safety systems reliant upon operator intervention

Improved active systems with some passive features

Passive systems using gravity, convection, and pressure

Fully passive, walkaway safe

STATUS

All decommissioned

Majority of reactors currently operating around the world

Several operating, mostly in Asia and Europe

Operational and under construction globally

Prototypes and pilot projects

PWRs, BWRs, CANDU, VVER-440

ABWR (Japan), EPR (France), VVER-1200 (Russia)

AP1000 (USA and China), APR-1400 (Korea), Hualong One (China)

Molten salt reactors, sodium-cooled fast reactors, pebble bed reactors, gas-cooled fast reactors

TIME PERIOD

EXAMPLES

Shippingport (USA), Calder Hall (UK)

Proliferation Risks of Nuclear Power Programs Beginning with the use of the first nuclear weapons against Japan, the spread of nuclear weapons (nuclear proliferation) has been a worldwide concern. In the last twenty years, some events have caused many world leaders to become concerned that nuclear materials designed for peaceful nuclear power uses could be used for weapons. After September 11, 2001, the threat of nuclear terrorism increased. In the years that followed, Iran, a country whose nuclear activities have drawn international scrutiny, made substantial progress in enriching uranium and building a nuclear research reactor that could produce plutonium. In 2015, an agreement, called the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA), was enacted between the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Russia, China, the United States, the High Representative of the European Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, and the Islamic Republic of Iran. It allowed Iran to continue a nuclear energy program but prohibited uranium enrichment of U-235 to the levels needed for nuclear weapons. Furthermore, under the agreement research and development of plutonium was halted for fifteen years. However, in 2018 the U.S. withdrew from the JCPOA and it is no longer in effect. Iran has since expanded its nuclear program beyond JCPOA limits and is now considered at nuclear threshold status, meaning they have the

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technical capabilities and enough uranium to quickly develop nuclear weapons. Because the limits of the JCPOA have been exceeded, it is insufficient to prevent proliferation even if it were restored. In June, 2025, the United States significantly damaged Iran’s three primary nuclear facilities with missiles and bombs, reportedly setting the program back in its development. In December 2003 it was learned that a Pakistani scientist, A.Q. Khan, was selling nuclear secrets to other countries and groups. Khan’s network has been dismantled, but while in operation it showed world leaders where greater export controls and safeguards were needed. As the effects of climate change have intensified, the renewed interest in nuclear power as a way to reduce greenhouse gases has led to many countries expressing interest in starting or increasing nuclear power programs; however, there is a fear that some of these countries would use peaceful activities to hide the development of a nuclear weapons program. Furthermore, terrorist groups would not have to actually build a nuclear weapon to create a terror situation. Radioactive substances can be placed inside weapons that use ordinary explosives. These are called dirty bombs. Activation of a dirty bomb could spread radioactive material into the environment, contaminating the exposed areas.

While many countries have expressed interest in nuclear weapons, only a few are currently known to possess them: the United States, Russia, France, the United Kingdom, China, India, Pakistan, North Korea, and Israel (though Israel has not officially confirmed its arsenal). There are ongoing concerns about nuclear weapons falling into the hands of terrorist groups or rogue states—countries that may not follow international rules or agreements. Controlling the spread of nuclear weapons materials and technology involves political agreements, financial oversight, and technical safeguards. One of the most important international agreements is the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). Article IV of the NPT states that countries have the right to develop peaceful nuclear technologies, as long as they follow international safeguards and do not pursue nuclear weapons. However, the treaty does not clearly define whether countries have the right to enrich uranium or reprocess plutonium, both of which can be used to make nuclear weapons. As a result, some countries— including Argentina, Brazil, Japan, Iran, Germany, the Netherlands, and South Korea—have developed or maintained enrichment or reprocessing programs under IAEA supervision. These programs are intended for peaceful energy use, but they raise concerns because the same technologies can be used to produce weapons-grade materials. Iran, for example, has long claimed it wants a peaceful nuclear program similar to Japan’s. However, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and the United Nations Security Council have found Iran to be non-compliant with its safeguards. Although Iran signed the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) in 2015 to limit its nuclear activities, the United States withdrew from the agreement in 2018, and Iran has since expanded its enrichment program beyond the limits set by the deal.

ROUTINE INSPECTIONS

Top Nuclear Energy Generating Countries, 2024 800

782

700 600

Terawatt Hours

Controlling the Proliferation Risks

500

418 400

364

300

202

200

179 85

100 0

United China France Russia South Japan Canada Korea States

Data: World Nuclear Association

Nuclear Energy Around the World Nuclear energy is gaining popularity around the world in an effort to combat climate change. In 2023, nuclear power accounted for just over nine percent of the world’s electricity generation. France, Slovakia, and Ukraine generate more than half of their electricity from nuclear power, and China and India have several projects underway. Canada, China, and Russia are developing SMR projects and China, India, Russia, United Arab Emirates, Turkey, and Egypt have several Gen III+ and Gen IV reactor design projects in development or under construction.

Shaded countries are developing or constructing nuclear power plants with Gen III+ or advanced reactors. Image courtesy of NRC

Routine inspections at nuclear power plants are important and often part of nuclear agreements across the globe.

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To reduce proliferation risks, experts have proposed fuel service contracts, where a few trusted countries supply nuclear fuel to others and manage the spent fuel to prevent plutonium extraction. This would allow countries to operate nuclear power plants without needing to enrich or reprocess fuel themselves. New reprocessing methods are also being developed that do not isolate plutonium, leaving it mixed with other radioactive materials. This makes the plutonium harder to steal or use in weapons. Even with these improvements, international inspections and safeguards remain essential to ensure that countries do not secretly extract weapons-grade material. Although stopping the use of nuclear power could reduce proliferation risks, nuclear energy has many benefits, including reducing greenhouse gas emissions. As more countries expand their nuclear energy programs, concerns about proliferation will continue. The international community must stay vigilant and work together to balance the benefits of nuclear energy with the risks of nuclear weapons.

Economics of Nuclear Energy Constructing new power plants, regardless of the fuel, is How much is a billion dollars? expensive, and nuclear power If you spent $1 every second, is no exception. The increased or $3,600 every hour, 24 hours safety protocols and shielding a day, 7 days a week, it would materials necessary to operate take you 31.7 years to spend a nuclear power plant add $1,000,000,000. to the already costly boiler, controls, turbine, generator, and other infrastructure associated with electricity generation. For decades, no new nuclear power plants were constructed in the United States. In 2008, Southern Nuclear Operating Company submitted an application to the Nuclear Regulatory Commission to add two more reactors – now named as Vogtle 3 and Vogtle 4 – to the Alvin W. Vogtle Electric Generating Plant near Waynesboro, Georgia. While the initial estimate for construction was around $14 billion in 2012, construction delays, regulatory hurdles, and inflation pushed the final cost to more than $30 billion when construction completed in 2023. Clearly, nuclear power plants are not cheap! The table of levelized costs for constructing new power plants above compares plants using various sources of energy, and projects the cost per megawatt-hour of electricity going online in 2028. Natural gas and most renewables are the least expensive energy sources for generating electricity. New, advanced nuclear power plants are some of the most expensive power plants to construct. Even though the fuel is relatively inexpensive, managing the waste products from nuclear power plants keep electricity generated from nuclear power at a moderate cost.

Licensing Procedures Prior to the 1990s, the expensive and time-consuming approval process provided no guarantee that final licensing would be approved. Under the old process, the NRC issued a construction permit that allowed a power company to build a nuclear plant with no guarantee the government would allow them to be used. Some plants were built or almost built, but never went online, and power companies lost huge amounts of money. In 1989, the NRC changed the licensing procedure so that the plant site would be approved for generation before any construction began.

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U.S. Average Levelized Costs (2022 $/Megawatthour) for Selected Plants Entering Service in 2028 Coal with 30% CCS

130.1

Coal with 90% CCS

119.1

Natural Gas-fired Conventional Combined Cycle

50.1

Natural Gas-fired Advanced Combined Cycle

Natural Gas-fired Advanced CC with CCS

74.9

Natural Gas Conventional Combustion Turbine

98.7

Natural Gas Advanced Combustion Turbine

85.1

Advanced Nuclear

92.6

Geothermal

44.6

Biomass

95.3

Wind

59.1

Wind - Offshore

138

Solar PV

63.2

Solar Thermal

165.1

Hydro

61.7

CCS = Carbon Capture and Storage; CC = Combined Cycle Levelized costs for new power plants include the cost of constructing the plant, construction time, non-fuel operating costs, fuel costs, the cost of financing, and the utilization of the plant. Not included in the levelized costs are any state or federal tax credits or other incentives that may play a role in the future. Costs are listed based on 2022 cost / MWh Data: Annual Energy Outlook 2018

Passed in 2019, the Nuclear Energy Innovation and Modernization Act (NEIMA) required the NRC to develop a regulatory framework focusing on new technology and reactor designs. NEIMA led to a pathway for reactors using cooling with something besides light water (see new technologies, on page 46) and created an emphasis on modular construction, phased deployment, and newer safety systems such as passive cooling. In 2024, Congress passed the Accelerating Deployment of Versatile, Advanced Nuclear for Clean Energy (ADVANCE) act. The legislation directed the NRC to make the entire license application review process more efficient and predictable while decreasing its duration. ADVANCE also provided instructions for the NRC to develop regulatory framework for future technologies such as fusion reactors. The act is regarded as a major step toward reinstating the U.S. nuclear energy industry to leadership status. In May, 2025, an Executive Order titled Ordering the Reform of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission was signed, with the intent to further streamline environmental reviews, modernize security requirements, reform the hearing process to avoid unnecessary delays, and other actions designed to make the licensing process more inclusive of newer technologies. NEIMA and ADVANCE have prompted investors to become more interested in nuclear energy projects. Currently, twenty new projects have been proposed, with a generating capacity totaling 4,680 MW. Additionally, two previously decommissioned nuclear reactors have been approved to restart. Palisades Nuclear Generating Station, in southwest Lower Michigan, is targeted to resume commercial operation in late 2025 or in 2026 after having been decommissioned in 2022. Crane Clean Energy Center (CCEC), formerly Three Mile Island, will begin providing electricity in Pennsylvania in 2027.

Nuclear Energy - Meeting Clean Energy Demands for Today and Tomorrow Many of the nuclear plants in the United States were built in the 1960s and 1970s. These facilities may seem old to some, but according to research and data collected by the Department of Energy and The Nuclear Regulatory Commission, many of these facilities could conceivably operate for 80 years or more. Initially, each facility was licensed for a 40-year service life, with the option to apply for renewal for an additional 20-years at a time. This renewal process is often a lengthy legal process for operators. And in 2010-2020, several U.S. nuclear plants were decommissioned rather than recertified for continued operation. In many cases, these facilities were closed not due to age, safety, or operational concerns. Rather, the shut downs occurred due to electricity market conditions, in which nuclear was not a cost-effective source for generation in a market where other sources, like natural gas and renewables, were cheaper or subsidized. In 2019, one such facility, Three Mile Island Unit 1, stopped generating electricity due to economic reasons. Despite the 1979 incident that occurred at TMI Unit 2, Unit 1 operated for decades as a leader in the industry in both reliable generation and safety. And in late 2019, TMI began the lengthy decommissioning process of closing the plant and storing and safeguarding the nuclear waste. However, in 2024, it was announced that Unit 1 will be restored by its owner, Constellation, and returned to service as soon as 2027. Why? Growing electricity demand due to data, computing, and AI.

CRANE CLEAN ENERGY CENTER

COOLING TOWER

Image courtesy of Constellation

Inside the cooling tower from the Clean Crane Energy Center.

Microsoft’s agreement does help offset the power it plans to use for a data center in another state. Data centers are an industry that require immense amounts of electricity to run the computers that process and store data in the cloud and run AI programs. These processors must be cooled, running fans and cooling systems around the clock that require even more power. Data centers are popping up across the country but must be located near reliable power, near consumers, and near places that offer high speed connectivity. However, they must choose locations in which they will not be stealing power or pulling too much power away from the existing grid infrastructure. Data centers and their owners, companies like Amazon, Microsoft, and Google, often opt or are required to add clean, carbon-free energy to the grid to meet their needs. A decommissioned nuclear facility can be a great solution for providing clean energy at the size and scale needed to support the growing needs of the data industry and the surrounding community for its facilities. Crane is expected to provide 835 MW of baseload power to the grid when it re-opens. In addition, it will create 3,400 additional jobs (both direct and indirect) and provide more than $3 billion in federal and state tax revenue.

PROFESSIONAL TRAINING Image courtesy of Constellation Energy

Formerly called the Three Mile Island Nuclear Plant, is reopened under a partnership with Microsoft and Constellation.

Constellation is reopening the facility near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, with a new name, Crane Clean Energy Center, (Crane) due to a Power Purchase Agreement with Microsoft. In simple terms, a PPA is a longterm contract where a customer, such as a business, university, or municipality agrees to buy electricity from a power plant at a set price. Crane’s 800+ MW will not be directly hooked up to a data center. The electricity generated by the plant will flow to the grid and help ensure reliability for all. Without this landmark agreement, those megawatts would not be returning. And the jobs, taxes and economic impacts will remain in the region.

Image courtesy of Constellation

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Local Economic Impacts Nuclear power plants do not only supply much-needed electricity to the surrounding area. Constructing a power plant can employ as many as 7,000 people at peak construction. One power plant employs between 500 and 800 workers. For every two jobs within nuclear power plants, five more additional jobs outside the plant are created. The entire nuclear energy industry nation-wide provides jobs for 70,000 people in mining, power plant operations, and other industries. The people working in nuclear energy are paid well, too. On average, they earn 50 percent more than those working in electrical generation from other energy sources.

Environmental Impacts & Climate Change Nuclear power is included in almost every discussion addressing climate change and strategies to mitigate and possibly reverse it. Fossil fuels, like natural gas and coal, release carbon dioxide when burned. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas and as such it absorbs and retains thermal energy. When more CO2 is emitted into the atmosphere than absorbed by plants, atmospheric temperatures increase, oceans warm, and the pH of the oceans decreases. Climatologists agree that human-generated carbon dioxide is the driving force behind many of the changes in global climate we are seeing today. Because nuclear energy does not emit any carbon dioxide when used for electricity generation, it is seen as a key factor in reducing carbon emissions and getting climate change under control. However, that does not mean nuclear power has no detrimental environmental impacts. First, construction of nuclear power plants uses a lot of concrete and steel, and manufacturing both of those products has a huge carbon footprint. However, even with emissions from construction taken into account, nuclear power is an exceptionally low source of carbon dioxide emissions for generating electricity when compared to other fuels (see table). Nuclear power can be vital in reducing carbon emissions and arresting climate change caused by human activity. Second, nuclear power plants generate radioactive waste products that can be hazardous to all life forms. Gamma radiation emitted by these waste products is very high energy and in high doses causes radiation poisoning. It also has the capability to ionize DNA and cause mutations; long-term exposure can lead to cancer, birth defects, and other genetic anomalies. The waste must be safely stored in containers or repositories that will be secure for centuries. By implementing fast reactors and other advanced reactor and fuel technologies, the volume of waste generated by nuclear power can be greatly diminished. GENERATING SOURCE OR TECHNOLOGY

TOTAL LIFE CYCLE (g CO2/KWH)

Wind

Nuclear

Hydropower

Geothermal

Solar PV

Natural gas

486

Coal

1001

Thermal Pollution in the Pacific Northwest The National Marine Fisheries Service, a part of NOAA, has been studying aquatic environments and fish populations since 1871. First established as the U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries, it was created when New Englanders were concerned about declining fish populations. In 1976, Donovan R. Craddock published a paper titled, “Impact of Cooling Waters on the Aquatic Resources of the Pacific Northwest.” Craddock studied how using water from rivers, lakes, and the ocean to cool power plants and the resulting temperature increases in those bodies of water impacts sediment, pH, dissolved oxygen, and organism diversity. Increasing the temperature of water decreases its density and viscosity (resistance to flow; for example, honey or syrup have high viscosities). These changes alter the rate at which sediments from creeks and streams are deposited in rivers, and in turn in lakes and oceans. Small changes in density can lead to a phenomenon in large bodies of water called stratification, where distinct “layers” of water at different temperatures occur. When water stratifies, it does not mix vertically, and nutrients needed by lower-dwelling organisms can remain trapped in upper layers of water. Higher water temperatures also decrease the amount of oxygen dissolved in the water. In general, as the temperature of a liquid increases, the amount of gas dissolved in it decreases. This negatively impacts animals and other organisms that rely on oxygen to live. Low oxygen also can lead to suffocating algae blooms, which in turn have a further detrimental effect on organisms. Changing the temperature of a body of water will alter the species that live there. In this case study, Craddock noted that rapidly increasing the temperature of water caused thermal shock in cold-water species like salmon and trout. These species also had reduced spawning rates and increased mortality.

Third, conventional Gen III and Gen III+ power plants use an external source of water for cooling, and as a result release thermal energy back into the body of water. Because various aquatic organisms thrive in different temperature ranges, artificially raising the temperature of a body of water, even in a small area, can change the organisms that can live there. Native species that are more sensitive to temperature variation may be overrun by more hardy, invasive species that can tolerate higher temperatures. Gen IV reactor designs incorporate greater thermal efficiency than their Gen III and Gen III+ predecessors and reduce the amount of thermal energy released into the environment. Additionally, all thermal power plants must now be constructed near larger bodies of water that will be less affected by higher temperatures, and power plants must continually monitor the temperature of discharge water to minimize this impact.

Source: National Laboratory of the Rockies

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•Uranium ore is found in many places around the world •Uranium fuel costs less compared to coal and natural gas

Nuclear fuel is plentiful.

•Increased plant safety •Reduced operating costs

Innovative designs, like TRISO, are improving nuclear fuel.

•New designs are more efficient and have less down time for refueling •Advanced designs use less materials, costing less to build •Excellent safety record and new technologies make them even safer

Nuclear power plants are inexpensive to operate.

•No carbon dioxide emissions •No pollutants like soot, ash, or sulfur dioxide

Nuclear power plants are environmentally friendly.

•Provides baseload power all day, all night, every day, all year •Vital for electrification of transportation sector

Nuclear power can help mitigate climate change.

ADVANTAGES

•The average U.S. nuclear plant is 42 years old •Regulators are concerned about material degradation •Extending licenses to 80 or more years presents safety concerns

Existing US nuclear power plants are aging.

Nuclear power has some negative environmental impacts. •Thermal discharge into waterways can disrupt aquatic species •Waste must be stored for hundreds of years •The general public is uneasy about the safety of nuclear power

Nuclear power plant construction is a lengthy, complex process. •Limited resources and manufacturing capabilities are available •Demand for already costly copper increases •Concrete has a high carbon footprint •Permitting is complicated

•The fuel enrichment process can be exploited to produce nuclear weapons •Spent fuel and waste require safe, secure storage •Transporting waste presents additional safety and political challenges

Mishandling nuclear fuel presents a safety challenge.

CHALLENGES

Nuclear power plants currently generate about 18 percent of the electricity consumed in the United States. As the demand for electricity grows in the coming years, it will be necessary to build more nuclear power plants in order to keep nuclear energy meeting about one-fifth of demand. As the country moves forward in planning how to meet electricity demands, individuals and organizations will debate the costs and benefits of each energy source.

Advantages and Challenges of Nuclear Energy

Careers in the Nuclear Industry The list of careers below lists titles that work predominantly in the nuclear power industry, as well as titles of careers that can work within nuclear or use their nuclear knowledge and training to work in other industries as well.

Nuclear Power: Entry-Level Engineer—Helps to develop complex plans to support plant operations. The engineer also monitors, assesses, and improves the performance and reliability of plant systems and components. Experienced Engineer—An experienced or senior engineer at a nuclear power plant plans and coordinates programs and large-scale engineering projects or several medium projects while acting as a technical specialist for a specific engineering field.

Industrial Machinery Mechanic—Repairs, maintains, and helps install mechanical systems of reactors and generators. Skilled Trade Workers—Includes electricians who repair, maintain, and help install electrical systems that supply reactors, and generators. Electrical Line Workers—Repair, maintain, and help install electrical lines feeding and leaving electrical generators. Welders—Install and repair various parts of reactors, generators, and cooling systems.

Mechanical Technician—Performs preventive, corrective, and special maintenance on systems, components, and structural facilities to ensure the reliability of a nuclear power plant.

Can Work in Other Industries:

Electrical Technician—Performs maintenance and repair of highly complex electrical/electronic equipment required for a nuclear plant. Responsibilities include troubleshooting, testing, and inspecting the equipment in a highly skilled manner.

Biologist—Uses radiation in experiments to develop new varieties of crops.

Instrumentation and Control Technician—Responsible for calibrating, testing, troubleshooting, reworking, modifying, and inspecting nuclear plant instrumentation and control components and systems. Chemistry Technician—Measures and records plant chemistry and radioactivity levels, and operates chemical and radiochemical instrumentation and equipment. Radiation Protection Technician—Radiation protection technicians measure and record radiation levels; in addition, they service and calibrate radiation protection instruments and equipment. They play a vital role in ensuring the safety of employees working in radiation areas, as well as the facility’s compliance with radiation requirements. Non-Licensed Operator—Supports the licensed reactor operators and senior reactor operators. Duties include opening and closing valves, electrical breakers, and other devices as well as directly monitoring plant equipment performance. Reactor Operator—A reactor operator, licensed by the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, is responsible for operating a reactor’s controls in cooperation with the remainder of the shift team. The reactor operator moves control rods, starts and stops equipment, implements operations procedures, conducts surveillance tests, and records data in logs. Senior Reactor Operator—A senior reactor operator is licensed to operate a nuclear power plant in accordance with all regulations. Duties include operating the mechanical, electrical, and reactor systems from the plant control room in a safe and efficient manner to ensure maximum electrical generation in compliance with regulations. ©2026 The NEED Project

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Archaeologist and Paleontologists—Use determine age and composition of fossils.

radiation

Biological Research Assistants—Help scientists and food engineers collect and analyze data to improve food supply. Civil Engineer—Designs, constructs, and/or supervises the building of roads, tunnels, bridges, facilities, water supply, and sewer systems. Gamma Facilities Operators—Use radiation to destroy microorganisms like salmonella or E. coli in food supplies. Health Physicists—Assure safe exposure levels of radiation in all areas where human radiation exposure may occur. Medical Staff—Doctors, nurses, and other health practitioners use nuclear medicine to diagnose and treat diseases. Nuclear Medicine Technologists—Run various tests in hospitals that use radiation. Public Affairs—A career in public affairs often involves communicating with the public on nuclear energy and/ or radiation topics. This may include writing press releases, attending public meetings, website administration, or leading tours at facilities. Radiobiologist—Studies the effects of ionizing radiation on cells and organisms. Radioecologist—An environmental scientist that studies and determines how radioactive material is transported through the environment and through ecosystems. X-ray Technicians—Administer and develop x-rays in health care settings. Others—Persons trained in the use of radiation are needed in crime investigation, science education, policy making, and art appraisal and authentication.

Science of Electricity Model Objective To demonstrate how electricity is generated.

! Caution  The magnets used in this model are very strong. Use caution with nails and scissors when puncturing the bottle. Wear eye protection during this activity.

Materials 1 Small bottle 1 Rubber stopper with 1/4” hole 1 Wooden dowel (12” x 1/4”) 4 Strong rectange magnets 1 Foam tube 1 Small nail

1 Large nail Magnet wire Permanent marker 1 Pair sharp scissors Masking tape Fine sandpaper

1 Push pin 1 Multimeter with alligator clips Hand operated pencil sharpener Ruler Safety glasses Utility knife (optional)

Preparing the Bottle

tape

1. If needed, cut the top off of the bottle so you have a smooth edge and your hand can fit inside. This step may not be necessary. If necessary, a utility knife may be of assistance. 2. Pick a spot at the base of the bottle. (HINT: If the bottle you are using has visible seams, measure along these lines so your holes will be on the opposite sides of the bottle.) Measure 10 centimeters (cm) up from the base and mark this location with a permanent marker. 3. On the exact opposite side of the bottle, measure 10 cm up and mark this location with a permanent marker. 4. Over each mark, poke a hole with a push pin. Do not distort the shape of the bottle as you do this. CAUTION: Hold a rubber stopper inside the bottle behind where the hole will be so the push pin, and later the nails, will hit the rubber stopper and not your hand, once it pokes through the bottle. 5. Widen each hole by pushing a nail through it. Continue making the hole bigger by circling the edge of the hole with the side of the nail. (A 9/32 drill bit twisted slowly also works, using a rubber stopper on the end of the bit as a handle.) 6. Sharpen one end of the dowel using a hand operated pencil sharpener (the dowel does not have to sharpen into a fine point). Push the sharpened end of the dowel rod through the first hole. Circle the edge of the hole with the dowel so that the hole is a little bigger than the dowel. cm 7. Remove the dowel and insert it into the opposite hole. Circle the edge of the hole with the dowel 10 so that the hole is a little bigger than the dowel. An ink pen will also work to enlarge the hole. Be careful not to make the hole too large, however. 8. Insert the dowel through both holes. Hold each end of the dowel and swing the bottle around the dowel. You should have a smooth rotation. Make adjustments as needed. Take the dowel out of the bottle and set aside. 9. With a permanent marker, label one hole “A” and the other hole “B.” DO NOT CUT WIRE

tape cm

1. Tear six pieces of tape approximately 6 cm long each and set aside. 2. Take the bottle and the magnet wire. Leave a 10 cm tail, and tape the wire to the bottle about 2 cm below hole A. Wrap the wire clockwise 200 times, stacking each wire wrap on top of each other. Keep the wire wrap below the holes, but be careful not to cover the holes, or get too far away from the holes. 3. DO NOT cut the wire. Use two pieces of tape to hold the coil of wire in place; do not cover the holes in the bottle with tape (see diagram). 4. Without cutting the wire, move the wire about 2 cm above the hole to begin the second coil of wraps in a clockwise direction. Tape the wire to secure it in place.

tape

BETWEEN COILS

Generator Assembly: Part 1

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Diagram 1 Diagram

5. Wrap the wire 200 times clockwise, again stacking each warp on top of each other. Hold the coil in place with tape (see diagram). 6. Unwind 10 cm of wire (for a tail) from the spool and cut the wire. 7. Check your coil wraps. Using your fingers, pinch the individual wire warps to make sure the wire is close together and close to the holes. Re-tape the coils in place as needed. 8. Using fine sandpaper, remove the enamel coating from 4 cm of the end of each wire tail, leaving bare copper wires. (This step may need to be repeated again when testing the model, or saved for the very end).

Diagram 1

1 Stacked Magnets End View

2 3 4

Rotor Assembly 1. Measure 4 cm from the end of the foam tube. Using scissors, carefully score a circle around the tube. Snap the piece from the tube. This piece is now your rotor. 2. On the flat ends of the rotor, measure to find the center point. Mark this location with a permanent marker. 3. Insert the small nail directly through the rotor’s center using your mark as a guide. 4. Remove the small nail and insert the bigger nail. 5. Remove the nail and push the dowel through, then remove the dowel and set aside. Do NOT enlarge this hole. 6. Lay the magnets end-to-end. Mark them with a permanent marker as shown in Diagram 1. 7. Place the magnets around the foam piece as shown in Diagram 2. Make sure you place the magnets at a distance so they do not snap back together. 8. Wrap a piece of masking tape around the curved surface of the rotor, sticky side out. Tape it down at one spot, if helpful. 9. Lift the marked end of Magnet 1 to a vertical position and attach it to the rotor. Repeat for Magnets 2, 3, and 4. 10. Secure the magnets in place by wrapping another piece of masking tape over the magnets, sticky side in (Diagram 3). WARNING: These magnets are very strong. Use caution when handling. See page 54 for more information.

Diagram 33 Diagram

- sticky side in ta p e magnet

rotor

magnet

ta p

1. Slide the sharp end of the dowel through Hole A of the bottle. 2. Inside the bottle, put on a stopper, the rotor, and another stopper. The stoppers should hold the foam rotor in place. If the rotor spins freely on the axis, push the two stoppers close against the rotor. This is a pressure fit and no glue is needed. 3. Slide the sharp end of the dowel through Hole B until it sticks out about 4 cm from the bottle. 4. Make sure your dowel can spin freely. Adjust the rotor so it is in the middle of the bottle.

rotor

magnet

Generator Assembly: Part 2

Diagram 2

e - s t ic k y

magnet

ta p

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Magnet Assembly

rubber stopper

Bottle

Dowel

Assembly Notes The stoppers can be cut in half so that one stopper is made into two, to allow for more materials. These often slide more easily on the dowel. This must be done using sharp scissors or a utility knife, and can often be dangerous. As this step is not required (the kit supplies you with two stoppers to use), exercise extreme caution. If the foam rotor fits snugly on the dowel, put the stoppers on the outside of the bottle to help center the rotor in the bottle. Leave enough space to allow free rotation of the rotor. The dowel may be lubricated with lip balm or oil for ease of sliding the stoppers, if necessary. If a glue gun is available, magnets can be attached to the rotor on edge or on end to get them closer to the coils of wire. Use the magnet to make an indentation into the foam. Lay down a bead of glue, and attach the magnets. If placing the magnets on end, however, make sure they clear the sides of the bottle for rotation.

Testing the Science of Electricity Model 1. Connect the leads to the multimeter to obtain a DC Voltage reading. 2. Connect one alligator clip to each end of the magnet wire. Connect the other end of the alligator clips to the multimeter probes. 3. Set your multimeter to DC Voltage 200 mV (millivolts). Voltage measures the pressure that pushes electrons through a circuit. You will be measuring millivolts, or thousandths of a volt. 4. Demonstrate to the class, or allow students to test how spinning the dowel rod with the rotor will generate electricity as evidenced by a voltage reading. As appropriate for your class, you may switch the dial between 200 mV and 20 volts. Discuss the difference in reading and the decimal placement. 5. Optional: Redesign the generator to test different variables including the number of wire wraps, different magnet strengths, and number of magnets. *Speed of rotation will impact meter readings.

Troubleshooting

(NOT USED)

Note: Your multimeter may look different than the one shown. Read the instruction manual included in the multimeter box for safety information and complete operating instructions.

If you are unable to get a voltage or current reading, double check the following: Did you remove the enamel coating from the ends of the magnet wire? Are the magnets oriented correctly? The magnet wire should not have been cut as you wrapped 200 wraps below the bottle holes and 200 wraps above the bottle holes. It should be one continuous wire. Are you able to spin the dowel freely? Is there too much friction between the dowel and the bottle? Is the rotor spinning freely on the dowel? Adjust the rubber stoppers so there is a tight fit, and the rotor does not spin independently.

Notes The Science of Electricity Model was designed to give students a more tangible understanding of electricity and the components required to generate electricity. The amount of electricity that this model is able to generate is very small. The Science of Electricity Model has many variables that will affect the output you are able to achieve. When measured in millivolts, you can expect to achieve anywhere from 1 mV to over 35 mV. More information about measuring electricity can be found in NEED's Secondary Energy Infobook, available for free PDF download at www.NEED.org/shop.

! Magnet Safety The magnets in the Science of Electricity Model are very strong. In order to separate them, students should slide/twist them apart. Please also take the following precautions: Use caution when handling the magnets. Fingers can easily be pinched between the attracting magnets. When setting the magnets down, place far enough away from each other that they won’t snap back together. When finished with the magnets and ready to store them, put a small piece of cardboard between them. Keep magnets away from computer screens, cell phones, debit/credit cards, ID badges, and medical devices.

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Radioactivity: Stable and Unstable Isotopes The Periodic Table of the Elements lists all of the chemical elements that have been identified so far. On the table you will see one listing per element; however, many elements have variations called isotopes. They have the same number of protons, but a different number of neutrons. Isotopes are identified by their atomic mass. An atom’s atomic number represents the number of protons in the element. When you subtract the atomic number from the atomic mass you find the number of neutrons in the element or isotope. Unstable isotopes want to be stable. Atoms undergo a variety of different processes to change the proton/neutron ratio in the nucleus as it becomes stable. Atoms with 83 or more protons in the nucleus can emit alpha particles, which reduces the size of the nucleus. Atoms can also decay by losing a beta particle, which converts a neutron into a proton. Other methods for becoming stable include positron emission where a proton is converted to an electron, or electron capture where protons are converted to neutrons. Gamma radiation, a very short wavelength of pure energy, can also be released during radioactive decay. There are multiple decay paths for isotopes, and some isotopes decay faster than others. Below is a table showing one decay path for Uranium-238.

Isotope

Half-Life

Decay Mode

Uranium-238

4.5 billion years

alpha

Thorium-234

24.1 days

beta

Protactinium-234

1 minute

beta

Uranium-234

245,000 years

alpha

Thorium-230

76,000 years

alpha

Radium-226

1,600 years

alpha

Radon-222

3.8 days

alpha

Polonium-218

3.0 minutes

alpha

Lead-214

27 minutes

beta

Bismuth-214

20 minutes

beta

Polonium-214

<1 second

alpha

Lead-210

22.3 years

beta

Bismuth-210

5 days

beta

Polonium-210

138.4 days

alpha

Lead-206

stable

Procedure 1.

Complete the tables on the following page. Use a Periodic Table of the Elements to find the atomic number and number of protons.

On a separate piece of graph paper, draw a vertical Y-axis and label it “Neutrons” with a scale from 0-150.

Draw a horizontal X-axis and label it “Protons” with a scale from 0-100.

Plot the points of the stable isotopes. When all isotopes have been plotted, draw a bold curve through the points. Make the curve as smooth as possible. This is the “band of stability.”

Next, plot the unstable points on the graph. Use a key so you can identify the different isotopes.

Where do the unstable isotopes fall relative to the band of stability?

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Stable Isotope Helium-4 Carbon-12 Silicon-28 Scandium-45 Iron-56 Silver-109 Xenon-131 Gadolinium-160 Tungsten-184 Lead-206

Atomic Number

Protons (X-axis)

Neutrons (Y-axis)

Unstable Isotope Carbon-14 Silicon-32 Iron-52 Xenon-135 Lead-214 Radium-226

Atomic Number

Protons (X-axis)

Neutrons (Y-axis)

There are currently 243 isotopes identified as stable, 70 naturally occuring unstable isotopes, and many more that are unstable as a result of processes such as nuclear fission. These charts are only a small representation of the stable and unstable isotopes.

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Radiation Dose Chart We are exposed to radiation from the natural environment and some everyday activities. Complete the information below to find out how many millirems (mrems) of radiation you are exposed to each year.

Where You Live

mrems dose

1. Cosmic radiation (from outer space) at sea level...................................................................................................................................................... .

2. Select the number of millirems for your elevation (in feet above sea level) .................................................................................................... up to 1000 = 2 1000-2000 = 5 2000-3000 = 9 3000-4000 = 9 4000-5000 = 21 5000-6000 = 29 6000-7000 = 40 7000-8000 = 53 8000-9000 = 70

____

3. Terrestrial (from the ground): If you live in states that border the Gulf of Mexico*** or Atlantic Coast, add 23 .....................................................................................

____

If you live in the Colorado Plateau area (around Denver), add 90 .................................................................................................................

____

If you live in the rest of the U.S., add 46 ..................................................................................................................................................................

____

4. House Construction If you live in a stone, brick, or concrete building, add 7 ....................................................................................................................................

____

What You Eat and Drink 5. Internal radiation (in your body)* From food and water......................................................................................................................................................................................................

From air (radon) ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................

200

Other Sources 6. Weapons test fallout**:.........................................................................................................................................................................................................

7. Jet plane travel: For each 1,000 miles you travel, add 1 ...........................................................................................................................................

____

8. If you wear a luminous (LCD) wristwatch, add 0.006 ................................................................................................................................................

____

9. If you have false teeth or porcelain crowns, add 0.07...............................................................................................................................................

____

10. If you use gas lantern mantles for camping, add 0.03............................................................................................................................................

____

11. If you use a video display terminal or computer monitor, add 1.** ..................................................................................................................

____

12. If you use luggage inspection at airports (using a typical x-ray machine), add 0.002................................................................................

____

13. For each smoke detector you have, add 0.008 .........................................................................................................................................................

____

14. If you watch TV, ** add 1 ...................................................................................................................................................................................................

____

15. If you wear a plutonium-powered cardiac pacemaker, add 100 ........................................................................................................................

____

16. If you have had medical exposures:* Diagnostic x-rays (e.g., upper and lower gastrointestinal, chest, dental), add 40 ...................................................................................

____

If you have had nuclear medical procedures (e.g., thyroid scans, PET scans), add 14 ...........................................................................

____

17. If you live within 50 miles of a nuclear power plant (pressurized water reactor), add 0.0009 ................................................................

____

18. If you live within 50 miles of a coal-fired power plant, add 0.03 ........................................................................................................................

____

My total annual mrems dose: _________________ Some of the radiation sources listed in this chart result in an exposure to only part of the body. For example, false teeth result in radiation close to the mouth. The annual dose numbers given here represent the “effective dose” to the whole body. * These are yearly average doses. ** The value is actually less than 1. ***Also referred to as Gulf of America In the United States the average person is exposed to 620 mrem of whole body radiation each year from all sources. Activity from www.nrc.gov. ©2026 The NEED Project Exploring Nuclear Energy www.NEED.org

Radioactive Decay & Background Radioactive isotopes emit particles in an effort to become stable. For some elements, this takes a long time and in other cases it happens very quickly. The route to stability is not always the same. There are many different paths an element could take as it decays toward stabilization.

 Materials Cup of 100 M&M’s® Paper towel Graph paper

Procedure 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Place all 100 M&M’s® in your cup. Lightly shake the cup and spill the contents onto the paper towel. Remove all of the candies that are face up (with the M showing)—these have “decayed” in the simulation. Record the number of decayed candies in the data table below and move these aside. Record the number of remaining M&M’s® in your data table. Place the leftover candies back into the cup, shake lightly and repeat this process until your M&M’s® have all decayed. Graph your data on a piece of graph paper.

 Data and Analysis

1. 2.

Shake

Decayed M&M’s®

Remaining M&M’s®

n/a

100

Create a graph showing the decay of your element. Label the X-axis “Shakes” and the Y-axis “Number of M&M’s®.” Compare your graph to a neighbor’s.

 Conclusions As you look at your graph and your neighbor’s, what do you notice? How is this activity similar to what happens in the natural world?

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Average Atomic Mass & Background If you look at the periodic table, you will see that the masses of each element are listed with decimals. This may be confusing because atomic masses are calculated by adding the number of protons and the number of neutrons. So what’s with the decimals? What you see shown on the periodic table is the weighted average of all the masses of all the isotopes. For example, carbon has two naturally-occurring stable isotopes, carbon-12, and carbon-13. More than 98 percent of carbon on Earth is carbon-12, and a little less than two percent is carbon-13. Thus, the mass shown for carbon is just a little over 12, because the isotope with the greatest presence in any given chunk of carbon is carbon-12, with a very small amount being carbon-13. In this activity, you will assemble two stable isotopes of boron from candy, boron-10 and boron-11. Then, you will calculate the average atomic mass of your chocolate boron using a calculation method similar to the way scientists determined the masses shown on the periodic table.

 Materials M&M’s® (two colors) Digital balance

Procedure 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Choose one color to represent protons; the other color will represent neutrons. Make one atom of boron-10 with five protons and five neutrons. Sketch the “atom” in the data table. Make four atoms of boron-11, each with five protons and six neutrons. Sketch one of them in the data table. Measure and record the mass of the boron-10 atom. Measure and record the mass of the four boron-11 atoms all together. Complete the calculations as shown in the data table. Multiply the average mass of one atom of each isotope by the proportion of the entire sample. Add the two proportioned averages to get the average atomic mass of the entire sample of boron.

 Data ISOTOPE

SKETCH

NUMBER OF ATOMS

TOTAL MASS OF ATOMS

AVERAGE MASS OF ONE ATOM

PROPORTION OF ENTIRE SAMPLE

Boron-10

0.20

Boron-11

0.80

PROPORTION X AVERAGE MASS

Average Atomic Mass of Sample

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Examining Nuclear Energy Uranium is the source used to generate heat in a nuclear reactor, but how does this work and what happens to the uranium? Let’s take a closer look. Here is a common decomposition of uranium where “n” stands for neutron:

235U + n

Kr + 141Ba + 31n + energy

Use the following masses given in amu (atomic mass units) to solve the nuclear equation. Mass of U-235 = 235.044 Mass of Kr-92 = 91.926 Mass of Ba-141 = 140.914 Mass of one neutron = 1.00866 Next, add the masses on both sides of the equation: Left Side Right Side U-235 ___________

Kr-92

___________

+ Ba-141

___________

+ n

___________

+ n ___________ + n ___________ Total = ___________

Total =

____________

Albert Einstein presented the theory, E=mc2 as part of his Theory of Relativity. “E” stands for energy, “m” stands for mass, and “c” is the speed of light (in a vacuum), used as a constant in this equation. This equation says that energy equals mass and mass equals energy. They are somehow related, or can be converted back and forth. This means that during nuclear fission, mass is not lost, it is released as energy! Energy is measured as megaelectron volts, or MeV. One MeV equals one million electron volts. The average energy released by U-235 fission is about 200 MeV. In this scenario the energy is 170 MeV. Uranium-235 does not always fission the same way. Some other products of fission include: U + 1n

144

U + 1n

235 235 235

Ba + 90Kr + 21n + energy

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Nuclear Energy Expo Nuclear Fission 1. What is nuclear fission? 2. How do we use fission to generate electricity? 3. Why is uranium a unique element? 4. Who were the major contributors to the discovery of fission and what impact did they have? 5. What special properties were found in uranium and how have they made a difference in our lives? 6. How did the discovery of nuclear fission impact history? 7. What is nuclear fusion? How is fusion different from fission?

Nuclear Fuel Cycle 1. How does the nuclear fuel cycle work? 2. What is the “front end” and “back end” of the cycle? 3. What potential problems might there be with the “back end”? 4. Why do we need to “enrich” the uranium? 5. Which do you think is better, the “open” or “closed” cycle? Why? 6. What is “yellowcake”?

Nuclear Power Plants and Reactors 1. What is the purpose of the nuclear reactor? 2. What are the two most common types of reactors used in nuclear power plants and how are they similar/ different? 3. Why is the PWR the most popular reactor in the world today? 4. What are the two methods of transferring waste heat to the environment? 5. What advantages and disadvantages do you see with either type of heat transfer?

Safeguards and Spent Fuel 1. What safeguards came out of the accidents at Three Mile Island, Chernobyl, and Fukushima? 2. How did the formation of the World Association of Nuclear Operators and the International Atomic Energy Agency improve nuclear power plant safety? 3. What is the role of the NRC in the United States? 4. What advantage do passive reactors have over evolutionary reactors? 5. What methods do we currently use to store used fuel? 6. What are the issues concerning the storage of spent nuclear fuel? 7. How can we reduce the risk of radon gas in our homes?

Nuclear Weapons and Proliferation 1. What is the purpose/job of the IAEA? 2. How have we used nuclear fission for peaceful technologies? 3. Why do countries believe that we need to revisit the issues concerning nuclear proliferation, even though nuclear bombs have not been used since WWII? 4. What are the problems with the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)? 5. How do you think proliferation should be controlled? ©2026 The NEED Project

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Economics of Nuclear Energy 1. How does the cost of nuclear power plants compare to those that use fossil fuels? 2. Why is there reluctance from investors to support the building of more nuclear power plants? 3. How does climate change impact the use of nuclear power for generating electricity? 4. How much electricity is generated from nuclear power in the U.S.? How does this compare to France? How does it relate to both countries’ total energy production? 5. What are the advantages/disadvantages for using nuclear power to generate electricity?

Influential Women In Nuclear Science 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What influenced Madame Curie to start work in the sciences? What did Madame Curie do in order to receive the prestigious Nobel Prize award? Why is Lise Meitner sometimes referred to as the mother of the atomic bomb? What awards and recognition did Lise Meitner receive for her work? Why was Lise Meitner not a recipient of the Nobel Prize?

6. How did these women influence/impact modern nuclear science?

Nuclear Accidents 1. 2. 3. 4.

What is the significance of Chernobyl, Three Mile Island, and Fukushima for today’s nuclear industry? What is a nuclear meltdown? How are these accidents similar? How are they different? Why did the Chernobyl officials want to keep the accident a secret?

5. Name two changes or lessons learned as a result of each accident, that made the nuclear industry safer.

Radon 1. 2. 3. 4.

What is radon and how is it formed? Where are you most likely to encounter radon in a house and why? How does radon enter into our environment? What is a safe level of radon?

5. What can we do to reduce our risk?

Nuclear Medicine 1. 2. 3. 4.

How do we use nuclear medicine? What does PET stand for? How does it work? Why is radiation used to treat cancer? What are the risks involved in nuclear medicine?

5. How do these risks weigh in comparison to the benefits?

The Nuclear Navy 1. 2. 3. 4.

How was the importance of nuclear aircraft carriers proven during WWII? Who is Admiral Hyman G. Rickover, and what was his contribution to the nuclear navy? Who is the AEC? What do they do? What benefits does a nuclear submarine have?

5. What was the significance of January 17, 1955?

France’s Nuclear Program 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

How much of France’s electricity comes from nuclear power compared to the U.S.? What caused France to move to such a high level of nuclear power? What benefits has France experienced since building its nuclear power plants? What is the greatest concern for France’s nuclear industry now? What are three reasons that French citizens are more accepting of nuclear power than American citizens? ©2026 The NEED Project

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Nuclear Fuel Rod Assembly Career Exploration and Model & Background The manufacturing of a nuclear fuel rod assembly requires the skills, knowledge, and background of a wide variety of people. Chemists, physicists, electricians, welders, machine technicians, health physicists, and many, many other people work together to create uranium fuel pellets, fuel rod assemblies, and reactor core equipment and put it all together into a working nuclear power plant. This activity models parts of that process. While you will not be working with actual uranium fuel and the safety precautions you take will not be exactly the same as used in the industry, they are designed to reinforce the importance of safe handling of radioactive materials. Beads will represent fuel pellets. You will be limited in the amount of time that you are exposed to “radioactive materials” (beads) and must complete any tasks involving fuel pellets within three minutes. Uranium fuel pellets are not inserted into fuel rods at the power plant – they are manufactured elsewhere and transported to the power plant when refueling is required. Thus the danger of spilled nuclear fuel at a power plant is essentially zero; however you could very easily tip your container of beads, that model fuel pellets, and spill them on the ground. If you do so, a penalty of 10 minutes is assessed to your group while the beads are cleaned up.

? Question  How is a nuclear reactor core fueled and made ready for operation?

 Materials Beads in a container Box Clay Button battery (3V) Gloves Copper tape

Empty container for “contaminated waste” LED Masking tape Ruler Scissors or box knife Scrap cardboard, posterboard, or chipboard

Straws Template Timer Tongs, forceps, or spoons Fuel Rod Assembly Template

Procedure 1. Read the safety rules and the description of each career role on pages 64-66. Select roles in your group if your teacher has not already done so. Your group may have more than one Electrical Technician. 2. Arrange your working area so that materials can be passed from one worker to another quickly and efficiently. 3. Read the background information above. 4. Before you begin, re-read your career role’s task description. If you have any questions about what you should do, or to whom you should give your product(s), ask before the timer begins. The goal is to safely complete work quickly so your power plant can begin operation as soon as possible. 5. When your teacher indicates it is time to begin, your group should start working on the construction of the reactor core, fuel rods, and fuel rod assembly. When the chemistry technician starts inspecting and approving nuclear fuel pellets, each person handling radioactive material will only be able to work for three minutes to minimize exposure. 6. Work quickly but carefully, making sure your work is done well. The reactor operator should oversee everything your group is doing to make sure the work is done right. 7. The health physicist will be making sure everyone is wearing the proper personal protection equipment (PPE) and handling the fuel pellets safely. Everyone else must follow the health physicist’s instructions with regard to nuclear fuel pellets. 8. When you have finished assembling your fueled reactor core and the LED is lit, indicating operation, clean up your work space according to your teacher’s directions and place your reactor core model where your teacher designates.

Safety Rules No person shall be handling radioactive materials for more than three minutes. Radioactive materials must be handled with tools and while wearing protective gloves. Gloves must not touch fuel pellets or loaded fuel rods. Bare hands must never be present where radioactive materials are found. If radioactive materials fall on the floor, the entire working group must evacuate the area for a minimum of ten minutes.

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Career Roles Chemistry Technician Your job is to receive the shipment of nuclear fuel pellets and inspect them for consistency, composition, and purity. You will need to remove any contaminants while passing the uranium fuel pellets to the nuclear materials handler.

INSTRUCTIONS 1.

You must appropriately time the receipt of the shipment of fuel pellets – a container that includes the beads you will be using to represent fuel pellets – so the pellets can be loaded into fuel rods and the fuel rod assembly can be completed and loaded into the reactor core without anyone being in contact with radioactive materials for more than three minutes.

While wearing gloves, use tongs, forceps or another tool to remove contaminants and put them in an approved container for contaminated waste.

Ensure the nuclear materials handler will have a steady supply of pellets so filling the fuel rods is not delayed.

Mechanical Technician Your job is to prepare the fuel rods by plugging their ends so they may hold to receive uranium fuel pellets.

INSTRUCTIONS 1.

Unwrap a straw and inspect it for any cracks or defects.

Push the straw into the clay so the end of the straw has a plug filling the lower 0.5-1.0 cm of the straw.

Ensure the nuclear materials handler will have a steady, sufficient supply of empty fuel rods so filling them is not delayed. Repeat steps 1-2 for the number of fuel rods that fit in your box. Consult with the Industrial Machinery Mechanic to determine how many straws will be used.

Industrial Machinery Mechanic Your job is to prepare the reactor core to receive the completed fuel rod assembly, and prepare the fuel rod assembly pieces to receive the fuel rods.

INSTRUCTIONS 1.

If the box has a separate lid, glue or tape the lid to the box.

Cut off one of the narrow ends of the box, and if the box is more than 30 cm long, trim the box to 25 cm in length.

Cut a “window” into one side of the box.

Cut two pieces of chipboard that will fit snugly inside the box horizontally.

Use the fuel rod template to mark the placement of fuel rods on the two pieces of cardboard. The template may be larger and include extra holes for fuel rods. Cut it down to fix your box size. Communicate with the Mechanical Technician about how many fuels rods they should prepare.

Cut or poke holes in the cardboard according to the template. Make a note on the edges of the cardboard indicating where they will be touching the side with the window. Pass them and the box to the Electrical Technician.

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Electrical Technician

Lay the box on its side so the side with the copper tape flap is up. Lay the battery down on the piece of copper tape stuck to the box, lifting the flap out of the way. Put one piece of masking tape on the edge of the battery so it is between the copper flap and the battery, but does not cover the entire top of the battery. Use a finger to hold the copper tape flap on the battery and put another piece of tape on the battery along the other edge to hold it and the copper tape flap in place.

On the side of the box opposite the battery, you will adhere the LED. Bend the leads of the LED out so they extend in a straight line away from the bulb portion.

Making sure the correct lead is in contact with the copper tape that is touching the bottom of the battery (i.e. positive to positive), stick the LED down so it is bridging the gap between both pieces of tape. You can use small pieces of copper tape or masking tape to get a good connection. Make sure the tape on each side of the bulb does not overlap onto the other side.

Your job is to make a simple circuit that will illuminate an LED to indicate the reactor core is running properly.

INSTRUCTIONS 1.

Put a piece of copper tape across one of the pieces of cardboard with holes, so the tape extends from one side of the box to the other in front of the window when it is inserted. Make the tape run between two rows of holes, and make sure the tape ends wrap around the cardboard to the underside.

Insert the cardboard in the box so it is about one-third of the way up from the bottom. Poke holes through the box sides just above the places where the copper tape touches the sides, as shown.

Circuit Tape

Cut one piece of copper tape that will extend about 1 cm below one hole on the inside of the box, out through the hole, and down 2 or 3 cm with an additional 2 cm “tail.” Peel the backing off the tape and adhere it, folding the tail over so the tape is stuck to the outside of the box with a “flap” sticking off of it that isn’t sticky.

Make a small mark on the box where the copper tape flap ends on the box. Measure up from this mark about 0.5 cm and cut a new piece of tape that goes from this mark, down around the bottom of the box, and up about 3 cm the opposite side. Remove the backing and adhere it to the box.

Cut a third piece of copper tape that will start 1 cm from the piece in step 4 and continue up the side to the other hole, through the hole, and 1 cm down on the inside of the box, as you did in step 3. Adhere the tape to the box in position, as shown.

Look carefully at the LED and note that one lead is longer than the other. Push the LED over the battery so one lead is touching the top of the battery and another is touching the bottom. If the LED does not light, flip it and try again. When the LED lights, note which lead is in contact with which side of the battery, the top (textured side) or the bottom.

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10. Insert the piece of cardboard that has the copper tape into the box so the copper comes in contact with the copper tape on either side of the box and is level inside the box. Verify that the circuit is complete and the LED is lit. If unsuccessful, check that the battery and LED are in good contact with the copper tape, no pieces of copper tape are touching where they should be separated (where the battery and LED are located), and that the LED is in the proper orientation. You also may need to push in on epoxy case the side of the box emitted light to get really good LED chip contact. The LED should light. 11. Pass the cardboard with holes to the nuclear materials handler and the reactor core box to the reactor operator.

cathode lead

anode lead

Nuclear Materials Handler Your job is to load the pellets into fuel rods, and place the filled fuel rods into the fuel rod assembly pieces.

INSTRUCTIONS 1.

Put on safety gloves.

Using an appropriate tool, load the “fuel pellet” beads into a “fuel rod” straw.

Use another tool to plug the top of the fuel rod with clay.

Repeat steps 2 and 3 for the number of fuel rods needed.

Use tools to insert the fuel rods into the cardboard fuel rod assembly.

Health Physicist Your job is to monitor workers for radiation exposure. You will make sure everyone is wearing proper PPE and following safety standards.

INSTRUCTIONS 1.

Use a stopwatch or timer to limit any individual’s exposure to “radioactive” material to no longer than three minutes. If one person reaches the three minute limit, another person must take their place.

Observe all workers carefully. Make sure anyone handling radioactive materials or objects containing radioactive materials is wearing safety gloves and is using tools to handle the material or objects. If anyone is found without the proper PPE or following the proper safety procedures, they must leave and be replaced by another worker.

If any radioactive materials fall on the floor or ground, evacuate all workers while you clean up the fallen items, using PPE and tools.

Reactor Operator Your job is to oversee the entire operation, ensuring the fuel rod assemblies are placed properly in the reactor core and that everything is operating as it should.

INSTRUCTIONS 1.

While wearing safety gloves, use tools to insert the fuel rod assembly, making sure the orientation of the assembly allows the copper tape to properly align with the LED circuit on the outside of the core box.

Use tools to get everything properly aligned and the circuit completed.

If the LED lights, the core and fuel rod assembly have been constructed properly and the reactor core is working correctly.

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Fuel Rod Assembly Template Use this template to properly space your fuel rods. If your box is larger than the template, mark the cardboard then move the template over to place the next row. If your box is smaller, place the cardboard pieces under the template so a grid of holes will be centered on the cardboard. Determine how many fuel rods you will use.

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Nuclear Power Plant Simulation Cards

WATER

STEAM

WATER

STEAM

WATER

STEAM

WATER

STEAM

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CO N

Nuclear Power Plant Simulation Summary STRUCTURE ENT M IN TA

*Part One - Ignore numbers *Part Two - Numbers represent energy chips

Primary Loop

Secondary Loop 3

“red” cards

Exchange Zone

“steam” 4

“water”

Exchange Zone

“blue” cards

“red” cards

Cooling Loop

“blue” cards

“Reservoir”

Explain how energy is transformed in a nuclear reactor by pretending you are an energy chip in the primary loop. In a few sentences, Close-up Role describe where youof start,Transmission and how you might transfer through the power plant at all ofList/Supplies the different exchange zones. Fuel Rods - Give each student a few energy chips

1 acts as control rod

Give this student 2 pieces of poster board

Light water in 3-4 In part two of the simulation, energy is “dropped” by the circulating thestudents primary loop. NotLoop all of theeach energy in this Primary - Give student a redwater is and blue tag, and an energy chip passed to the secondary loop and beyond. Explain why you think this occurs.

Turbine

10 students

3-4 student

Secondary Loop - Give each student a water/steam tag, and an energy chip

1 student

Turbine - Give two blades Light - Give a light

1 student Identify one challenge that nuclear facilities must combat in order to keep the chain reaction operating under control. Explain how facilities keep this challenge in check.

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2-3 students

Transmission Lines - Hold the rope

2-3 students

Cooling System - Give each student a red/blue tag and an energy chip

Nuclear Power Plant Paper Model Generating Steam 1. Draw your fuel rods in position. 2. Use red/blue ink to show the path of hot/cold water in the Primary Loop. 3. Use red/blue ink to show the path of steam/water in the Secondary Loop.

CO N

4. Use red/blue ink to show the path of hot/cool water in the Cooling Loop.

TRUCTURE NT S E NM I TA

Primary Loop

Secondary Loop

a er

& on

n ra

iss

Cooling Loop

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Uranium in the Round I have thermal energy.

I have nuclear fusion.

Who has the term defined as the ability to cause change or do work?

Who has the form of energy emitted into space by stars?

I have energy.

I have radiant energy.

Who has the form of energy stored in the bonds between atoms in molecules?

Who has the process in which the nucleus of an atom is split?

I have chemical energy.

I have nuclear fission.

Who has the center of an atom?

Who has the fuel used in nuclear power plants for nuclear fission?

I have nucleus.

I have uranium.

Who has the form of energy stored in the nucleus of an atom?

Who has the forms of energy released during nuclear fission?

I have nuclear energy.

I have thermal energy and radiant energy.

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Who has the term for energy sources, such as uranium, that cannot be replenished quickly? 73

Uranium in the Round I have nonrenewable.

I have about 18.

Who has the neutron-bombardment process that keeps fission going in a nuclear reactor?

Who has the place where fission occurs in a nuclear power plant?

I have chain reaction.

I have reactor.

Who has the production facility where electricity is generated?

Who has the isotope of uranium used for nuclear fuel whose atoms are easily split?

I have power plant.

I have U-235.

Who has the number of nuclear reactors operating in the United States?

Who has the form into which uranium is processed to be used for nuclear fuel?

I have 94.

I have ceramic pellet.

Who has the usable energy produced by a nuclear power plant?

Who has the term for a bundle of fuel rods in a reactor’s core?

I have electricity.

I have fuel assembly.

Who has the percentage of electricity produced by nuclear energy in the U.S.?

Who has the term for U-235 that has been fissioned and removed from a reactor?

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Uranium in the Round I have spent fuel. Who has the term describing spent fuel from a nuclear power plant that is dangerous for many years and must be stored carefully?

I have carbon dioxide. Who has the first submarine that ran on nuclear power for more than two years and traveled 62,562 miles before refueling?

I have radioactive.

I have the USS Nautilus.

Who has the natural process that describes how used fuel cools and loses most of its radioactivity?

Who has a career that starts up, shuts down, and monitors operations at a nuclear power plant?

I have radioactive decay. Who has the term for places to store spent nuclear fuel underground?

I have repositories.

I have reactor operator. Who has a career that protects nuclear power plant workers and the general public from radiation?

I have health physicist.

Who has an acceptable storage method for spent fuel?

Who has a career that uses nuclear energy for electricity, space exploration, world food and water supply, environmental production, medicine, and transportation?

I have spent fuel pools.

I have nuclear engineer.

Who has the greenhouse gas that is NOT produced by a nuclear power plant since no fuel is burned?

Who has the form of energy produced deep within the Earth by the slow decay of radioactive particles?

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Nuclear Industry Career Roundup Cards

WELDER

MECHANICAL ENGINEER

COMMERCIAL DRIVER

SAFETY COORDINATOR & INSPECTOR

ELECTRICIAN

NUCLEAR EQUIPMENT OPERATOR

PIPEFITTER

NUCLEAR ENGINEER

HEALTH PHYSICIST

REACTOR OPERATOR

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Culminating Activity: Nuclear Power Plant Hearing The Background:

The COL Application

You live in a rural community with 2,450 people within the city limits. Your county, which is 500 square miles, has an overall population of 25,000 people.

The site in question is more than 1,200 acres of open and wooded land, which includes almost a mile of shoreline along the city’s public lake. The southern boundary of the site is approximately a quarter of a mile from the city limits. Atomic Energy Inc. seeks permission to construct and operate two pressurized water reactors, each with a rated capacity of 1,100 megawatts, enough electricity to power more than 450,000 homes. The reactors are a Westinghouse design that has already been approved by the NRC.

Your state has long been known for coal production; however, the legislature recently implemented a policy that requires energy companies to decrease their greenhouse gas emissions. The state population is rapidly growing and the demand for electricity continues to increase. In order to meet energy demand, Atomic Energy Inc., an independent energy company (not affiliated with any state electric utility), has just announced that it intends to submit an application to the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) for a Combined Construction Permit and Operating License (COL) seeking permission to build and operate a nuclear power plant in your area. The COL relies on a reactor type already certified by the NRC but includes site approval as a part of the application. Atomic Energy Inc. will operate the plant and will sell its output to local electric utilities within the state, including the utility that supplies your city. If the state utilities cannot absorb the entire output of the plant, Atomic Energy Inc. plans to sell the excess output on the open market to any buyer it can find.

The NRC Licensing Process

During consideration of the COL application, the questions before the Board include: 1) whether the site is suitable for the type of reactors proposed; 2) if so, whether the already-approved reactor design can be successfully “married” to the site; 3) the environmental impacts of construction and operation of the reactors at the site; and 4) whether the plant will be constructed in accordance with the approved designs as “fitted” to the specific site. Each question involves a number of related issues. For example, consideration of site suitability includes seismology, hydrology, meteorology, geology, and emergency planning. Although the reactor design itself has already been approved by the NRC and thus cannot be debated in the COL proceeding, questions as to whether there are characteristics of the site that raise safety issues with respect to operation of the plants are, if properly presented, appropriate for consideration in the hearing. Issues pertaining to the cost of building on the site, recurring costs after plant construction, and costs to the local community are also appropriate for consideration.

The issues involved in the COL application will be evaluated by a three member Atomic Safety and Licensing Board (ASLB) panel from the NRC. Interested parties will present their evidence to the ASLB, and if Key Licensing Steps in Building First New Reactors the Board determines that the COL should be issued based on the evidence, it will recommend the action to the Commission. It Opportunity for is the full Commission that will make the final Public Comment determination as to whether the COL should Early Site Opportunity for be issued. If the COL is granted, Atomic Permit Public Hearing Energy Inc. will be able to begin construction of the plant and subsequently to operate it. If NRC Review/Approval of the permit is denied, the company will have Application Application Development to start over and, at a minimum, choose a new (estimated 27-48 months) site if it wants to continue. Design Certification

Application Submitted

NRC License Issued

Plant Construction/Verification

Commercial Operation

5 6 Time in Years

Public participation is encouraged throughout the licensing process for new nuclear reactors. Graphic Source: Nuclear Energy Institute

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Your Assignment You will represent a citizen’s group either for or against the proposed nuclear power plant. You need to research the topic from the perspective of your assigned role and find evidence to support your position. Give at least three reasons for your position and support each reason with three facts. You also need to address at least one argument that the opposite viewpoint might bring up. Write a persuasive letter based on your viewpoint to be presented to the ASLB, which will determine, based on the evidence before it, whether the COL should be issued.

Roles ASLB Panel of the NRC—Will hear all sides and make a ruling on the COL. Local Electric Utility—Obligated to provide its consumers their electric needs with the most cost effective energy it can obtain. Utilities are subject to state legislative and regulatory requirements. Residential Consumer—Wants cheap electricity, does not want to pay higher rates. NRC Resident Inspector—Provides oversight for the safe construction and operation of the nuclear power plant. Parent—Concerned about health risks children will be exposed to. Global Warming Activist—Proponent of nuclear energy as a non-CO2 energy source. Mayor and City Council—Wants to improve business options and way of life. See the taxes to be paid and the additional jobs created as a solution to many serious budget problems. Nuclear Scientist—Enthusiast for advancing nuclear energy technology. Director of Transportation—Focuses on the transportation of products associated with the construction and operation of the nuclear power plant. Biologist—Studies impacts on the local environment and animal populations. Environmentalist—Looks at impact of the power plant on the environment. Sustainable Energy Enthusiast—Wants sustainable energy development. Coal Miner—Wants to ensure job security. Representative from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)—Responsible for environmental impacts of the new plant. Representative of U.S. Homeland Security Department—Responsible for protection from terrorist attack, and remedial actions necessary as the result of a terrorist attack. Local Law Enforcement—Concerned about how their own department will be impacted by the building of a nuclear power plant in their jurisdiction. Representative of Atomic Energy Inc.—Explains type of nuclear reactor and its advantages over older types. Representative of the Press—Reports news of the proposed plant construction to region. Representative of State Utility Commission—Determines electricity rates. Representative of Financial Organization—Determines if financing for the construction of the plant is feasible for the company. Nuclear Power Opponent—Opposed to using nuclear energy because of safety, environmental, or proliferation risks.

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Culminating Activity: Nuclear Energy Letter Prompt As the United States looks to increase electricity production while cutting greenhouse gas emissions, increasing the use of nuclear energy is one option. Write a persuasive letter to a local or state representative presenting your position for or against nuclear energy.

Your letter should have three parts, while following proper format for persuasive writing.

Explain your understanding of energy and why this is an important topic. Explain your understanding of how a nuclear power plant works.

State your position for or against the use of nuclear energy. Support your position with at least three reasons and at least two pieces of evidence for each reason. Clearly communicate your position so that the representative might be persuaded to agree with you and think about your letter when he or she makes energy policy recommendations and decisions. This may include discussing and refuting possible counter arguments.

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Nuclear Energy Assessment 1. Draw and label a diagram of an atom including the following parts: energy level, nucleus, proton, neutron, electron. Beside each label, give a brief description of the function of the part.

2. List five renewable energy sources.

3. List five nonrenewable energy sources.

4. Make a diagram that shows the relationship(s) between electricity and magnetism, and then describe the relationship.

5. What are the two things that nuclear reactions may release?

6. Why must uranium be enriched before it can be used as a fuel source in a nuclear reactor?

7. What is the purpose of a moderator in a chain reaction? Name two different moderators used in common nuclear reactors.

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8. On the following diagram of a nuclear reactor, label the following parts: reactor vessel, fuel rods, control rods, pressurizer, steam generator, and containment structure. Next to each term, describe its main purpose in one sentence.

9. What does the term nuclear proliferation mean? Why should people be concerned about uncontrolled nuclear proliferation?

10. What is the biggest challenge with spent fuel in the United States?

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11. Describe at least one lesson learned from each of the accidents at Chernobyl, Three Mile Island, and Fukushima.

12. What are at least three safety features built into a nuclear power plant?

13. Choose one historical event related to nuclear energy and tell how it shapes people’s views about nuclear energy.

14. Other than a fuel source to create electricity, name at least two other ways that nuclear science has benefited society.

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NUCLEAR ENERGY BINGO A.

Knows the atomic mass of the uranium isotope used in nuclear power plants

Knows the name of the process C. that releases energy in a nuclear power plant

Knows the percentage of electricity produced by nuclear power in the U.S.

Can name at least one other use for nuclear energy

Has visited a nuclear power plant

Knows how many nuclear H. Knows the country that reactors are operating in the U.S. generates the most electricity from nuclear power

Can name the country J. that generates the highest percentage of its electricity from nuclear energy

Knows where nuclear waste is currently stored in the U.S.

Can name something in our L. everyday lives that exposes us to radiation

Knows the name of the part of the nuclear power plant where thermal energy is released

Knows the name of an acceptable on-site storage method for spent fuel

Knows the U.S. state that generates the most electricity from nuclear power

ME ME NA E NA M

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ME ME

E NA M

E NA M ME NA

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Knows how much CO2 is produced by nuclear power plants

N. Knows what uranium is O. processed into for use as nuclear fuel

M. Knows the atomic number of uranium

Glossary

alpha particle

a particle released from the nucleus of an atom made of two protons and two neutrons stuck together

atomic mass

the number of neutrons and protons in the nucleus of an atom; also known as the atomic weight

atomic number

the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom, used to identify the atom

beta particle

a negatively charged electron released from the nucleus of an atom

boiling water reactor (BWR)

a reactor in which water is used as both a coolant and a moderator; the water is allowed to boil in the core, making steam that is used to drive a turbine generator to produce electricity

chain reaction

a fission reaction that keeps itself going as one reaction releases neutrons, causing more to follow; a chain reaction can be controlled or uncontrolled

chemical energy

energy stored in the chemical bonds of a substance and released during a chemical reaction such as burning wood, coal, or oil

climate change

the change in Earth’s overall climate patterns since the mid-20th century, which includes an increase in the average measured temperature of the Earth’s near-surface air and oceans

containment structure

a concrete and steel enclosure around a nuclear reactor that confines fission products that otherwise might be released into the atmosphere

control rod

a rod, plate, or tube containing a material such as cadmium, boron, etc., used to control the power of a nuclear reactor; by absorbing neutrons, a control rod slows down or stops a chain reaction

cooling tower

a heat exchanger used to cool water that comes from the inside of a nuclear reactor; cooling towers transfer the exhaust heat into the air instead of into a body of water

critical mass

the smallest mass of nuclear material that will support a chain reaction

deuterium

an isotope of hydrogen with one proton and one neutron in the nucleus

dirty bomb

weapon with conventional explosives and radioactive material designed to explode and disperse highlevel radioactivity across a broad area. A dirty bomb does not have the same destructive capability as a nuclear weapon.

elastic energy

energy stored through the application of a force to stretch or compress an item

electrical energy

the energy associated with electric charges and their movements

electricity

moving electrons

electron

the smallest of three main subatomic particles (electrons, protons, and neutrons); negatively charged; can be shared or transferred in chemical bonds to create new compounds; moving electrons produce electricity

electron volt (eV)

a very small unit of energy equal to the energy gained by an electron as it passes from a point of low potential to a point one volt higher in potential

energy

the ability to do work or produce change

energy efficiency

the amount of useful energy in a system’s output compared to its input

energy sources

substances from which we obtain energy, such as petroleum, wind, or uranium

enriched uranium

contains mostly U-238 and a small amount of U-235; enriched uranium has its concentration of U-235 increased above its natural concentration

evolutionary nuclear reactor

a nuclear reactor designed so that safety systems have the latest technologies and are easy to maintain and monitor

external (cooling) system the part of the cooling system that interacts with the environment and does not contain radioactive material

fission

the splitting of a nucleus into at least two smaller nuclei and the release of a large amount of energy

fossil fuel

a hydrocarbon, such as petroleum, coal, or natural gas, derived from prehistoric plants and animals and used for fuel

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fuel cycle

the series of steps involved in supplying fuel for nuclear power reactors; including mining, milling, enrichment, making fuel rods, use in a reactor, and handling and storage of spent fuel

fuel pellets

a small cylinder approximately the size of a pencil eraser containing uranium fuel (uranium dioxide, UO2) in a ceramic pellet

fuel rod

a long, slender tube that holds nuclear fuel pellets for reactor use; fuel rods are bundled together in assemblies and placed into the reactor core

fusion

process where smaller nuclei combine and form one atom with the release of energy

gamma radiation

energy in the form of high-energy, short wavelength, electromagnetic radiation released by the nucleus, similar to x-rays and are best stopped or shielded by dense materials

gravitational potential energy (GPE)

energy of position or place

greenhouse gases

the gases in the atmosphere, both natural and manmade, that trap and hold thermal energy within the Earth’s atmosphere; examples include carbon dioxide and methane

half-life

time required for half the atoms contained in a sample of a radioactive substance to decay naturally

heat exchanger

a device that transfers thermal energy from one fluid (liquid or gas) to another fluid or to the environment

heavy water (D2O)

water that contains a significant amount of deuterium, making it more massive; used as a moderator in some reactors because it slows down neutrons effectively

ionizing

the process of adding or removing one or more electrons to or from atoms or molecules creating charged particles

isotope

atom of the same element but with a different mass number

kinetic energy

energy of motion

Law of Conservation of Energy

the law governing energy transformations and thermodynamics; energy may not be created or destroyed, it simply changes form, and thus the sum of all energies in the system remains constant

light water

ordinary water (H2O) as distinguished from heavy water (D2O)

mechanical energy

energy found in moving objects or substances

meltdown

a severe nuclear reactor accident that can happen if a nuclear power plant system fails, causing the reactor core to no longer be properly controlled and cooled, and the fuel to melt

moderator

a material, such as ordinary water, heavy water, or graphite, that is used in a reactor to slow down highvelocity neutrons

neutron

a fundamental subatomic particle that has nearly the same mass as the proton and no charge

Non-Proliferation Treaty (nuclear)

a treaty to limit the spread of nuclear weapons, opened for signature on July 1, 1968; there are currently 191 States party to the treaty, five of which have nuclear weapons

nonrenewable energy sources

energy sources that have a limited supply; petroleum, coal, uranium, natural gas, and propane are examples

nuclear energy

the energy given off by a nuclear reaction (fission or fusion) or by radioactive decay

nuclear fuel cycle

see fuel cycle

nuclear proliferation

the spread of nuclear weapons or materials that can be used to build nuclear weapons; see NonProliferation Treaty (nuclear)

Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC)

an independent agency created by the United States Congress in 1974 to allow the nation to safely use radioactive materials for civilian purposes

nucleus

the center of an atom; contains neutrons and protons

oxide

compound in which oxygen is bonded to one or more electropositive atoms (U3O8)

passive nuclear reactor

a nuclear reactor designed so that safety systems operate automatically

photovoltaic effect

process where a material, such as silicon, generates an electrical voltage or current when exposed to light

pitchblende (U3O8)

the main component of high-grade uranium ore and also contains other oxides and sulfides, including radium, thorium, and lead components

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plutonium (Pu)

chemical element with the atomic number 94; plutonium-239 is a fissile isotope produced in nuclear reactors from uranium-238

potential energy

energy of position; stored energy

pressurized water reactor (PWR)

a nuclear reactor in which thermal energy is transferred from the core to an exchanger by high temperature water kept under pressure in the primary system

primary (heat exchange) system

a term that refers to the reactor coolant system

proton

a fundamental particle of an atom that has nearly the same mass as a neutron and a +1 charge

radiant energy

any form of energy radiating from a source in electromagnetic waves

radiation (ionizing)

energy capable of producing ions; examples of ionizing radiation include alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays, x-rays, neutrons, and high-speed protons

radioactivity

the process by which unstable atoms try to become stable, and as a result, emit radiation

radionuclide

a radioactive isotope

radon

a naturally occurring radioactive gas found in the earth around the world, where uranium and thorium decay

reactor vessel

the main steel vessel containing the reactor fuel, moderator, and coolant

renewable energy sources

energy sources that can be replenished in a short period of time; solar, hydropower, geothermal, and biomass are examples

reprocessing

chemical treatment of nuclear spent fuel to separate uranium and plutonium and possibly other radioactive elements from other waste products to use in new fuel

secondary (heat exchange) system

the part of a PWR that contains the steam used to turn turbines and generate electricity; in a PWR, the steam is not in contact with radioactive material

sound energy

energy from vibrations that travels in longitudinal waves

spent fuel (used fuel)

nuclear reactor fuel that has been used until it can no longer sustain a nuclear reaction

static electricity

unbalanced charge that is transferred

thermal energy

internal energy of substances that causes atoms and molecules to move; the greater the thermal energy the more they move and vibrate

thermal reactor

a reactor in which the fission chain reaction is sustained primarily by thermal (relatively slow) neutrons; most current reactors are thermal reactors

transmutation

a process involving a change in the number of protons or neutrons in the nucleus, resulting in the formation of a different isotope; this occurs during alpha and beta emissions

transuranic

chemical elements with an atomic number greater than that of uranium (92)

uranium (U)

chemical element with the atomic number 92; uranium has three natural isotopes, U-234, U-235, and U-238; U-235 is the isotope fissioned in a nuclear reactor

uranium dioxide (UO2)

an oxide of uranium that is a black, radioactive, crystalline powder; used as fuel in nuclear fuel rods in nuclear reactors

uranium hexafluoride (UF6)

a white solid obtained by chemical treatment of U3O8 and which forms a vapor at temperatures above 56ºC; UF6 is the form of uranium required for the enrichment process

uranium oxide (U3O8)

see pitchblende

weapons-grade

Weapons-grade – the right concentration and type of nuclear material that can detonate a nuclear weapon. Uranium must be at least 90 percent U-235. Plutonium must be at least 93 percent Pu-239.

yellowcake

a bright yellow powder obtained from uranium ore that contains uranium oxides used to make nuclear fuel

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Exploring Nuclear Energy Evaluation Form State: ___________

Grade Level: ___________

Number of Students: __________

1. Did you conduct the entire unit?



Yes



2. Were the instructions clear and easy to follow?



Yes



3. Did the activities meet your academic objectives?



Yes



4. Were the activities age appropriate?



Yes



5. Were the allotted times sufficient to conduct the activities?



Yes



6. Were the activities easy to use?



Yes



7. Was the preparation required acceptable for the activities?



Yes



8. Were the students interested and motivated?



Yes



9. Was the energy knowledge content age appropriate?



Yes



10. Would you teach this unit again? Please explain any ‘no’ statement below.



Yes



How would you rate the unit overall?



excellent



good



fair



poor

How would your students rate the unit overall?



excellent



good



fair



poor

What would make the unit more useful to you?

Other Comments:

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